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About Google Book Search Google's mission is to organize the world's information and to make it universally accessible and useful. Google Book Search helps readers discover the world's books while helping authors and publishers reach new audiences. You can search through the full text of this book on the web at|http : //books . google . com/| THE IOWA JOUENAL OF HISTOEY AND POLITICS THE IOWA JOURNAL • * • - • •••• • • • • * • • • • OF HISTORY AND POLITICS SDITOB BENJAMIN F. SHAHBAU6H PBOVBStOm OF POLITIOAL •OIBHOB III TBM UKirsmSITT OF IOWA VOLUME IX 1911 PUBLISH£D QUABTBELT BT THE STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY OF IOWA IOWA CITY IOWA 1911 • « • • • • • • - COPTSIOHT 1911 BT THl STATE HI8T0BICAL 80CIBTT OF IOWA I 1 I \ T i r CONTENTS Number 1 — January 1911 Ccn&tribntioiifi of Albert Miller Lea to the History of Iowa CuFFOBD Powell AndfiTBonville and the Trial of Henry Wirz John Howard Stibbs Baeonian Club of Iowa City Pablioations Americana — Oeneral and Miscellaneous Western lowana % Bkrtorical Societies Motes and Comment % CSomtiibaton •2i Number 2 — April 1911 nbe Establiflhment and Organization of Townships in John- son County Clarence Ray Aurner The Attitude of Congress Toward the Pioneers of the West 1820^1850 Kenneth W. Colorove Pablications Americana — General and Miscellaneous Western lowana »rieal Societies and Comment ODiitzilratozB 33 57 114 114 121 123 131 144 149 155 196 303 303 311 312 319 330 332 ? ■t •• • vi CONTENTS Nu ^f BER 3 — July 1911 The Expedition of Zebnlon Montgomery Pike to the Sources of the Mississippi Ethyl Edna Martin 335 The Settlement of Woodbury County Frank Harmon Garver 359 The Territorial Convention of 1837 385 Proceedings of a Council with the Chippewa Indians 408 Some Publications 438 Americana — General and Miscellaneous 438 Western 445 lowana 446 Historical Societies 453 Notes and Comment 468 Contributors 472 Number 4 — October 1911 The Work of the Thirty-Fourth General Assembly of Iowa Frank Edward Horack 475 The History of the Codes of Iowa Law Clifford Powell 493 The Coming of the Hollanders to Iowa Jacob Van der Zee 528 Some Publications 575 Americana — General and Miscellaneous 575 Western 581 lowana 585 Historical Societies 592 Notes and Comment 605 Contributors 607 Index 609 -1 I ^ X %• . r U4 L 0 ■ 1 1 f ( f THE IOWA JOURNAL OF HISTORY AND POLITICS JANUARY NINETEEN HUNDRED ELEVEN VOLUME MINE NUMBEB ONE \ voLk rx — 1 THE CONTBIBUTIONS OF ALBERT MILLEB LEA TO THE LITEBATUBE OF IOWA mSTOBY^ [This essay was awarded the seventj-flve dollar prize offered in 1909 by the Iowa Boeietj of the Colonial Dames of America for the best essay in Iowa history. The essay has been revised for publication. — Editok.] The contribntions of Albert Miller Lea to the literature of Iowa history are neither voluminons nor critical. They consist chiefly of a small book of forty-five pages, two maps, and two reports ; bnt, having been written during the forma- tive period of beginnings, they have an historical impor- tance which is out of proportion to their critical character. The little book gave the State its name ; the reports were the baseSi^of legislation and large appropriations by Con- gress ; and the maps served as guides to settlers for a long period of years. Albert Miller Lea was a Lieutenant in the United States Army and an accomplished dvil engineer — a man of varied attainments and remarkable foresight. He was bom in 1807 at Lea Springs — a place not far distant from Enox- ville, Tennessee. His father was a merchant who at one time held the position of Register of the Land Office in the State of Franklin f and his mother was one Clara Wisdom, who is described by her son Albert as a **wise and prudent'' woman. 1 The writer desires to express his thanks to Professor Benj. F. Shambangh for the assistance and helpful suggestions given in the preparation of this essay, to Mr. A. K. Harbert of Cedar Bapids for the use of his materials relat- ing to Albert M. Lea, and to Dr. Louis Pelzer and Mr. Kenneth Colgrore for kindly reading and criticising the essay. s Iowa Hiitariedl Beeard, Vol. Vni, No. 1, January, 1892, p. 201. Lea also describes his father as "positive, dictatorial, domineering, and lagadous.'' 4 IOWA JOURNAL OF HISTOBT AND POLITICS The early education of Lieutenant Lea was received in the common schools of Ejioxville. Later he entered college,, and was within one session of graduation when he was com- pelled to give up his studies on account of poor health. Within a year, however, he had regained his health and in 1827 received an appointment to the Military Academy at West Point.* Four years later, on July 1, 1831, Lieutenant Lea graduated from this institution (ranking fifth in a class of thirty-seven) and was assigned, after a short furlough,, to the United States Army.* The commission to the Military Academy proved to be- the turning point in Lea's career; for instead of becomings a planter and land owner, as did many of his associates,^ he entered the army, came west, and directed several large engineering undertakings,'^ giving the best part of his life in the service of the (Government. The three years follow- ing his graduation were spent in going from one part of the country to another on various topographical and scientific- 9 Iowa Hittoriedl Becord, Vol. VIII, No. 1, January, 1892, pp. 201, 202. Lea received this appointment from Senator H. L. White, who was a com- petitor of Martin Van Boren in 1836. « Letter to Senator Wm. B. Allison from the Becord and Pension Office,. January 15, 1904. ''Albert lifiller Lea was a cadet at the United States Military Academy from Jnly 1, 1827, to Jnly 1, 1831, when he was graduated and appointed brevet 2nd Lieutenant of Artillery. He was transferred to the 7th Infantry August 11, 1831, and was promoted 2nd Lieutenant March 4, 1833; was appointed 2nd Lieutenant, 1st Dragoons, July 1, 1834, to rank from March 4, 1833, and his resignation was accepted to take effect May 31, 1836." Lea was on leave of absence from February 1, 1836, to the date of h'S resignation. This letter is in the collection of Mr. A. N. Harbert of Cedar Bapids, Iowa. B Among the engineering services performed were the following : A. Drew plans for first locomotive ever constructed by the Baldwins. B. Famous survey of the B. & O. B. B. where a cut was constructed by the use of geologic bedding. C. Survey of the Tennessee Biver. See Iowa Historical Becord, Vol. Vm, No. 1, January, 1892, for a complete- list. LEA'S CONTRIBUTIONS TO IOWA HISTORY 5 duties.* This kind of work, which carried him from the Great Lakes to the Gulf and from Oklahoma to the moun- tains of Tennessee, gave him a vast amount of valuable information concerning the pioneers and the West. FinaUy, however, he was ordered for a second time to Fort Gibson,^ there to attach himself to the First United States Dragoons — a regiment formed at the close of the Black Hawk War. Upon his arrival at Fort Gibson in the autumn of 1834, Lea was ordered by Colonel Henry Dodge to a point near the present site of BeUevue, Nebraska, to pay the Lidians a certain amount of merchandise which was due them.^ When he had completed this task he returned to Fort Gib- son only to find that his company, with two others, was lo- cated at a new post^ on the Upper Mississippi, hundreds of miles away. He immediately set out to join his command, taking the last boat of the season going north from St. Louis, and in a few days reached the town of Keokuk. The present prosperous city was then only ^ ^ a substantial stone building, used as a trading station, the only house on the west bank for many miles below and three hundred miles above. '^® This was Lea's first view of the country to which, within two years, he was to give the name ^^lowa''. A few days later he reported at Fort Des Moines, near the present town of Montrose, where he took charge of his company. On the 9th of March, 1835, orders" were received by • Iowa Hiiiorieal Beeord, Vol. VIII, No. 1, January, 1892, p. 202. T Lieutenant Lea first reported at Fort Gibson in 1832. — See Iowa HUicrieal Becard, VoL Vm, No. 1, January, 1892, pp. 200-205. • For a full account, see an article entitled Early ExplaraHam in Iowa in the Iowa Hittorieai Beoord^ Vol. VI, No. 4, October, 1890, p. 538. • This new post was Fort Des Moines No. 1. — See Annals of Iowa, Third Series, VoL III, Nos. 5-6, April-July, 1898, p. 351. 10 Iowa Historieal Beeord^ VoL VI, No. 4, October, 1890, p. 541. 11 AnnaU of Iowa, Third Series, Vol. Ill, Nos. 5-6, April-July, 1898, p. 355. 6 IOWA JOUENAL OF HISTOBT AND POLITICS Identenant Colonel Kearney to proceed with his command np the Des Moines Biver to a certain point near the Bac- coon Forks and from there in a northeasterly direction to the Mississippi. From the latter place the command was to march westward until the Des Moines Biver was again reached^ when a return should be made to Fort Des Moines. Accordingly, on June 7, 1835, the troop, consisting of about 150 mounted men, started on the march for the purposes of exploration and of impressing the Indians with the power of the United States government.^ ^ It was on this expedi- tion that Lieutenant Lea ^^voluntarily assumed the duties of topographer and chronicler' ';" and to this fact we owe many fine descriptions of the original condition of the Iowa prairies as well as the Notes on Wisconsin Territory. The line of march followed as nearly as possible the divide between the Des Moines and Skunk rivers. Being in the springtime, the ground was still very wet and soft, ow- ing to the excessive rainfall. The troop proceeded slowly, covering only from fifteen to twenty miles a day." But with the single discomfort of excessive rainfall, it was an ideal time of the year to make the trip, as the weather in other respects was favorable to both men and horses. The scenery, too, was magnificent; and Lieutenant Lea wrote that ^^the grass and streams were beautiful and strawber- ries so abundant as to make the whole tract red for miles''.^' Game was also plentiful, and wild fowl was a part of nearly every meal. At a place near the present site of the city of Oskaloosa **a small herd of buffalo*'^® was encountered. 12 Annals of Iowa, Third Series, Vol. HI, Noe. 5-6, April- July, 1898, p. 355. 18 Iowa Hiitorieal Becord^ Vol. VI, No. 4, October, 1890, p. 546 1* Iowa Hiatorieal Becord, Vol. VI, No. 4, October, 1890, p. 547. 18 Iowa Historical Becord, Vol. VI, No. 4, October, 1890, p. 547. 16 Iowa Historical Becord, Vol. VI, No. 4, October, 1890, p. 548. LEA*S CONTBIBUTIONS TO IOWA HISTORY 7 Concerning this incident Lieutenant Lea wrote : ' ' It was the first and only time I have seen vthe lordly beast in his homOi and probably the last time he appeared in that region. "^^ The various pests were in evidence then as now, for at one place Lea declares that ^^ after my tent was pitched we killed four rattlesnakes within it, and the next day I had a bath in a pool, occupied by mosquitos so large that I pressed one in my journal, and carried for years as a specimen of the luxuriant growth of the plains.'' ^^ When the expedition had proceeded as far as the place where Boone is now located, the order was given to march in a northeasterly direction to the Mississippi,^^ where a steamboat with fresh supplies awaited their arrlvaL After a rest of a few days on the banks of the Mississippi near Lake Pepin in Minnesota, the march was again taken up, this time directly westward to the district of the lakes of Minnesota. One of these. Lake Albert Lea,^ perpetuates the name of the Lieutenant. This region was one ^^of lakes and open groves of oak, beautiful as English parks** ; and when writing of it in later years Lieutenant Lea de- 17 i%i8 tame ineident is mentioned in a journal of this march in the follow- ing words: ''[Wednesday, June the Twenty-Fourth] 24 Marched 25 miles & encamped on the banks of the Iwaj a small stream 30 yards broad. This day for the first this season we saw Buffalo. Killed 5 or 6 — many of onr men are recruits from the North & never saw a Buffalo before & therefore to them a Buffalo chase was something remark- able. This day was spent in eating Buffalo beef & sleep." — Thx Iowa Joui^ NAL OF HisTOBY AND PoLiTios, VoL VII, No. 3, July, 1909, p. 368. IS Iowa Histariedl Becord, VoL VI, No. 4, October, 1890, p. 548. ^9 Iowa Historical Becord, Vol. VI, No. 4, October, 1890, p. 548. Near the present site of Boone the troop camped ''oue night near a flint and gravel covered conical peak, sixty feet above the plain". This is easily found to-day, a short way south of Boone. 20 This lake was named by Mr. J. N. Nicollet, a surveyor, and also a friend of Lea. — See Executive Documents, Document No. 52, 2nd Bession, 28th Con- gress, Vol. n, p. 73. Also Iowa Historicai Becord^ Vol. VI, No. 4, October, 1890, p. 549. 8 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTOBT AND POLITICS dared, that '^Possibly, some day, I may again ride over that trail ; and I might well wish that my freed spirit could leave this green earth with the impression made just fifty-five years ago, as I gazed and sketched, when halted for our noon rest on the shaded and grassy shore of Lake Albert Lea. ' '** Finally, the Des Moines headwaters were reached and the march turned southward, entering the present State in the neighborhood of Swea City.** By slow degrees the troop made its way to the Raccoon Forks,** near a place where the capital of Iowa is now lo- cated, but which at that time was simply ^^a grassy and spongy meadow with a bubbling spring in the midst. ' *** At this place, too. Lieutenant Lea was ordered to descend the Des Moines Biver in a canoe,*^ to take soundings, and to report upon the practicability of navigating keel boats over its course. This proved to be a very arduous task; but Lieutenant Lea reached the Fort several days before the main body of troops, who returned leisurely by land in the latter part of August.** After writing his report upon the Des Moines River, Lieutenant Lea resigned from the army and hastened to Baltimore where he published the Notes on Wisconsin Ter- ritory. Two years later, in 1838, he again came to the Iowa SI Iowa Hiitariedl Eeoord, Vol. VI, No. 4, October, 1890, p. 549. ssThe ezaet loeation can not be deifinitelj stated. The roate was on the west side of the river is this locality. ss A journal, kept daring this campaign, may be found in The Iowa Joubnal OF HiSTOBY AND POLITICS, VoL VII, No. 3, July, 1909, p. 331. t« Iowa Hittorieal Eeoord, Vol VI, No. 4, October, 1890, p. 549. M Iowa HUtorioal Seoard, Veil VI, No. 4, October, 1890, p. 550 ; AnnaU of Iowa, Third Series, VoL m, p. 356, also an article by General Parrott on p. 374. In a letter to Hon. T. S. Parrin, written April 4, 1890, Lieutenant Lea says : ''I made a sunrey, in a canoe, of Des Moines river, from Rac[c]oon down, in 1835." MSee map in Lea's Nates on WiaeonHn Territory. LEA'S CONTRIBUTIONS TO IOWA HISTOBT 9 cojmtry as the United States Commissioner to deteimine ihe boundary between the State of Missouri and the Terri- tory of lowa.^^ When this task was completed Lieutenant Lea entered the employ of large corporations in the capacity of chief engineer.^ At the outbreak of the Civil War he followed his old friend Robert E. Lee into the Confederacy, vhere he completed four years of active service.^ When peace was eventually declared, he was practically ruined financially ; and in this condition he sought a new country, moving to Corsicana, Texas, where he lived until his death in 1890. The contributions of Albert M. Lea to the literature of Iowa history are based upon his two trips to the Iowa country: (1) the march of the Dragoons in 1835; and (2) his work as a member of the boundary commission of 1838. Upon both occasions Lieutenant Lea left a report and a map ; and these occupy a prominent place in the earliest lit- erature of the Commonwealth. THE BEPOBT ON THB DE8 MOINBS BIVEB The first of Lea's contributions in point of time is the Report on the Des Moines River which was made in 1835. Upon arriving at Fort Des Moines after the campaign with the Dragoons, Lieutenant Lea made a comprehensive re- port which included, besides the general conclusions, all the soundings, measurements, and notes of important features if Exeouiive Documents, House Document No. 38, 3rd Session, 27th Con- gress. This doeoment is also found in the Iowa Hiiiariedl Beeardp VoL II, No. 1, January, 1886, p. 193. '•Lieutenant Lea was for a number of years City Engineer of Enoxville, Tennessee, and later of Oalyeston, Texas. — Bee Lea's Autobiography in Iowa Historieal Seoord, VoL VIII, No. 1, January, 1892, p. 200. '•The best aceount of this period of Lieutenant Lea's life is found under the title of Cdonel Lea's Beminisoenees, a series of articles published in The Freeborn County Standard, of Albert Lea, Minnesota, from January to May, 1890. 10 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTOBT AND POLITICS from the Bacooon to the Mississippi. Unfortnnately this report, which was written in 1835 (and which was the first contribution relating to Iowa penned by Lea) can not be found. It seems to have been used as a basis for legisla- tion; for in speaking of the report its author says: '^The manuscript was published by Congress in 1835-6 without the map, and the original is in Adjutant-General's office. It was the foundation of aU the appropriations for Des. Moines under the care of my classmate, Sam B. Curtis. ' '^^ The evidence of the commanding officer also states that the report was actually transmitted; for in the order book of lieutenant-Colonel Kearney we find this statement: '^I send you his [Lea's] report.'*" Despite this seemingly conclusive evidence of its existence, the document, which related to the Des Moines Biver, its characteristics, its commercial and economic value, has not been located either in the records of the War Department'^ or among the papers of the office of the Adjutant-General of the State of Iowa.** Its historical importance can not,^ therefore, be estimated. It was in connection with this report that Lieutenant Lea drew a map which was used, with some changes, in his Notes on Wisconsin Territory. In speaking of the making of this >o Letter written on April 4, 1890, hy Albert M. Lea to Honorable T. 8. Parrin. SI Order of Lieotenant-Oolonel Kearney. — Found in an article prepared by the War Department for Annals of Iowa, Third Seriee, VoL m, p. 356. as Letter from War Department, December 3, 1908. ''The report made by Lieutenant Albert M. Lea, of the Ist U. 8. Dragoons, in 1835, relative to the Dee Moines river is not found in the Department."' Also a letter from the War Department to W. B. Allison on August 23, 1904 : ''An exhaustive examination of the records on file in this office has resulted in failure to find any report made by Albert M. Lea. ' ' ss Letter written to A. N. Harbert by Adjutant-General M. H. Byers on July 20, 1901: "There are no reports from him [A. M. Lea] on file and in- deed hit name is not found on any papers on file. " LBA*S CONTRIBUTIONS TO IOWA HISTORY 11 map Lieutenant Lea says: '^Without delay, I mapped the river and wrote a report on its character and capabilitieSi which was forwarded to the Adjutant-General ; and then it occurred to me that I could get an outline of the region be- tween the Mississippi and Missouri, and by filling it in with my sketches, the whole route having been carefully meandered, as I did the river, I could make a map that would interest the public, gain me some reputation and per- haps a little money. ' ' When the map was finished, however, the post commander. Lieutenant Colonel Kearney, sent for it and even refused its maker a copy. The next year, after much difficulty. Lieutenant Lea obtained a copy of his map from the proper officials in Washington and had it litho- graphed for the Notes on Wisconsin Territory.^ NOTES ON WISCONSIN TEBBITOBY The second and perhaps the most important of Lea's contributions to the literature of Iowa history is the Notes on Wisconsin Territory — a small book of forty-five pages. When in 1836 Lieutenant Lea returned to Baltimore from his campaign with the Dragoons so many inquiries for in- formation concerning the western country were addressed to him^ that he decided to write a concise and accurate account of the land to which so many immigrants were bound and over which the Dragoons had made their march. Such a task was an easy undertaking for Lieutenant Lea, since he had secured much information of the West during his travels and his services with the army. The demand, too, for a book of this kind promised to be large, as hun- dreds of settlers were flocking to the western country. Ac- cordingly, Lea wrote an account of the region which was 9^ Early Explorations in Iowa in the Iowa Historical Becord^ Vol. V, No. 4, October, 1890, p. 550. 35 Lea's Notes on Wisconsin Territory^ the prefaee. 12 IOWA JOXJRNAL OP HISTOBT AND POLITICS then a part of the original Territory of Wisconsin and lying west of the Mississippi Biver. When this was finished the author went to Washington, D. C.J where, after much persuasion he managed to secure a copy of the map which has been described above and which had been made at the close of the march in the year 1835. The map and manuscript were then taken to Phila- delphia where the book was published. Lea later described the publication of this valuable book in this manner : — ' ^ One thousand copies with the map were put up by my friend, H. S. Tanner, to whom I paid thirty-seven and a half cents per copy, and put them on sale at a dollar. Being quite ignorant of the book trade I assumed the sales myself, sent a few copies by mail, and five hundred in a trunk as freight to Arthur Bridgman of Burlington, an accomplished mer- chant. The last I heard of them was on a little steamboat stranded on a sandbank in the Ohio."'® The book indeed is quite rare, and less than a score of copies are known to be in existence.*^ The book is small, three and a half by six inches, bound in pale blue board cover, and contains, besides a map of the country described, forty-five finely printed pages. The full title of this interesting little contribution is Notes On The Wisconsin Territory; particularly tvith reference to the Iowa District or Black Hawk Purchase. It was written, as the author declares in the preface, ^^to place within the reach of the public, correct information in regard to a very 86 Iowa Historical Becord, Vol. VI, No. 4, October, 1890, p. 552. *T A partial liat of the owners of these books is the following: L. A. Brewer, Cedar Bapids; T. J. I^tzpatriek, Iowa Citj; Mr. Blair, Kossuth; The Masonic Library, Cedar Bapids; The Davenport Academy of Science, Davenport; His- torical Department of Iowa, Des Moines; State Historical Society, Iowa City; and A. N. Harbert, Cedar Bapids. Mr. Earl Swem, Assistant State Librarian of Bichmond, Virginia, can fur- nish a complete list of the owners of copies of this book. LEA'S CONTBIBUTIONS TO IOWA HISTOBT 13 interesting portion of tiie Western Country '\*® The con- tentSy too, are confined to subjects which would interest ''the emigrant, the speculator, and the legislator."^ A more complete work was planned, but the author never had the inclination nor the desire to finish it.^ The Notes on Wisconsin Territory consists of three general chapters or divisions. The first division gives a general description of the country ; the second part explains the water courses, the local divisions, and the form of gov- ernment ; while in the last chaptelr the reader finds a descrip- tion of the various towns, landings, and roads. The country to which the author limited himself was a part of the original Territory of Wisconsin which he chose to call the **Iowa District*' — a strip of land ** about 190 miles in length, 50 miles wide near each end, and 40 miles wide near the middle opposite to Bock Island ; and would make a parallelogram of 180 by 50 miles equivalent to 9000 square miles. ''** This strip of country had been practically unsettled before the year 1832, being alternately in the pos- session of various tribes of Indians, but chiefly of the Sacs and Foxes. At the dose of the Black Hawk War in 1832 this country was obtained from the Indians and the date of the latter 's removal placed at June 1, 1833. The treaty of cession was made at Davenport, Oeneral Scott being the chief negotiator on the part of the United States.^^ As a result the ceded area was popularly known as ^^ Scott's Pur- chase'' or, later, as the ** Black Hawk Purchase". The treaty was barely signed when several families and miners, who had been hovering on the east bank of the 88 Lea 'b Notes on Wiacomin Territory, the preface. »» Lea 's N,otes on Wisconsin Territory, the preface. 40 Lea's Notes on Wisconsin Territory, the preface. 41 Lea's Notes on Wisconsin Territory, Chap. I, p. 8. ^3 Salter 'a loiva: The First Free State in the Louisiana Purchase, p. 155. 14 IOWA JOURNAL OF HISTORY AND POLITICS Mississippi^ crossed over and established themselves on the choicest parts of the District; but these people ^^were dis- possessed by order of government '\** Nevertheless many white families remained and some even went so far as to put in crops.** The climate of the Iowa District is first described, the dif- ferent seasons and their varying aspects beautifully pic- tured. The winds were of especial importance in the opinion of the author, being as fresh and bracing as the sea-breezes and very much less chilling. **The prevailing winds '^ he writes, **are from the southwest. I have known the wind at Bock Island, to remain constant in that quarter for three weeks successively '\** The salubriousness of the climate was variable according to the locality. Lea thought that from the mouth of the Des Moines until the great bend of the Mississippi was reached there was liable to be much fever; but from Bock Island northward he knew of no healthier place in the world. The descriptions of the various seasons furnish one of the most interesting parts of the book, and also an oppor- tunity for comparison with the seasons of the present day. As a proof that winter is not changing to any appreciable extent, the description by Lieutenant Lea, written seventy- three years ago, may be cited. "Tfee Winter' ', he declares, **is generally dry, cold, and bracing; the waters are all bridged with ice; the snow is frequently deep enough to afford good sleighing. ' '*® Spring was the least desirable of any of the seasons, being **a succession of rains, blows, and chills.'* The same char- acteristics were in evidence then as now, for Lea writes 4s Lea's Notes on Wiscoruin Territory, p. 8. ^^Shambaogh'B History of the Constitutions of Iowa, p. 38. MLea's Notes on Wisconsin Territory, p. 8. M Lea's Notes on Wisconsin Territory, p. 9. LEA'S CONTRIBUTIONS TO IOWA HISTORY 15 that ''We have no gradual gliding from cold to warm; it is snowy — then stormy — then balmy and delightful/'*^ Summer was a season in which all the conditions were favorable to a rapid growth of vegetation. The appear- ance of the country during this season was very beautiful, as all the grasses and flowers grew luxuriantly. Autumn, however, was described by Lieutenant Lea as being ''the most delightful of all the seasons of the year." His description of this season, written in 1836, would apply to-day with equal truthfulness. "The heat of the summer is over by the middle of August ; and from that time till De- cember, we have almost one continuous succession of bright clear delightful sunny days. Nothing can exceed the beauty of Summer and Autumn in this country, where, on one hand, we have the expansive prairie strewed with flowers still growing ; and on the other, the forests which skirt it, pre- senting all the varieties of colour incident to the fading foliage of a thousand different trees.'**® The soil and the character of the country are presented in detail, and the writer gives his opinions as to the best crops for the various soils. Indian com, he believes, was "peculiarly adapted*' to the low lands of this district. "The general appearance of the country**, declares Lea, "is one of great beauty. It may be represented as one grand rolling prairie, along one side of which flows the mightiest river in the world and through which numerous navigable streams pursue their devious way to the ocean* *.*• Li another place this same area is claimed by the author to be superior, all things considered, to any other part of the United States.^^ 47 Lea's Notes on Wisconsin Territory, p. 9. 4sLea'8 Notes on Wisconsin Territory, p. 10. ^•Lea's Notes on Wisamsin Territory, p. 11. BO Lea's Notes on Wisconsin Territory, p. 12. 16 IOWA JOUENAL OF HISTOBY AND POLITICS The distribution of timber, water, and prairie was one of the unique features of this District. The beauty of the country seemed to have charmed Lieutenant Lea, for at the dose of his description of its general appearance he writes : Gould I present to the mind of the reader that view of this country that is now before my eyes, he would not deem my assertion unfounded. He would see the broad Mississippi with its ten thou* sand islands, flowing gently and lingeringly along one entire side of this District, as if in regret at leaving so delightful a region ; he would see half a dozen navigable rivers taking their sources in distant regions, and gradually accumulating their waters as they glide steadily along through this favoured region to pay their tribute to the great "Father of Waters"; he would see innumer- able creeks and rivulets meandering through rich pasturages, where now the domestic ox has taken the place of the untamed bison ; he would see here and there neat groves of oak, and elm, and walnut, half shading half concealing beautiful little lakes that mirror back their waiving branches ; he would see neat looking prairies of two or three miles in extent, and apparently enclosed by woods on all sides, and along the borders of which are ranged the neat hewed log cabins of the emigrants with their fields stretching far into the prairies, where their herds are luxuriating on the native grass; he would see villages springing up, as by magic, along the banks of the rivers, and even far into the interior; and he would see the swift moving steam-boats, as they ply up and down the Mississippi, to supply the wants of the settlers, to take away their surplus pro- duce, or to bring an accesion to this growing population, anxious to participate in the enjoyment of nature's bounties, here so liber- ally dispensed.'^^ The mineral resources were described as abundant, com- prising coal, lead, limestone, zinc, and clay. Lea believed these were the greatest assets of the country. The chief mineral wealth at that time, however, was in the lead indus- try which was in a thriving condition in and near Dubuque. **Here'^ writes Lea, **are capital, western enterprise, for- BiLea's Notes on WiicOMin Territory, p. 12. LEA'S CONTRIBUTIONS TO IOWA HISTORY 17 eign experiencOi and Yankee ingenuity combined ; and they have brought to their assistance the powers of both water and steam. The smelting establishments have recently been much improved and are now conducted with scientific acoaracy, yielding seventy or eighty per cent of lead from the native snlphuref^* The larger game was rapidly beginning to disappear when this book was written, but the writer mentions deer, < < some bear' '9 and buffalo. The wild turkey, grouse and the wild duck were the most numerous of the wild fowls ; and fish of all varieties were found in the numerous rivers. Spearing the fish in the rapids was a favorite sport and large strings of pike, pickerel, catfish, and trout were to be had. Agricultural products, being least in importance at this time, are only briefly mentioned. The chief product then, as now, was com or maize, of which the yellow varieties were considered the most certain and produced from forty to seventy-five bushels per acre. Wheat and oats were very easily grown, the latter usually yielding from '^ sixty to seventy-five bushels per acre.'*^' Potatoes, too, were one of the most important crops of the period. The stock-rais- ing industry was still unknown, and Lea predicted that '^The growing of stock of various kinds will doubtless be extensively pursued, as few countries afford more facilities for such purposes'"^* — a prophecy which has been abun- dantly fulfilled. Lea estimated that the population in 1835 was sixteen thousand, representing every State in the Union. No higher compliment could have been paid them than the one given in the Notes on Wisconsin Territory. **The char- sa Lea's Note* on Wiaoontin Territory, p. 41. 58 Lea's Notee on Wisconsin Territory, p. 13. 64 Lea '8 Notes on Wisconsin Territory, p. 13. YOL. IX— 2 18 IOWA JOUENAL OP HISTOBT AND POLITICS acter of this population is such", says the author, ^^as is rarely found in our newly acquired Territories. With very few exceptions there is not a more orderly, industrious, ac- tive, painstaking population west of the Alleghanies, than is this in the Iowa District. . . . For intelligence, I boldly assert that they are not surpassed, as a body, by an equal number of citizens of any country in the world* \'*^ Even in the mining camps very little disorder was found, and **the District is forever free from slavery''*^ — a condition which was a blessing in the judgment of the author. **The trade of the District '^ writes Lea, **is confined al- most entirely to the grand thorough-fare of theMississippi'^ There were ten or twelve steamboats which carried the lead and farm products to St. Louis, which was the only market of any importance. It took three or four days for one of these boats to run from St. Louis to the Lead Mines and as a consequence there was a boat each way daily. The rail- road was several hundred miles from Iowa at this time but we are told that a railroad was being pushed westward from New York along ^^the southern shore of Lake Erie'' to Chi- cago and thence to the Mississippi. ^'This work'', writes Lea, ^^ would place the center of the Iowa District within sixty hours of the city of New York ; and if any of the * down- easters' think this project chimerical, let them take a tour of a few weeks to the Upper Mississippi, and they will agree with me, that it is already demanded by the interests of the country. '"^^ To the student of Iowa history the Notes on Wisconsin Territory is also interesting since it gives the first unofficial account of the organization of the District, which in 1835 was composed of the two counties of Dubuque and Demoine. SB Lea's Notes on Wisconsin Territory, p. 14. 66 Lea's Notes on Wisconsin Territory, p. 14. BT Lea's Notes on Wisconsin Territory, p. 17. LEA'S CONTRIBUTIONS TO IOWA HISTOBY 19 At the time of the writing of the book the government of the District was in disorder. The Territory of Michigan had assumed the form of a State government ; and the Ter- ritory of Wisconsin, to which the Iowa District was later attached, was not yet formed. The Claim Association, too,^ which was an extra-legal institution, is described by the author as an organization made by the people of the District who ''have entered into an agreement to support each other in their claims against any unjust action of the government or against any attempt at improper speculation by capitalists at a distance. And those who know the po- tency of such leagues will feel perfectly assured, that what- ever is protected by this one, will be safe from molesta- tion.''~ Decidedly the most interesting part of the first chapter, as well as of the whole book, is the references made to the name ''Iowa". It is now agreed that it was the publica- tion of this book which brought the name "Iowa" into gen- eral use. One prominent writer precisely summarizes this opinion in the statement: "It cannot of course be said with absolute certainty that the name 'Iowa District' was used for the first time in this book. On the contrary it is alto- gether probable that this was not the case. But since the name was fixed and made generally prevalent through the publication of Lieutenant Lea 's book and map, it is proper and accurate to say that Lieutenant Lea is the father of the expression 'Iowa District' ".•^ The manner in which Lea came by the name "Iowa" is^ given in the book itself. The name was not taken, as some B8 For a full account of the daim Aisociation see Shambaugh *b Claim Assih eiaiion of Johnson County; and also Shambaugh 'a History of the Constitutions of Iowa. 89 Lea's Notes on Wisconsin Territory, p. 18. ^See article by Benjamin F. Shambaugh in Annais of Iowa, Third Series^ VoL m, p. 641. 20 IOWA JOTJBNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS have claimedy from Iowa County in Wisconsin. On this point Lieiitenant Lea tells us that ^'the District under re- view has been often called 'Scott's Purchase', and it is sometimes called the 'Black Hawk Purchase', but from the extent and beauty of the Iowa Biver which runs centrally through the District, and gives character to most of it, the name of that stream being both euphonious and appropriate has been given to the District itself ".^^ The name as applied to the river was spelled ''loway"** and extends back a hundred years or more when the French spelled it ''Aouway". In later years, after the State was formed. Lieutenant Lea tried to have the spelling changed to **Ioway", which as he declares '*it ought to have been",** His descriptions of the waterways furnish the student with much valuable information, as most of the streams have the same names as in 1835, very few having been changed since fhen. The Skunk Biver, however, bore at that time the more dignified name of Chicaqua,*^ and the Iowa was oftentimes known as the Bison or Buffalo.^ The Mississippi is given the most attention as that river was the great thoroughfare of the period. Next in impor- tance is the Des Moines Biver and its tributaries, which are also described in detail. The various bends, rapids, and fording places are outlined, and any deposits of minerals or stone are also mentioned. The contiguous lands and their value for future settlement are described and esti- mated. The Iowa Biver was the favorite of Lieutenant Lea and he 61 Lea 'e Notes en Wisconsin Territory, p. 8. u Annals of Iowa, Third Series, Vol. Ill, p. 641. M Letter of A. M. Lea to Editor H. G. Day of Albert Lea, Minnesota, dated January 1, 1890. — In collection of Mr. A. N. Harbert of Cedar Rapids, Iowa. <*See the map in Lea's Notes ot^ Wisconsin Territory, •sSee the map in Lea's Notes on Wisconsin Territory, LEA'S CONTEroUTIONS TO IOWA HISTOBY 21 • never mentions it without becoming enthusiastic. He de- darei? ''it presents to the imagination the finest picture on earth." Other rivers which the writer describes are the *'Pine", the **Wabesapinica", the *' Great Mequoquetoia", the **Tetes des Morts", and the **Penaca or Turkey river". Other small creeks and sloughs are also mentionedi which had no importance except as landmarks. Two tracts of land which were the subjects of much spec- ulation are discussed by Lea. The first of these is the ''Half -Breed Tract ", a portion of land lying in the angle between the Des Moines and the Mississippi rivers. The » history of this tract is related from the time of the treaty of 1824 with the Sauk and Fox Indians. Not only is the soil of this tract described, but the various small streams are mentioned, the conditions of its inhabitants explained, and the validity of the land titles discussed. The second tract is that strip of land known as ''The IndianEeserve'Nor-Keokak'sEeserve". This comprised a strip of land along the Iowa Biver containing four him- dred square miles. At this time the Indians had removed in large numbers and the whites were eagerly awaiting a chance to seize upon some of the choicest parts of the Dis- trict. The descriptions of the towns are of exceeding interest, since the struggling little villages of that day are now in ' many instances thriving cities ; while in other cases no rem- nant remains of what promised to be prosperous and weal- thy communities. Keokuk was a town which derived its chief importance from the rapids in the Mississippi, for all boats were forced to stop and change their f reight.^^ The town lots were held in common by the owners of the "Half- Breed Tract". MLea's Notes on Wiseontin Territory p p. 35. 22 IOWA JOUBNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS Fort Des Moines, now no longer in existence, was then an important place/^ A good landing was located here, and much fine farming country was close hj. A legend claimed that this was the location of an old French settlement ; and some remains of such a settlement were to be found. Madison (Fort Madison) was located upon the site of old Fort Madison, which had been burned during the War of 1812. This town had been laid out in 1835 and gave great promise of growth.** Burlington was a town of four hundred inhabitants and was beginning to boom. Lots were being bought and sold with remarkable briskness, and the town impressed one as a rich business center.** lowa,^* **a town to be laid out*^ and located at the great bend of the Mississippi, between Davenport and Muscatine, is mentioned as the future metropolis of the District.*^^ '' Should the seat of Government of the future State of Iowa be located on the Mississippi, it would probably be fixed at Iowa. • . • And if it be located in the interior, it must be near the Iowa river". This proved to be the case, as the seat of government was located at Iowa City.*^* Considerable attention is given to Davenport, ^^a town •T Lea's Noiei on Wiseantin Territory, p. 35. M Lea's Notei on Wiieantin Territory, p. 85. ••Lea's Notee on Wiseonein Territory, p. 36. TO Lea's Notee on Wieeonein Territory, p. 37. Lieatenant Lea had booght a large strip of land at the mouth of the Pine Biyer and had platted the District. Later he organised a ferry and immigra- tion companj, but laeked the necessary capital to carry his project through. A letter written by Lieatenant Lea's daughter, Lida L. Lea, on January 5, 1904, says: ''He [A. M. Lea] had some 'frild lands' for which he refused $30,000 and afterwards forgot — in other business enterprises, — and allowed to be sold for the taxes". — See Aete of the Territorial Assembly of Iowa for 1840-1841 for the Articles of Incorporation, Chapter 63. Ti Lea's Notes on Wisconsin Territory, pp. 37, 38. TSThis forecast is typical of those made by Lea and shows the aeeuraey and eaxe usually e]diibited in his writings. LEA'S CONTRIBUTIONS TO IOWA HISTOBY 23 just laid out on a reserve belonging to Antoine Ledaire^'J* The most interesting part of the description of this town has historical significance in regard to the location of the capital city. "The town'^ says Lea, *'is laid out on a lib- eral scale, with a view to its becoming a large city. Three public squares have been reserved from sale, one of which, it is supposed by the proprietors, will be occupied by the public buildings of the future State of Iowa ; for they con- fidently predict that the seat of Government of this forth- coming commonwealth will be no other than the dty of Davenport itself. Noim verrons*^'^^ Dubuque (or Du Buque as it was then spelled) was the most prosperous of any of these towns ;''^ for besides a population of over 1200 it had twenty-five dry goods stores, numerous groceries, four taverns, a court house, a jail, and three churches. It was claimed that the art of mining was ''more skilfully practised at these mines than in any other part of the world 'V* Many other towns are mentioned which have long since ceased to exist. Among this class of towns was Catfish, a small town laid out in 1832 in the region of the mines south of Dubuque. Biprow was another small town of which Lieutenant Lea declared ''here are some of the finest smelting establish- ments in the world." Easey's, a town to be laid out by a gentleman bearing that name, was on the present site of the city of Muscatine. As this was close to the town of Iowa, in which Lea was in- terested, the town of Easey^s was not given a very allur- ing write-up. Ts Lea's Notei on Wi$oanain Territory, p. 39. T4Lea'8 Notes on Wisconein Territory, p. 39. TsLea'8 Notes on Wisconsin Territory, p. 41. Tt Lea's Notes on Wisconsin Territory, p. 41. 24 IOWA JOUBNAL OP mSTOBY AND POLITICS THE MAP OF THE IOWA DI8TBICT In connection with the Notes on Wisconsin Territory is a map of the District of which mention has already been made ; and this was one of the two maps of the Iowa conn- try drawn by lieutenant Lea. It is '^a Map of Wisconsin Territory, compiled from Tanner's map of United States, from snrveys of pnblic lands and Indian boundaries, from personal reconnoissance and from original information de- rived from explorers and traders ''J^ Among the latter was Captain Nathan Boone, a son of the famous Daniel Boone and an intimate friend of Lieutenant Lea J^ It was largely through Boone's aid that Lea secured the information con- cerning the river courses and the Indian lands which made the map one of the most accurate of the period J^ The map is interesting, in the first place, from a mechan- ical standpoint. It is small, about 16 by 22 inches, and very finely drawn. The coloring is excellently done in bright shades^ and the engraving is perfect Upon it we see some of the roads then in existence, all the towns, and a few of the winding Indian trails. We can also see the streams with their old-time spelling — although most of the rivers bear the same names as at present. TTLea had not traveled over wertem Iowa, which at that time had never been explored, and it waa necessary to use the information of trappers and traders. TB Nathan Boone was Captain of Company H of the First United Btates Dragoons. In 1832 he had surveyed the Neutral Strip, a tract of land forty miles wide which divided the Sioux and the Sac and Fox tribes of Indians. — AnnaU of lava. Third Series, Vol. VII, p. 436. 70 Other maps of this District during this period are John Plumbe's and J. H. Colton's maps of 1839; J. H. Colton's and Jesse Williams' maps of 1840; Newhall'e map of 1841; Willard Barrow's map of 1845.— See The Iowa Joubnal of Bibtoby and Poutics, Vol. I, p. 82. so The coloring of the early maps was in very bright shades and their lasting qualities were very great. LEA'S CONTRIBUTIONS TO IOWA HISTOBY 25 One of the most interesting features of the map is the route taken by the Dragoons in 1835.^^ This is very clearly shown, with the camping places, the distances covered daily, and any peculiar geographical formations plainly marked. Among the latter is a high mound located a short distance below the present city of Boone.^' A large part of the pres- ent States of Missouri, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Minnesota is also outlined. The completeness, the accuracy, and the simplicity of the map caused it to be generally used both by the government^* and by individuals. THB BEPOBT ON THB lOWA-MISSOUBI BOUNDABY Next in importance to the Notes on Wisconsin Territory as a contribution to the literature of Iowa history is the report made by Lieutenant Lea as United States Commis- sioner to locate the Iowa-Missouri boundary. When the Territory of Iowa was created by an act of Congress on June 12, 1838,^ a controversy with the State of Missouri had already arisen concerning the boundaries of the two jurisdictions. Accordingly, on the 18th of June Congress passed an act which empowered the President of the United States to cause the southern boundary of Iowa to be ascer- tained and marked.^^ This act provided for the appointment of a commissioner who should work with a commissioner from the Territory of Iowa and one from the State of Missouri. Following the provisions of this law. President Van Buren appointed Lieutenant Lea as Commissioner for SI Thii route eovered over 1100 miles. — See Iowa Historiedl Beeord, VoL VI, No. 4, October, 1890, p. 535. S'See note 18 above. M Iowa Historiedl Beeord^ VoL VI, No. 4, October, 1890, p. 550. cf . note 92. M United States Statutes at Large, VoL V, p. 235. M United States Statutes at Large, VoL V. p. 248. 26 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTOBY AND POLITICS the United States ;*• and Governor Lucas appointed Dr, James Davis.®^ But Governor Boggs of Missouri failed to appoint a man to represent Ms State. Aft soon as Lieutenant Lea received his appointment lie hastened to St. Louis, arriving there on September 1, 1838.** After securing the necessary amoimt of help and instru- ments he came north to Keokuk, and there he met the Iowa commissioner. These two spent most of the winter in ex- amining and surveying the country, and in going over the various documents connected with the history of the con- troversy.** Finally, on the 19th of January, 1839, Lieuten- ant Lea submitted his report to the General Land Office. It was printed as an Executive Document and used exten- sively in the debates in Congress.*^ This report is remarkable in many respects, and for some years was the most important and most widely known work of Lieutenant Lea. It is concise, gives a full and accurate history of the land in dispute, and states clearly the issues which Congress must decide. After an introduction outlining the work done by the com- missioners, a history of the tract in dispute is given.*^ It — SxeouHve Doewmenti, House Doeament No. 88, Third Seiiion, 27tli Con- gntt, p. 6; alto One's HiMtory of lawa, Vol. I, p. 176. ■T One's BUiwrff of Iowa, VoL I, p. 176. - Iowa Eiftoriedl Beeord, VoL VIH, No. 1, January, 1892, p. 204. M Among these doenments maj be noted the following: Act creating State of Missouri; Act creating Territory of Missouri; several important letters; eopies of a Spanish Land Grant. The latter is a eopj of one of the four land grants made bj the Spanish Government from territory now witiiin the limita of the State of Iowa. It is signed by the Gocket compass, estimating distances from bend to bend by the time and rate of motion, sketching every notable thing, occasionally landing to examine the geology of the rocks, and sleeping in the sand despite the gnats and mosquitoes. We made the trip without an accident, and leaving our canoe with Capt. White at the trading house, we footed it to the fort, where we arrived many days before the main body, who returned leisurely by land, and arrived in fine order, without the loss of a man, a horse, a tool, or a beef, which were fatter than at the starting, after a march of eleven hundred miles.'' 108 Freeborn County Standard, Albert Lea, Minnesota, edited by H. G. Day. 104 Lea was an intimate friend of President Jefferson Davis; and he claimed relationship to General Bobert E. Lee. In the early part of the war, however, LEA'S CONTRIBUTIONS TO IOWA mSTOBY 31 of these articles are especially valnable as they give the Indian's side of the Black Hawk War,^^^ just as Lieutenant Lea heard it from the lips of Black Hawk himself. Li an- other of these same articles we are told of the formation of the United States Dragoons.^^^ A cavalry regiment of five companies was formed at the dose of the Black Hawk War, and this, declares Lea, ''was the cause and neudeus of the First United States Dragoons". The last of these lesser contributions^^'' is a letter by Lieutenant Lea, which deserves spedal mention as it throws some light on the name ''Iowa'\ It appears that the name was spelled **Ioway" by the earliest settlers; but in order to satisfy their desires for Latin endings, George W. Jones, the Territorial Delegate to Congress,^®* and Lieutenant Lea agreed to spell it '*Iowa". Several years later, after the State had been formed, the original spelling seemed pref- erable ; and in this letter the writer asks his friends to re- vert to the old spelling of **Ioway". The contributions of Albert M. Lea*^* are not numerous, Identenant Lea inenrred tlie disfavor of Jefferaon Dayis and never rose higher than the rank of Major. At the battle of Galveston, Albert M. Lea fought against his son, who was a Lieutenant on a Federal gunboat. The younger Lea was slain and the article telling of this battle is the most pathetic story ever written by Albert M. Lea. 106 Lea, accompanied by General Parrott, visited the lodge of Black Hawk. io« Article published in the Freeborn County Standard on January 30, 1890. 107 Letter written to H. G. Day of Albert Lea, Minnesota, on January 1, 1890, preserved in collection of Mr. A. N. Harbert. los For a complete history of the Territorial Delegate see an article by Ken- neth W. Colgrove entitled The Iowa Territoriai Delegates in Thi Iowa Journal OF History and Politigs, Vol. Vn, No. 2, April, 1909, p. 230. 109 Lieutenant Lea was a very careful writer and most of his writings agree perfectly with official records and documents. The map in the Notes on Wisconsin Territory, however, was based to a considerable extent ui>on data furnished by Capt. Nathan Boone; and a comparison of this map with the present map of the State shows its defects.— See Iowa Eistoricdl Record, VoL VI, No. 4, October, 1890, p. 560. 32 IOWA JOUENAL OF HISTOBY AND POLITICS neither are they in the best sense critical. The author did not realize the part they would play nor the influence they would exert. They are, however, remarkable in many respects. They give us real pictures of the virgin Iowa prairies, of the streams, and the homes of the pioneers. They were in most respects accurate and reliable, concise and clear. These contributions though few in number are prized by all students of Iowa history. They are, indeed, the most enduring monuments to the life and memory of Albert Miller Lea. . ^ , CuFFOBD Powell Iowa City, Iowa J ANDEBSONVILLE AND THE TRTAL OF HENEY WIEZ^ [In 1884 Ex-Iiieiitenaitt Governor Benj. F. One of Iowa yiiited the lita of AndenonTiUe PriBon and eompiled from the eemetezy register the number of burials of Iowa soldien in the cemetery. He found the names of two hundred Iowa men, representing twenty-eight regiments. The names of these men, with company and regiment, were published in the Iowa State JHegitier of April 16, 1884. The list was republished, together with a description of the prison stockade, in the Annals of Iowa, Third Series, Vol. I, pp. 65-87.-^ EnnoE.] I have been introdnoed to yon as the sole snrvivor* of the Conrt that tried Captain Henry Wirz, the keeper of the Andersonville Prison, and I have been asked to tell yon something of the prison and its management. Were it not for reasons herein given my preference wonld be to say nothing on the snbject, not because I wonld shirk the re- sponsibility of having participated in the trial of Wirz^ but because for more than fifty days during his trial I sat and listened to the terrible story of the sn£ferings and death of our brave boys at Andersonville, and when the end was 1 This paper was read hy General John Howard Btibbs at Iowa City, Iowa,, on May 30, 1910. The military record of General Stibbs as shown in VoL I of the HMoriedl Begister and Dictionary of the VnUed Statee Army is as follows: Mustered into the United States Service as Captain of Twelfth Iowa Infantry Volunteers, November 25, 1861; as Major, May 2, 1868; as Lieutenant Colonel, September 25, 1863; as Colonel, September 18, 1866; as Brevet Colonel United States Volunteers, March 18, 1866, for distinguished gallantry in the battles before Nashville, Tennessee; Brevet Brigadier General, United States Volunteers, March 13, 1866, for meritorious services during the war; and was honorably discharged, April 30, 1866. For a more detailed sketch of General Stibbs, see below under " Contributors '^ s Since the preparation of this paper it has been learned that the Judge Ad> vocate. Genera] N. P. Chipman, who prosecuted the case against Oaptain Win, is still living as a resident of Sacramento, CaUf omia. VOL IX — 3 W 34 IOWA JOUENAL OP HISTOET AND POLITICS reached I felt that I would like to banish the subject from my mind and forget, if I could, the details of the terrible crime committed there. On innumerable occasions since the Civil War I have been urged, and at times tempted, to say or write some- thing in relation to the trial of Wirz, but it has always seemed to me a matter of questionable propriety. The record of the trial had been published to the world; and on occasions when the action of the Court has been criti- cised, or condemned, I have felt that it was the duty of our friends to defend those who had served as members of the Court rather than that we should speak for ourselves. Then, too, I have been in doubt as to the extent of my obligation, taken when I was sworn as a member of the Court, and as a result I have remained silent on the subject for nearly forty-five years; but as time passed and one after another of those who served with me passed off the stage, leaving me the sole survivor of the Court, and after a monument was erected to perpetuate the memory of Wirz and he was proclaimed a martyr who had been unfairly tried and condemned, I concluded to lay aside all question of propriety and obligation and accede to the request of some of my Iowa friends who were urging me to prepare a paper. I will add that one of my chief reasons for yield- ing in this matter was that I wanted to describe the per- sonnel of the Court ; to tell who and what the men were who composed it ; and to tell, as I alone could tell, of the unani- mous action of the Court in its findings. I will not attempt to describe fully the horrors of Ander- sonville, but will simply give you an outline description of the place and the conditions existing there. With that picture before you, your own imagination will supply the details. ANDEBSONVILLE AND THE TBIAL OF WIBZ 35 In the fall of 1863 the rebel prisons in the vicinity of Richmond had become overcrowded^ and a new prison was located with a view, as was claimed at the time, of making more room for onr men and of placing them as far as pos- sible from onr lines, where they conld be cared for by a comparatively small gnard and where provisions were most accessible. Bnt the evidence presented before the Wirz Commission satisfied the Conrt beyond a doubt that while this prison was being made ready, if not before, a conspir- acy was entered into by certain persons, high in authority in the Confederate service, to destroy the lives of our men, or at least subject them to such hardships as would render them unfit for further military service. Andersonville is situated on the Southwestern Bailroad about sixty miles south from Macon, (Georgia. In 1864 the place contained not more than a dozen houses. The country round about was covered with a heavy growth of pine tim- ber, and in the midst of this timber, a short distance from the station, the prison was laid out. Planters in the neigh- borhood were called upon to send in their negro men ; and with this force trenches were dug inclosing an area of eighteen acres, which subsequently was enlarged to about twenty-seven acres. The timber was cut down and the trees trimmed and set into the trenches, forming a stockade about eighteen feet high. Inside the stockade, about twenty feet from the wall, was established a dead-line, formed by driving small stakes in the ground and nailing on top of them a strip of board ; and the orders were to shoot down without warning any prisoner whp crossed this line. Every tree and shrub within the indosure was cut down, and it contained no shelter of any kind. Colonel W. H. Persons, who was the first commandant, ordered a lot of lumber with which to build barracks for the men ; but before any work 36 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTOET AND POLITICS was done he was snooeeded by Brigadier (}eneral John H. Winder, and the lumber was used for other purposes. Al- though there was a steam saw-mill within a quarter of a mile and four mills within a radius of twenty miles, no buildings or shelters of any kind were erected within the inclosure while our men remained there, save two barren sheds at the extreme north end of the stockade which were used for hospital purposes. On the outside of the stock- ade, and near its top, there were built a series of platforms and sentry boxes at intervals of about one hundred feet in which guards were continually posted. They were so close together that the guards could readily commimicate with each other ; and from where they were posted they had an unobstructed view of the interior of the prison. At a distance of sixty paces outside the main stockade, a second stockade, about twelve feet high, was built, and the inter- vening space was left unoccupied. This was designed as an additional safeguard against any attempt of the pris- oners to escape. Surrounding the whole was a cordon of earthworks in which seventeen guns were placed and kept continually manned. The guard consisted of a force of from three to five thousand men, chiefly home guards, and they were encamped west of and near to the stockade. A creek having its source in a swamp or morass, less than half a mile from the stockade, ran from west to east through the place at about the center. The water in this creek was not wholesome at its source, and before it reached the stockade there was poured into it all the filth from the camp of the Confederate guard, the hospitals, and cook houses; and to this was added all the filth and excrement originating within the prison pen. For a time this creek was the only source from which our men obtained water; but in time the creek bed and fully an acre or more of land ANDEBSONVILLE AND THE TRIAL OF WIBZ 37 bordering it became a putrid mass of oormption, into which the men waded knee-deep to secure water from the running stream. In this extremity many of the men set to work and with their knives and pieces of broken canteens they dug wells, some of them seventy feet deep, and thereafter such as were fortunate enough to have an interest in a well were supplied with wholesome water. When the place was first occupied the ground was cov- ered with the stumps of the trees that had been cut down ; but there was such a scarcity of wood with which to cook their food and warm their numb fingers that our men went to work with their knives and the rude implements at hand and cut out the stumps, digging far into the ground to secure the roots, until not a vestige of a stump remained. On February 15, 1864, the first lot of prisoners, 860 of them, were turned into the stockade. In April following, the number had increased to 9577; which number was doubled a month later; and in August, 1864, there were more than 33,000 men within the indosure. Think of it! Picture it if you can! A great barren field so filled with men that there was scarcely room enough for all of them to lie down at the same time — without a shelter of any kind to shield them from a southern sun or frequent rain ; without a seat on which to rest their weary bodies when too tired to stand; without blankets, and in many instances without sufficient clothing to cover their nakedness; with scant rations of the coarsest food, many times uncooked ; and with nothing to do but to stand around waiting for death, or a i)ossible exchange. Is it a wonder that men became sick under such conditions f The wonder to me is that any one of them lived through it. Here the question is suggested. What means were provided for the care and treatment of our men when they became sickf 38 IOWA JOURNAL OF mSTOBT AND POLITICS As a prelnde to my answer I will state that during the trial of Wirz one hundred and forty-six witnesses were sworn, and of this number nearly one hundred had been confined as prisoners in the stockade. One after another they told their experiences as prisoners and of the condi- tions existing in and about the stockade, until we had the picture complete from their standpoint ; and had there been no other evidence in the case, the story told by their com- bined testimony might with some show of fairness have been discredited because of the fact that all had been suf- ferers and supposedly were prejudiced and biased. But we had other witnesses^ two score or more of them, who had been in the Confederate service and were at the prison as guards, officers, surgeons, etc., and some of them had made official reports, telling of the horrible condition of the prison and its inmates. A number of these reports were found and introduced as evidence before the Court, and the parties who made them were called in to testify con- cerning what they had written. This evidence served to corroborate in the fullest particular all that had been tes- tified to by those who had been prisoners concerning the general conditions in the prison. I feel that it will answer my purpose if I quote from their testimony alone in my ef- forts to place before you a comprehensive picture of Ander- sonville as it existed in the summer of 1864. In August, 1864, Dr. Joseph Jones, an ex-surgeon of the Confederate army whom Jefferson Davis, in an article pub- lished in B elf or d* 8 Magazine in January, 1890, referred to as being ^ ^ eminent in his profession, and of great learning and probity", was sent to Andersonville to investigate and report his observations ; and his official report made to Sur- geon General Moore was very full and complete. In it he gave a minute description of the stockade, and the hospital ANDEBS0N7ILLE AND THE TRIAL OF WIBZ 39 adjacent; of the number of prisoners and their crowded condition ; of the lack of food, fuel, shelter, medical attend- ance, etc ; of the condition of the men in the stockade and in the hospital; of the deaths and death rate; and in fact, as I remember, he went over the entire ground. His report was introduced in evidence, and identified by him when called as a witness. He frankly admitted that he did not go to Andersonville with a view of ameliorating the suffer- ings of the prisoners, but purely in the interest of science for the ''benefit of the medical department of the Confeder- ate armies", and that his report was intended for the sole use of the Surgeon General. I will quote briefly from his report On pages 4340 and 4341 of the Record, be says: I visited two thousand sick within the stockade, lying under some long sheds which had been built at the northern portion for them- selves. At this time only one medical officer was in attendance, whereas at least 20 medical officers should have been employed.* Further on, after referring to the sheds in the stockade which were open on all sides, he says on page 4348 of the Record : The sick lay upon the bare boards, or upon such ragged blankets as they possessed, without, as far as I observed, any bedding or even straw. Pits for the reception of feces were dug within a few feet of the lower floor, and they were almost never unoccupied by those suf- fering from diarrhoea. The haggard, distressed countenanees of these miserable, complaining, dejected, living skeletons, crying for medi- cal aid and food, .... and the ghastly corpses, with their glazed eye balls staring np into vacant space, with the flies swarming down their open and grinning months, and over their ragged clothes, in- fested with numerous lice, as they lay amongst the sick and dying, formed a picture of helpless, hopeless misery which it would be im- possible to portray by words or by the brush.* * Copied from the Tritd of Henry WirM, Sxeevtive Documents, 2nd SeMion, 40th Congress, No. 23, pp. 623, 624. « Copied from the Trial of Henry Win, Bxeouiive DocmnenU, 2nd Sessioni 40th Congress, No. 23, p. 626. 40 IOWA JOURNAL OF HISTORY AND POLITICS Again, referring to the hospital inclosure of less than five acres he says on pages 4350, 4351, and 4354 of the Record : The patients and attendants, near two thousand in number are crowded into this confined space and are but poorly supplied with old and ragged tents. Large numbers of them were without any bunks in the tents, and lay upon the ground, of ttimes without even a blanket. No beds or straw appeared to have been furnished. The tents extend to within a few yards of the small stream, the eastern portion of which .... is used as a privy and is loaded with excre- ments; and I observed a large pile of com bread, bones, and filth of all kinds, thirty feet in diameter and several feet in height, swarming with myriads of flies, in a vacant space near the pots used for cooking. Millions of flies swarmed over everything and covered the faces of the sleeping patients, and crawled dovm their open mouths, and deposited their maggots in the gangrenous wounds of the living, and the mouths of the dead. Mosquitoes in great numbers also infested the tents, and many of the patients were so stung by these pestiferous insects, that they resembled those suffer- ing with a slight attack of the measles. The police and hygiene of the hospital was defective in the ex- treme Many of the sick were literally encrusted with dirt and filth and covered with vermin. When a gangrenous wound needed washing, the limb was thrust out a little from the blanket, or board, or rags upon which the patient was lying, and water poured over it, and all the putrescent matter allowed to soak into the ground fioor of the tent. ... I saw the most filthy rags which had been applied several times, and imperfectly washed, used in dressing recent wounds. Where hospital gangrene was prevailing, it was impossible for any wound to escape contagion under these circumstances.* These statements of Dr. Jones were fully corroborated by Doctors B. G. Head, W. A, Barnes, G. G. Roy, John C- Bates, Amos Thombnrg, and other surgeons who were on duty at Andersonville. Dr, G. G. Boy when called on to describe the appearance and condition of the men sent from > Copied from the Trial of Henry Wirs, Exeouiive Documents, Snd Session, 40th Oongreis, No. 23, pp. 626, 627. ANDEBSONYILIiE AND THE TBIAL OF WIBZ 41 the stockade to the hospital said on pages 485 and 486 of the Record : They presented the most horrible spectacle of humanity that I e?er saw in my life. A good many were suffering from scurvy and other diseases; a good many were naked • • . . their condition gen- erally was almost indescribable. I attributed that condition to long confinement and the want of the necessaries and comforts of life, and all those causes that are calculated to produce that condition of the system where there is just vitality enough to i>ermit one to live. . . . The prisoners were too densely crowded. . . . There iras no shelter, except such as they constructed themselves, which was very insufficient. A good many were in holes in the earth with their blankets thrown over them ; a good many had a blanket or oil-doth thrown over poles; some were in tents constructed by their own ingenuity, and with just such accommodations as their own ingenuity permitted them to contrive. There were, you may sajr, no acconmiodations made for them in the stockade.* The death register kept at the prison during its occn- pancy, and still in existence at the Andersonville cemetery, gives, supposedly, the cause of death in the case of each man who died at the prison. I have found upon examination of six hundred names, taken haphazard, the cause of death was given as follows : Diarrhoea and Dysentery, 310, Scro- bntus, 205 ; Anasarca, 20 ; and all other causes 65— total, 600. I think it proper to say, however, that the Court, in de- liberating on the evidence heard during the trial, were imanimoTis in the conclusion that the death register would better have represented the facts if in a very large per- centage of cases the death cause had been shown by the one word Stabvation — the causes named being simply compli- cations. The evidence presented to the Court showed conclusively fhat the food furnished our men in the stockade, in quality •Copied from the Trial cf Henry Wirt, BseeuHve DoewmeniM^ 2iid Seifioii, tttk CoBgreM, No. 23, p. S2. 42 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTOEY AND POLITICS and qnantitj, was not sufficient to sustain life for an in- definite time. I will not attempt to show specifically the rations furnished the men in the stockade; but will give a couple of extracts from the testimony of Confederate sur- geons, showing the kind and amount of food provided for the men in the hospital, and will leave you to draw your own conclusions. Doctor John C. Bates, on page 125 of the Record, said : The meat ration was cooked at a different part of the hospital ; and when I would go up there, especially when I was medical officer of the day, the men would gather around me and ask me for a bone. ... I would give them whatever I could find at my disposition without robbing others. I well knew that an appropria- tion of one ration took it from the general issue; that when I appropriated an extra ration to one man, some one else would fall minus. ... I then fell back upon the distribution of bones. They did not presiune to ask me for meat at all. . . . they could not be furnished with any clothing, except that the clothing of the dead was generally appropriated to the living. , . . there was a partial supply of fuel, but not sufficient to keep the men warm and pro- long their existence. Shortly after I arrived there I was api>ointed officer of the day ... it was my duty as such to go into the various wards and divisions of the hospital and rectify anything that needed to be cared for. ... As a general thing, the patients were desti- tute; they were filthy and partly naked. . . . The clamor all the while was for something to eat.^ Doctor J. C. Pelot in an official report directed to the Chief of his Division, dated September 5, 1864, and filed as Exhibit No. 9 of the Record, said : The tents are entirely destitute of either bunks, bedding or straw, the patients being compelled to lie on the bare ground. I would earnestly call attention to the article of diet. The com bread re- ceived from the bakery being made up without sifting, is wholly ▼ Copied from the Trial of Henry Wirz^ Executive Documents, 2nd Sessioxi, 40th Congress, No. 23, p. 28. i ANDEBSONYILLE AND THE TRIAL OF WIBZ 43 unfit for the use of the sick; and often (in the last twenty-foor honn) npon examination, the inner portion is found to be per- fectly raw. The meat (beef) received for the patients does not amount to over two ounces a day, and for the past three or four days no flour has been issued. The com bread cannot be eaten hy many, for to do so would be to increase the diseases of the bowels, from which a large majority are suffering, and it is there- fore thrown away. All their rations received by way of sustenance is two ounces of boiled beef and half pint of rice soup per day. Under these circumstances, all the skill that can be brought to bear upon their cases by the medical officer will avail nothing.* The foregoing I think is quite enough to convince yon that our men were left to suffer all the horrors of the stockade, with practically no medical treatment or atten- tion, until their condition became such that their removal to the hospital was only a stepping stone from the stockade to the cemetery. Immediately after the place was occupied our men be- gan to die. In April, 1864, as shown by the Confederate records, there were 592 deaths; and in August following 2992 of our brave boys passed to their final resting place. In one day, August 23rd, 127 of them answered the final call. Some of them in desperation deliberately crossed the dead- line, and were shot down; while others who had become crazed and demented by their sufferings, blindly blundered across the fatal line, and they too were killed without a challenge. The records show that 149 died from gunshot wounds. We can only guess at the number of these who were killed on the deadline, but the evidence showed that deaths from that cause were of frequent occurrence. Only a part of these men were taken to the hospital for treat- ment; fully one-half died in the stockade without having I Copied from the Trial of Henry Wirz, Executive DoeumenU, 2iid Sesrion, iOth Congress, No. 23, pp. 37, 38. 44 IOWA JOUBNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS received medical aid, and their comrades carried them to the gate where they were thrown, one on top of another, on a wood rack, hauled out to the borying ground, and placed in trenches where, during the occupancy of the prison, more than 13,000 of our men were buried — more than twenty- eight per cent of the entire number of those confined in the stockade. This statement, appalling as it may appear, does not represent by any means the aggregate loss of life sustained by our men as a result of the cruel treatment im- posed on them at Andersonville. Evidence presented be- fore the Court showed conclusively that fully 2,000 of our men died after leaving the prison, and while on their way home; and we know as a natural result that hundreds, possessed of barely enough life and strength to enable them to endure the journey home, must have died within a few days, weeks, or months after reaching home. This is only part of the horrible story, but it is enough. And now some one asks, could these horrors have been pre- vented or averted? I reply, yes — scarcely having patience to answer the question. This prison was located in one of the richest sections of the State of Georgia. Supplies were abundant, the prison was surrounded with a forest, and yet some of our men froze to death for lack of fuel, which they would gladly have gathered had they been permitted to do so. Among those confined in that stockade were men possessed of all the training and ability necessary to con- struct anything from a log cabin to a war-ship; and they would have considered it a privilege to have done all the work necessary to enlarge the stockade, build barracks, and provide a supply of pure water had they been provided with tools and materials and given the opportunity. I am convinced beyond a doubt, that the lives of more than three- fourths of those who died at Andersonville might have been ANDEBSONVILLE AND THE TRIAL OF WIBZ 45 saved with proper care and treatment ; and to this opinion I will add that of Acting Assistant Snrgeon J. C. Bates, an educated gentleman who had been a medical practitioner since 1850 and who was on duty at Andersonville for a number of months. He was asked by the Judge Advocate to state from his observation of the condition and surround- ings of our prisoners — their food, their drink, their ex- posure by day and by night, and all the circumstances which he had described — his professional opinion as to what pro- portion of deaths occurring there were the result of the cir- cumstances and surroundings which he had narrated. And his reply was as follows : I feel myself safe in saying, that 75 per cent of those who died, might have been saved, had those unfortunate men been properly cared for as to food, clothing, bedding, etc.* In order to make the situation at Andersonville plain to you I will say that John H. Winder was a General who never was given command of troops in the field. He was the spe- cial and particular friend and proteg6 of Jefferson Davis^ who early in the war made him a Brigadier (General and assigned him to duty in Bichmond, Virginia, as Provost Marshal and Superintendent of Military Prisons, in which capacity he made himself notorious by his harsh and brutal treatment of prisoners committed to his care. No words of mine would more fittingly describe this man's character than his own language used in his celebrated order, No. 13, about which much has been said and written. When Gen- eral Kilpatrick's command moved in the direction of Ander- sonville, in July, 1864, and it was expected that in his raid he would reach the prison, the following order was issued : • Copied f x«m the Trial of Henry Wir§, Bxeeutive DoewnenU, 2nd SeMiott^ 40th Congreit, No. 23, p. 38. 46 IOWA JOUENAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS OBDEB NO. 13 Hbadquabtebs, Confederate States, Miutaby Prison ANDERSONVHiLE, JuLY 27, 1864 The Officer on duty and in charge of the Battery of Florida Artillery, at the time, will upon receiving notice that the enemy has approached within seven miles of this Post, open fire upon the stockade with grape shot, without reference to the situation beyond these lines of defense. It is better that the last Federal be exterminated than be permitted to burn and pillage the property of loyal citizens, as they will do if allowed to make their escape from the prison. Bt Order of John H. Winder, W. S. Winder, Brigadier General. Assistant Adjutant General. General Winder had much to do with the location of the prison at Andersonville. First, his son, Captain W. S. Winder, was sent out to locate and construct the prison; and while so employed, as was shown by competent evi- dence, when it was suggested to him that he leave standing some of the trees in the stockade, he replied: '^That is just what I am not going to do ; I will make a pen here for the damned Yankees, where they will rot faster than they can be sent." He served as Assistant Adjutant General on his father's staff. On March 27, 1864, Captain Henry Wirz, who was a mem- ber of General Winder's staff, was sent from Richmond with orders to assume command of the prison proper ; and one of his first acts was to establish and construct the dead- line, which prior to that time had not existed. On April 10, 1864, General Winder made his first appearance at Ander- sonville and assumed command of the post and the county in which it was situated ; and among his first formal pub- lished orders was one assigning Captain Henry Wirz to the superintendence, management, and custody of the pris- oners at Andersonville. / ANDBBSONVILLE AND THE TEIAL OP WIEZ 47 When General Winder left Bichmond to assume com- mand at Andersonville the Richmond Examiner had this to say of him : '^ Thank Ood that Bichmond is at last rid of old Winder ; Ood have mercy upon those to whom he has been sent.'' This, I think, is enough to convince yon that from the outset our men at Andersonville were at the mercy of one who by his cruelty and barbarism had already made himself obnoxious to the better element. Now, in answer to the question whether it was clearly shown that the horrible conditions existing at Anderson- ville were made known to those high in authority in the Confederate government, I will say that the Court listened to a mass of evidence upon this point. The report of Doc- tor Jones was sent to the Surgeon General ; and other re- ports, from time to time, had been made to those in author- ity, in which the horrors and needs of the prison were set forth. I will refer to only one other witness. After the capture of Bichmond there was discovered a report made by Colonel D. T. Chandler, Assistant Adjutant General and Inspector General of the Confederate army, dated at Ander- sonville, August 5, 1864, in which he gave a very graphic description of the conditions existing at Andersonville and of the sufferings of our men ; and he recommended immedi- ate action to relieve the suffering of the prisoners, offer- ing many practical suggestions. In closing his report he said: My duty requires me respectfully to recommend a change in the officer in command of the Post, Brig. Qeneral STohn H. Winder, and the substitution in his place of some one who unites both energy and good judgment with some feeling of humanity and considera- tion for the welfare and comfort (so far as is consistent with their safe keeping) of the vast number of unfortunates placed under his control; some one who at least will not advocate deliberately and in cold blood the propriety of leaving them in their present oon- 48 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTOEY AND POLITICS dition until their number has been sufficiently reduced by death to make the present arrangements suffice for their accommodation ; who will not consider it a matter of self -laudation and boasting that he has never been inside of the stockade, a place the horrors of which it is difficult to describe, and which is a disgrace to civi- lization ; the condition of which he might, by the exercise of a little energy and judgement, even with the limited means at his com- mand, have considerably improved.^^ On the back of this report was endorsed the following : Adjutant and Inspector General's Office, August 18, 1864. Re- spectfully submitted to the Secretary of War. The condition of the prison at Andersonville is a reproach to us as a nation. The Engineer and Ordinance Departments were applied to, and author- ized their issue, and I so telegraphed Qeneral Winder. Col. Chand- ler's recommendations are coincided in. By Order of Oeneral Cooper. (Signed) R. H. Chh/ton, A. A. & I. O. Following this was another endorsement : These reports show a condition of things at Andersonville, which call very loudly for the interposition of the Department, in order that a change be made. (Signed) J. A. Cakpbell^ Assistant Secretary of War. And finally there was endorsed: ** Noted — File. J. A. S." The initials are those of James A. Seddon, Secretary of War. This original report was introduced before our Court, and Colonel Chandler was brought there to testify concern- ing it. He was an officer who had been educated at West Pointy a polished gentleman in manner and speech ; and his testimony, given in a f rank, straightforward way, made a deep impression on the Court. He swore that he vnrote the report and that the statements embodied in it were true. 10 Copied from the Trial of Henry Win, Bseeutive DocumenU, 2nd Seenon, iOth Congreet, No. 28, p. 227. ANDEBSONVILLE AND THE TBIAL OF WIBZ 49 He told of his very minnte inspection of the stockade, of his measurements and compntationsy showing the amount of space allowed each inmate, and of the horrors he en- countered on every hand. The picture he drew of the place served to confirm the stories of the men who had been held there as prisoners. He told of calling on Winder and remonstrating with him regarding the care of the prison, and of Winder's infamous language in connection there- with. He said that when he mailed his report to the Secre- tary of War he confidently expected that General Winder would be removed from the command of the prisoners, and that he felt disgusted and outraged when he learned that instead of being removed Winder had been promoted to be Commissary (General and Commander of all Military Pris- ons and prisoners throughout the Confederate States. When Colonel Chandler was at Andersonville he was onder orders to inspect all the prisons in the South and West, and considerable time elapsed before he got back to Richmond. He then made an investigation and found that his report, relating to Winder, had been received and con- sidered by Seddon, the Secretary of War. He threatened to resign unless his report was taken up and acted upon; but at about that time Seddon was succeeded by Mr. Breck- enridge as Secretary of War, and soon thereafter General T^der died. Then followed the closing days of the War and collapse of the Bebellion. Now a word as to the personnel of the Court. I have examined a number of books purporting to give the truth concerning Andersonville and the trial of Captain Henry Wirz; and in all of them, as I remember, occurs the same error that General E. S. Bragg of li^sconsin is named as a member of the Court that tried and condemned Wirz. The truth is that while General Bragg was named in the orig- VOL. 50 IOWA JOURNAL OF HISTOBY AND POLITICS detail for the Court, he was relieved from farther ser- vice at an early stage of the trial and took no part in the deliberations and findings of the C!onrt^^ The Court met first on August 21, 1865, pursuant to in- structions in Special Order No. 449, and Wirz was arraigned and entered a plea of not guilty. Without further action the Court adjourned until the following day. On reassem- bling an order was received from the Secretary of War dissolving the Court, and a day later it was called to meet again under Special Order No. 453, dated August 23, 1865. In the meantime the charges and specifications had been materially changed and amended by striking from the list the names of several persons who had been charged with having conspired with Wirz to destroy the lives of our soldiers. Wirz was again arraigned and his plea of not guilty was entered; but at this juncture his counsel made a determined effort to secure his discharge on the ground that he had been placed in jeopardy during his first arraign- ment, and that under the Constitution he could not legally be placed on trial a second time. After a full hearing the Court decided that the action taken by the War Department was in conformity to the law and precedents, and so the trial proceeded. In this connection I think it proper to state that the charges under which Wirz was first arraigned embraced the names, as co-conspirators, of Jefferson Davis, James A. Seddon, Howell Cobb, and Bobert E. Lee. These names were stricken from the charges as amended; but when the Court made up its findings, being satisfied beyond question that a conspiracy had existed as charged, and believing it to be our duty to include in our verdict the names of any 11 Copied from the Trial of Henry Wirt, Bxeeutive DoemmenU, 2nd Seadon, 40th Congrew, No. 23, p. 511. ANDEBSONVILLE AND THE TRIAL OF WIBZ 51 of those prominent in the Confederate government who were shown to have been directly or indirectly connected with this conspiracy, we amended the specification to Charge No. 1, by adding the names of Davis, Seddon, and Cobb. We took it for granted that if onr verdict was ap- proved by the President the government wonld accept onr finding as an indictment of the persons named, and that they would be brought to trial. I am pleased to say, how- ever, that the Court found no evidence showing that Gen- eral Lee was cognizant of, or was in any measure a party to, this conspiracy, and his name was not included in the verdict The Military Commission that met and tried Wirz held their sessions in the rooms of the Court of Claims in the Capitol Building at Washington, D. C. It was made up as follows (omitting the name of General Bragg for the rea- son stated) : — At the head of the table sat Major General Lew Wallace, the President of the Court. He was at that time a man of mature years, a lawyer by profession, and of recognised ability. On his right at the table sat Major General G. Mott, who subsequently became Governor of New Jersey. He was a man then of forty-five or fifty years,^ a lawyer, and a man of excellent judgment and discretion Opposite him sat Major General Lorenzo Thomas, the Ad- jutant (General of the United States Army. He was then fully sixty-five years of age, had been for many years connected with the regular service, and was an acknowl- edged authority on military law and the rules and usages of war. On General Mott's right sat Major General J. W. Geary, who after his discharge from the military service was made €k>vemor of the great State of Pennsylvania — a man aged fifty or more, and possessed of more than ordinary ability. Opposite him sat Brigadier General 52 IOWA JOUENAL OF HISTORY AND POLITICS Francis Fessenden of Maine, son of old Senator Fessenden, a man aged about thirty-five, a lawyer, and one who in every sense might have been called an educated gentleman. On Oeneral Geary's right sat Brevet Brigadier (General John F. Ballier of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, an educated German, aged fifty or more, who had commanded the Ninety-eighth Pennsylvania Infantry. On his right sat Brevet Colonel T. Allcock of New York, a man of forty or more, and a distinguished artillery officer, and finally on the opposite side of the table, was placed the boy member — your humble servant. Possibly it might have been truthfully said of me that I was too young and inexperi- enced to fill so important a position, since I was then only in my twenty-sixth year; but I had seen four years of actual warfare, had successfully commanded a regiment of Iowa men, and I thought then, as I think now, that I was a competent juror. The Judge Advocate of the Commis- sion was Colonel N. P. Chipman, who early in the war served as Major of the Second Iowa Infantry. He was severely wounded at Fort Donnelson in February, 1862. When sufficiently recovered to return to duty he was pro- moted and became Chief of Staff for General S. B. Curtis, and later was placed on duty in Washington. He was a law- yer by profession, a man of superior education and refine- ment, and withal one of the most genial, kind-hearted, com- panionable men I have ever had the good fortune to meet. The average level-headed citizen while considering the verdicts rendered in an ordinary criminal case is generally ready to say: **The jury are the best judges of the evi- dence, they heard it all as it was given, had an opportunity to judge of its value and estimate the credibility of the wit- nesses, and their judgment should be accepted as correct and final." It seems to me that the American people, and ANDEBSONVILLE AND THE TBIAL OF WIBZ 53 especially the future historian, should be equally fair in dealing with the Wirz Commission. Indeed, I do not see how it would be possible for an intelligent, unprejudiced^ fair-minded reviewer to conclude that such a Court could or would have rendered a verdict that was not in full accord with the evidence presented. I assure you that no attempt was made to dictate or influence our verdict; and furthermore, there was no power on earth that could have swerved us from the discharge of our sworn duty as we saw it. Our verdict was unanimous. There were no dissenting opinions. And for myself I can say that there has been no time during the forty-five years that have in- tervened since this trial was held when I have felt that I owed an apology to anyone, not even to the Almighty, for having voted to hang Henry Wirz by the neck until he was dead. Wirz was tried on two charges. The first charge was that he had conspired with John H. Winder and others to injure the health and destroy the lives of our soldiers who were held as prisoners of war. And the second charge was '^ Murder in violation of the laws and customs of war". The Court found him guilty of both of the charges and of ten of the thirteen specifications. Throughout the trial the prisoner was treated with the utmost fairness, kindness, and consideration by the Court and the Judge Advocate. When our verdict was rendered and the record made com- plete it was submitted for review to General Joseph Holt, Judge Advocate General, a man noted for his high char- acter, patriotism, and ability as a lawyer and a judge. I quote but a paragraph or two from his review. He said : Language fails in an attempt to denounce, even in faint terms, the diabolical combination for the destmction and death, by cruel and fiendishly ingenious processeSy of helpless prisoners of war who 54 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTOBT AND POLITICS might fall into their hands, which this record shows was plotted and deliberately entered upon, and, as far as time permitted, accomplished by the rebel authorities and their brutal underlings at Andersonville Prison.^' And in closing his review, after reference to the high character of the men composing the Court and of the fair- ness of the trial, he said : The conclusion reached is one from which the overwhelming volume of testimony left no escape. This paper does not demand nor will it admit of farther reference to the vast mass of testimony listened to by the C!ourt. In conclusion I will refer to a single incident of the trial. For weeks after the trial began the Judge Ad- vocate presented only such testimony as went to show the general conditions existing at the prison and which tended to establish the charge of conspiracy, and he held back until near the dose of the trial the evidence on which he depended to establish the fact that Wirz had by his own acts been guilty of willful murder. As a result Wirz evi- dently concluded that no such evidence had been found, and on repeated occasions he addressed the Court through his counsel, saying that he was ready to admit the truth of all evidence that had been presented, but that he was not personally responsible for the conditions shown to have ex- isted in the prison ; that he had simply acted in conformity to the orders of his superior officers, and should not be held responsible for them ; and he therefore asked for an acquit- tal and discharge. These requests, one after another, were denied by the Court. Early in the trial Wirz became sick, and a lounge was brought into the room on which he was permitted to re- it Copied from the Trial of Henry Win, Exeoviive Doimmenta, 2iid SeBsion, 40th GongreBSy No. 23, pp. 809, 814. ANDEBSONVILLE AND THE TRIAL OF WIBZ 55 dine; and during many days of the trial lie lay on the lonnge with his handkerchief over his face, apparently ob- livions to all that was taking place. Finally a witness was placed on the stand who told of his escape from the stock- ade in company with a comrade whose name he did not know, of their pnrsnit by the blood hounds, and of their recapture and return to the Confederate camp. He said that when brought to Wirz's tent and their escape and re- capture was reported, Wirz became furious, and rushing from his tent he began cursing and damning them for hav- ing attempted to escape. The comrade, who was nearly dead from exposure and suffering, had staked his last effort on this attempt to regain his freedom, and the recap- ture had discouraged him completely and caused him to feel that death itself, was preferable to a return to the stockade. like a caged animal he turned on Wirz and gave him curse for curse, challenged him to do his worst, and told him he would rather die than return to the hell hole from which he had escaped. This so enraged Wirz that he sprang at the man, knocked him down with his revolver, and then kicked and trampled him with his boot heels until he was dead. When the witness began this story Wirz became interested. First he removed the hand- kerchief from his face ; then propped himself on one elbow ; and as the story progressed he gradually rose up until he stood erect. His fists were clenched, his eyes were fairly bursting from their sockets, and his face presented a horri- ble appearance. As the witness finished his story Wirz fairly screamed at him: **You say I killed that man.** **Tes sir**, replied the witness. **You tramped him to death in my presence**. At this Wirz threw up his hands and exclaimed, '^Oh my Gott'*, and fell back in a faint on the lounge. 56 IOWA JOUENAL OF HISTORY AND POLITICS was one of a number of stories that told of Wirz's personal acts of cruelty. In addition he was directly chargeable with the unwarranted punishments which he caused to be inflicted on men who attempted to escape or in other ways violated the rules of discipline which he had established. These punishments consisted of stopping of rations, establishment of a dead-line, use of the stocks, the chain-gang, use of hounds, bucking and gagging, tying up by the thumbs, floggiag on the bare back, and chaining to posts, from all of which causes deaths were shown to have resulted. '^ Mister Johnny Beb'', as we called him in war time, the man who bared his bosom to our bullets and challenged us to come on, was a big-hearted, generous fellow whom I have always believed fought for the right as he saw it. I know by my experience that he was as brave a soldier as ever carried a gun ; and prisoners who fell into his hands on the battle field were invariably treated with kindness and con- sideration. It was only men of the Wirz-Winder type, bushwhackers, and home guards, that presumed to offer insult and abuse to our men in captivity. I make this dos- ing remark because of the fact that with the passing of years the bitter feeling that had existed between the North and the South has been practically wiped out and the rem- nants of the old fighting forces on both sides have been com- ing together and shaking hands as friends, and I would be sorry to know that in this address I have uttered a word that will serve to mar in the least the spirit of harmony existing between these old veterans. John Howabd Stibbs CmCAGO, IliLINOIS THE BACONIAN CLUB OP IOWA CITY HISTOEICAL INTRODUCTION At seven-thirty on the evening of November 20, 1885, a small gronp of men who were interested in Science met in the Chemical Laboratory of the State University of Iowa. They had assembled at the call of Dr. L. W. Andrews, at that time and for many years afterward Professor of Chem- istry in the University. Dr. Andrews stated that the object which he had in mind in calling the meeting was the forma- tion of a '^ Science Circle"; and with this announcement ^'the meeting proceeded to temporary organization by the election of Prof. Leonard as Chairman and E. L. Boemer as Sec'y."^ Then a committee was appointed to draft a constitution and by-laws for a permanent organization. ^' After listening to an interesting informal lecture by Prof. Leonard on the probable course of the meteor, the meeting adjourned to 7 o'clock Saturday evening, Nov. 28th."' The report by the committee on constitution and by-laws, which was made at the meeting on November 28th was re- ferred back to the committee with instructions to make certain changes. At a meeting on the evening of December 11th, however, the constitution was unanimously adopted.' Such, in brief, is the story of the organization of the Baconian Club of Iowa City. Professor N. E. Leonard was the first President of the Club, and Professor L. W. An- drews, to whom is due the credit for inaugurating the Club, 1 Ba4Mnian Club Seeord-Booh^ Vol I, p. 3. 3 Baconian Club SecardBooh, Vol. I, pp. 3, 4. > Baconian Club Seeord-BooJc, Vol. I, p. 7. 57 58 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS was the first Secretary. The charter members were : N. B. Leonard, P. H. Philbrick, Samuel Calvin, T. H. Macbride, J. G. Gilchrist, L. W. Andrews, and Andrew A, Veblen* — all of whom were at the time professors in the State University of Iowa. Two of these charter members. Professor Mac- bride and Professor Calvin, have remained in the service of the University; and all but two, Professor Philbrick and Professor Gilchrist, are living at the present time. The Club thus organized has had a continuous and prosperous existence. The passage of the years, however, has witnessed many changes in the character and membership of the Club. The largely attended meetings which are now held in an electric- lighted, steam-heated room, are in striking contrast to the meetings held twenty-five years ago, when the Club was in its infancy. Then a few men, seldom more than twenty and often less than half that number, gathered in the Chemical Laboratory in old North Hall and sat in a circle around the stove, the members taking turn in replenishing the fire. The reader of the evening sat in the circle with the other members, and there was an almost total lack of formality, the meeting assuming the nature of a friendly conference rather than having a set form of procedure. Indeed the meeting was often without a formal paper. At each meeting a subject for discussion the following week was chosen by mutual consent and assigned to some member by the President. Frequently no paper was pre- pared, the member to whom the subject was assigned simply opening the discussion by speaking in an informal manner with or without notes. The discussion of topics was free and often animated, since the object of the Club was to give the members the benefit of each other's ideas. The ^CanHituUon of the Baconian Chib (Edition of 1891), p. 8. THE BACONIAN CLUB 59 meetings were in no sense open to the public, and no record of the discussions was kept. Consequently the members were under no restraint in the expression of their viewSi but stated their beliefs freely and fully whether they met with the approval of other members or not. Besides the discussion of regularly assigned subjects, the policy was early established of permitting voluntary reports on any topic of interest to the Club — a custom which has been ad- hered to down to the present time. The Constitution provides for three classes of members : ex officio members; full members, or 'Hhose engaged in active scientific work''; and associate members, or ''those interested in scientific work". The President of the Uni- versity is a member ex officio.^ The actual working of this provision has had these results: full members have been persons on the faculty of the State University of Iowa ; while the associates have been instructors in the University, fellows, scholars, or graduate students pursuing researches in scientific subjects. In the beginning, as has been suggested, no publicity was given to the meetings of the Club. Occasionally a few guests were invited to be present, and later guests were permitted to participate in the discussions, but the tendency was to restrict the attendance to members and those vitally interested. In February, 1889, a standing resolution was adopted providing that ''only full and associate members and those personally invited by members" should be ad- mitted to the meetings of the Club, and that invitations might be issued "for any specified evening or for the whole or any portion of the club year".^ This resolution, how- 8 Canstiiutian of the Baconian Club (Edition of 1900), p. 3. In the Constitution aa originally adopted there was no provision for ex officio members. « Baamian Club Beoord-Booh, Vol. I, p. 199. 60 IOWA JOURNAL OF HISTORY AND POLITICS ever, has not always been f ollowed, and in fact at present a general invitation is given to the public to attend the meet- ings of the Clnb, and acconnts of the papers and discussions often appear in the University publications or in the city newspapers. The papers read before the Club have covered a broad range of subjects, as will be revealed by a reading of the list which is published herewith. The papers as a rule have been prepared with care and with only a few exceptions have been presented by the members themselves, little effort having been made to secure addresses by scientists of rep- utation from outside the University. Thus individual effort on the part of members of the Club has been encouraged and a spirit of mutual helpfulness has prevailed. From the time the Constitution of the Club was adopted and signed in 1885 the number of members has increased until at present there are nearly fifty full members. In the meantime many have come and gone, and hence the mem- bership has varied from year to year both in numbers and in personnel. Besides those already mentioned as charter members the following professors, still serving on the fac- ulty of the State University of Iowa, were elected to full membership in the Club during the first five years of its existence: Laenas Q. Weld, Charles C. Nutting, Elbert W. Bockwood, (George T. W. Patrick, and Bohumil Shimek. The records of the Baconian Club are unusually complete. The Secretary's Record-Books from the very beginning are still in existence, and in these books may be found the minutes of all the meetings, together with lists of officers and members. The purpose of the founders, the character of the meetings, the persons in attendance, and the topics which from year to year were of interest in the world of science are revealed in the pages of these Record-Books, THE BACONIAN CLUB 61 and henoe in them may be fomid the best histoiy of the Baconian Club. The Baconian Club was the first organization of its kind in the University. During the early years, although the chief object of the Club was to discuss subjects in the natu- ral and physical sciences^ the membership included men from the faculties of all the colleges and departments in the University, But as the University grew the need of similar dubs in the various departments began to be felt. And so, as time went on members of the Baconian Club who were not primarily interested in the natural and physical sci- ences withdrew and formed the Political Science Club, the Philosophical Club, the Humanist Society, and other similar organizations, modelled after the Baconian Club which was the i)arent society. The result is that at the present time the membership of the Baconian Club is confined almost en- tirely to persons actively engaged in teaching or research work in the natural and physical sciences. CONSTITUTION Abticlb I — Name and Object Section 1. This organization shall be known as the Baconian Club of Iowa City. Section 2. Its object shall be, the mutual interchange of thought, and the discussion of such scientific topics as pos- sess a general interest Abticle n — ^Membership Section 1. Membership shall be of three classes, viz., ei-officio, full, and associate. The President of the Uni- versity shall be a member, ex-offido. [BeriBed April 15, 1898.] Section 2. Members shall be those engaged in active scientific work. 62 IOWA JOURNAL OF HISTORY AND POLITICS Section 3. Associates shall be those interested in sci- entific work. Section 4. Members and associates shall be elected by ballot of the members of the dnb, the names having been proposed at least one week previously. Three black balls shall cause the rejection of the candidate. In case of re- jection a second ballot may be had, at a subsequent stated meeting. A second rejection shall render the candidate ineligible for the remainder of the club year. [Amended October 25, 1889, hj adding:] Section 5, No person not a resident of Iowa City shall be a member of the club. Members who remove their resi- dence permanently^ or members who though residents of the city have not been in attendance on the meetings of the dub for one year, shall thereby cease to be members, but may, by vote of the dub, be carried on the rolls as assodate members. Section 6. A member who refuses to give a paper during any one year, or who fails to read a paper during any two consecutive years, unless such failure is due to illness or un- avoidable absence from the dty, shall have his name dropped from the roll of the dub. In case the membership is too large to allow an assignment of topic during the year, one or more voluntary reports may be accepted as a substitute. [Adopted April 15, 1898.] Section 7. An associate who removes his residence per- manently from the dty shall thereby cease his membership in the club, provided, always, that any associate may con- tinue his relations with the club by presenting, either per- sonally or by written communication, at least one voluntary report each year. By a two-thirds vote of the dub, any name may be retained permanently on the roll of assodates. [Adopted April 15, 1898.] THE BACONIAN CLUB 63 Abtiolb m — Offiosbs Sbotion 1. The officers of the dub shall be a President and a Secretary. Section 2. The President shall be elected at the first meeting in September, of each year, from among the mem- bers, by a majority vote of all members present. He shall hold office until the next annual meeting, or until his succes- sor is elected. He shall perform the duties usually apper- taining to the office of President. In his absence his place shall be taken by a Chairman elected by the members pres- ent. Section 3. The Secretary shall be elected at the same time, and in the same manner as is prescribed for the elec- tion of the President, and his term of office shall be the same. He shall perform the duties usually devolving upon a Secre- tary. Should he be absent from any meeting, a Secretary pro tern, shall be elected. AbTICLB IV — ^DXTBS AND FeES There shall be no dues nor fees. Any expenses incurred by vote of the dub, shall be met by a pro rata assessment, previously made, on all the members. Article V — Meetings Section 1. The meetings shall be Annual, Begular, and Spedal. Section 2. The Annual Meeting shall be in the last week in September. At this meeting the Order of Business shall be: 1. Beport of President. 2. Beport of Secretary. 3. Beport of Committees. 4. Election of Officers. Section 3. The Begular Meetings shall be held once a 64 IOWA JOUENAL OF HISTOET AND POLITICS week, from the last week in September to the last week in Aprily on such day, at such hour, and in such place as the dub may from time to time direct The Order of Business at these meetings shall be as hereinafter provided. Section 4. Special Meetings may be held at any time, by vote of the club, on call of the President, or at the request of three members. At such meetings no other business than that for which the meeting has been called shall be trans- acted. Abtiolb VI — Order of Business The Order of Business at all regular meetings shall be as follows : 1. Beading of Minutes. 2. Beading of Essay. 3. Colloquium. 4. Discussion. 5. Voluntary Beports. 6. Assignment of Topic. 7. Miscellaneous Business. 8. Adjournment. Abtiole Vn — ^Essays and Essayists Section 1. The appointed essayist, at each regular meet- ing, shall furnish the Secretary with an abstract of the paper, to be entered in the minutes. Section 2. The essay shall remain the property of the writer, unless it shall be published in full by the club, with the consent of the author, in which case the copyright shall remain with the dub. Article Vlll — ^By-Laws The club may adopt Standing Besolutions, at any meeting, as circumstances may require, by a majority vote of all the members present. Such Standing Besolutions shall be re- THE BACONIAN CLUB 65 corded, and have all the anthoritj of By-Laws iintil re- I>ealed. Abtiolb IX — ^Ahbkdmbnts The Constitution may be altered or amended at any regu- lar meeting, by a two-thirds vote of all the members, writ- ten notice of the proposed amendment having been given at least one week previously. Absent members may vote by proxy on questions of amendment. OFFICERS OF THE CLUB 1886-1910 For the Year J885-Jfifitf— President, N. E. Leonard ; Secre- tary, L. W. Andrews and A. A. Veblen. For the Year J88tf-ifiS7— President, Samuel Calvin ; Secre- tary, A. A. Veblen. For the Year i887-ifi88— President, Samuel Calvin ; Secre- tary, A. A. Veblen. For the Year Jfififi-ififiS— President, L. W. Andrews ; Secre- tary, A. A. Veblen. For the Year 1889-1890— Presidenty A. A. Veblen; Secre- tary, C. C. Nutting. For the Year 1890-1891— Presidentj T. H. Macbride; Sec- retary, C. C. Nutting. For the Year 1891-1892— Presidentj J. G. Gilchrist ; Secre-^ tary, L. G. Weld. For the Year ifiP^-ifiP5— President, C. C. Nutting ; Secre- tary, A. L. Amer. For the Year ifiP5-ISP4— President, L. G. Weld ; Secretary,. W. K Barlow. For the Year ifiP4-iSP5— President, G. T. W. Patrick; Sec- retary, A. G. Smith and Frank Bussell. For the Year 1895-1896 — ^President, A. L. Amer ; Secretary^ A. G. Smith. VOL. EE— 5 66 IOWA JOUENAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS For the Year ifiPtf-IfiP7— President, E. W. Bockwood ; Sec- retary, A. G. Smith. For the Year 1897-1898 — ^President, A. G. Smith ; Secretary, G. L. Houser. For the Year 1898-1899 — ^President, W. L. Bierring ; Secre- tary, G. L. Houser. For the Year 1899-1900 — ^President, B. Shimek; Secretary, W. E. Barlow. For the Year 1900-1901 — ^President, Samuel Calvin ; Secre- tary, C. E. Seashore. For the Year 1901-1902 — ^President, A. V. Sims ; Secretary, C. E. Seashore. For the Year 1902-1903 — ^President, C. E. Seashore; Sec- retary, C. L. Von Ende. For the Year 1903-1904 — ^President, W. J. Teeters ; Secre- tary, C. L. Von Ende. For the Year 1904-1905 — ^President, A. A. Veblen; Secre- tary, J. J. Lambert. For the Year 1905-1906 — ^President, G. L. Houser; Secre- tary, C. L. Bryden. For the Year iP(?tf-iP(?7— President, Karl E. Guthe ; Secre- tary, F. A. Stromsten. For the Year 1907-1908— President, W. G. Baymond ; Sec- retary, A. G. Worthing. For the Year 1908-1909 — ^President, B. B. Wylie ; Secretary, P. S. Biegler. For the Year 1909-1910— Presidentj G, F. Kay; Secretary, S. M. Woodward. PAPERS AND REPORTS 1885-1910 Frank Stanton Aby, 1888. — Papers : The Development of the Cerebro-Spinal Axis, 1889; Trichinae, 1891; The THE BACONIAN CLUB 67 Ultimate Distribntioii of the Blood, 1892 ; Recent Researches on the Physical Basis of Life and Heredity, 1893. Reports : Cultivation of Mushrooms, 1889; The Sweat Ducts and Blood Supply of the Stdn, Discovery of the Hog-Cholera Microbe, 1891 ; Coloring Matter in Human Epidermis, 1892 ; The Estimation of the Weight of Haemoglobin in a Dried Human Blood Cell, A New Science **Cy8tology'', Demon- stration of Giant Cell of Sarconea, A Theory of Heat- producing Centers in the Brain, Partheno-genesis as Shown by the Worker Bee, 1893; Review of Article by W. D. Howells on ^^ Nerve Degeneration and Regeneration" (given by Gilchrist and Aby), 1894. Hbnby Albert, 1904. — Papers: Insects, the Role They Play in the Transmission of Diseases, 1905 ; Bacteria and the Public Health, 1906; Animal Diseases Transmissible to the Human Being, 1907 ; Arterio-sclerosis — its Relation to the Pathology of Senility, 1908 ; The Pasteur Treatment of Rabies and Other Forms of Vaccine Therapy, 1909. Reports: The Preparation of Permanent Museum Speci- mens, 1903 ; Construction and Working of the Epidiascoi)e, 1905; Filaria, Sulphur and Formaldehyde Bhunigation, Light Producing Bacteria, 1906; Inhalation of Coal Dust, Api)endicitis, 1907; Spirochaete Bacteria, Method of Iso- lating the Typhoid Bacillus from Others Found in Water, 1908 ; Making of Colored Slides by a New Process of Color Photography, Hook-worm and the Hook-worm Diseases, 1909 ; The Work of Cultivating Tissues and Organs of the Body outside of the Body, 1910. Edwabd X. Anderson, 1909. — Report : The Nudeation of Pure and Mixed Vapors in Dust Free Air, 1910. Laungelot Winghssteb Andbbws, Charter. — Papers: Dead Matter, 1886; Historical Review of the Methods Em- 68 IOWA JOURNAL OF HISTORY AND POLITICS ployed for the Production of Extreme Cold and the lique- faction of the Permanent Oases, 1886; Evolution of the State, 1886; The Flowing Wells at Belle Plaine (with Calvin), 1886; The Asymmetric Carbon Atom in Organic Compounds, 1886; The Evolution of the Telephone, 1887; Atomic Theories in the Light of Atomic Facts, 1887 ; What We E:now about the Weight of Atoms, 1888 ; Electrical Stor- age Batteries, 1888; A Chapter from the History of Sd- ence, 1889 ; What Have the Material Sciences to Do with Education, 1889; The Absolute Size of Molecules, 1889; Osmosis and Allied Manifestations of Molecular Motion in Solutions, 1890 ; Aluminum — its Manufacture and Possible Industrial Value, 1890 ; A Symposium on the Nature of the Centre of the Earth (with Weld and Calvin), 1891; The Spectrum, 1891; Progress toward Aerodynamical Naviga- tion, 1891 ; Modem Explosives, 1892 ; Paracelsus Bombastus and the Science of his Day, 1892 ; Some Principles of Evo- lution Illustrated in Chemical Processes, 1892 ; The Develop- ment of Chemistry from Alchemy, 1893 ; Becent Useful Ap- plications of Electricity Other than Mechanical, 1893 ; Some Applications of Science to the Detection of Crime, 1894; Porcelain, 1896; Next to Nothing, 1896; An X Bay Soiree, 1896; Discovery Scientific and Otherwise, 1898; The Non- Chemical Elements, 1898; The Air We Breathe, 1899; Con- cerning the Scope of University Training, 1900; How the Weight of an Atom is Ascertained, 1901 ; The Water Supply and Purification System of Budapest, 1902 ; Some Belations of Mass to Chemical Action, 1903. Reports : Silicon in Iron and Steel, Fallacies Concerning Freezing of Water, Poison in Wall Paper, Determination of the Velocity of Meteors, The Linking Carbon Atom in Organic Compounds, Intelligence Displayed by Mice, Some Phenomena in Connection with Fracture of Glass, Edelmann's Calorimeter and von Beets 'b THE BACONIAN CLUB 69 Lecture Galvanometer, Another Series of Experiments on Nitrification, A New Astatic Galvanometer with Spiral Needle, Survival of the Fittest in the Conflict of Molecules, 1886 ; Antisepsis and Sterilization by Electricity, The Func- tion of Bain in Supplying Substances Important to Plant Life, Methods of Photometry, A Hydrostatic Balance and Testing Machine, Secretions of Insectivorous Plants, Free Fluorine, Comparison of the Sense of Smell with the Other Senses as Begards Delicacy, Electrification of Air, Viscos- ity of Liquids and a New Form of Viscosimeter, The Pre- diction and Discovery of the Element (Germanium, The Symptoms of Hemlock Poisoning, 1887; Aluniinum in Plants , Molecular (Geometry, Influence of light on Electric Leakage and Disruptive Discharge, Microscopic Perspec- tive, The Kruess Vierordt Spectroscope, Singing Flames, The Formation of Waterspouts, The Cimento Academy of Florence, 1889; Becent Besearches Concerning Solutions, The Element **X", The Action of Light in Producing Elec- trical Disturbances, A Pipette for Volumetric Work, Modi- fications in the Theory of Electrolysis, The Manufacture of Photographic Dry Plates and the Theory of Developing the Image, Discovery of Criteria for the Actuality of Truth, 1889; Photography of the Electric Spark, Herbert Spen- cer's Principles of Psychology, Vol. I, Ch. V, Last Line, The Sandwich Islands, Plasmodium Malariae (for Hage- beck). Christening of the '*Myopyknometer'', The Pasteur Filter, Hydrazic Acid, 1890; The Application of Electrol- ysis to Toxicology, The Electric Coal Cutter, A Bronze Microbe, Individuality of the Chemical Unit, Siemens 's Be- generative Evaporator, 1891; Stas and his Work on the Determination of Atomic Weights, The Nature of the Inter- atomic Force Acting within the Molecule, Becent Experi- ments in the Sub-Divisions of Matter, The Asymmetric 70 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTOET AND POLITICS Arrangement of Atoms, An Analysis of the Illnminating Gas of the Iowa City Gas Company, Prof. H. A. Rowland's New Map of the Solar Spectnim, A Chemical Paradox, Non- Existence of Chemical Action at Low Temperatures, 1892; A Supposed Meteorite by Analysis Shown to be only Hematite; Besults of a Chemical Examination Bearing on the Oxygenation of the Water, An Experiment in Capillarity Showing Belative Bate of Movement of Water and the Substance Dissolved in it. The Longitudinal Conductivity of Quartz Crystals, The Use of Tools by Animals, Illustra- tions of the Structure of Molecules by Means of Models, Wolf's Electrolytic Apparatus for the Detection and Esti- mation of Small Quantities of Arsenic, 1893 ; The Optics of Photography, Photographic Inaccuracies, Use of EHectric- ity in Bleaching Operations, Use of Electricity for the Dis- infection of Sewage, Perception of Time, Viscocity and Diffusion, Lack of a Bythmic Sense, Dangers from Kero- sene Stoves, 1894 ; The Effect of Ammonia upon India Bub- ber. The Survival of the Fittest as Shown in the Overthrow of Past Civilizations, Myrotype, a New Photographic Print- ing Paper, Argon, Some Physiological Effects of Extreme Cold, The Phenomena of Electro-Thermometry, A Hot Air Motor, The Incombustibility of Sulphur in Dry Oxygen, Cycles of Lengthening and Shortening of the Swiss Gla- ciers (with Littig), Aluminum Bronze, Translation of a Paper by Ostwald on the Overthrow of Scientific Material- ism, The Absence of Hydrogen from the Atmosphere, 1895 ; Calculating Machines, Experiments in Cathode Bay Photo- graphy, The Apparatus Used in the Discovery and Study of the Lenard Bays, Attempts to Obtain the X Bay without a Vacuum, Negatives Dlustrating the Location of a Foreign Body by Means of the X Bays, 1896 ; Sciograph of a Femur Showing a Bifle Bullet Lodged in the Flesh, Curious Mark- THE BACONIAN CLUB 71 ings in the Interior of a Compound Lens Due to the Slow Contraction of the Canada Balsam Used as a Cement, The Sea Mills in Cephalonia, The Energy of Chemical Chaiige, The Wetherell Electromagnetic Method of Ore Concentrat- ingy Recent Bevivals of Alchemistic Notions, The Melting of Impure Ice, 1897 ; The Selective Radiation of light by Certain Substances, Modem Methods of Liquefying Air, 1898; The Keeley Motor Fraud, The Degree of Accuracy Attained in Atomic Weight Determination, Comparison in Size of the Smallest Bacteria and the Molecules of Starch (with Bierring), 1899; The Transmission of Coloring Mat- ter to the Plumage of Birds through Food, 1900 ; The Death Rate Greater in the Cities than in the Country, A Model to niustrate the Process of Electrolysis, A Phase of Vital Statistics, The Acoustics of an Auditorium, Investigation Made by Piquard on the Self Healing Power of Glass, 1901 ; Poisoning of Chemical Reactions, Mercerized Wool, 1902; Radium, Small Amount of Catalyzers Required to Cause a Marked Hastening of Action, 1903; Discovery of Radium, 1904. OscAB William Anthony, 1889. — Papers : Thermo-Elec- tricity, 1890 ; Vortex Rings with Special Reference to their Properties in a Non-viscous Medium, 1891 ; Some Achieve- ments and Possibilities of Mathematics, 1892. Albert Levi Abneb^ 1890. — Papers : Electro-Magnetism and the Methods of its Measurements, 1891 ; The Tendency of Modem Electrical Theory, 1891 ; Temperature and Pre- cipitation, 1892; The Removal of Faults in Submarine Cables, 1894 ; Cloud Formation, 1894 ; The Principle of Inter- ference and its Application to the Refraction of light, 1896 ; Some Characteristics of Modem Physics, 1897. Reports: A Recent Electrical Installation in London, A Thompson Houston Watt-metre, Nature of the Charge and Discharge 72 IOWA JOUBNAL OF HISTORY AND POLITIOS of the Leyden Jar, 1891; Electrolytic Method of Befining Copper, High Electrical Resistance, Continiiity of the Speo- tmniy Magnetic Hysteresis and its Manifestation in the Armature of the Dynamo, Certain Analogies between the Electric Current (so-called) and Flowing Water, A Con- tribution to the Theory of the Electrophorous, Eixperiment Confirming the ** Kinetic Theory of Gases", 1892 ; The The- ory of Induction, Comparative Economy of Heating by Coal and Electricity, 1893; A Frauenhofer Micrometer, Queen and Company's New Pyrometer, Meteoric Dust Shower of March 17, Isothermal Lines of Iowa, 1894 ; The Cold Pole in Northeast Siberia, Municipal Control of Electric Lighting Plants, 1895 ; Cathode Bay Photography, The Measurement of Magnetic Fields, The Distribution of Temperature in Iowa on April 16th, 1896, 1896. Fred Geobgb Baendeb^ 1906. — Papers : The Belation of the Mechanical Trades to Each Other, 1906 ; The Develop- ment of a Phonographic Becord, 1908. Reports : Applica- tion of the Gyroscope in Automobile Practice, 1908 ; Installa- tion of the White Steam Car, 1909. BiGHABD Philip Bae:eb, 1906. — Papers: Mathematical Concepts, 1907; Printer's Ink, 1908. William Edwabd Bablow, 1892. — Papers: The Phos- phatic Nodules of the Mesozoic Deposits of Cambridgeshire, England, 1893; Impure Air, 1894; Coffee and its Adulter- ants, 1897; The Beducing Properties of Aluminum, 1899; Corundum, Especially Bubies and Sapphires, 1900. Re- port : Becent Improved Methods of Gold Extraction, 1895. Edwabd Newton Babbett, 1888. — Reports : Some Psycho- logical Phenomena, Cosmogony of the Pre-historic Bace of Central America, 1891; Becent Archaeological Discov- eries in the Orient, 1893 ; The Last of the Samaritans, 1894 ; THE BACONIAN CLUB 73 A Table Giving a Babylonian Acoonnt of the Deluge, The Principles of the Polychrome Bible, 1898 ; The Becent Dis- covery of a Boyal Mnmmy Supposed to be that of the Pharaoh of Exodus, 1900. Geobge Neandeb Bauer, 1895. — Papers : The \Nine-point Circle, 1897 ; The Principle of Duality, 1897. H. Heath Bawdbn, 1900. — Papers: The Psychological Theory of Organic Evolution, 1901. Report : A Beview of Loeb's Physiology of the Brain, 1901. Abthub Beavis, 1887. — Papers: The Passion Play and Some Deductions Therefrom, 1887; The Evolution of the Bicycle, 1888. William EDMxnn> Beok, 1902. — Paper: The Northern Constellations, 1904. Fbedebiok Jacob Begkeb, 1902. — Paper: The Infusion of a Salt Solution, 1903. BussELL Burns Haldane Bego, 1899. — Paper : The Fa* tigue of Metals, 1900. William Bonab Bell, 1902. — Report: Besults of Ex- X)eriment8 at Woods HoU, 1903. Philip SHEsmAN Biegleb, 1906. — Paper: Electrification of Steam Bailways, 1907. Walteb Lawbenoe Biebbiko, 1893. — Papers: Modem Methods of Bacteriological Besearch, 1894 ; The Sewers of Paris, 1895 ; Louis Pasteur the Scientist and the Fruits of his Labors, 1895; Animal Parasites in Disease, 1896; For- maldehyde the New Disinfectant, 1897 ; Some of the Bene- fits of Bacteria, 1899 ; Becent Developments in the Study of Pathological Processes, 1899; The Bole of Lisects in the Spreading of Disease, 1900 ; The Belation of Tuberculosis in Man to that in the Lower Animals, 1890; Smallpox Vac- 74 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS cine, its Preparation and Use, 1903 ; Why are We Becoming a Race of Dyspeptics, 1905. Reports : Bacilli of Tubercu- losis of Leprosy and of Actinomycosis or Ray Fnngns, 1893 ; Diphtheria, 1895; Loeffler's Blood Sennn in Diphtheria Diagnosis, The Cause of Cancer, Odontoma, 1896; The Plague in India, A New Method of Cultivating Anaerobic Bacteria, The Discovery of Bacillus Icteroidis, the Microbe of Yellow Fever, 1897 ; A Method of Preparing the Eye for Demonstration, Leprosy, Demonstration of the Microbe of Yellow Fever, A Hair Ball from a Human Stomach, A Cul- ture Medium of Human Blood Serum, 1898 ; Phototherapy^ Comparison in Size of the Smallest Bacteria and the Mole- cules of Starch, 1899; A Case of Agoraphobia, Mosquito Inoculation for the Spreading of Malaria, 1901; Tetanus Besulting from the Use of Antitoxin, 1902. Walter Mabtinus Boehm^ 1903. — Paper: The Musical Scale, 1904. Reports : Making Zone Plates, 1901 ; Ether of Space, 1904; Electrical Conductivity of Various liquids^ 1906; Advance in Science in the Year 1907, 1907. Charles Henbt Bowman, 1894. — Papers: Alternating Currents, 1896; The Wave Theory of light, 1897; Thermo- dynamics, 1898; The Electromagnetic Theory, 1900. Re- ports : Modulus of Elasticity of Steel, 1894 ; A Demonstra- tion of the Vibration of a Soap Film Due to Sound Waves^ Experiments on the Interference of light, 1897 ; The Phe- nomena of Interference in Light Waves, 1898 ; The Wehnelt Interrupter, Interference Phenomena in Circular Shadows, Some Experiments in Hydrodynamics, 1899; Surface Ten- sion of Liquids, 1900. William J. Bbadt, 1902. — Papers : Are the Teeth of Man Degenera^gt, 1902; The Influence of Civilization on the Teeth, 1902 ; Why Teeth Decay, 1905. THE BACONIAN CLUB 75 Fay Cltjff Bbown, 1909, — Paper : light Electric Prop- erties of light-Positive and light-Negative Selenium, 1910. Reports : A New Form of Selenium Cell, 1909 ; Some Recent Facts Concerning Radio- Activity, 1910. Maud Bbown, 1903. — Report : Technique of Experiments in Psychological Laboratory, 1904. Chables Lazabtjs Bbydbn^ 1904. — Papers: The History of a Piece of Coal, 1906 ; Extingnishing an Anthracite Mine I^e, 1906. Reports: Mineral Carbomndmn, Method of Eliminating Moisture from Air Used in Blast Furnaces, 1905; Mining of Anthracite and Bituminous Coal, 1906. MoTiEB A. BxTLLocK, 1889, Associate. — Reports : Ancient Bread Found in Qiff Dwelling, 1890; The Utilization of Electricity in Horticulture and Floriculture, Employment of Monkeys in Siam for Detection of Spurious Coin, Bodily Levitation, 1891; Waterworks System of South Haven, Michigan, Use of Electric light in Forcing Certain Plants, Hay Fever and Asthma, 1893; The Discovery of an Ex- tinct Bace in Egypt, 1895; A Case of Double Conscious- ness, 1897; The George Junior Bepublic, 1898; The Scien- tific View of the Doctrine of Immortality, 1899. AiiBBBTUs Joseph Bubgb^ 1901. — Papers: Blood in Health and in Disease, 1902 ; Physics Applied in Medicine, 1904; Facts and Fancies about Appendicitis, 1907; The Doctor as an Economic Factor, 1908. Report: Foreign Substances Taken from the Body, 1907. JossPH M. Camff, 1886. — Papers: The Contest between Heavy Guns and Heavy Armor Plating, 1886; The Dyna- mite Gun, 1887; Submarine Mines, 1888; The Develop- ment of the Modem Bifle, 1888; The Development of the Modem High Power Rifle, 1889. Reports : The Latest Re- sults in Experiments on Slow Burning Powder, The New 76 IOWA JOUENAL OF HISTOET AND POLITICS Explosive Melanite and Other High Explosives, Experi- ments in the Use of Torpedo Netting in the Defense of Vessels, 1887; The Accuracy of Modem Bifled Cannon, 1888; Results of the Tests of the New Steel Guns, 1889; The Composition of Nickel-Steel Armor Plate, 1892. Samxtel Calvin, Charter. — Papers : Living Matter, 1885 ; The Sources of Vital Energy (with Macbride), 1886; Geol- ogy in Iowa, 1886; Formation of Strata, 1886; The Flow- ing Wells at Belle Plaine, (with Andrews), 1886; CroU's Theory of Secular Changes in Climate, 1886 ; Spontaneous Generation, 1887 ; The Vorticellidae, 1887 ; The Deep Well at Washington, Iowa, 1887 ; Some Special Geological Prob- lems in the Sierras, 1888 ; Some Points in the Physiology of the Nervous System, 1889; The Duration of Geological Time, 1889; Mountain Making, 1890; The Eccentricities of Bivers, 1890 ; A Symposium on the Nature of the Center of the Earth (with Weld and Andrews), 1891; The Elephant in Iowa and Elephant Dentition in General, 1891; The Niagara Limestone of Iowa, 1892 ; Some Mesozoic Beptiles and Birds, 1893 ; The Drif tless Area in Northeastern Iowa, 1893; Conditions Attending the Deposition of the Cam- brian and Silurian Strata of Iowa, 1894 ; The History and Genesis of the Soils of Northeastern Iowa, 1896 ; Pre-Paleo- zoic and Paleozoic Faunas, 1896; Pleistocene Iowa, 1897; The Mesozoic Faunas, 1897 ; Geological Walks about Iowa City, 1899 ; Land Forms in Iowa, 1899 ; The Geology and Scenery of the Pipestone Begion, 1900 ; A Geological Trip through Colorado, 1901; A Trip to British Columbia, 1902; The Intergladal Deposits of Iowa, 1904; Vulcanism and Associated Phenomena, 1905 ; Some Points in the Geologi- cal History of the Mississippi Biver, 1907 ; Some Mammals now Extinct, that once Inhabited Iowa, 1907; Large Ani- mals now Extinct which lived in Iowa during the First THE BACONIAN CLUB 77 Inter-Olacial Interval, 1909. Reports: On Certain Inseo- tivorons Plants, (Geological Formations Penetrated in the Boring of the Belle Plaine Wells, 1886; Development of Certain Cells of the Cerebellmn of Birds, Certain Phe- nomena in Connection with the Presence of Trichina, The Evening Grosbeak, The Influence which Training of Any Organ May Have upon Other Organs, Booetherimn Cavi- frons. Some Laws (Governing the Introduction of Species, The Walled Lakes of Iowa and Minnesota, On the Paleon- tology of Widder, Ontario, 1887 ; Conditions for the Pres- ence of Natural Gas and Oil, Chlorophyl Bodies in the Cells of the Green Hydra, Evolution as Shown by Some Geologi- cal Forms, 1888; Phenomena Connected with the Transec- tion of the Spinal Cord of Frogs, The Bad Lands near Glen- dive, Montana, 1889; Some Peculiarities in the Distribu- tion of the Blood in the Brain, The Manner in which the Highly Organized Tissues are Nourished, Trichinae in a Bat, An Listrument for Demonstrating the Seduction in Bulk of Muscles during Contraction, The So-called Immor- tality of Microorganisms, Why are We Bight Handed t, 1890 ; Presence of the Bobin at Iowa City on January 16th, The Presence of Copper in the Blood of Invertebrates, Nor- mal Faults as an Explanation of the Parallel Banges of Mountains in the Basin Begion, Some Additional Evidence of the Existence of Man in California before the Lava Flows, What Constitutes an Individual t, 1891; Certain Proposed Changes in Geological Nomenclature, The Geo- logical Aspect of CroU's Theory of Climate and Time, The Action of the Pancreatic Fluid in the Digestion of Fats, Oypsum Beds at Fort Dodge and Methods Employed in Making Stucco There, 1892 ; The Geological Formations in the Vicinity of Sioux City, Becent Views Concerning the Antiquity of the Globe, 1893 ; The Secondary Formation of 78 IOWA JOUENAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS Qnartzite, Gladers, Forminiferal Origin of the Chalk of Iowa and Neighboring States, The Oscillatory Movement in Iowa during the Lower Carboniferous Period, The Ef- fect of Geological Structure upon Topographical Form within the Driftless Areas of Northeastern Iowa, Some Probable Habits of Belemnites, 1894; Some Evidences of Movements in the Earth's Crust, Stumella Magna Neglecta, Sialia Sialis, The Relation between Base Leveling and Or- ganic Evolution, 1895 ; The Saint Peter Sandstone at Post- viUe, The Pleistocene Deposits in Iowa, 1896 ; The Sea Mills in Cephalonia, Becent Improvements in Qold Mining, A Blowing Well, 1897; Topographic Features of Delaware County, 1898 ; The Crowding up of the Ice on Certain Shores of Lakes, 1899 ; A Specimen of Chalk from the Holy Land, 1900; The Geology of the Begion about Brinkemoitt, Ore- gon, The Finding of Qold in Iowa, Overlap in Winneshiek and Adjacent Counties, 1901; A Human Skeleton Found near Lansing, Kansas, Lithographic Stone from Mitchell County, 1902 ; Peculiar Geologic Condition in Iowa North- east of the Cedar Biver, Great Lava Fields about Shoshone, Idaho, 1903; Experience in Electrical Matters, Jackson County Carboniferous Outcrop, 1904 ; Ice Push, How Lam- ination is Produced in Bocks by Force and Pressure, Flow- ers Growing under Snow, The Comparison of the Produc- tion of Iowa Soil and Production of Gold of the World, 1905; Variations of Heat on the Earth's Surface without Begard to the Heat of the Snow, Earthquakes, Displacement Caused by Becent Earthquakes at San Francisco, 1906 ; The Mining of Lead and Zinc in the Neighborhood of Dubuque, 1907; Petrified Forests of Arizona, Bones of the Original American Horse, Experiments to Determine the Causes of Mine Explosions, 1908; The Discovery of Fossils in the Af tonian Gravels of Iowa, 1909. THE BACONIAN CLUB 79 William B. Coohbaks, 1892. — Papers : Mineral and Ther- mal Springs, 1894 ; Modem Surgery of the Digestive Tract, 1895 ; Some Defects in Eye Refraction, 1895. Samuel W. Collbtt, 1905. — Paper: Plant Breeding, 1906. Jacob Elon Cokneb, 1901. — Report: Some Features of the Tariff Schedule, 1903. Amos Noyes Cubbieb, 1889. Associate. — Reports: De- cline of Sural New England, 1890 ; Lately Found Constitu- tion of Athens by Aristotle, What Should Precede the Amer- ican University, 1891 ; The Cleanliness of the Ancient Bo- mans, 1895. BoBEBT BuBDETTE Dale, 1909. — Report: The Teredo Navalis, 1910. Lee Wallace Dean, 1894. — Papers: The Plastic Com- pounds of Cellulose, 1895; Some Practical Points in Die- tetics, 1898 ; The Hygiene of the Eye in the Public Schools, 1899; The Anomalies of Refraction, 1900; The Causes of Blindness in Children in Iowa, 1901; The Beating of the Heart, 1902; Taking Cold, 1903. Mbs. J. J. DiETz, 1889. Associate. — Report: Some Thoughts from Emerson, 1904. Edwabd Lewis Dodd, 1904. — Paper: The Literest on One Cent and Some Mathematical Curiosities, 1905. Ebio Doolittle, 1893. — Papers: The Determination of the Figure of the Earth by Pendulum Experiments, 1894 ; Some Unanswered Questions in Astronomy, 1894. Reports : The Mf th Satellite of Jupiter, Three Visual Illusions, 1895. Oilman Abthub Dbew, 1888. Associate. — Report : The Sting of the Honey Bee, 1890. 80 IOWA JOURNAL OP mSTOET AND POLITICS Fbank Mosbb Dbyzeb, 1908. Associate. — Report : Prin- ciple of Least Work, 1909. Clabbnce Willis Eastman, 1898. — Report: Defects of the Verb *'Must", 1901. BuBTON SooTT Easton, 1898. — Paper: Star Color under the Meteoric Hypothesis, 1899. Reports : The Discovery of the Ninth Satellite of Satnm, Dr. Morrison's Paper on Hebrew Sundials, 1899. Anmn Eodahl, 1905. — Paper: Becent Work in Iminu- nity, 1906. Reports : Malaria with Reference to the Tertian and Qnarten Types, Case of Blastomydtes Dermitites, 1906 ; Becent Work Done on Animal Parasites, 1907. Hanson Edwabd Ely, 1897. — Report: The Defense of Sea Coasts and Harbors, 1898. Clabbnob Estbs, 1909. — Report : Badinm Content of Hot Springs in the Yellowstone National Park, 1910. J. M. Faucbtt, 1886. — Report: Belative Durability of Limestone and Sandstone in Engineering Structures, 1886. BxTBTON Pbboival Flbming, 1909. — Paper : Some Phases of Irrigation Engineering, 1910. Abthttb Hillybb Fobd, 1905. — Papers: Electric Power Transmission, 1905 ; Illumination, 1906 ; Design of an Elec- tric Power Station, 1907; Street Lighting, 1908; Becent Advances in Electric Lamps, 1909. J. Allbn Oilbbbt, 1895. — Papers: Some Effects of the Loss of Sleep, 1896; Besearches upon the School Children of Iowa City, 1897. Reports : A Measurement of an Error of Judgment, 1895; An Instrument for Testing Hearing, The Spark Method of Measuring Time, 1897. Jambs Gbant Gilohbist, Charter. — Papers: Migration of Leucocytes, 1885; Abnormal Changes in Cell Structure THE BACONIAN CLUB 81 and Development, 1886; light Houses and Buoys, 1886; Cognition Physiologically Considered, 1886; Mechanism and the Effects of Snake-Bite, 1887; The Anatomical and Physiological Seasons for Bight-Handedness and Left^ Handedness, 1887 ; Difference in Cellular Structure in Orig- inal and Separative Organizations, 1887 ; Auxiliary Motive Power in Ships of War, 1888; The Genesis of Morbid Ac- tion, 1888; Development of the Pipe Organ, 1888; The Origin of the Blood, its IHmctions and the Mechanism of its Circulation, 1889; The Military Lessons of the Civil War, 1889; Modem Surgery, 1889; A National Seserve, 1890; Fractures and Methods of Sepair, 1890; The Natural History of Disease, 1891; Surgical Anaesthesia, 1891; The Anatomy and Physiology of a Man of War, 1892 ; The Phenomena of Inflammation, 1892; Medical Education as a Function of the State, 1892 ; Vascular Traumatism, 1893 ; Beminiscences of Travel in Venezuela, 1893 ; Inflammation, 1894; Dislocations With Particular Beference to their Be- duction, 1895; Gunshot Wounds, 1895; The Genesis and Classification of Tumors, 1896; Vis Medicatrix Naturae, 1896 ; Medical Jurisprudence, 1897 ; Physiological Compen- sations, 1898; Our Naval Successes and the Seasons for Them, 1898; Some Becent Considerations of the Surgery of the Great Cavities of the Body, 1899; Westminster Abbey, 1900 ; Gun Shot Wounds in the Great Cavities, 1901 ; How to Meet Modem Bequirements for a Medical Educa- tion, 1902 ; College Amateur Athletics, 1903 ; The Problem in Medical Art, 1903; Aneurisms, 1904; The Evolution of the Gothic in English Architecture, 1905; The Genesis of Malignant Tumors and Factors Favoring their Becur- rence, 1905. Reports: On the Migratory Cell, A Method of Emptying Bilge-water from Vessels, Visceral Evolution, Symptoms of Poisoning as Segards Judicial Toxicology, VOL. 82 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS 1887; The Embrjonic Origin of Tumors, On the Effects of Certain Operations for Cataract, Decoloration of Hn- man Hair, Some Cases of Arrested Development of Or- gans, 1888; The Structure of Dentine, Cerebral Localiza- tion, Modem Surgery, A Postscript to a Paper on Modem Surgery, A Poisonous Spider in the West Lidies, 1889; Fallacies of the Microscope, The Science of Heraldry, Heraldry, The Establishment of Collateral Circulation, The Ultimate Circulation of the Blood, The Behavior of Scars, Exclusion of Germicides in Operations, Ruptures of Blood Vessels, The Epitaph of Plasmodium, 1890; The Origin of Reports of Lizards Being Swallowed and Living in the Human Stomach, Peculiar Course of a Bullet in the Brain, The Decussation of Nerve Fibres in the Cord, The Musical Sense, Microcephalous, Results of Certain Experi- ments Relating to the Restoration of IHmctions in Divided Nerve Fibres, Some Recent Experiments Made with Nickel-Steel Armor Plates (on behalf of Califf), Whether there is Any Such Thing as Hydrophobia, 1891; Treat- ment of Necrosis, Gun Shot Lijuries of Modem Fire- Arms, Hysteria, Voltage of Currents Used in Electrocution, Re- cent Experiments with the Sphygmograph on Anaesthesia Produced by Ether and Chloroform, Practical Application of Localization of Brain Function to Surgical Cases, Spe- cific Character of Arsenical Poisons, 1892 ; Comma Bacillus, Intestinal Surgery, Is the Cancer Contagious f. Anaesthe- sia, 1893 ; Review of Article by W. D. Howells on * * Nerve Degeneration and Regeneration** (jointly given by Gil- christ and Aby), Nerve Regeneration, Reunion of Divided Structures in the Animal Body, Some Anomalous Results in Cerebro-Localization, Modem Army Rifle Wounds, More Recent Experiments on Modem Army Rifle Wounds, The Functions of the Lupuscite, The Iodoform and Other THE BACONIAN CLUB 83 Methods of Treatment of WotmdSy 1894 ; Intercranial Neu- rectomy, The Besnlts of the Division of Nerves, The Diffi- culty of Determining the Nature of an Injury to the Spinal Column, Further Report on a Case of Neuropa- thology, 1895; Pterodactylism, Peculiarities Found in the Dissection of a Museum Specimen of United Twins, A Specimen of Dermoid Cyst, Dr. Tiffany's Report on the Restoration of Sensation after the Removal of Certain Sense Ganglia, 1897; Ohstruction of the Oesophagus Due to Scalding, Materials Entering into a Chinese Medical Prescription, The Problems of Anaesthesia, Some Cases of Spontaneous Repair in Arrested Development, The Pointed Arch in English Cathedrals, A Peculiar Tumor, 1898; Suturing of Cut Blood Vessels, On the Change from Round to Pointed Arches in Mediaeval Structures, 1899 ; The Dif- ference between Strategy and Tactics, Tubular Pneumatic Action in Modem Organs, The Use of a Vegetable Button in Intersecting, The Use of Local Anaesthetics, Which is the Last Musical Instrument f, 1900; Three Cases of Surgi- cal Treatment in Epilepsy, Physiological Compensation in Certain Sensory Ganglia, Recent Study of Church Archi- tecture, Cause of Anaesthesia, 1901; A Recent Case of Undue Activity on the Part of a Petty Official, Anomalous Distribution of the Nerve Foramina at the Base of the Human Skull, 1902 ; Prevailing Fads even in Surgical Sci- ence, New Teachings of Medical Authorities, 1903; Can Any Real Mark of Degeneracy be Pointed Outf, Medico- Legal Aspects of Surgery, Bridging of Several Nerve Trunks with a View of Restoring Lost Innervation^ Relative Merits of Several Kinds of Motors Used in Pump- ing the Bellows of Pipe Organs, 1904; President Harper's. Surgical Case, Surgical Shock, Heart Suturing, Modem: Pedagogic Methods, Lamination of Tissues by Pressure in^ 84 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS Formation of CapstQes, IHinction of Suppuration in the Healing of a Wound, 1905. BuBSELL D. Oeobge, 1900. — Papers: A Sketch of the Geology of Canada, 1900; A Sketch of Qold Mining and Milling in the United States, 1902 ; The Development of the Iron Industry in the United States, 1902. Reports : Becent Criticism of the Nehular Hypothesis, 1900; Marble Flows, 1901 ; Report of Mineral Output for 1901, The Possibility of Aluminum Replacing Copper, Solubility of Glass in Water at a High Pressure, 1902 ; Growing of Crystals, 1903. Hbkby Max Goettsoh, 1899. — Papers : Drinking Water and Typhoid Fever, 1900; The Pecuniary Economy of Food, 1901. Ethel Golden, 1897. — Report : The Education of Linnie Haguewood, a Blind and Deaf Girl, 1898. Charles Edward (Gordon, 1907. Associate. — Papers : Un- derground Waters, 1908 ; Railroad Construction, 1909. Re- port : Work of the Reclamation Service, 1909. Selskar Michael Gtjnn, 1906. — Report: The Problem of Clean Milk, 1907. Karl Eugen Guthe, 1905. — Papers: The Whistling and the Speaking Arc light, 1906 ; What is Matter, 1906 ; Electrical Units, 1907. Reports : A New Tantalum Elec- tric Incandescent Lamp, 1905; Two Kinds of Burners in Iowa City, Magnetic Properties of Different Materials Especially Manganese, Theory of Isostasy, 1906; Average Temperatures of the Winter Months during the Past Few Years, 1907; Application of the Gyroscope to the Steam- ship, 1908; Difference in Pressure in the Atmosphere by Small Changes in Height, Vibrations of Spring and Wires, Weather Conditions of the Past Fifty Years, 1909. THE BACONIAN CLUB 85 Fbidbbick Goodbok Higbbb, 1905. — Papers i Mechanical Drawing, 1906 ; Lumber Lidnstry in the Pacific Northwest, 1909 ; Our Liland Seas, 1910. Jaok Bbtjkt Hill, 1909. — Report: The Heating Ele- ment of an Electric Flat Lron, 1909. Albbbt S. Hitohoook, 1886. — Papers : Chlorophyl, 1886 ; The Fntnre of Chemical Science Economically Considered, 1887 ; The Metallnrgy of Silver, 1887 ; The Chemistry of the Plant Cell, 1888. Reports : Variations of Sucrose in Sor- ghum, On Manufacture of Oun-Cotton, Changes in the Spectrum of Chlorophyl on Standing in the Dark, Heating of Platinum by Condensation of Gktses on its Surface, 1887 ; The Delicacy of Chemical Reactions, Certain Cases of Ab- normal Flowers, On Two Species of Peronospora, Lines of Magnetic Force, Bemarks on the Iowa Flora, Absorp- tion Bands of the Chlorophyl Spectrum, 1888 ; Chlorophyl in Alcoholic Specimens of Silk-Worm, Two Specimens of SiUdfied Wood, 1889. Abthttb Wabbbn Hixok, 1908. — Paper : Lron Mining in the Lake Superior Begion, 1909. F. A. HoLTOK, 1887. — Paper : Methods of Distinguishing between Butter and Butter Substitutes, 1887. OiLBBBT Logan Hotjsbb, 1892. — Papers: Some Features of Paleozoic Corals, 1893 ; The Structural Elements of Con- nective Tissue, 1894; The aeavage of the Egg, 1895; Seg- mentation of the Vertebrate Head, 1895; The Ear, 1896; The Degeneration of the Tunicate, 1898 ; The Data of Mod- em Neurology, 1899 ; The Physical Basis of Heredity, 1900 ; Becent Progress in Cellular Biology, 1901 ; The Results of Experimental Embryology, 1902 ; Vitalism and Mechanism as Explanations of Life, 1903; Phosphorescence, 1905; 86 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS Primary Causes of Animal Behavior, 1903; The Brain of the Vertebrate, 1906; Becent Progress in the Study of the Living Substance, 1908; Present Status of Dar- winism in the B^eld of Zoology, 1909 ; Some Modem View- points of Animal Life, 1909 ; Form Changes in the Animal Cell, 1910. Reports : The Nematocysts of the Fresh Water Hydra, 1893 ; Formaline, 1893 ; The Formation, Growth and Disappearance of a Water Spout, 1896; The Origin and Purpose of the Thyroid Gland, 1897 ; The Eelation between the Auditory Nerve and the Hair Cells of the Ear, Changes in Nerve Cells due to Activity, 1898 ; Effect of Badiation of Badium on Animal Life, Achievements of Carl Gegenhaur, Experiments of the Japanese Hatai with Lecithin, 1903; Phosphorescence in Animals, The Stimulation of Proto- plasm and the Deferring of Somatic Death, 1905 ; Cilia, The Distribution of the Physiological Metals in the Animal Cell, Oxidation in the Living Cell, 1906; Changes in Cellular Structure of Animals with Age, 1908. MiKHiB HowB, 1888. Associate. — Report : The Flora of a Metamorphic Ledge in Luveme County, Minn., 1891. AiiFBED Onias Hunt, 1888. — Papers: Toothache, 1888; Methods of Tooth-Saving, 1889. James Eldeb Hutchinson, 1909. — Report: Liquid Illu- minating Gas in Switzerland, 1910. Woods Hutchinson, 1895. — Paper : Uses of Pain, 1895. Z. H. Hutchinson, 1894. — Reports: An Apparent Im- munity from Rattlesnake Poison Acquired by Dogs, Two Present Day Instances of Old Sick-Boom Superstitions, 1894. W. T. Jackson, 1891.— Report : The Writings of Com- menius, 1892. THE BACONIAN CLUB 87 Chablbs Davis Jambsok, 1887. — Papers: The Panama Canal, 1887; Photography Applied to Surveying, 1888; Engineering Features of the Proposed Nicaragua Canal, 1888; Evolution of the Bridge Truss, 1889; Sewerage and Sewers, 1889; Bailroad Signals and Safety Appliances, 1890; The Virtual Length of BaUways, 1890; Field Meth- ods of Bailroad Location, 1891 ; The Evolution of the Mod- em House, 1892 ; A Comparison of English and American Bailways, 1892 ; The Evolution of Bapid Transit in Cities, 1893; The Lidicator and its Use, 1894; An Engineering Education, 1894. Reports : An Astonishing History Show- ing the Great Justice in the Working of the Bailroad Law in Iowa, The Belative Efficiency of Electric and Steam Locomotives, Color Photography, 1890; The Fall of Two Spans of the Louisville and Jeffersonville Bridge, Glaciers of Alaska, 1894. Leoba Johkson, 1890. Associate. — Report: The Pre- vention of Diphtheria by Lioculation, 1894. Chables Kahlke, 1890. Associate. — Report z Inoculation of a Babbit with Anthrax Badllus, 1891. William Jay Kabslake, 1909. — Paper : The Doctrine of Valence, 1909. Obobgb Fbbdbbiok Kay, 1907. — Papers : Theories of the Earth's Origin, 1908 ; The Coal Supply of the United States, 1910. Reports : Discovery of Diamonds in Arkansas, 1906 ; Nickel Ore Deposits in Northern California, 1908; Supply and Conservation of Coal, 1909; Evidences of Glaciation, 1909. Habby Eugsnb Kelly, 1897. — Report: The Harvard English Beports, 1898. Theodobb Wilbebt Kemmbbeb, 1899. — Report : Two Bab- bits Inoculated with the Hydrophobia Virus, 1900. 88 IOWA JOUBNAL OF HISTOBT AND POLITICS Obacb Eeht, 1893. Associate. — Report: Effects of Fa- tigue upon the Senses, 1904. Edwabd C. Ehowsb, 1885. — Paper: Changes in Taetics since Waterloo and the Breech-Loaderi 1886. Albbbt Kxjntz, 1908. — Report: Development of the Sympathetic Nervous System, 1910. Btbok James Lambsbt, 1903. — Papers : The Automobile, 1904; The Tunnels and Subways of New York City, 1907; Illustrated Description of the Big Bridges of New York City, 1909; Aeronautics, 1910. Reports: Tel^nraphone, 1905; Transportation Facilities of the Brooklyn Bridge, 1905; Report on Bridge near Quebec which Collapsed, 1907; Michigan Central Tunnel under the Detroit Biver, 1908. John Joseph Lambebt, 1900. — Papers: Regeneration in Anhnals, 1902 ; Animal Grafting, 1903 ; The Physiology of Sleep, 1904; The Marine Biological Laboratory at Woods HoU, 1905. Reports: Dr. Kim's Phototherapeutics by In- jection into the Spinal Cord, 1901; Beating of a Cat's Heart, Cause of Muscle Contraction, 1902 ; Distribution of Animals, 1904. James Henby Lees, 1902. — Reports: The Study of the Drift in Madison County, Continued Motion of Occluded Bubbles, 1903. Nathak R. Leonard, Charter. — Papers: Meteorites, 1886; Physical Cause of Earthquake, 1886; Color Envel- opes, 1886; CrolPs Theory of Glacial Qimate, 1887; Meth- ods of Measuring the Velocity of Light, 1887. Reports: Becent Meteoric Showers, On Meteorites, Method of Dis- tinguishing between Atmospheric and Solar Lines of the Spectrum, Displacement of the First Band of the Spectrum THE BACONIAN CLUB 89 of Encke's Comety Temperature of Different Parts of Sun Spots, 1886; Velocities Observed in Solar Prominences, Progress in Celestial Photography, 1887. LiLWBBKOB William Littig, 1890. — Papers: Cleanliness in Surgery — What it Implies To-day, 1891; Cause and Prevention of Typhoid Fever, 1893; Brief Beferences to Pasteur and Some of his Works, 1893; The Spinal Cord and its Functions, 1894 ; The Athletic and the Senile Heart, 1895 ; La Orippe, 1897. Reports : Some Bemarkable Cases of Hysteria, Two Cases of Hysteria Cured by Suggestion, 1893 ; A Copy of Father Kneippe's Book on Water Cure and Some of his Methods, 1894; Cycles of Lengthening and Shortening of the Swiss Oladers, 1895 ; A Hair Tumor in a Human Stomach, 1896; A Case of Cure by Suggestion, 1897. Fred James Lokgwobth, 1907. — Paper: 'Mimng and Smelting Conditions in British Columbia, 1908. Report: Effect of Becent Financial Flurry on Mining, 1907. Isaac Ajlthaxtb Loos, 1890. Associate. — Paper: Logical Methods in Political Economy, 1895. Report: Professor Nutting's Theory of the Coloration of Deep Sea Animals, 1900. Chabi;e8 F. Lobbkz, 1900. — Papers: Measurement by Light Waves, 1901; A Few Electrodynamic Experiments, 1903; Stereoscopic Projection, 1904. Reports: The Phe- nomena of a Botary Magnetic Field, 1898; Principle of Orthochromatic Photography, A New Nemst Lamp, 1903 ; Cooper Hewitt Mercury Vapor Lamp, 1906. Thomas Huston Maobbide, Charter. — Papers: The Sources of Vital Energy (with Calvin), 1886; Devices for Securing Cross-Fertilization among Plants, 1886 ; Intercel- 90 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS ItQar Secretions and Excretions of Mineral Matter in the Cells of Plants, 1886 ; Variations of Plants under Varying Circumstances, 1887 ; The Difference between a Mushroom and a Toadstool, 1887 ; Peculiarities of Plant Distribution, 1888; The Slime-Molds, 1888; Smuts and Busts, 1889; The Great American Desert and What is to Come of it, 1889 ; The Life and Death of a Tree, 1890; Microbes, 1890; What Constitutes a Type, 1891 ; Nuclear Division, 1893 ; Pitcher Plants, 1894; Some Phases of California Flora, 1895; The Forests of Iowa and their Distribution, 1895; Parasitism and Symbiosus, 1896; The Botany of Shakespeare, 1897; What is an Animal f, 1898; Figs, 1900; Twentieth Century Protoplasm, 1901; Point Lobos, 1902; The Plant Bespon- sive, 1903; The Response of Plants to Human Preference, 1904; Luther Burbank and his Garden, 1905; A Study in Parasitism, 1907 ; On the Present Trend of Natural History Study, 1908. Reports : Organic Connection Between Cells, Abnormalities in Vegetable Cells, 1886 ; Pines and Spruces of the Sierras, Puff Balls, Some Species of Club-Mosses Lately Found near Iowa City, Solanum Bostratum, 1887; Peculiar Outcome of Cross-Fertilization as Shown in a Specimen of Squash, Life and Services of the Late Dr. Asa Gray, Calcium Oxalate in Plants, On the Discovery of Teeth in the Embryo of the Duck-bill Mole, On the Appearance of Horns on Polled Cattle, The Flora of Krakatoa after the Eruption in 1883, Some Bare Forms of Saprophytic Fungi, A Piece of Sugar Pine from the Comstock Mine, 1888 ; Be- cent Discovery of Shortia by Professor Sargent, The Metallurgy of Qold by the Arastra, Folk Lore in Begard to Planets, Some Native Stinkhoms, Character and Scien- tific Work of Professor Lesquereuz, The Cedars of Leb- anon, 1889 ; Thuja Gigantea ; Liriodendrom Tulipif era, The Dodder, The Time Bequired to Beplace Forest Trees, An THE BACONIAN CLUB 91 Ear of Com, 1890; A Number Form, Slime-Molds Be- garded as Animals, The Ocoorrence of the White Pine in Japan, Aricaria SImbricata, Results of Experiments for Determining the Active Principle in Yeast, Plasmodina Malariae, 1891; Primitive Cantilever Bridges over Alpine Streams, Observations on Forestry in Iowa, An Experi- ment on Babies Witnessed in Pasteur's Laboratory, 1892; A Bacteriological Investigation of the City Water, The Slime-Molds of Nicaragua, The Inefficiency of Inoculation by Bacilli in a Healthy Body, A Becent Discovery of Cy- ecimen in Aloohol, 1894; The Belative Exact- ness of the Natural and the Mathematical Sciences, Lord Kelvin's Deep Sea Sonnding Apparatus, The Force that Extends the Thread of the Nematocyst Cells in Hydroids, The Connection between Volcanic Emptions and Tidal Phenomena, 1895; Some Becent Experiments upon Tad- poles, A New Species of Hydroid, The Slowness of the Dis- appearance of Vestigial Organs by Evolution, The Distri- bution of Life in the Ocean Depths, The Fundamental Dif- ferences between the Neo-Darwinian and the Neo-La- marddan Schools, The Malicious Damaging of the Newport Biological Laboratory by the Addition of Sewage to the Collecting Waters, The Characteristics of a South Ameri- can Opisthocomus, 1896; Protective Coloration and Lnita- tion in the Bull Snake, The Teeth and Spines of Sharks, The Salamanders of Lake Cayuga, The Work of the Late Professor E. D. Cope, The Appreciation of Number in Ants, The Function of Certain Spots in Deep-Sea Cephalo- poda, The Close Observation Characteristic of the English People, Problematic Structures between the Plates of Cer- tain Starfish, The Mechanism of the Stinging Spines of the Sea Urchin, Organs of Orientation in Certain of the Echino- dermata, 1897 ; A Comparison of the Dentition of Bodents and Other Mammals, The City of Havana and Its Harbor, Possible Use of the Carrier Pigeon in Naval Warfare, Some Cases of Protective Mimicry in Butterflies, Does the Begenerated Part of an Animal Tend to Revert to a Lower Type, Becent Experiments on the Begeneration of Limbs in Tadpoles, The Structure of the Feather, A New Specimen of the Anthropoid Ape from Borneo, The Educa- tion of a Fish, 1899; Investigation of Skeletal Variations by the X Bay Method, The Becent Beappearance of the Tile Fish, Expedition to Alaska, The Discovery of a New 96 IOWA JOUBNAL OP HISTOBT AND POLITICS Method of Beprodnction among the Hydro-Medusae, 1900; Professor Loeb's So-called Discovery of Partheno-Gtenesis, Monograph on Hydroids, Discovery of a Giant Hydroid, Discovery of a Six-Bayed Serpent Star, 1901; A Summer's Cruise of the Albatross, 1902 ; Observations by Calkins of Columbia University, Three Bemarkable Specimens of Sea Urchins, A Scare Crow, Controversy Concerning the Origin of Coral Islands, Beport on an Article which Gives Results of Subjecting Organisms to Intense Cold for Weeks, 1903 ; Best Method of Lighting an Exhibition Space, Slides on Protective Coloration, 1904 ; Zoophytes, Life Existing Luxu- riantly at a very Low Temperature, 1905; Baconian Club as it Existed Twenty Years Ago, The Besults of Last Ex- pedition of the Albatross, Changes in the Sea Bottom in Mid-Pacific, Organism Producing Cancer, 1906; Some Cu- rious Cases of Parasitism, Fossil Tooth of a Hippopotamus, Opinion of Leading Zoologists Concerning Work of Dar- win, The Beasons for Desertions from the United States Army, Pedicellariae of Sea-Urchins and Star Fish, 1907; Beprodnction by Conjugation in the Amoeba, Natural Se- lection, Memory in the Lower Animals, A Plan for a (Gov- ernment Biological Station in Iowa, 1908 ; Social and Bio- logical Work in Holland, Hydroid Painted by the Japanese, Becent Investigations of Sleeping Sickness in Africa, Power of Organisms to Live under Adverse Physical Con- ditions, Life of Alexander Agassiz, Exploring Expedition of Anderson and Stef ansson, 1910. Ernest Linwood Ohle, 1905. — Paper: Smoke and its Abatement, 1907. BoBEBT OoLDSBOBOuoH OwEN, 1909. — Repofti Pellagra, 1910. Louis Alexakdeb Pabsoks, 1894. — Beport: A Photo- graphic Printing Paper, 1895. THE BACONIAN CLUB 97 Geobge Thomas Whitb Patbiok, 1888. — Papers: Hyp- notism, 1889 ; Memory and Mnemonics, 1890 ; Time of Men- tal Operations, 1890; Hnman Automatism in its Belation to Spiritnalism, 1891 ; The Localization of Brain Function, 1891 ; Expression of the Emotions, 1893 ; Criminal Anthro- pology, 1893 ; The Psychology of Women, 1895 ; Some Meth- ods and Besults of Child Study, 1895; Scientific Materi- alism, 1896 ; Sleep, 1898 ; Some Disturbances of the Person- ality, 1898 ; The Psychology of Crazes, 1899 ; The Psychol- ogy of Profanity, 1901 ; The Psychology of Play, 1901. Re- ports : Becent Experiments in Thought-transference, Some Experiments by Sir John Lubbock on the Limits of Vision in Lisects; On the Homing Power of Animals, 1888; The Psychophysic Law, The Gum-Chewing Wave, 1889; The Phenomenon of Multiple Personality, The Brain of Laura Bridgeman, 1890 ; Arithmetical Prodigies, Emotional Effect of Colors, 1891; Methods and Means Employed by Mind Beaders in the Practice of their Profession, Automatic Writing, Aphasia, A Becent Experimental Concert to De- termine Whether or not Music Conveys to the Hearer a Definite Thought, The Zemonian Antinomies, 1892 ; Descrip- tion of a Modem Jail, The Theory of the Correlation of Mental and Physical Powers, 1893; Hypnotism, Some At- tempts Made toward the Classification of the Sciences, Dar-v winism and Swimming, Wundt's Sphygmomanometer, The Detection of Near Objects by Blind Persons, 1894; Mac- donald's Experiments on Sensibility to Pain, Contrast in Color Sensation, Some Photographs to Illustrate the Illu- sion of Contrast, Hearing and Sight of School Children, 1895 ; Fatigue in School Children, The Conditions of Fa- tigue in Beading, 1896; The Psychophysical Phenomena of Vorticella, 1897; Possible Improvements in the Banet- oscope. The Persistence of the Memory of Olfactory Sensa- VOL. EL — 7 98 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS tions, 1898; An Interesting Case of Glossolalia, 1900, Plattians in the Training of Telegraphy, 1901. jABfEs Newton Peabce, 1907. — Paper: Some Becent Work on the Hydrate Theory, 1908; Colloidal Chemistry and its Applications, 1910. Alfred Chables Petebs, 1891. — Paper : The Phenomenon of Taking Cold, 1892. Philetus H. Philbrick, Charter. — Papers: The Canti- lever Bridge, 1886; Eads's Ship Railway Plan, 1887. Chables Delos Poobe, 1905 : — Papers : Chemistry Boiled Down, 1905 ; Does the Ion Simplify the Study of Chemistry, 1906. Reports : Carbonic Acid Gas, Colored and Colorless Ions as an Argmnent in Favor of the Dissociation Theory, 1906 ; Thermometric Scales, 1908. William Galt Eaymond, 1904. — Papers : A Trip to the Lick Observatory, 1904; The Development of Locomotive Tractive Power in America, 1906; How Many Miles Can We Travel withont Being Killed?, 1907; Eailroad Bates, 1908 ; The Grade Element in Bailroad Operation, 1909. Re- ports: Eelative Attendance of Students in Arts and Sci- ences as Compared with Engineering, Visit Made by Board of Regents Committee at Various Engineering Schools. 1905; Recent Improvements in Locomotives, 1907. George Windle Read, 1889. — Papers : The Military Pol- icy of the United States, 1890; Signalling, 1890; Modern War, 1892. John Franklin Reilly, 1909. — Paper: The Orbit of a Heavenly Body with Special Reference to Halley's Comet, 1910. Roe Remington, 1906. — Paper: The Fixation of Nitro- gen, 1907. THE BACONIAN CLUB 99 Elbebt William Bocewood, 1888. — Papers: Some As- pects of Photography, 1889; Foods, 1889; Salt, 1891; The Formation of Fat in the Animal Body, 1891; Drinking Water, 1892 ; The Sources of Muscular Energy, 1893 ; Fer- mentation, 1894; The Chemical Products of Bacterial Ac- tion, 1895 ; Milk, 1896 ; The Chemistry and Bacteriology of Water Filtration, 1897 ; Becent Eesearches in Physiological Chemistry, 1897 ; The Experimental Determination of Ani- mal Metabolism with Some Practical Applications, 1898 Food Adulterations, their Extent and Significance, 1900 Digestive Ferment in the Vegetable Kingdom, 1902 Physical Chemistry in the Biological Science, 1902; Food Preservatives, 1903; Do We Eat too Much?, 1905; Do the Chemical Elements Exist f, 1906; Something about Albumen, 1907; Bleached Flour, a Chemico-Physiolog- ical Legal Problem, 1908; Food Preservatives with Spe- cial Reference to Sodium Benzoate, 1910. Reports : Iowa limestone and Clays and their Fitness for the Manu- facture of Portland Cement, 1889; Photography with- out the Use of a Lens, 1890; Bromelin — a Digestive Fluid Found in the Juice of the Pineapple, The Effect of Extreme Low Temperatures on Chemical Action, 1894 ; The Cultivation of Useful Bacteria, 1895 ; The Effect of Loss of Sleep on the Excretion of Phosphoric Acid and Nitrogen, An Epidemic of Typhoid Fever at Tipton, Iowa, Attribut- able to the Use of Well Water, An Apparatus for Determin- ing Approximately the Amount of Carbon Dioxide in the Air, 1896 ; Food Investigations by the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture, A Nitro-Cellulose Substitute for Silk, Precautions against Contagion from Milk, Comparative Values of Plant and Animal Foods, A Meteorological Phe- nomenon, 1897; Nutritive Values of Foods Used in the Slnms of New York, An Original Translation of Caput 100 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS Mortnmn, 1898; Antiseptic Duellixig, 1899; The Food Value of Alcohol, 1900; Vessel Used in Preparing Infant's Milk, 1900; The Stamping Out of the Bubonic Plague in Some Japanese Cities, 1903; Use of Copper Salts in Drinking Water, Use of Methyl Alcohol, 1904; An Insoluble Sub- stance in Soft Water, Arsenic Poisoning, The Formation of the Diamond, 1905 ; Systematic Zoology and Chromosomes, Food Adulterants, Nature of Waste Products in the Body, Alcohol, Recent Jubilee of the Coal Tar Industry, Oxida- tion as it Occurs in the Organic World, 1906 ; Manufacture and Use of Denatured Alcohol, Comparative Digestibility of Cooked and Uncooked Food, Statistics on the Production of Sulphur in the United States, Becent Improvements in Getting and Keeping Pure Milk, Beport of two Great Chem- ists Moissan and Mendeljeff, Belation of Diet to Endur- ance, Modification of Some Vital Processes Due to the Use of the Automobile, Autochrome Process of Color Photog- raphy, 1907; Cereal Foods, Crenothrix the Micro Organ- ism at the Present Time Contaminating the Water Supply of Iowa City, Possibility of Changing Copper to Lithium, Analysis of the City Water, 1908; Some Diseases of Tin, Color Photography, Commercial Price of Badium, 1909; Becent Method of the Preparation of Peat for Commercial Use, Fake Patent Medicines, The Use of Aluminum in Cooking Utensils, The Effect of Hard Water upon the Teeth, 1910. Balph Eugene Boot, 1909. — Reports: Professor Moore's General Analysis, The Examination and Marking System, 1910. Frank Bussell, 1894.— Paper: The Yellow Knife In- dians, 1895. Reports: Esquunaux' Waterproof Boots, An Albino Specimen of Geomys Bursarius, 1895. THE BACONIAN CLUB 101 Mabtik Wbioht Samfsok, 1889. — Reports : Literary and Artistic Work of Women as Contrasted with that of Men, Query in Begard to the Picturesque Quality of Photog- raphy, 1890. Thomas Edmuot) Savagb, 1896. — Reports : The Flora of the **Wad Den'' Eegion, 1897; Some Features in the Nat- ural History of the Begion of Ironton, Missouri, 1898. Chablbs Ashmbad Sohabffbb, 1887. — Papers: Steel, 1888; The Mining and Metallurgy of Gold, 1888; Natural and Artificial Cements, 1889; The Systematic Method of Organic Chemistry, 1890. F. L. Sohaub, 1902. — Report: Beport on a Paper by Professor Stratton ^^Eye Movements in the Esthetics of Vision'', 1903. Cabl Emil Sbashobb, 1897. — Papers: A Study in Psy- chological Measurement, 1898 ; Visual Perception of Inter- rupted Linear Distances, 1899 ; The Principal Types of Nor- mal Illusions in the Perception of Oeometrical Forms, 1900 ; Automatism in the Use of the Divining Bod in Tracking for Underground Water, 1901 ; Some Experiments in Auditory Perception of Direction, 1902 ; Dreams, 1903 ; Color Vision in the Indirect B^eld, 1905 ; The Tonoscope and its Use in Singing, 1906; The Psychology of Play, 1908; Darwin from the View-point of the Psychologist, 1909. Reports: The Beign of Men, 1898 ; Some Cases of Budimentary Movements of the Human Ear, The Discriminative Sensibility for Pitch, 1899 ; The Psychergometer, A New Erggraph, 1900 ; A New Method of Measuring the Pitch of the Voice in Singing and Speaking, 1901; The Belative Frequency of Ideas, Scrip- ture's Color Sense Tester, 1902; To Obtain a Cheap and Convenient Battery for Short Circuits in the Laboratory, 1904 ; The Photography of Eye Movements, 1905 ; Forma- 102 IOWA JODENAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS tion of Habits in the Starfish, Some Experiments on Bats, 1907; Possibility of Localizing the Sense of Taste, 1908; A New Paper File, 1909. Benjamin Franeun Shambauoh, 1897, Associate. — Reports: The Latest Original Package Case, The Nature of the Problem of Justification in the Interference of the United States in the Cuban Situation, The Possession and Occupancy of Iowa in its Legal Aspects, The Naming of the Commonwealth of Iowa, 1898 ; History of the Establishment of the Boundaries of the Commonwealth of Iowa, 1899. BoHUMiL Shimee, 1890. — Papers: The Badula of the MoUusca, 1891; The Loess in the Northwest, 1892; The Geographical Distribution of Mollusca with Belation to Current Glacial and Loess Theories, 1892; The Nicaragua Canal, 1893 ; Types of Nicaraguan Ferns, 1894 ; Plant Hairs, 1895; Plant Distribution in Iowa, 1896; Water Nymphs, 1897; Textile Vegetable Fibres, 1898; Eomance in Natural History, 1898; Forestry in Iowa, 1900; The Okoboji School of Botany, 1902; An lowan Desert, 1903; The White Lands of New Mexico, 1904 ; Ferns in the Desert, 1905 ; Forests of the United States, 1906 ; A Bit of Geology and Geography Revised, 1907; Why Are the Prairies Treeless?, 1908; Dar- win from the Standpoint of the Botanist, 1909 ; The Prairie and Forest Problem as Illustrated in the Lake Okoboji Ee- gion, 1910. Reports : The Canadian Thistle in Iowa City, Re- marks on Pyrgula and Planorbis, 1890 ; the Fania Integraf o- lia, A Remarkable Snake 's Nest, 1892 ; Some Peculiar Hab- its of Ferns, The Russian Thistle, The Blooming of Plants during the Present Autumn, Cases of Certain Diaecious Plants Producing Perfect Flowers, 1894 ; Conditions Favor- ing the Growth of the Hard Maple, 1896 ; The Repair of In- juries to the Cambium Layer in Trees, the Physiological THE BACONIAN CLUB 103 Effects of Poison Ivy, 1898 ; A Specimen of the Plasmodium of a Slime-Mold, A Dwarf Form of Burr Oak, 1899; Bitter- Sweet, 1900 ; The Causes of the Flow of Sap in the Spring, 1900; Sknnk Cabbage, 1903. Lbb Paul Sibg, 1906.— Papers : The Nature of White Light, 1908; Limits of Vision, 1909; The Microscope and the Ultra Microscope, 1910. Reports: Abbe's Theory of Microscopic Vision as Applied to Ordinary Vision, 1906; Determining the Optical Focus of a Lens, The Theory of the Diffraction Grating, 1907. Chables Gamblb Simpson, 1909. — Report: A Discontin- uous Function, 1910. Alfred Vablby Sims, 1895. — Papers: Self -Purification and Filtration of Water in Belation to the Health of Cities, 1897; The Simplicity and Practicability of the Graphical Determination of Stresses, 1898 ; The Determination of the Strength of Cement, 1900; Some Features of the Boad Problem, 1901; Some Glimpses of the life of a Southern Tobacco Farm, 1902. Reports: Methods of Sterilizing Water, The Bate of Corrosion of Iron Buried in Different Kinds of Soil, 1899. Abthtjb Geobge Smith, 1893. — Papers : Variable Stars, 1894; The Laws of Chance, 1896; The Quadrature of the Circle, 1896 ; The Number Concept, 1897 ; A Study in Mathe- matical Interpretation, 1898; The Tides, 1899; The In- scribed Polygon of Seventeen Sides, 1901 ; Mathematics in Biology, 1902; Some Elementary Methods and Besults in Statistical Anthropology, 1903 ; The Hydrographical Work of the United States Government, 1904 ; Sound and Music, 1906 ; The Shape of the Earth and its Determination, 1906 ; Some Aeronautical Mechanics, 1908 ; The Gyroscope, 1910 ; A Bational Marking System, 1910. Reports: A Function 104 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS in which the Second Partial Differential Coefficient Depends npon the Order of Differentiation, 1895 ; The Mathematical Theory of the Honey Bee Cell, 1896 ; The Measurement of the Velocity of the Bifle Ball, Variation in Longitude, 1897 ; Determination of ^ by the Gaussian Law of Error, The Me- chanics of the Nebular Hypothesis, 1898; See's Law of the Temperature of Oaseous Bodies, The Economy of Material in Nature, The lines of Flow in a Liquid, The Penetrating Power of the Modem Bullet, The Steel Jackets of Modem Bullets, 1899 ; The Expectation of Living, Scientific Study of the Awarding of First and Second Prizes by Competitive Examination by Sir Francis Galton and Carl Pierson, 1902 ; The Precipitation of Moisture in Iowa and Iowa City, Some Facts Regarding Earthquakes, 1906; The Formation of Frazil and of Anchor Ice, 1907 ; Galton 's Individual Differ- ence Problem in Statistics, 1910. Chables Leonabd Smith, 1893. Associate. — Reports: Vegetation of Nicaragua, 1893 ; A Collecting Trip through Mexico and Nicaragua, 1896. Fbanklin Obion Smith, 1907. — Reports: A Few Diffi- culties Encountered in the Study of Color Perception, 1907 ; The Rationale of Promotion and the Elimination of Waste in Elementary and Secondary Schools, 1910. Frederick William Spanutius, 1889. — Papers: Quick- silver, 1890 ; Dissociation, 1891 ; Glass and its Solubility in Water, 1892. Reports: Siliceous Oolite, Smoky Quartz from Branchville, Connecticut, 1890; Free Fluorine, 1891; Chemistry and Mineralogy of Garnet, 1892. John Springer, 1896. Associate. — Papers : Type-Setting Machines, 1900; The Lost Art of Wood Engraving, 1901. Reports : Modem Processes of Color Printing, 1898 ; A Let- ter from Hon. John P. Irish on the Growing of E^s in Cal- THE BACONIAN CLUB 105 ifomia, Famous Printers' Errors, 1900; A Mammoth Camera, 1901; Oil Begions of Iowa, 1902; Experience in Producing Silhouette Photographs, 1904. Edwin Dilleb Stabbuok, 1906. — Papers: The Idealist's Interpretation of Matter, 1907 ; A Comparison of the Mental Capacities of the Sexes, 1908; Pragmatism, 1909; Some Somological Phases of Adolescence, 1910. Reports: The Mental and Physical Differences in the Sexes, 1906 ; Orienta- tion and Localization of Certain Birds, 1908. Daniel Staboh, 1906. — Paper : The Influence of Weather on Human Conduct, 1907. Reports: Results of Experi- ments Carried out in the Psychological Laboratory on Aud- itory Localization of Sound, 1904; Localization of Sound, Sound in Psychological Laboratory, 1905. Geobge Waltbe Stbwabt, 1909. — Report: Beport of President Pritchett Regarding Cost of College Instruction in Physics, 1910. Fbank Albebt Stbomsten, 1900. — Paper: The Marine Biological Laboratory at Tortugas, 1908. Reports : Obser- vations of Dr. Mathews on the Changes in the Oland Cells of the Pancreas of the Mud Puppy, 1903 ; Order of the De- velopment of the Venous System, 1906 ; Palola Worm, 1907 ; The Lymphatic Development in Turtles, 1910. Henbt Waldgbavb Sttjabt, 1901. — Papers: Choice and Knowledge, 1902; Ethics, its Nature and its Place among the Sciences, 1904. WiLBEB John Teetebs, 1897. — Papers: The Manufac- ture and Chemistry of Soap, 1899 ; Some Facts about Patent Medicines, 1899; The Prescription, 1902; The Synonyms of the Pharmacopoeia, 1903 ; Coal Tar, 1904 ; Cinchona and its Alkaloids, 1907: Some Besults of the Pure Food and 106 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS Drag Law, 1909. Reports : Armonr ft Co., Dessicated Ani- mal Substances, Sarsaparilla Ciontainer, An Original Pack- ing Case for Ciort from Ochissima, 1901 ; Vanilla Bean as Cnred and as it Comes on the Market, 1906 ; Importation of Aloes, 1907; Patent Medicines, IJnsnccessfnl Attempts to Brand Cattle by Chemical Methods, 1908; Specimen from a Wine Cask, 1909. Fbedebige Chables L. Van Stebkdeben, 1894. Associate. — Reports : A Device for the Trisection of an Angle, 1894 ; The Inflnence of the Tentonic npon the Bomance Languages, The Origin of Langoages, 1895; A Sentence Containing a Key to the Quantity ^ , 1897 ; The Engineering Situation in Holland, 1898; The Place of French Literature in Lit- erature, 1899 ; A Note on the General Laws Governing the Changes in the Meaning of Words, 1903. Andrew Andebson Vbblen, Charter. — Papers: Modem Geometry, 1886; Electric Units and Measurements, 1886; Determination of the Length of light Waves, 1887; The Theory of Dynamo-Electric Machines, 1888; Polarization of Light, 1889; Transmission of Electrical Oscillations, 1889; Some Points on Electric Lighting, 1890; The light of Fire-Flies, 1890; Electro Motors, 1891; Electric Bail- ways, 1891; The Finding of America by the Norsemen, 1892; The Practical Electrical Units and the Commercial Measurement of Electricity, 1893; Notes on Electricity at the World's Fair, 1894; lighting, 1895; Some Elementary Facts in Acoustics and the Physical Theory of Music, 1896 ; The Characteristics, Classification and Uses of Finger- prints, 1897; Wireless Telegraphy, 1898; Ancient Scandi- navian Ships, 1900; Photographic Optics, 1901; Finger- prints, 1902; Electrons, 1903; The University of Upsala, 1903. Reports: Rosenthal's Micro-Galvanometer, 1886; On .. ^ THE BACONIAN CLUB 107 a Suggestion of a System of Local Survey, 1887; Snow Shoes, On the Grammar of Volapiik, The Theory of Electric Potential, The Uses of the Battle Axe, A Torsion Balance, 1888 ; Electrical Measuring Instruments, Effect of Elevation upon Weight, 1889 ; A New Kind of Telephone, Welding by Electricity, Magneto-optic Production of Electricity, The Motion of Atoms in Electrical Discharge, 1890; Are We Approaching Another Ice Agef, 1891; The Spade Bayonet in the United States Army, A New Method of Detecting Os- cillations of the Earth's Crust, Some Applications of the Hertz Experiments to Marine Signaling, The Corruption of Scandinavian Names in America, Late Advances in Elec- trical Science, Description and Model of Cable Switch Board Made by himself for Use in the Physical Laboratory, An Electrical Fire Damp Indicator, 1892; Breaking of the World's Skee- Jumping Records at Bed Wing, Minnesota, The Long Distance Telephone, Gravitational Phenomena "N^ewed as Waves of Ether, Peculiarities of Trees Growing upon Hillsides, Botary Steam Engines, Besistance Boxes, 1893; A New Style of Bedprocating Engine, Double Sur- faces, The Instructive or Natural Use of Correct Gender in Danish Dialects, A New Form of Planimeter, limit of Vi- sion with Bespect to the Eyes of Insects, The Effect of Elec- tric Shocks, Experiments upon the Falling of Cats, 1894; Hearst's Spectrum Disks, Wireless Telegraphy, Measure- ments upon the Growth of Trees, A Machine for Compound- ing Harmonic Motion, Model of Circular and Transverse Wave Motion, 1895 ; Photographic Effects by Means of Elec- trical Badiation, The X or Boentgen-Bay, The Becent Nan- sen Expedition, 1896 ; The Use of Alternating Currents for Gaining Speed in Telegraphy, The Amount of Energy Im- parted to the Beceiver of the Telephone in Speaking, 1897 ; Tesla's Wireless Transmission of Energy, Immunity of the 108 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTOEY AND POLITICS Baoe from the Effects of Alcohol, A Comparison of the Welsbach Burner with the Ordinary Naked Burner, 1898; A New Camera Table for Photography for Scientific Pur- poses, The Polak-Virag Method of Bapid Telegraphy, 1899; The Curving Flight of a Botating Ball, Loosely Piled Bridks as a Vibration-free Support for Delicate Instruments, Borchgrevinck's Antarctic Explorations, Becent Progress in Wireless Telegraphy, Existence of Nodes and Vibrations of the String, A New Copying Camera Table, 1900 ; Beason for Professor Bowland's Fame, Optical Illusion Visible in Mr. Boehm's Zone Plate, A Method of Changing the Density of Skyograph Negatives, 1901 ; Nature of Electric Discharge in Thunderstorms, 1902; Birksland Electromagnetic Gun for Throwing Dynamite, Becently Discovered Bemains in Norway of Ancient Boats, 1903 ; A New Compact Projecting Lantern, Dr. Niels Finsen, 1904; Land Slide in Norway, Earthquake in the Scandinavian Peninsula, Sixty-four Sci- ence Charts Suitable for Elementary Nature Study, Experi- ments to Prove that a Body can not Sink in Quic^ Sand, 1905. Chables B. Vogdes, 1893. — Papers: Historical Sketch of Infantry Tactics, 1895 ; The First Campaign of Napoleon, 1896. Cabl Leopold von Endb, 1893. — Papers : Some Physical Methods in Chemistry, 1895 ; The Modem Theory of Solu- tion, 1901; The Osmotic Theory of the Galvanic Cell, 1903; Catalysis, 1906. Reports: Vitreous Silicon or Quartz Glass, Purification of Water by Means of Copper Sulphate and also by Copper, 1905. Pbboy H. Walkeb, 1S92.— Papers : Iron, 1893; Alloys, 1895 ; Explosives, 1899. Reports : Utilization of Iron Ores Containing Titanium, A Peculiar Form of Calcite Found in the Neighborhood, 1893. THE BACONIAN CLUB 109 DiTBBN Jakbs Hudson Wabd, 1906.— • Poper : The Legi- timate Field of Anthropology and Ethnology, 1906. Re- port : Prehistoric People of Iowa, 1906. Samuel N. Watson, 1886.— Papers: The Next Step in the Evolution Process, 1887 ; Biology and Ethics, 1887 ; An Inquiry into the Permanence of the Human Species, and Some Deductions Therefrom, 1888; Social Development, 1891; The Embryology of Personality, 1893; Sensation, 1894; Thermics, 1896. Reports: Evidence of Intelligence in the Lower Animals, On Some Statements in Professor Huxley's Book "Advance of Science in the Last Half Cen- tury'', Electric Heating, 1888; The Bermuda Islands, 1890; Oligocythaemia, 1893. Gailobd D. Weeks, 1900. — Paper : Bailway Construction, 1901. Laenab Giffobd Weld, 1886. — Papers: Wave Motion, 1887; Vortex Motion, 1887; Determinants, 1888; The Tran- sit of Venus in 1874, 1888 ; Double Stars, 1889 ; The Nebular Hypothesis of La Place, 1889; Some Instances of Becent Progress in Stellar Astronomy, 1890 ; The Tenets of Astrol- ogy, 1890; A Symposium on the Nature of the Center of the Earth (with Calvin and Andrews), 1891; The Stars as Timekeepers, 1891; Comets, 1892; The Sun, 1892; The Phy- siography of the Moon, 1893; Exhibition of Astronomical Iiantem Slides, 1894; The Foundations of Geometry, 1894; Some Mathematical Illustrations of the Doctrine of Con- tinuity, 1895; Numbers 1896; Tories, 1896; Pendulum Ob- servations, 1897; Variable Stars, 1898; The Phenomenon of Periodicity, 1899; The life History of a Star, 1900 ; The Mechanics of a Harp String, 1900; Are Other Worlds In- habited, 1901 ; Some Applications of the Statistical Method to Stellar Astronomy, 1902; The Planet Jupiter, 1903; Star no IOWA JOUBNAL OF HISTORY AND POLITICS Dust, 1905; How Did the Sun Become Hot and What Keeps it Hot, 1906; The Spiral Nebulae and their Significance, 1906 ; The Legends of the Stars, 1907 ; The Great Pyramids, 1910. Reports : Certain Experiments on Nitrification, 1886; Imaginary Cube Boots of Unity, 1887 ; The Hypergeometric Series, The Mathematical Laws Governing the Carrying Power of Streams, The Variable Star Algol, The Solar Eclipse of January 1, 1889, 1888; Arago's Helioscope, 1889; The Personal Equation, 1890 ; The Time of Botation of the Planet Mercury, The Bedprocal Belations between the Pas- calion and Brianchonian Hexagons, Becent Discovery of the Nature and Extent of the Variation of Latitude of Points on the Earth's Surface, 1891; The Magnitude of the Forces Interacting among the Celestial Bodies, Periodic and Secular Changes of Latitude, Becent Discovery of the Fifth Moon of Jupiter, The Zenith Telescope and its Use in Latitude Determinations, Infinity as a Mathematical Con- cept, 1892; Construction of a Conic Passing through Five Points, 1893 ; The Gtegenschein, Advantages of the Trilinear System of Co-ordinates, The Present Opposition of the Planet Mars, 1894 ; The Becent Discovery of a Second Satel- lite of Neptune, 1895; The Planet Saturn and its System, A Mechanical Method of Trisecting an Angle, An Original Linkage Machine for Determining the Boots of Cubic Equa- tions, Parheliac Circles, A Graphic Method for the Solution of the Equation x* — px—q^ = 0, A Graphic Method of Solv- ing Cubic Equations, On Ascertaining Properties of a Func- tion Bepresented by Some Integral that can not be In- tegrated, 1897 ; Conditions Affecting the limit of Capacity of Large Guns, 1898 ; The Becently Discovered Planet D. Q., 1899; A New Comet, 1902; Difference between Volcanic Activity on the Moon and on the Earth, 1903 ; A Particular Partial Differential Equation, livasey Depression Bange THE BACONIAN CLUB HI Finder, Latest Discovery at lick Observatory, 1904; De- scription of a Piece of Photometric Apparatus Seen in Standard Bureau at Washington, Astronomical Instrument for Eliminating the Personal Equation in Obtaining the Transit of a Star, 1905 ; Some Factors to be Considered in the Determination of Loss of Matter, 1906 ; Certain Methods of Sinking Wells Through Sandy Soils, 1907. Boy Titus Wells, 1903. — Papers: Some Developments in Electric Railroading, 1904 ; The Reaction of a Conducting Core on a Solenoid, 1904. Reports : An Electrically Driven Pendulum, 1903; Regulating the Strength of a Field, 1904; Electric Traction, A New Electric Light Bulb, Methods of Measuring very Minute Alternating Currents, 1905. John Van Etten Westpal, 1899. — Papers: A Famous Old Problem in Geometry, 1900 ; The Game of Minor Fan Tan, 1902; The Fundamental Principles of Life Insurance and Annuities, 1902 ; A Proof of the Transcendency of e and ^, 1903; Transcendental Numbers, 1904. William Bobebt Whiteis, 1893. — Papers: Immunity, 1895 ; The Histology of the Tooth, 1897. Reports : A Solu- tion for Staining Nerve Centers, A Large Microtome for Sectioning the Entire Brain, 1897. Henby Fbedebiok Wiokham, 1903. — Papers : Ants, 1903 ; Some Remarkable Habits of Spiders, 1904; Insect Life in the Great Basin, 1905 ; Arctic Colonies in the Rocky Moun- tains, 1905 ; Notes on a Trip to Mexico, 1908 ; Notes on the Mexican Trip of 1908, 1909 ; Variation of Color Pattern in the Genus Cecindela, 1910. Reports: The Simplest Form of Insects — Compodes Staphylinus, 1907 ; A Peculiar Bug Emesa Longipes, 1910. William Cbaig Wilcox, 1894. — Report : Trend of Modem Historic Research in this Country, 1904. , 112 IOWA 30UBNAL OF HI8T0BY AND POLITICS Frank Alonzo Wildeb, 1903. — Papers : Yellowstone Na- tional Park, 1904; The Geological History of the Bhine Val- ley and its Belations to History and Science, 1905; The Oeology of the Appalachian Mountains and its Bearings on American History, 1906. Reports : Becent Criticism of the Nebular Hypothesis, Coal-Testing Plant at St. Lonis, 1904 ; Gas and Oil Fields of Kansas, 1904 ; Government Coal Testing at St Louis Fair, Mining and Shipping of Iron Ore, Producer Gas, 1905. Mabel Clabe Williams, 1903. — Papers: The Subcon- scious, 1903 ; How Many Senses Has Man, 1903 ; Memory in Animals, 1903 ; Bhythm, 1910. Reports : Besult of Experi- ments in Area- Volume Illusion, 1901; Investigation by Motora, 1904. Henbt Smith Williams, 1886. — Paper: Brains, 1886. Edwabd Wolesensky, 1909. — Report : A New Method of Preparing Diamonds, 1910. Shebmak Melville Woodwabd, 1904. — Papers : A Mathe- matical Attempt to Mitigate the Severity of a Torrid Cli- mate, 1905; The Principle of Least Work as Applied to Beams, 1909 ; English Gothic Cathedral Construction, 1909. Reports : A Freak Standpipe, 1905 ; Conditions Causing the Explosion of an Evaporator in a Factory, 1908 ; A Problem in Hydraulics, The Humphrey Gas Pump, 1909. Abohie Gabheld Wobthing, 1906. — Papers : The Appli- cation of the Electron Theory to Certain Physical Phenom- ena, 1908 ; Water Splashes, 1909. Reports: Atomic Weight of Nickel, Some Experiments of Sir Wm. Bamsey, 1907. Bobebt Bbadfobd Wtlie, 1906. — Papers: A Primary Factor in the Evolution of Plants, 1908; The Okoboji Lake- side Laboratory, 1909. Reports: Peculiar Characteristics THE BACONIAN CLUB 113 of the Bed Algae, 1907 ; Method of Isolating Some Forms of Fangi,190& The following papers were read by invitation of the members of the Clnb : Capt. BBinarBTT — Some Pecnliarities of Whales, 1889. Pbof. W J MoGbb — A Visit to a Savage Tribe, 1899. Pbof. W. H. Nobton — Shore Forms, 1901; Artesian Wells in this Locality, 1908; Illnstrated Account of the San Francisco Earthquake Disaster, 1908. Beobkt AiiBEBT W. SwALH — The Growth and Prosperity of the University, 1894. Db. E. S. Talbot — D^eneracy, its Causes, Signs and Besults, 1904. Pbof. S. N. Williams — The Obligation of Science to Suffering Humanity, 1910. Mb. WmxB — The Great Storm at Samoa, 1890. Malcolm Glbnn Wybb — Book Binding, 1909. Mb. Geoboe p. Diegkmann — The Modem Manufacture of Portland Cement from the Mechanical and Chemical Stand- points, 1910. vol. iz— 8 SOME PUBLICATIONS AMEBIGANA GBNEEAL AND MIBOELLANBOUS Percy L. Kaye is the compiler of a volume of Readings in Ciwl Oavemment, which has been issued by the Century Company. Laws as Contracts and Legal Ethics is the title of an address by Phiny F. Sexton, which has been published in pamphlet form. Volume four, part two, of the Anthropdlogical Papers of the American Museum of Natural History contains some Notes Con- cerning New Collections, edited by Robert H. Lowie. In the August-September number of the Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society there is a paper by B. H. Matthews, entitled Further Notes on Burial Customs, Australia. The September number of The National Civic Federation Re- view is devoted to discussions of the various phases of the move- ment for uniformity in Federal and State legislation. A new edition of Alexander Johnston's valuable History of American Politics, revised and enlarged by W. M. Sloane and con- tinued down to date by W. M. Daniels, has recently appeared. Ernest R. Spedden is the author of a monograph on the smbject of The Trade Union Label, which appears as a recent number of the Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical and PoUtiod Science. The American Catholic Historical Researches for October opens with some Catholic Revolutionary Notes. J. E. Dow contributes Some Passages in the Life of Commodore John Barry. An article of western interest is one by J. J. Holzknecht on Bishop Henni's Visitation of Wisconsin 114 SOME PUBLICATIONS 115 The Report of the Sixteenth Afmudl Meeting of the Lake Mohonk Conference on International Arbitration contains a good variety of addresses and reports dealing with different phases of the problem involved. A complete edition of the TreiUies, Conventions, International Acts, Protocols and Agreements Between the United States and Other Powers, 1776-1909, has recently been issued from the Govern- ment Printing Office. E. Clyde Bobbins is the compiler of a volume containing Selected Articles on a Central Bank of the United States which appears in the Debater's Handbook Series published by the H. W. Wilson Company of Minneapolis. The New Netherland Register is the title of a new periodical, the first number of which appeared in January, 1911. The most ex- tended contribution in this number bears the heading. Pioneers and Founders of New Netherlands Kari Singewald is the writer of a monograph on The Doctrine of Non-SudbUity of the State in the United States, which has been published as a number of the Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical and Political Science. The Railway Library 1909, compiled and edited by Slason Thomp- son, contains a number of papers and addresses dealing with the operation and progress of railroads, and their regulation by the State and National governments. A valuable monograph from the standpoint of western history is that prepared by Bobert T. Hill on The Public Domain and Democracy, and published in the Columbia University Studies in History, Economics, and Public Law. The fourteenth volume of the Review of Historical Pvhlications Relating to Canada, edited by Qeorge M. Wrong and H. H. Langton, has appeared as a number of the University of Toronto Studies. This volume contains over two hundred pages devoted to publica- tions which came out during the year 1909. 116 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS World Corporation is the title of a yolume by King Camp Qil- lette, which outlineB a program of socialiatio reform. The corpora- tion, the purpose of which this volvme explains, is organized under the laws of the Territory of Arizona. The seventeenth and eighteenth volumes of the Library of Con- gress edition of the Journals of the CofUinental Congress, 1774-1789, edited by Qaillard Hunt, have appeared. These two volumes bring the proceedings of the Congress down to the close of the year 1780. W. Max Beid is the author of a volume entitled Lake George and Lake Champlain: the War Trail of the Mohawk and the Battle- ground of France and England in their Contest for the Control of North America, which has come from the press of Q. P. Putnam's Sons. The October number of the Bulletin of the Pan American Union contains, among other things, an account of Mexico's Centennial Celebrations. It is to be noted that the name ''The Pan American Union" has been substituted for ''The International Bureau of the American Republics." Max Schrabisch is the writer of an article on The Indians of New Jersey which appears in the September-October number of Ameri- cana. Others articles are: Thomas Paine' s Losition in the Connecticut State Library. HISTORICAL SOCIETIBS 137 Mr. Purd B. Wright, for several years a Trustee of the State Historical Society of Missouri, has been elected Librarian of the Los Angeles Public Library, and hence has severed his connection with the Society. On April 6 and 7, 1910, occurred the formal opening of the new building of the Historical Society of Penn^lvania. The building was erected at a cost of nearly three hundred and forty thousand dollars, half of which was appropriated by the State legislature. The Illinois State Historical Library has in press a volume con- taining a list of Illinois newspapers down to 1840, and the second volume of the Governors' Letter-Books. The papers of Oeorge Bogers Clark are being prepared for publication by Professor James A. James. The fifty-eighth annual meeting of the State Historical Society of Wisconsin was held at Madison on October 20, 1910. The crowd- ed condition of the library was commented upon by the Secretary, Dr. Reuben Qold Thwaites in his report, and the urgent need for a new book-stack wing was pointed out. The library now numbers 331,567 titles. The most conspicuous addition to the manuscript collections of the Society during the past year are the papers of the late Gteorge H. Paul of Milwaukee. The principal address at the annual meeting was delivered by Professor Benjamin F. Sham- baugh of the State University of Iowa on The History of the West end the Pioneers. The report of the Secretary of the Kansas State Historical So- ciety for the year ending December 6, 1910, reveals a substantial growth in the collections of the Society. Nearly eleven thousand books, pamphlets, and bound volumes of newspapers were added to the library. The most notable accessions are in the department of archives, where nearly twenty thousand documents were added during the year. The total collections of the Society now number in the vicinity of four hundred thousand items. Along the line of publication the Society has issued volume eleven of its CoUectuyfis. It has been decided to suspend work on the Memorial and Historical 138 IOWA JOURNAL OF HISTORY AND POLITICS Building, of which the foundation has been completed, until after the session of the legislature in 1911. It is sincerely to be hoped that the legislature will remedy the unfortunate situation which now exists, and the building will receive the generous appropriation which it deserves. OHIO VALLEY HISTORICAL A8S0GUTI0N The fourth annual meeting of the Ohio Valley Historical Associ- ation was held at Indianapolis, Indiana, on December 27, 1910. At 12 :30 p. m. there was a luncheon at the University Club, followed by a program at which the proposed Pittsburg Centennial of steamboat navigation on western waters was the first topic of discussion. Pre- liminary bibliographic reports on steamboating on the Ohio River were presented, and the session closed with a discussion of the pro- posed consolidation of the Ohio Valley and the Mississippi Valley Historical Associations. It was decided, however, that final decision upon the matter of consolidation should be left to the Executive Committees of the two Associations, with power to act. At four o'clock there was a Conference on Historical Publication work in the Ohio Valley, at which time an address was delivered by J. Franklin Jameson, and brief reports were presented by representa- tives of historical societies in the Ohio Valley. In the evening a joint session was held with the other associations meeting at In- dianapolis. THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY HISTORICAL ASSOCUTION The mid-year meeting of the Mississippi Valley Historical Asso- ciation was held at Indianapolis on Tuesday, December 27, 1910. The afternoon was taken up with meetings of the Executive Com- mittee and the various standing committees of the Association. In the evening at eight o'clock there was a joint session with the Ohio Valley Historical Association and the American EUstorical Association at which Professor Benjamin F. Shambaugh presided. The following program was presented at this time : Paper — New Light on the Explorations of the Verendrye — Orin 6. Libby, Professor in the University of North Dakota. Dis- cussion by Clarence W. Alvord, Associate Professor in the University of Illinois. HISTORICAL SOCIETIES 139 Paper — The American Intervention in West Florida — Isaac Joslin Cox, Professor in the UniTendly of Cincinnati. Discussion by Frederick A. Ogg, Professor in Sinunons College ; and Dunbar Rowland, Director of the Department of Archives and History of the State of Mississippi. Paper — A Century of Steamboat Navigation on the Ohio — ^Archer B. Hulburt, Professor in Marietta College. Discussion by R. B. Way, Professor in Indiana Universily; and John Wlison Townsend, Business Manager of the Kentucky State Historical Society. Paper — The Beffinnings of the Free-Trade Movement in the Cana- dian Northwest — ^P. E. Gunn, of Winnipeg, Canada. (Mr. Gunn was not present.) Paper — Early Forts on the Upper Mississippi — ^Dan E. Clark, As- sistant Editor in The State Historical Society of Iowa. The proceedings and papers at the mid-year meeting will be included in the volume containing the proceedings of the next an- nual meeting, which will be held at Evanston, Illinois, in May or June. THE AMERICAN HISTORICAL AJBSOCUTION The twenty-sixth annual meeting of the American Historical Association was held at Indianapolis, Indiana, on December 27-30, 1910. The sessions, which for the most part were held in the Clay- pool Hotel, were quite largely attended. The session on Tuesday evening was devoted to topics in western history, and was a joint session with the other associations meeting at the same place. On Wednesday morning there was a program under the auspices of the North Central History Teachers' Associa- tion at which there was a free and helpful discussion of the prob- lems connected with the teaching of History and Civics. The after- noon on Wednesday was given over to conferences on Ancient His- tory, Modem European History, American Diplomatic History with Special Reference to Latin America, and a Conference of State and Local Historical Societies. At the last named conference the reports of the widest interest were Mr. Dunbar Rowland's account 140 IOWA JOURNAL OF HISTOEY AND POLITICS of the progress of the work of calendaring the manuscripts in French archives relating to the Mississippi Valley, and Professor Clarence W. Alvord's very practical discussion of the methods of restoring and preserving manuscripts. The presidential address by Professor Frederick J. Turner on Wednesday evening dealt in a profound and interesting manner with the social aspects of American history. The address was fol- lowed by a reception at the John Herron Art Institute. Thursday and Friday mornings were devoted to sessions com- memorating the fiftieth anniversary of secession. The papers on Thursday morning clustered about the conditions and events in the North in 1860; while the general subject of discussion on Friday morning was the South in 1860. Especial interest was manifested in these two sessions. A Conference on Medieval History, a Conference of Archivists, and a Conference of Teachers of History in Teachers' Colleges and Normal Schools, were held on Thursday afternoon. An interesting feature of the Conference of Archivists was the report by Mr. A J. F. Van Laer on the work of the International Conference of Archivists and Librarians held at Brussels, August 28-31, 1910. The session on Thursday evening was a session on European His- tory, the paper which excited the greatest comment being one by H. Morse Stevens, of the University of California. After this pro- gram there was a smoker at the University Club. A luncheon, followed by informal speaking, was given at the Claypool Hotel Friday noon. The subject of discussion at the final session on Friday evening was The Relation of History to the Newer Sciences of Mankind, THE STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY OP IOWA The two-volume History of Taxation in Iowa, by Professor John E. Brindley, will be distributed in February. The Secretary, Dr. Frank E. Horack, read a paper on The Iowa Primary and Its Workings at the meeting of the American Political Science Association at St. Louis during the holidays. HISTORICAL SOCIETIES 141 Professor Laenas O. Weld's address entitled On the Way to Iowa, has been published and distributed to members. The manuscript of Dr. Louis Pelzer's biography of Henry Dodge has been accepted by the Board of Curators and will be put to press in the near future. The Society has just issued a new and revised edition of the booklet entitled Some Information, which describes the work of the Society, and contains a list of members. The Superintendent delivered the principal address at the annual meeting of the State Historical Society of Wisconsin on October 20, 1910. He also addressed fhe State Historical Society of Nebraska at Lincoln on January 10, 1911. Mr. Joseph W. Rich, a Curator of the Society, has been elected President of the Political Science Club of the State University of Iowa for the ensuing year. Dr. Dan E. Clark, the Assistant Editor, was chosen Secretary of the same club. Owing to the great demand for copies of Mr. Joseph W. Rich's monograph on The BMle of ShUoh, which was first published in The Iowa Joubnal op History and Politics in October, 1909, it will be reprinted in book form in the near future. The Twenty-Eighth Biennial Report of the Board of Curators of the State Historical Society of Iowa has been printed. It contains a detailed account of the activities of the Society during the two years ending July 1, 1910, a list of members, and recommendations for increased support. Dr. Benjamin F. Shambaugh and Dr. Dan E. Clark represented the Society at the meetings of the Mississippi Valley Historical As- sociation and the American Historical Association at Indianapolis, December 27-30. Dr. Shambaugh is President of the Mississippi Valley Historical Association. Dr. Clark read a paper on Early Forts on the Upper Mississippi, and made a report on the Public Archives of Iowa. The following persons have recently been elected to membership 142 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTOET AND POLITICS in the Society; Mr. C. Bay Aomer, Iowa City, Iowa; Lieutenant Morton C. Momma, Iowa Cily, Iowa ; Mrs. F. S. McGee, Riverside, Iowa; Miss Helen E. Ruser, Davenport, Iowa; Mr. D. E. Voris, Marion, Iowa; Mr. John L. Etzel, Clear Lake, Iowa; Mr. R. W. Birdsall, Dows, Iowa; Mr. P. 0. Bjorenson, Milford, Iowa; Mr. W. E. Crum, Bedford, Iowa; Mr. Brode B. Davis, Chicago, Illinois; Mr. Nathan P. Dodge, Jr., Omaha, Nebraska ; Mr. D. Q. Edmund- son, Des Moines, Iowa; Mr. John M. Galvin, Council Blufb, Iowa; Dr. J. W. Hanna, Winfield, Iowa; Mr. Chas. L. Hays, Eldora, Iowa; Mr. J. W. Hill, Des Moines, Iowa ; Mr. H. R. Howell, Des Moines , Iowa; Mr. Finis Idleman, Des Moines, Iowa; Mr. Jesse W. Lee, Webster City, Iowa ; Mr. E. E. Manhard, Waterloo, Iowa ; Mr. R. S. Sinclair, Cedar Rapids, Iowa; Mr. Jacob Springer, Marengo, Iowa; Mr. B. Van Stienberg, Preston, Iowa; Mr. L. 0. Worley, Blairstown, Iowa; Mr. Geo. Wright, Eagle Grove, Iowa; Mr. John A. Young, Washington, Iowa ; Mr. Samuel Hayes, Iowa City, Iowa ; Mr. W. W. Baldwin, Burlington, Iowa; Mrs. Mary Queal Beyer, Des Moines, Iowa; Mr. James B. BrufF, Atlantic, Iowa; Mr. T. J. Bryant, Gris- wold, Iowa; Mr. Henry S. Ely, Cedar Rapids, Iowa; Mr. C. O. Har- rington, Vinton, Iowa; Mr. L. S. Hill, Des Moines, Iowa; Mr. Charles N. Kinney, Des Moines, Iowa; Mr. V. R. McGinnis, Leon, Iowa; Mr. C. F. Mauss, Milford, Iowa; Mr. F. S. Merriau, Waterloo, Iowa; Mr. Arthur Poe, Cedar Rapids, Iowa; Mr. J. B. Rockafellow, Atlantic, Iowa; Mrs. Agnes W. Smith, Waterloo, Iowa; Mr. Thos. H. Smith, Harlan, Iowa ; and Mr. Edward S. White, Harlan, Iowa. THE RESIGNATION OF MR. PETER A. DET Because of advancing years Mr. Peter A. Dey, who for many years has been President of the Society and a member of the Board of Curators, has retired from the Board. The following resolution appreciative of his services was passed by the Board of Curators on October 5, 1910: **Be it resolved by the Board of Curators of The State Historical Society of Iowa that it is with deep regret that we accept the resigna- tion of Mr. Peter A. Dey as a member of this Board, since we feel that the Board of Curators suffers a great loss in being deprived of HISTORICAL SOCIETIES 143 his wise oounsel and advice. Mr. Dey has served as a member of the Board of Curators for twenty-four years, from 1886 to 1910. From September 8, 1900, to July 7, 1909, he held the office of President of the Board and of the Society. For the marked growth and develop- ment of the Society during these years Mr. Dey deserves a large measure of credit. He was wise in his judgment and always faithful and punctual in the performance of his duties." k .' NOTES AND COMMENT The North Central History Teachers' Association held a meeting at Indianapolis on December 28, 1910. The twenty-first annual meeting of the Iowa Library Association was held at Davenport, October 11-13, 1910. Dr. W. P. Dodd, formerly of Johns Hopkins University, is now a member of the faculty of the University of SUnois. The second annual meeting of the American Institute of Criminal Law and Criminology was held at Washington, D. C, on September 30 and October 1, 1910. The newly appointed General Secretary of the Archaeological Institute of America is Professor Mitchell CarroU, who has been connected with the Institute for several years. July 26 to 29, 1911, are the dates set for an International Congress dealing with the problems arising in the relations between the West and the East. London will be the place of meeting. Professor Herbert E. Bolton, formerly of the University of Texas and now of Stanford University, has accepted the professorship of American History in the University of California, to take efFect July 1, 1911. The sum of twenty thousand dollars has been presented to Har- vard University, with the stipulation that the income shall be ap- plied to research work in historical archives. It is preferred that these researches shall be along the line of American history, and especially that the work shall be carried on in the Spanish archives. The seventh annual meeting of the American Political Science Association was held at St Louis, Missouri, from December 27, to 30, 1910. Besides the general sessions on national and international problems, there were programs and conferences devoted to such sub- jects as judicial organization and procedure, primary elections, 144 NOTES AND COMMENT 145 mnnieipal government, taxation, and political theory. The Ameri- can Association for Labor Legislation, and the American Statistical Society held their meetings at the same time and place and there were a number of joint sessions. It has been announced by Mr. Dnnbar Rowland, Director of the Department of History and Archives of the State of Mississippi^ that the calendar of manuscripts in the French archives rdating* to the Mississippi Valley is nearly ready for publication. The work of preparing the calendar has been done by Mr. Waldo G. Leland. The various historical agencies in the Mississippi Vallqr are acting in cooperation in supporting this work. The Manuscripts Division of the Library of Congress has recently acquired the Madison papers and the Polk papers, including the Polk diary, which have heretofore been in the possession of the Chicago Historical Society. La Harpe's valuable journal dealing with the establishment of the French in Louisiana has also been se- cured ; and the Pickett papers containing the official correspondence and records of the Confederate government have been transferred from the Treasury Department. NATHAN PHILLIPS DODGB Mr. Nathan P. Dodge, a member of The State Historical Society of Iowa, died at his home at Council Blufb on January 12, 19] 1. Mr. Dodge was bom at South Danvers (now Peabody), Massa- chusetts, on August 20, 1837. In 1854 he came to Iowa City, where he joined his brother, Grenville M. Dodge, who was at that time di^ recting the survey for the Rock Island Railroad across Iowa. Dur* ing the following spring he took up land on the Elkhom River im Nebraska, but on account of Indian troubles he soon moved to> Omaha and later to Council Bluffii, where he spent the remainder of his life, devoting himself to banking and real estate business. Mr. Dodge took a keen interest in western history, and was- especiaUy well informed on the local history of Council BIu£b. He wrote numerous valuable historical articles which were pub- lished in the local newspapers, the last one being on the subject VOL. iz — ^10 146 IOWA JOUENAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS Woman's Aid and Saniiafy Commissions During ihs CivU War, He was beloved by all who knew him, and his death will long be deeply mourned. JONATHAN p. DOLLIVEB Johnathan Prentiss Dolliver was bom near Kingwood, Preston County, Virginia (now West Virginia), on February 6, 1858. He graduated from the University of West Virginia in 1875, and taught school for two years at Sandwich, Illinois, at the same time studying law. In 1878, in company with his brother, he removed to Fort Dodge, Iowa, and opened a law office. His political career may be said to have begun with his speech as temporary chairman of the Bepublic€Ln State Convention in 1884. From that time until the date of his death his abilities as a public speaker made him a powerful factor in political campaigns, National as well as State. In 1888 Mr. Dolliver was elected Congressman from the Tenth District, which position he held by successive terms until 1900. In July of that year the death of Senator John H. Gear left a vacancy in the United States Senate, and Governor Shaw appointed Jonathan P. Dolliver. In this capacity he was retained, through elections by the legislature, until the date of his death, which occurred at Fort Dodge on October 15, 1910. Senator Dolliver was recognized as a leader in the Senate. His long experience in Congress, his habit of making a careful study of all legislative problems, and his eloquent and convincing powers of debate, gave him an influence which was felt throughout the Nation. JOHN A. KASSON John A. Easson was bom at Charlotte, Vermont, on January 11, 1822, and died in Washington, D. C, May 19, 1910. After gradu- ating from the University of Vermont in 1842 he studied law and in 1845 was admitted to the bar in Massachusetts. Soon afterward he removed to St. Louis, Missouri, where he practiced his profession until 1857 when he came to Iowa and located at Des Moines. From the beginning he took a prominent part in politics as a Republican. NOTES AND COMMENT 147 During his long public career he served as a member of the General Assembly of Iowa, as a Bepresentative from Iowa in several ses- sions of Congress, and as Minister to Austria and Minister to Ger- many. He represented the United States in a number of inter- national conferences, and performed various other diplomatic ser- vices for his country. He was a member of several learned and scientific societies and was prominent as a writer on political sub- jects. HABVEfT BEn> At a regular meeting of the Iowa Soldiers' Boster Board, held in Des Moines, on the 20th day of December, 1910, the following pre- amble and resolutions were unanimously adopted: Whereas: Soon after the organization of this Board, and its adoption of the plans submitted for the prosecution of the work, upon the recommendation of Honorable Charles Aldrich, Curator of the Historical Department of Iowa, Harvey Beid of Maquoketa, Iowa, was authorized by the Board to prepare that portion of the work pertaining to the early military history of the State, and, Whereas: The work thus committed to the hands of Mr. Beid involves much careful and painstaking research, and has been prosecuted to successful completion by him, notwithstanding he was in such feeble health during a considerable portion of the time he was engaged upon it, as might well have discouraged one possessed of less fortitude and courage, and. Whereas : Only a few weeks after completing and delivering his manuscript into the hands of Adjutant General Logan, Mr. Beid was stricken by the hand of death, therefore, be it Besolved: That in the death of Harvey Beid, we recognize the passing from earth of another of the brave defenders of the Bepub- lic, who went forth in the vigor of his young manhood, to serve his country in her hour of greatest need. Besolved : That we hereby express our high appreciation of the faithful and capable manner in which he performed his part of the great work of preserving the history and records of Iowa Soldiers. In his death the State has lost one of its most intelligent and useful 148 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTOET AND POLITICS oitifens. To his bereaved widow and f amily, we extend our sincere oondolence. Tlie Secretary is hereby instmeted to spread the foregoing reao- Intions npon the minutes of this meeting, and to transmit a copy of the same to Mrs. Harvey Beid, to the Superintendent of the State Historical Society, and to the Curator of the Historical De- partment of Iowa. f j CONTRIBUTORS Clifford Powell, Member of The State Historical Society of Iowa. Won the Colonial Dames Prize for the best essay on a subject in Iowa History in 1909. Bom at Elliott, Iowa, on Decem- ber 14, 1887. Graduated from the Bed Oak High School in 1906. Graduated from the State University of Iowa in 1910. John Howabd Stibbs was bom at Wooster, Wayne County, Ohio, March 1, 1840. In 1861 he was in business for him- self at Cedar Bapids, Linn County, Iowa. The news of the firing on Sumter was received there on Sunday morning following the bombardment, and within thirty minutes after the receipt of this newB, Mr. Stibbs was parading the street, carrying a banner, and calling for recruits to save the Union. During the week following he organized a company, which became Company K, First Iowa Infantry Volunteers. He 'declined a commission in the Company, and was made Orderly Sergeant. On May 9, 1861, he was mustered into the United States Service, and was honorably discharged by reason of the expiration of his term of service on August 20, 1861. His service was with General Lyon in Missouri, and he participated with him in the Battle of Wilson Creek, Missouri, on August 10, 1861. For his service on that day he received honorable mention. On his return to his home, Mr. Stibbs was authorized to recruit a company for the three years service. He organized Company D, Twelfth Iowa Infantry Volunteers, and was mustered into the United States Service as its Captain on October 26, 1861. The regi- ment was sent to St. Louis, Missouri ; thence to join General Grant's forces at Paducah, Kentucky; participated in the capture of Forts Henry and Donelson ; and at Pittsburg Landing he fought in the ^* Hornets' Nest" as a member of Tuttle's Brigade of (General Wm. H. L. Wallace's Division. At 5:30 P. M. on Sunday, April 6th, the remnant of the regiment remaining on the field was captured, and 149 150 IOWA JOUBNAL OF HISTORY AND POLITICS Mr. Stibbs was held a prisoner for more than six months. He was paroled at Richmond, Virginia, on October 13, 1862, and exchanged five weeks later. When the regiment was reorganized in the win- ter of 1862-1863, a very large majority of the line officers joined in a petition for his promotion to Major, and he was commissioned as such on March 23, 1863, and was mustered July 30, 1863. In April, 1863, his regiment joined General Grant's army at Duckport, Louisiana, and participated in the Vicksburg Campaign and subse- quent movements of the Army in that vicinity. On August 5, 1863, Mr. Stibbs was commissioned Lieutenant Colonel, and mustered as such on September 5, 1863; and from that time until January, 1865, he was almost continually in com- mand of the regiment. In November, 1863, Colonel Stibbs 's regiment was sent up the river to Memphis, and thence to Chewalla, Tennessee, where it re- mained until the last of January, 1864. While there a very large majority of the regiment reenlisted as veterans. In February, 1864, he went with General Sherman back to Vicks- burg, and in March following was sent home on veteran furlough. He returned to duty at Memphis, Tennessee, on May 2, 1864, and two weeks later was sent with six companies to establish a post at the mouth of the White River, Arkansas, where he remained four weeks. When (Jeneral A. J. Smith returned from the Red River Expedition on June 10, 1864, Colonel Stibbs 's regiment was as- signed to its old place in the Third Brigade, First Division, 16th A. C, and was with him in all the subsequent movements of his com- mand. At Tupelo, Mississippi, on July 14, 1864, Colonel Stibbs's regiment bore the brunt of the fight. On December 1, 1864, at Nashville, Tennessee, all commissioned officers of his regiment, except five, were mustered out, and when he went into the battle there two weeks later, his companies were all commanded by non-commissioned officers. However, the work of his men proved so satisfactory that he was brevetted Colonel United States Volunteers, to rank from March 13, 1865. His commission dated April 5, 1865, and reads ''for distinguished gallantry in the battles before Nash- ville, Tenn." CONTRIBUTORS 151 On February 11, 1865, he was commissioned Colonel of his regi- ment, but as it had fallen below the minimum, he could not be mustered until November 11, 1865. The War Department, in re- sponse to a special request of the Qovemor of Iowa, issued special order No. 594, ordering his muster as Colonel to date September 11, 1865. While at Eastport, Mississippi, early in January, 1865, General Stibbs was ordered to Iowa and thence to Washington, D. C, on official business, and while in Washington was assigned to special duty and retained there until his final muster out, April 30, 1866, on which day his commission as Brevet Brigadier General was issued, to take effect from March 13, 1865, for "meritorious services during the war". From the middle of April, 1861, to the first of May, 1866, his en- tire time was devoted to the service, either in service or in raising and organizing companies. He was actually in the service for a period of four years, nine months, and fifteen days. 1 19 t m'' ■1^ I' I K ni '!? -■.J I I THE IOWA JOURNAL OF HISTORY AND POLITICS APRIL NINETEEN HUNDRED ELEVEN VOLUME NINE NUMBER TWO VOL. IX — ^11 THE ESTABLISHMENT AND ORGANIZATION OF TOWNSHIPS IN JOHNSON COUNTY By an act of the Legislative Assembly of the original Territory of Wisconsin, approved December 21, 1837, John- son County was established;^ but provision for the organ- ization of the government of this county was not made until 1838. In the meantime it was temporarily ** attached to and considered in all respects a part of Cedar County. ''^ By the act of the Legislative Assembly of the Territory of Iowa, approved June 22, 1838, provision was made for the organization of the county * * from and after the fourth day of July". This act also provided for the holding of two terms of the district court annually; and the town of Na- poleon was designated as the first seat of justice.* According to the provisions of the act of December 21, 1837, Johnson County included twenty congressional town- ships. This, however, was but a temporary arrangement, since by the act (of January ^5, 1839) of the Legislative Assembly of the Territory of Iowa, locating the boundaries of the County of Washington, three townships were taken from the southern tier of Johnson County and added to Washington County. (See Map I.)* Again, in 1845 the Legislative Assembly of the Territory of Iowa detached that portion of township seventy-seven, north, range six west, which lies east of the Iowa River, from Washington 1 Laws of tlie Territory of Wisconsin, 1837, p. 135. 2 Laws of the Territory of Wisconsin, 1837, p. 136. « Laws of the Territory of Wisconsin, 1838, p. 543. The town of Napoleon has long been extinct. 4 Laws of the Territory of Iowa, 1838, p. 100. 155 156 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS County and added it to Johnson County, thus making the Iowa River the western boundary of that portion of the county. (See Map 11.)* Previous to the formation of civil townships the county was divided into precincts for election purposes. Al- though few in number these precincts may be regarded as the historical precursors of the civil townships. At first it appears that the entire county was divided into two electoral precincts — a division that was authorized by the County Commissioners on March 6, 1840. The southern part of the county was designated as precinct number one and the northern part as precinct number two. The line separating these two precincts was not defined at this meeting of the Board, although the places of election are named as Iowa City and the house of Warren Stiles re- spectively.® That no division line was named at the March session appears to have been an oversight on the part of the Commissioners, for it appears that they established the line at the regular session in the following July. As de- fined on July 8, 1840, the line of division commenced at the northeast comer of section twenty-four, township eighty north, range five west, and followed the line between sec- tions thirteen and twenty-four westward to the Iowa River, and from this point up the river to the county line.^ (See Map IIL) On April 8, 1841, that part of the county lying west of the Iowa River was declared to constitute **an electoral precinct and to be known as precinct number three'*; and the elections in this precinct were to be held at the house of John Hawkins.® (See Map IV.) At this same session, BLati;^ of the Territory of Iowa, 1845, p. 66. ^Becords of the County Commissioners, Book I, p. 15. T Becords of the County Commissioners, Book I, pp. 24, 25. ^Becords of the County Commissioners, Book I, p. 77. i TOWNSHIPS IN JOHNSON COUNTY 157 the place of elections in the second precinct was changed from the house of Warren Stiles to that of Abner Arro- smith. A further division of the county was made in 1842, at the January session of the Commissioners, by dividing the third precinct by a line beginning on the Iowa River and running due west between sections twenty-two and twenty- seven, township seventy-nine north. All the territory south of this line was designated precinct number four, and the place of holding elections was located at the house of Jacob Fry. At the same session of the Board precinct number five was created by dividing the second precinct by a line running north and south one mile east of the township line dividing ranges six and seven. The house of M. P. McAllister was named by the Commissioners as the polling place.® (See Map V.) One finds on the records for this session a change in the place of election in the second precinct from the house of Hamilton H. Kerr to the town of Solon; but no mention is made of the time when the house of Abner Arrosmith was abandoned, as the place for elections, for the house of Kerr. Proper names were assigned to some of these precincts in 1843, since election judges are named by the Commis- sioners for Iowa City precinct, for Big Grove precinct, and for Monroe precinct. The other two were known by num- bers until July 3, 1844, when according to the records all of the five are referred to by names instead of numbers. Thus precinct number one was called Iowa City; precinct number two. Big Grove; precinct number three. Clear Creek; precinct number four. Old Man's Creek; and pre- cinct number five, Monroe.^ ^ No provision was made for the estabUshment of civil ^Eecords of the County Commissioners, Book I, p. 153. 10 Becords of the County Commissioners, Book II, pp. 24, 25, 85, 111. 158 IOWA JOURNAL OF HISTORY AND POLITICS townships in Johnson County until petitions came before the Board of County Commissioners at the January session in the year 1844. Qn this occasion three separate petitions for the establishment of townships west of the Iowa River were presented for their consideration. Owing to the eon- fusion of overlapping boundaries, as requested in the pe- titions, no action was taken on the subject by the Conmiis- sioners at this session.^* In April of the same year (1844) another petition came up **from sundry citizens '* of Clear Creek voting precinct, requesting the estabUshment of a civil township in that vicinity. The record breaks off sud- denly, which seems to indicate a want of information or a postponement of consideration for the session. The words ** commencing at the southeast comer of township eighty*', being all that is found in this connection, suggests that the civil township under consideration was number eighty north, range seven west.^ It was not until April, 1845, that any civil township was established in Johnson County. Then the Commissioners took the initiative, so far as can be learned, and decided upon the name of **Big Grove" for township eighty-one north, range six west. The first election for the local of- ficers of the township was held at the Big Grove school house on the first Monday in April, 1846 -^ which was the regular election day for township oflScers throughout the 11 Becords of the County Commissumers, Book II, p. 70. "On the Ist and 2nd days of this session three Petitions were presented to this Board for the Organization of Townships of a portion of this Countj west of the Iowa Biver, and the Board having duly considered sd Petitions, find that the bounds as proposed, interfere with each other, and therefore — It is considered that no action shall be had on either of said petitions at this Term". ^2 Becords of the County Commissioners , Book H, p. 81. On the petition of sundry citizens of Clear Creek Precinct for the organiza- tion of a township with the following bounds: "Commencing at the South- East Comer of Township 80". • TOWNSHIPS IN JOHNSON COUNTY 159 Territory.^ ^ (See Map VI.) Moreover, early in the year 1846 there appears to have been a general demand for the establishment of civil townships throughout the county, which, with but a single exception, resulted in the prelimi- nary definition of boundaries for all the territory of the county in the form of civil townships. The first petition in 1846 came from the settlers in town- ship eighty-one north, range five west; and it will be no- ticed that this territory lies just east of Big Grove town- ship which was established in the fall of 1845. The petition was heard and favorably considered by the Commissioners. The name ** Cedar** was given to the new township; and the first election was called at the house of Philo Haynes. (See Map VII.) No date being mentioned, one must con- clude that the election was held on the same day as that of the other townships, namely, the first Monday in April, 1846.^* Moreover, it appears that the first townships established coincided with the congressional lines according to the pe- titions of the citizens who occupied the territory. This was also true of Iowa City township, for the estabUshment of which no petition was presented from the inhabitants. In this instance the record of the Commissioners reads that * township seventy-nine north, range six west, shall be known as Iowa City township, and the first election shall be held at the court house in Iowa City".** (See Map vn.) At an extra session of the Board of Commissioners which was held in February, 1846, the chief business was that of i^Becords of the County Commissioners, Book 11, p. 159; Laws of the Territory of Iowa, 1845, p. 27. 14 Records of the County Commissioners, Book II, p. 207. IB Records of the County Commissioners, Book II, pp. 207, 217. The court house in which this election was held stood on the southeast eomer at the intersection of Clinton and Harrison streets. 160 IOWA JOURNAL OF HISTORY AND POLITICS establishing and naming civil townships. At this time it was cnstomary for the people of a certain neighborhood to fix upon the boundaries, which were then usually specified in the petition asking for the establishment of the town- ship. The Commissioners as a rule followed the lines as described in the petition. This method as a matter of fact frequently resulted in the division of congressional town- ships in the formation of civil townships, which led to many readjustments in township boundaries in the subse- quent history of the county. Ll of the first elections in the townships established at this extra session of the Board took place on the first Monday in April, 1846. According to the records Scott township was to include aU the territory of congressional township seventy-nine north, range five west. This is definite and simple, the thirty-six square miles needing no other description. (See Map Vn.) The first election was to be held at the school house near the home of Matthew Tenicke, Pleasant Valley township was to be composed of all that part of Johnson County south of township seventy-nine north, ranges five and six west, lying east of the Iowa River. It included congressional townships seventy-seven and seventy-eight north, range five west, and the fractions of the same townships in range six, lying east of the Iowa River. (See Map. VIE.) The first election was to be held at the house of Robert Walker.^ • Monroe township is described as formed from the part of Johnson County which lies in congressional townships numbered eighty-one north in ranges seven and eight west, and north of the Iowa River. (See Map VII.) Here the first election was to be held at the home of William Du- pont.^^ i^Beoards of the County Commissioners, Book IT, p. 217. ir Becords of the County Commissioners, Book II, p. 218. TOWNSHIPS IN JOHNSON COUNTY 161 Perm township requires a more detailed description which, as found in the records, reads : ^ ^ Commencing at the middle of the main Channel of the Iowa River, where the north line of township number seventy-nine range six crosses the same, then west along this township line to the northwest comer of the same township, then north on the range line two miles, then west one mile, then north one mile, then west to the west line of township eighty north, range seven west, then on the range line to the Iowa River, and then with the river to the place of beginning/* (See Map Vn.) The first election in this township was to be held at the school house near Chapman's.^® In the description of Penn township no mention is made •of the change in the boundaries of Big Grove township as established in 1845. As a matter of fact the portion of township eighty-one north, range six west, lying south of ihe Iowa River now became a part of Penn township. (Compare Maps VI and VIE.) This change made little .. 60. Returns of assessor for the year 1872 showed that there were 472 legal voters outside the city corporation. Of these 284 signed the petition, that is, a majority as required by the law. Samuel Spurrier was the special committee appointed by the Board of Supervisors to investigate and report. 99 Minutes of the County Supervisors, Book IV, p. 31. See Lucas township School Board Minutes, August 26, 1876, and April 13, 1878. See township plats as compared with original surveys by F. H. Lee. 174 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS Originally the boundaries of Lucas township correspond- ed to the congressional township of Iowa City as estab- lished in 1846 — if the change in the line of West Lucas can be accounted for. Somewhere between the years 1858 and 1870 the west three-fourths of sections nineteen, thirty, and thirty-one of what was Iowa City township, or congression- al township seventy-nine north, range six west, was added to Union township; but no record can be found to show when or how this change was made. It happens that the portion of the township mentioned is the exact counterpart of that on the west line of Union which was added by peti- tion in 1858. It may have been added then as a matter of accommodation ; but this is merely an inference, there bein^ no specific authority in the records for such a conclusion. The natural division of Lucas township into two parts by the river led to the establishment of two election precincts on June 2, 1874 ; and in the returns of elections the divisions came to be called West Lucas and East Lucas without the term **precincf thereto attached. Hence it was quite natural to speak or write of West Lucas township ; and as a matter of fact in the minutes of the County Board of Supervisors this term does appear before its use is war- ranted by any authority other than custom.*^ The same term is again used in the minutes for 1891 — probably after a petition was offered but before any authority was given for such use.^^ The actual division into East Lucas and West Lucas was ordered on April 8, 1891. Since a change in the boundaries of these townships is given below in full it is not necessary to repeat here the outside boundaries of the townships. The only change that took place since the establishment of the first boundaries of Iowa City town- *o Minutes of the County Supervisors, Book IV, p. 323. «i Minutes of the County Supervisors, Book V, pp. 476, 481. TOWNSHIPS IN JOHNSON COUNTY 175 ship has been mentioned above in connection with the Union township boundary. The last change in boundaries, the description of which contains the outlines of East Lucas and West Lucas and the boundaries of Iowa City townships, was as recent as September, 1910. The minutes of the Board of Supervis- ors relative to these boundaries are exact and, indeed, were drafted to correspond with the drawing prepared by the city officers. To describe West Lucas it is necessary to fol- low the lines very closely to make the change clear either in language or on the map. Commencing at the township line between congressional townships seventy-eight and aeventy-nine north, range six west, on the west bank of the Iowa River, the boundary follows this side of the river to the limits of Iowa City; then it runs west to the south- west comer of the northwest quarter of the southeast quar- ter of section sixteen, township seventy-nine; then it pro- ceeds north along the east line of the west half of sections sixteen and nine to the north side of the State Boad to New- ton and follows the north side of this road to the west line of section nine ; thence it runs north to the west bank of the river ; then follows the river to the northeast until the north line of section nine is reached ; then runs east to the north- west comer of section ten; and thence north to the west bank of the river. At this point there is a confusing prob- lem that compels one to retrace his steps, following the west bank of the river in a southwesterly and finally north- erly direction around the bend until the north line of sec- tion four, township seventy-nine north, range six west, is reached. The description from this point is the same as for West Lucas township in 1891, namely; west from the river on the township line between townships seventy-nine and eighty to the range line between ranges six and seven ; then south to the southwest comer of section eighteen ; then 176 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS east to the northeast comer of the northwest quarter of the northeast quarter of section nineteen; then south on the east line of the west half of the east half of sections nine- teen, thirty, and thirty-one to the township line; and then east to the starting point on the river. (See Map XVL) The East Lucas boundary conunences at the southeast comer of section thirty-six and follows the township line between townships seventy-eight and seventy-nine to the river. Then it runs north to the city limits and east to the right of way of the main line of the Bock Island Railroad. It follows this right of way in a southeasterly direction until the east line of section fourteen is reached^ then it mns north along the east line of this section to the northeast comer of the same, then west along the north line of section fourteen, to the northwest comer of the northeast quarter of section fourteen, then north along the east line of the west half of sections eleven and two of township seventy- nine north, range six west, to the south side of the Dubuque road in section two, then in a westerly direction along the Dubuque road, on the south side to the southeast comer of the northwest quarter of the northwest quarter of section two, then west to the southwest comer of the northwest quarter of the northwest quarter of section three^ then south on the west line of section three to the east bank of the river. It follows the east bank of the river until the north line of section thirty-four, township eighty north, range six west, is reached, then runs east to the northeast comer of the same section thirty-four, then south to the southeast comer of the same section, then east to the north- east comer of section one in township seventy-nine north, range six west (the original Iowa City township), and finally runs south on the range line between ranges five and six to the place of beginning.^^ (See Map XVI.) 43 Minutes of the County Supervisors, Book VIII, p. 38. TOWNSHIPS IN JOHNSON COUNTY 177 . . • . ■ , . ■ , \ - - - - ■ ■• • - f - - - '• - - " " ■- " ' ' ' - - ■• ' " (• rf" - - . - - ■• :y r > •\ " - " - -- • - >j f< J sf ' 0 A i. - - - - - ■■ . ■ - A I . ■=V ^1 - •■ V c " - - - - - .- .. - - ' / ?>, . " ■ ' - - ■^ t' - " - - " • " - • • ' " '■ ■■ " 1 A - - ■ '■ - - " - " - " y ■-- ^ " - T *• - . .. - . T^ "-iT "^' '^ < '- - • ■• - - " i - - - - • . • - - \ " ^ - - r 1. * - - ~ - - i • ~ X -j_ J-- 1^ ^ > 7 • ■ ■ ^ . -^ • • ■ ?. - - - ■ • S, - - I - ■■ - - " - - - .. - - • - " ■«. - t - - - ^ • - - - ■• y - - - - - - i- -^ V T - \- - - -\ - - I - ~ - • - - - - - - ;' "l -^ ^ V ■ l" • ■J - - " - - - 1^ ^ • ■/ • y - • ■i~ \ ■■ ■■ ■ - ■ ' - - ■ ^ 'm L -^ ;'^ >■ -J - ' •■ - - - • - - ■• -^ ^ -^ ji jy v< - r,\ " r - •■ - - - - - - i. .- Jt- y - - ■ - - - " - - - ■ •■ - ■■ ■ - " ■■ - ■■ - • - - "V" - " - ■- - ■ mti - ■■ '- • - - - - - - - " ■• - - - \f J^ l1 A ji _i 178 IOWA JOURNAL OF HISTORY AND POLITICS TOWNSHIPS IN JOHNSON COUNTY 179 • . - . .. • ■ ■ - > - • - - ■■ ' ■ " ■■ ■' " ■ • ■• - » - - t O . . ~ • - " ■■ jy 1^ ■V T - - >■ - .- - - S> it\ ^ - (^ J V " i. hS 1 • - - - 1 .. - - w =B« f' 'jt - « - - '■„ »j ' • V \>, ■ " • ' - •^ - ■ - - - " - • • " • • ■■ " 1 ■^ •• . - - ~ - "•■, " - " y " ■\ - - ' ? - - « " - -^ ■^ -^ '- ■ ■^v < '- - - V •■ - " / - - " - - - - - X '• " ^ - " >. 1. ■• - - - ;, ~ ■N^ _!_ V /T 1 V, . • -^ '■ • - ~^ - • - - Ss c • t - "f - • ■ - "/ '"« r ■T - -> - \ - - - ^ - • •• " - i- '^ V T ^• \- ■' -1 ■ ■ - ■■ - - - - " ' - ■ ) ^ -^ jr V - ' » 1 ~ - - - - r- ■ ' ■ y - - ■■ - - - • - -^ ^-"~ -^ J, y^— \- - • - • - - ■ - ■ - - •• -^ -— ■^ ^ -jv <■ • A " r - ~ ■■ - - - • • - i_ _- JL. y - " - • - "f - •■ - •• - - ■■ • ■■ * - •■ ■ " - - •• ■■ - ■■ - - ■• ■ ■ - Election Precincts in 1840 V - - - - - - - '• " - - w ^ -J Jll - 180 IOWA JOURNAL OF HISTORY AND POLITICS . T" T . T . T" ■ . . . . . . T . , . "^ ■^ "* . . . ■ - - • ' - - - - •• " - '• •• ■■ ■• ■ - • - ' - - r - - . ~ ■• J^ w > i" '• ■•■i ,"^ - . "(f S J NT" - h. s 'y. • - ■ > K ■^ A 3 ■■ ■• '^ • - .• " • ■ • ■ • i ?! . . - ■ • • • •^ - - . - '• - " • " ■• ■■ " 1 ^ . - ■■ - •■ - - ■» / ■-■ ■<, - ■• " - - - « o - . -jr- -- V > . ■ • V, • - -'s '• • - • - :>, • r% ,\. 'P 'n ^ ■■ - ' - ■V - 1 - \ ' - ■ ~^ ,«, - - .^ ' -^ ^Z^ \\ • " » • - - - - ~ ■ -'• — ■'■, Li i^ -* • \ - if - - ■' - - - ■ " z^ -^ ^ y ■ ■■ - - ■ - - - - - " ■■ • ' r- -■ - " - ■■ 1" - ' - - ■■ MAP IV - ' - - ■ Election Precincts in 1841 - - - ■ " ~ ■- - C< ^ j_ TOWNSHIPS IN JOHNSON COUNTY 181 . . . . • . ■ . ■ . . ~ ~ ~ "7" ":* f\ "7" ■f fF r / C-5 y -v - . - • - f . - - - " » - - " » " • - » - • - L- t - - - - " " " ^ s< ■^ ^ - ■^ » " " M 1^ s 7^ k - i\ J Sif " i. s ■\% - . ■' L "^ ■^ T - t" - ,•- ~-^ . - ;"r ,- y - ^ ■ - • - • - - - x_ ^ -^ ^ '^ --. -Jk A- 1- " - - ■ - ■■ ■ . - ■ - ■■ ■■" — ^ _j^ -< " A ^ - ~ ■■ ■■ - - - - - - - - -ij L" -^ j^ ■ - - - ■■ - ■■ - - " • ■■ ■■ - " ■ > - •■ ' •■ - - ■• - -< r - - - ■■ " ■ • • Election Precincts in 1843 - - - - - - - - •■ - ' - - \^ ^ jj " - • 182 IOWA JOURNAL OF HISTORY AND POLITICS . . . T ■ - . . ■ ~ ~ ~ . "> p • - <• ■ ■ • - ■■ - " " ■ ■• • " " - » ■• 7 r ^ J' - b - ~ - - " - " :y '■ > 1 - - s '■/■ s. n J »;< y " 5 -! h - - - - - -^ u ' ■B* /; - y <, /^ " - - . •. • ' ? !> . • " - f - - - - - - ' - - • 1 - ■■ - - ■■ - ■ - X " ^ - •> 3 " « - ■^ ■^ -<■ Sv < '- ■ - - ■ " 4 - - - - - . ■^ "- - -^ ■ttt^ - - P- i_ .. - ,, • X ■"■ V jj \r ^ ^ ^ '• K - - - ^ s" ■ - t r - - - • ■^ 1 - - \ - - - y - " - - i- V T \- 1- - -\ t - - - " ■• ■■ - i t- -^ ^ ^ " I" ") • - - • ,•- / • 'K ■= - - \ • - ■ - - X, '.r -i. \- \ ' - - - * - - - • -■^ ■^ _5' -<• \ r - - - " - - - i. .'• ^ y - • ^ ■ " ' - - - - - - •■ ■ - - - • '■ - ' ■• -<- - - ■■ - . MAP VI ■ - Bio Qhove, the First Civii. Township, Established - - • IN 1845 - • - - - - - <^ j_ Jl. _;;_ - TOWNSHIPS IN JOHNSON COUNTY 183 ~ . . . . . . , ■*> . .. ., . ■' ■ / > iS -s .^ > -(- s F '< *> . .. - -»J T J> n" - If s ■■ . iri' ^ ^ ■ ^ \ P"' - - - • . • - u * •^ «'-. - ■ ■^ - ■■ - » .' . ' ■ c t> . - 'f- ,p ," > ^5 - ■ . . - . ■■ " % 'V . ^ ■4. - . . ., - ■■ . ,. - X ■\ - - ■1 3 . ^ ^ iT ■^ 'f •". - - ) ■ "( I - » - ■■ - "( . A \- ^■^ . ^ " r 1. - - „ .. '^ > _J_ -^ V •' V 1 ■ • ^ . . "^. - ' - - . ^ - V - - • 'o Im fl "C r vr f "~ - - \ - - - ^ ' ■• " ' r Vr Y - ■■ - .■ -^ V T " \- ■ ■- ■\ - V ■■ - - • - . .. - ■■ - / 'l. ^ "f ,- " .A • - - - ■ - . f^ -^ 1 I'f . - ^ y ■ - . ^ -^ ^ ^-r- '^ T> j^ '-"^ \- j - - - . . ~ ~ ■• -■■ — JL J' - \ ^ r - ■• - •■ " - - - - ■■ ^ - 4L y - - - - ' ' ■ - - - - . ■■ - - '• ' " - " ■■ •1 ~ - 'f '■n >, ^> r" w\ ^^ MAP VII - - - • ~ - AND 1846 r ■ - - ^: - - • s V" ^ L :i 1_ 184 IOWA JOURNAL OF HISTORY AND POLITICS — -^ ■y ~ . . • . ■ . . . • , ■ ■ ■■ » ~ . . r n ■• '• ' , '■^ir "f iV ^' -, -^ ^l,- /" . . - . jr t ? *\ -• '^ I •?I • - .. V \ ^' - - T ■ - ■• - - " " 1 /'h ," " . - - - - • / - ■\ - - - -■ 1 ■■ - -!•- -r 3^ 'S ,' y - • *( f. - - - "^ r ).. - - - ; X ^ V J '1 ■ ■ ^ . . . ^, - - ■ - - - - - S- s" t - - 'in 1- " " i - ^ • ■^ - - t ~ - - \ • - - - " ■■ - - - N. -^ V ->" ^" V ■ ■' ■ - " " - - - . . « . - . f i- -^ .^ f ■ t" » - ■ - - -^ • - r •"~ ■• " * . . . « - X, 7 yu r> V - ■' ■■ - - " . • . - . - ■• -" — A A r - •■ . - - - • ■■ iL _- --- y • - - " - ■ - ' - " A - - " - " * - " " -^ 5^ -"^ s'l* ^ ^■ ^ • ■ ,; • MAP vm - • - • ( - ' - » y - - - - k - - - - s - - - - - • TOWNSHIPS IN JOHNSON COUNTY 185 ~ ~ ~ 7~ ~ ~ ~ ~ . ~ ~ "^ ~ "7" "^ V] ~ . . ~ ■ • • " ■ ■• - / • " " - - Al n J*^ r) =■'■ "f1/r "n 'r ^■' ^ fj" ~ . - . :-J' ;^ T iJ? - » ^ ^ ■5. " '^ a^ *t a -4 « • s i. - • " - - - - •• " - ■• '■ » •• - ■ ' i >, . > ■ ' is €^ - - - ■ • • ■ " - \ '■^ xA' "r - - r - " " / ■s " « " ' J « - r rf^ Jv <- '■■ ,' ■■ • "J # . - » - j; ~- ""-y - 1 ),. - ' - •■ - ^ • X _:_ >- V '< y 1 • . . ■ V ,• . ^ - ■" ■ ■■ - ■ - S- • l\ ,-■ ■ - 'r - ^- ■■ "e ^• " ■^ ■ - \ - - ^ - - ,5 - ■ ■• ■■ - ' " > ■^ V T - \- ■ •\ - - - ■• - - ' - ■■ - •• " i -!L -^ j^ y .'■ ' 1 - - . - " - ,hVr. ^ ' • - ■ - ^ • ■ • ■ • . - -^ >- ^ ^ '-'' - ^ A < *•• - - - - . .. - ■■ " ,^ — '. '^ ■^ -s- \ Jj pf " - •■ ■■ - - - - ■ - ■ - =-_ .• JL y ' - ■■ - - - - - - - ■• - " - ■■ ' ■■ '• • •• A. - 'fi j" ^- MAr IX Civil Townsiiii^ after the C'reation of Union in 1853 ^ ' ^'rt - - ( ■ " - ■ T - - - - ^; - - - - - N u :;, Ld j^ _1 J^ 186 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTOET AND POLITICS — — 7- — ~ > "^ "7 ■7 ■ ^ rr ~ r^ V . . . ,. , ■ ' - • - - P ■r- r,, /■a r'.l' ■. - ,-^ /'r ^ ho '^' "-^ 'r. ■d 4'f- .^, ■• "fj ifi ^ ff u f^ , . - i£^ 1"

i s 'f ■s ■■ ifS 4 ^ ■ Lh s •l h • - - - - - - U ^ ■^1 'i - " *? t '^ " - - - • •• ■ ■■ ? ^ 1 . ■■ - • ■/= r'A ^% • V ^5 - - - - 'r -"a - - • t - & •f ■■ f •s - t - - n, '^ "'"^ r • - ^ ■• - J- - • ■■ - "f 'Li A ,A v v\ ■ MAPX - ( - • ■■ - T ■ - - - ^: ■ • - s 'to' ■^ J^ ^ - TOWNSHIPS IN JOHNSON COUNTY 187 ~ ~ . T ~ • : . • ■ ■ • „ ? - . „ . ■ - - • " . ^ fil » "/( V =^> ^ ■^h "f^ » "r c . > T '^ » ■■ (^ s ■■ ti Ji ■4 s J(i I"* - ' ■ - - ■• - - - «r " >^ h ^ ■• •■ » ?: '■ ' - - '■ ■■ ■• - • •?>, • ■ - ^ • - • r ^ - . ^- • ■ " - ifft -„ - 'f f^ _\ - " .. ■ ", - ■ .. / ■A - - - 1 " - ~ - ■■ -^ -c- "„' -^ '^ "- ^ •^ •■ "( i ■■ - ■ > » - ■. V; ■^ - "^ r ).. " - » " - ; . X _^ V jj V •r . 's '. • ■~ •■ ■ s. • ,\ - ' - - „- ■■ •c - .' • ■^ . - \ - - \ ~ - "r ^; " " • - i^ ■ JT s ^ ^ in J ■4 - L s ■fL^ - ' - - . - - ■ • U k '3i " ^^^ " - - ' « " ■■ - '• ' I 5> • ■ ■ • • ■■ - V 'F ,- \ sft •"f - - r '^'r - ■■ ' f V - ■■ - - - ■ y " \ " - - • 1 ■■ - - ■■ - -J^ ~-ir "- ■^ ■=? •i - "( ^ ■• - - -• - - . - >. • •• - ■■ ~^ ..-• - ■■ r 1,. " - « - " . - ^ ~ ^ ^ V V ^ ' ■ ' s. - -v • • - 'f "'r ^ ,- ■ V, - •■ ■■ - ■ M- ■■ - • • *»s • - t '~ - Cn V - - - 'r Vt - • .» - - - - >- >/> •■ "h - ■■ ^ .'^ ri ^ - - - ■■ - ■ ■■ --_ _• J^ cy • ■• T ■ - - ■' •• - - ■■ - ■■ ■ » " ' - ■• - '• ^ » " ~ ■■ - »^ • MAP XIII Civil Townships after the Cre.\tion op Hardin and Sharon in 1858 ■■ - - 1 r,% M n~ - „ >'■ - - - - - •^l - - - - - - ■^ V^ =^ Ld Li j_ j_ 190 IOWA JOURNAL OF HISTORY AND POLITICS . . ■ . ^ . . . .. - - • - . " • • - A- h ^f ft <^' - 7 '"V '^"H *.fri~ "f "ir 77 w iV f ■;t -i. t> u ^ J»^ ^ > ^ » ^ %. T ■^ h i) ^ •^ s 1 % - ~ . - - - - - " ■• V ^^ -1%, ■ih aJ V i !> * . ■ - ■ - • " - \ 4i ■Hi- ij^ 'c RT - . r i r'c fi> n • - - - - ,a, r^ h - 7 ^ Af- -f ~ . r ^ ^■v " ' ■ 3 " ■»■ ^ -<■ "'„~ -T ^^ ■■ ■ "d i# - " - - - - ~ " - M- "^ - r 1. ■• - - . ^ ' '' ^, j_ -M V ■J Ir J V, - . ^ - ■ <. - . :>, ■ t - V 1^ - ■ - - /", X n\ ■■ ■• - - r ~ - - -=- ■■ - "T ■ - -\ - - ~ • - J. . .. V - i "l -^ :^ -* "?■ - t" • ' 1 - - - " 7" -^ - - ■f - - - ^ • ,^- Sv >■ ^ Tr -*- -h fcV - 7 W A rZ • ■• J!/ ■n ■V r ' ~A .- ■ ■ ^ - ' - -^ _'■ JIL y • • - - - - - - A - " - »■ - » - '■ - " - - ■ " - - " w\ ■ • • MAP XIV CmL Townships after the Creation op Madison in 1860 " - ( - 'Ft r ( w r" 7 \ - - - ■ N - - - - - TOWNSHIPS IN JOHNSON COUNTY 191 — r ~ — "^ ~^ . ' . . ^ . • . .. „ • - ■ - • " •■ / - TV A J'0 <^( » 7, -y =■> w.' o ;' 'fl "r. R-V y r. it f^ . - ■• ■*T - H 1? s. «^ ir, ^ 0 <, • n| ^( ^■ W' \vr ?n P7- - " - • '■ " - » ^ ^ ■■ y. ■^ n"i n"n J" . . ~ - ~i - V, ,■ ^ - ■n 1 " - • ' - --- '.' ^ ri - - "C « - - - - ■• - - - . - •' » ■■ "■^ - "1 P^ 1.. " - " - •• - "^ ^ -L. ->• \ -V Hr .■ ^ ^. • ^v - - - ■• - ■h M . t ■ •■ - - ■ ■It; |- ■>; • ' ■^ \ - - l7r h, ■■ - y - - •■ - - - > T - - - \ - - ■■ - - - , - .. - ,' ^ -^ ■^ y .- " » - - - ■■ ■ - - Ti ■ ! . y . ■ ■ r- 1 ■ • - . iT > ■W W t" JL. 5- =? 1. ? - . L- / nV . . - - . - ^ - JL y - - i\i" H - " - . . - - ■■ - ■ - " " • - ■• M" - • }' " - - V MAP XV - ■ - - < •■ ■P " T - k - " - - - - s W" ^ Li J^ j;_ j:_ 192 IOWA JOURNAL OF BISTORT AXD POLITICS ■ -I- . 1, j. 1. '. [. . , . , . 1, 7" . . •h-l . . . • • " 'y - ■A 7> J/ ••o^ " 04^^/- . . . - ^* •ir \ -T. 1- • - 5^ - r ^ ' "-I A 9 V 4, 0 -I ^- 'l-f- - - - s/^ ■J . , . 1 . y < ys,' - 1 - - - " - ■> ■'• 7 r-a D/i^'oj/V • ■ - - ■ - ■Nfi ^t i^ 'c fir - • Y y l'< i5a • - ■ - "^ 3?' V/N rt ■ - V . ^5,J . "^ -- ?il4" ' "^ - u - *<- - cH ■.\^h'A%: - - "1 - - ■ - . - * . ■ r — i1%| - iJ . . > . N • .>-^ V ■\ / S> . . ^^, * - ■ 1 - '^ V- , r. - ■ - - • l - Tr r> •r • ■V t - n X rf/- - • tt'e ,?^ », ■» ■r "1" - - ^ -^ - -f - ■' r<, ■>i ' i'" S' - ■ - . » - - . > 'L -^ J? ^<. - - - - - . . ^ • > -, • ' 1 ■ X - • ■ ! • 11' . ,, 1^ ^ ■f ^ ^ "'"'1 ^ T \' \p 1 r/ •!/ N7 7 w 'b LtA . . - J!/ ■s A ^>^ A/. i"i - • - - - ■ - i x. y - T - - *■ - - « - - " ■■ - ■ " " ■• - • - •■ -*- - - - ^ ; V/\ ■ • • MAP XVI ■ • - • - ■/ ~h r' ■#V »A/ f AND Weht Lrcts IN 1891 and the Definition OF ALL Boundaries in 1911 - - V • ' - ^ ^ jl _^ ■ TOWNSHIPS IN JOHNSON COUNTY 193 SUMMARY Big Grove : — Established by order of the Board of Com- missioners mider date of April 9, 1845; first election held on first Monday in April, 1846; subsequent changes in boundaries occur in 1846. Cedar: — Established by order of the Board'of Commis- sioners under date of January 7, 1846 ; first election held on the first Monday in April, 1846 ; no subsequent changes oc- cur in boundaries. Clear Creek: — Established by order of the Board of Commissioners under date of February 10, 1846 ; first elec- tion held on the first Monday in April, 1846; subsequent changes in boundaries occur in October, 1847, August, 1852,. March, 1856, and July, 1857. Fremont: — Established by order of the Judge of the County Court in the early part of 1857; mention of the township made in connection with special election for rail- road tax held on April 6, 1857 ; no subsequent changes occur in boundaries. Graham: — Established by order of the Judge of the County Court under date of January 5, 1857 ; first election held on April 6, 1857; no subsequent changes occur in boundaries. Hardin: — Established by order of the Judge of the County Court under date of January 4, 1858 ; first election held on April 5, 1858; subsequent changes in boundaries- occur in February, 1858. Iowa City : — Established by order of the Board of Com-^ missioners under date of February 10, 1846; first election held on the first Monday in April, 1846 ; subsequent changes in boundaries occur in January, 1859, January, 1873, and September, 1910. Jefferson: — Established by order of the Judge of the VOL. IX — 14 194 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS County Court under date of March 6, 1854; first election held on April 3, 1854; no subsequent changes occur in boundaries. Liberty: — Established by order of the Board of Com- missioners under date of February 10, 1846; first election held on the first Monday in April, 1846 ; subsequent changes in boundaries occur in March, 1854, and February, 1858. Lincoln : — Established by order of the Board of Super- visors under date of June 8, 1870; first election held on second Tuesday in October, 1870; subsequent changes in boundaries occur in April, 1871. Lucas: — Established by order of the Board of Super- visors under date of January 15, 1873; first election held on second Tuesday in October, 1873 ; subsequent changes in boundaries occur in April, 1891. Lucas, East: — Established by order of the Board of Supervisors under date of April 8, 1891; mention of the township made in connection with the general election of 1891; subsequent changes in boundaries occur in Septem- ber, 1910. Lucas, West: — Established by order of the Board of Supervisors under date of April 8, 1891; mention of the township in connection with the general election of 1891; subsequent changes in boundaries occur in September, 1910. Madison : — Established by order of the Board of Super- visors in 1860; first election probably held on the second Tuesday in October, 1860 ; no subsequent changes occur in boundaries. Monroe : — Established by order of the Board of Com- missioners under date of February 10, 1846; first election held on the first Monday in April, 1846 ; subsequent changes in boundaries occur in March, 1854. Newport : — Established by order of the Board of Com- missioners under date of February 10, 1846; first election TOWNSHIPS IN JOHNSON COUNTY 195 held on the first Monday in April, 1846 ; subsequent changes in boundaries occur in October, 1847, January, 1857, and January, 1859. Oxford: — Established by order of the Judge of the County Court under date of March 3, 1856; first election held on April 7, 1856; no subsequent changes occur in boundaries. Penn : — Established by order of the Board of Commis- sioners under date of February 10, 1846 ; first election held on the first Monday in April, 1846 ; subsequent changes in boundaries occur in October, 1860. Pleasant Valley : — Established by order of the Board of Commissioners under date of February 10, 1846 ; first elec- tion held on the first Monday in April, 1846; subsequent changes in boundaries occur in June, 1870. Scott : — Established by order of the Board of Commis- sioners under date of February 10, 1846 ; first election held on the first Monday in April, 1846 ; subsequent changes in boundaries occur in October, 1847. Sharon-. — Established by order of the Judge of the County Court under date of February 1, 1858 ; first election held on the first Monday in April, 1858; no subsequent changes occur in boundaries. Union : — Established by order of the Judge of the Coun- ty Court under date of August 30, 1852 ; first election held on April 4, 1853; subsequent changes in boundaries occur in March, 1854, July, 1857, February, 1858, and some time between 1858 and 1870. Washington-. — Established by order of the Board of Commissioners under date of February 10, 1846 ; first elec- tion held on the first Monday in April, 1846; subsequent changes in boundaries occur in October, 1847, August, 1852, March, 1854, January, 1858, and February, 1858. CiiABENCE Bay Aubneb Iowa City, Iowa ^■. THE ATTITUDE OF CONGEESS TOWAED THE PIONEEES OF THE WEST 1820-1850 RELATIONS BETWEEN THE PIONEERS AND THE INDIANS THE FBONTIE» IN 1820 In the year 1820 a line of outposts extending from the Lakes to the mouth of the Mississippi marked the military frontier in the West. At the northern end of this line stood the island town and fort of Michilimackinack in the straits of Lakes Michigan and Huron. Thence southward lay Fort Howard on Green Bay and Prairie du Chien at the mouth of the Wisconsin Eiver. Two regiments of infantry were encamped along the Missouri Eiver ; while in the South, the Sabine Eiver was guarded by a small detachment. Thence eastward several small posts completed the border defenses through Louisiana to New Orleans.^ A glance at the census map of 1820 will show that there existed a gap between this f ar-spreading miUtary line and the established settlements.^ In the South the pioneers had advanced beyond the Mississippi into Missouri and Arkan- sas ; and parts of western Louisiana had long been occupied. But north and west of the Missouri settlements the Missis- ^Niles' Weekly Begiater, Vol. XIX, p. 251; American State Papers, Military Affairs, Vol. II, p. 37. For a picture of army life on this frontier, see Colonel Cooke's Adventures in the Army (Philadelphia, 1859). 2 Map facing page zxii, Eleventh Census, Population, Vol. I, Part 1. See also Turner 's Colonisation of the West in the American Historicai Review, VoL XI, p. 307. For a comparison of the "farmer's frontier" and the military frontier, see Turner's Significance of the Frontier in American History in the Annual Beport of the American Historical Association, 1893, p. 211. IM THE PIONEERS AND THE INDIANS 197 sippi Valley was unbroken Indian country. On the eastern side of the river, the body of settlements had hardly ad- vanced further northward than a line drawn from the mouth of the Missouri Eiver to Detroit in Michigan. Eastward, also, within the interior lay large districts barren of legal habitation, because the Indian title had not been extinguished. Along the old Spanish border of Flor- ida, the army had but recently been employed in subduing the Seminoles and their allies. Again, in the States of Indi- ana and Illinois and in the Territory of Michigan there were extensive wildernesses where the Chippewas, Ottawas, Pot- tawatomies, Winnebagos, Menomonees, Miamis, and Sac and Fox Indians still retained their possessory rights to the soil and sullenly resisted the encroachment of settlers. Even as far east as the State of Georgia the Cherokees and the Creeks stubbornly clung to their native land, as did the Choctaws and Chickasaws in Mississippi and Alabama. White settlements encroached upon these Indian lands from all directions, so that some tribes like the Cherokees and the Creeks were almost surrounded by citizen pioneers. Thus conflicts between the two races were inevitable. Frontiersmen, impatient at the Government's delay in ac- quiring the Indian title to these rich valleys, frequently staked out their little claims within the Indian territory and thereby brought down upon themselves the resentment of the original claimants who retaliated by pilfering com and stealing cattle. The Indians on their part, after ceding their lands to the United States and agreeing to retire to other possessions, were often loath to leave and hung about the new settlements much to the annoyance of the settlers.' The relations between the pioneers and the aborigines were theoretically prescribed by Federal laws. These ** trade 8 The American State Papers^ Indian A fairs, contain a mass of evidence conceming the relations of the backwoodsmen and the Indians. 198 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS and intercourse acts, * ' as they were called — the first one being passed as early as 1796 — provided severe penal- ties not only for attempting to settle npon any lands, the Indian title to which had not yet been extingnished, but .they even imposed a penalty for going into the Indian coun- try without a passport. The military force of the United States might be used to expel such intruders.* But in spite of these Federal enactments, there always existed on the frontier more or less irritation and tension. Pioneers im- patient for land eluded the scattered dragoons of the small western army and encroached upon the Indian country. The Iowa country was thus invaded by a few bold settlers who crossed the Mississippi at Dubuque in 1830.*^ The ma- jority of the frontier pioneers were content to wait until the Government had bought the Indian title to the western lands. But even after this title had been secured troubles sometimes arose — due to the failure of some Indians to comprehend the papers which they had signed or on ac- count of their simple and savage unwillingness to perform their obligations.® To this state of things the plan to remove all tribes from the east to the west of the Mississippi owes its origin in the early years of the nineteenth century. Jefferson was the first to elaborate the idea. Colonization in Upper Louisiana was the plan that occurred to him in the year 1803.'' Al- 4 United States Statutes at Large, Vol. I, pp. 470, 745; Vol. II, p. 139; Vol. m, p. 332. B Parish '8 The Langworthys of Early Dubuque ar^ Their Contributions to Local History in The Iowa Joubnal op History and Politics, Vol. Vni, No. 3, p. 317. 9 The Indians' side of the story is well told in the Life of Black Hawk (Boston, 1834). Mrs, Gratiot's Narrative in the Wisconsin Historical Col- lections, Vol. X, p. 261, is a good type of the pioneer accounts. T Ford's The Writings of Thomas Jefferson, Vol. VIII, pp. 241-243. Jef- f erson 's first proposal of such a plan to any tribe was his address to the Chiek- asaws in 1805. — ^Washington's Writings of Thomas Jefferson, Vol. VIII, p. 199. THE PIONEERS AND THE INDIANS 199 though he made no definite reconunendations thereon to Congress his views were widely known by correspondence and personal conversations ; and through such means it was that the sixteenth section of the Louisiana Territorial Act of 1804 was written, empowering the President to exchange Indian lands east of the Mississippi for lands on the west side. Attempts to secure removal during Jefferson's administration were neither energetic nor successful, al- though the application of this remedy to the Indian problem was urged by the Governor of the Territory of Indiana, William Henry Harrison, and was occasionally advocated in Congress.® The idea of westward removal appealed most strikingly to Southerners. Four great tribes — the Cherokees and Creeks and the Chickasaws and Choctaws — were coming to be a most serious menace to the progress of the southwest- em frontier. These tribes still retained their possessive rights to large tracts of most fertile land in Tennessee, Georgia, and the Territory of Mississippi, and thus their presence threatened seriously to retard industrial develop- ment. In the Northwest the need of removal beyond the Mississippi was not so ardently demanded until after the War of 1812 because the over-strenuous administrations of General Anthony Wayne and Governor Harrison acquired from the Indians vast sections of land years in advance of The origin of the removal policy is exhaustively discussed by Dr. Abel in Indian Consolidation West of the Mississippi in the Annual Beport of the American Historicai Associ€Uion, 1906, Vol. I, p. 235 et seq. Dr. Abel de- scribes the Indian removal chief 7 from the aide of the Executive Department, Tvhile Phillips in Georgia and State Bights describes the episode of the Greek and Cherokee removals from the viewpoint of the States concerned. — Annual Report of the American Historicai Association, 1901, Vol. IL On the other hand, the removal of Indians across the Mississippi is portrayed from the In- dians' side in the monograph by Royce entitled The CheroJcee Nation of In- dians in the Fifth Annuctl Beport of the Bureau of Ethnology, p. 129. 8 Annals of Congress, 1st Session, 8th Congress, pp. 41, 440. Senator James Jackson of Qeorgia and John Randolph of Virginia casually mention the plan. 200 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS the actual economic need of that section of the country ; and, moreover, the Indians themselves retreated westward more rapidly than did their southern brothers before the stream of eastern emigration. Perhaps the first serious proposal to exchange the lands of the northern Indians for lands be- yond the Mississippi occurred in 1817, when Lewis Cass, Governor of Michigan Territory, was instructed by Mon- roe's Secretary of War to propose to the Indians of the Ohio that they exchange their lands for equal tracts beyond the Mississippi — reserving, however, a certain number of acres in the ceded territory to each head of a family who wished to remain.* A year later the first treaty whereby a northern tribe — in this case the Delawares — ceded their lands in Indiana for a tract beyond the Mississippi was ne- gotiated by Lewis Cass and two other commissioners.^^ In 1819 a similar treaty was negotiated with the Kickapoos of Ulinois.^^ Then the score of years following was marked with similar zealous and successful efforts to evict the In- dians from the Old Northwest under the guise of solemnly negotiated treaties. In July of the year when removal was inaugurated in the Indian affairs of the North, Andrew Jackson secured with much effort a treaty with a southern tribe, the Cherokees, providing for the removal of such individuals of that tribe as were willing to make the change.^ The question of the removal of these Indians and the Creeks soon became in- volved in the fierce controversy between these nations and the State of Georgia. Thereupon the whole affair was sev- eral times reviewed in Congress as will be further noted. These then were the beginnings of the removal policy. » American State Papers, Indian Affairs, Vol. II, p. 136. lOKappler'g Indian Affairs, Laws and Treaties, Vol. II, p. 170. 11 Kappler 'a Indian Affairs, Laws and Treaties, Vol. II, p. 182. i2Kappler'8 Indian Affairs, Laws and Treaties, Vol. II, p. 140. THE PIONEERS AND THE INDIANS 201 Its ori^ was executive, not congressional. Indeed, we shall see that the stimulus for a national plan of removal came almost entirely from the Executive Department, al- though local interests never ceased to memorialize Con- gress for the removal of individual tribes whose presence annoyed particular States. Before the third decade of the century the plan was little dreamed of; but what the atti- tude of Congress would be when it should seriously con- sider the subject was already forecasted. Commiseration for the retreating Indians, whether maudlin or philanthrop- ic, was to be put aside. The story of Clay's futile elo- quence on behalf of the Seminoles has already been told.^* On all points was Jackson's decisive conduct with the Flor- ida Indians sustained, not only in the Fifteenth Congress but as well in the first session of the Sixteenth Congress.^* BBGINNINGS OF THE GEOBGIA INDIAN CONTBOVEBST Of the thirteen original States, Georgia was the only one possessing in 1820 a considerable frontier.^*^ In the North, . the Indian frontier had passed westward beyond Ohio, al- though a few isolated tribes and individuals still remained in New York and in New England. From Virginia the bor- der difficulties in the back country which filled the corre- spondence of Governor Patrick Henry were now long van- ished. Even Kentucky — the first of the admitted States in the West — was quite free from aboriginal inhabitants. Prosperous plantations covered these once famous hunting grounds. 18 The Iowa Joubnal of Histoby and Politics^ VoL vm, No. 1, pp. 109-114. ^* Annals of Congress, Ist Session, 16th Congress, p. 1542. 16 No less a historian than Frederick J. Turner has included the back coun- try of Georgia, daring the years following 1820, as a part of the western frontier. — Bise of the New West, p. 57. The settlers who were encroaching upon the Cherokee and Creek lands west of the Ocmulgee Biver had much in common with the settlers who were crossing the Mississippi at the same time. VOL. IX — 15 x t \ 202 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS But Georgia presents another story. One-third of the State, in fact all of the lands north and west of the Ocmul- gee Eiver, was still held by the Creeks and Cherokees.^* The Cherokees were semi-civilized but annoying. The Creeks were more war-like. Divided in their councils, a part had struck the Government in the War of 1812, while the other part had been actively loyal. The danger of their presence was ever a source of worry ; and this the Georgia delegation often told Congress.^'' **The unprotected situa- tion of the frontiers invited aggression and the predatory and sanguinary depredations of a dark and insidious ene- my, whose track was to be traced by blood and desolation, cried aloud for vengeance * \ declared one Georgian Eepre- sentative.^8 This utterance was made when Georgia was ad- vocating her Militia Claims. The debates upon these claims, although referring to conditions at the close of the eighteenth century, reflect much of the contemporary atti- tude of the Georgia delegation. As an example of the hun- dreds of similar claims presented to Congress by western members almost every year they may beg the attention of the reader for a moment. The Georgia Militia Claims orig- inated in the border outbreaks of 1792, when the State had employed her militia in suppressing the Indians. Some years later Georgia demanded recompense therefor, al- though these claims were said to have been liquidated in the transactions of 1802 when Georgia ceded her lands to the United States.^® For a score of years thereafter the im- passioned speeches of the Georgians presented Congress 16 Annals of Congress, Ist Session, 18th Congress, p. 465. 17 oamer '• SJceiches of the Settlers of Upper Georgia, p. 504 et seq. 18 Annals of Congress, 2nd Session, 17th Congress, p. 163. 19 The argument for these claims is given at length in Senator Elliott 's re- port of 1822. — Annals of Congress, 1st Session, 17th Congress, p. 383. Annals of Congress, 2nd Session, 7th Congress, p. 461. For the argument against the claims, see pp. 523, 535. THE PIONEERS AND THE INDIANS 203 with a vivid picture of the State's border position. That eastern members could never appreciate the horrors of Georgia's exposed condition nor comprehend the service that she was rendering to the nation by standing as a bul- wark against the Indians was the burden of these har- angues* Heart- thrilling accounts of the ** midnight char- acter of Indian hostility'* depicted in rather lively col- ors this frontier and idealized the settlers who ventured with their families so close to the aborigines.^ Persistence in these addresses finally won an appropriation from Con- gress in the year 1827, in spite of the bar to the claims.*^ Meanwhile Georgia had carried to Congress the most ob- stinate of all frontier problems. Should the Creeks and Cherokees continue to hold wildernesses in a civilized State and bar the progress of American settlement? True, the Cherokees were of all American tribes the most civilized; both they and the Creeks had made progress in agriculture and were becoming attached to the land they occupied by stronger bonds than those which bound the roving Indians of the Northwest to their hunting grounds.^^ But the eco- nomic interests of Georgia were ready for expansion upon 20 Mr. WDej Thompson of Georgia exclaimed that Georgia had been "del- uged by the blood of her citizens, slaughtered in defending the United States; and still justice .... is withheld from them." — Begister of Debates, 2nd Session, 18th Congress, p. 81. Indian troubles were unavoidable, Thompson contended. Eastern States seemed not to appreciate Georgia's position — how she stood as "a bulwark between the Indians and the interior States, while she received the death stroke of the Indian tomahawk in her own bosom". — "Register of Debates, 2nd Ses- sion, 19th Congress, p. 1245. John Forsyth charged that the claims had been rejected simply because the State operations against the Creeks and Cherokees had taken a direction of- fensive to the Administration. — Register of Debates, 2nd Session, 18th Con- gress, p. 581. 21 Begister of Debates, 2nd Session, 19th Congress, pp. 1266, 488. 22 Royce 's The Cherokee Nation of Indians in the Fifth Annual Beport of the Bureau of Ethnology, p. 23L 204 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS the Indian lands ; the aggressive settlers demanded portions of the unused districts still held by the Creeks and Chero- kees; but demand as they might, these tribes began stub- bornly to refuse any further cessions of their remaining domain.^' Such a condition boded trouble indeed. One third of a Commonwealth in the hands of some thirty thousand per- sistent aborigines was a fact which naturally provoked the citizens, who were nearly two hundred thousand in number and rapidly increasing.^* The problem would have been quickly solved had the State controlled the lands in question. But in 1802 Georgia had ceded her public lands to the United States. In the compact, however, the Federal Government stipulated that the title to Indian lands lying within the State should be extinguished as early as could be peaceably done upon rea- sonable terms.^*^ This the Federal Government proceeded to accomplish, and by treaties with the Creeks and Cher- okees secured for both Georgia and Alabama prior to the year 1824 some fifteen million acres of land.^* Ten million still remained in the possession of the two tribes when they manifested their determination to cede no more. Since 1802 the Executive Department had been sincerely willing to fulfil its promises, although ever insisting upon treating the Indians with diplomatic courtesy. And Con- gress as well had voted generous appropriations to conduct treaties of cession. Now, however, it was apparent that if the diplomatic attitude of the Executive continued no more 2s For a comparative map of Indian land cessions in Georgia, fee the Eight- eenth AnnwU Bepori of the Bureau of Ethnology, Part 2, Plate XV. 24 For population of Creeks and Cherokees, see American State Papers, In- dian Affairs, Vol. II, p. 546. 25 American State Papers, Public Lands, Vol. I, p. 125. 2« Beport of Secretary of War. — Annals of Congress, Ist Session, ISth Con- gress, p. 465. THE PIONEERS AND THE INDIANS 205 cessions could be obtained. A commanding attitude was necessary to make these Indians retreat ; and the Georgians were disappointed and provoked because such a course of action was not vigorously followed by Monroe and Madi- son.^ ^ The Governor and legislature frankly told the Gov- ernment so at different times with increasing irritation.^® That the Federal Executive was disinclined to coerce the Cherokees and Creeks was evident in Monroe 's message of March 30, 1824. **I have no hesitation *^ wrote the Presi- dent, * * to declare it as my opinion, that the Indian title was not affected in the slightest circumstance by the compact with Georgia, and that there is no obligation on the United States to remove the Indians by force. '^ But he added: * * My impression is equally strong that it would promote es- sentially the security and happiness of the tribes within our limits, if they could be prevailed on to retire west and north of our States and Territories, on lands to be procured for them by the United States, in exchange for those on which they now reside. ' '^® 27 Calhoun when Secretary of War under Monroe disapproved the policy of treating with the Indian tribes as with States or nations. — American State Papers, Indian Affairs, Vol. II, p. 276. The attitude of Monroe and Adams in this respect is open to just criticism. The Georgia delegation pronounced formal treaty-making to be a farce. Why should the Government act as if the Indians were foreign powers f asked For- syth. The question seems never to have been satisfactorily answered. — Begister of Dehates, 1st Session, 19th Congress, p. 2614. For an army officer's opinion in later days, see Centenniai of the United States Military Academy at West Foint (Washington, 1904), p. 527. 28 Phillips 's Georgia and State Bights in the Annual Beport of the American Historical Association, 1901, Vol. II, p. 52 et seq. The attitude of Georgia was nicely expressed in the memorial addressed by the legislature to the President of the United States in 1819. "The State of Georgia'', read this protest, ''claims a right to the jurisdiction and soil of the territory within her limits. . . . . She admits however, that the right is inchoate — remaining to be perfected by the United States, in the extinction of the Indian title; the United States pro hac vice as their agents." — See Worcester vs. State of Georgia, 6 Peters 585. 29 Annals of Congress, 1st Session, 18th Congress, p. 463. The Message and 206 IOWA JOURNAL OF HISTORY AND POLITICS Monroe admitted that the question had developed beyond executive control ; and he therefore submitted to the consid- eration of Congress, trusting that the Indians as well as the people of Georgia would receive equal justice. If Monroe hoped by this message to throw the responsibility for action upon Congress he was doomed to disappointment. The so- lution which he tentatively proposed was to peaceably in- dine the Cherokees toward accepting the removal plan. But Congress was not ready to assume the responsibility. The President possessed the treaty powers under the Con- stitution. Why should he not continue to treat and the Senate to ratify? While Congress hesitated to touch the affair, the Georgia delegation were loud in their attempts to secure decision. **If the Cherokees are unwilling to remove,'^ they said, **the causes of that unwillingness are to be traced to the United States. If a peaceable purchase cannot be made in the ordinary mode, nothing remains to be done but to order their removal to a designated territory beyond the limits of Georgia '^^® It is needless to say that their efforts* were in vain. The Senate Committee on Indian Affairs passed over the matter without reporting.^^ The House Conmaittee, be- ing headed by John Forsyth, naturally reported that im- mediate removal was wise, but the measure was lost in the House.^^ The times were premature for drastic solution, although the issue had become well defined. If the Georgia Indians refused to emigrate should their possessive rights accompanying documents were printed in Senate Documents, Ist Session, 18th Congress, No. 63. 80 Anndls of Congress, 1st Session, 18th Congress, p. 471. 81 The Senate referred the Georgia Indian controversy to its Committee on Indian Affairs, of which Benton was chairman. — Annals of Congress, 1st Ses- sion, 18th Congress, p. 474. The Journal of the Senate does not indicate that the Committee reported during the session. — Journal of the Senate, Ist Session, 18th Congresty p. 28. 82 Annais of Congress, Ist Session, 18th Congress, p. 2348. THE PIONEERS AND THE INDIANS 207 to soil in Georgia's jurisdiction be maintained by Federal authority T Or, should the stubborn Indians be forced to emigrate f The first horn of this dilemma was intolerable to the State of Georgia and to her sympathizers ; while nei- ther eastern Congressmen nor the President would seize the latter* MONBOB AND THE REMOVAL POLIOT The Georgia delegation little realized that their persist- ent demands in Georgia's behalf would gradually force Congress and the Executive to the adoption of some general plan for disposing of the Indians. But that event was to be in the future and at present was little contemplated by members of Congress, although signs of the disastrous pol- icy, then being pursued, were not lacking even in the halls of Congress. In December, 1823, a most egregious blunder had been exposed, concerning the assignment of lands to the Choctaws ^nd Cherokees west of the Mississippi. It ap- pears that the most fertile of the lands ceded to these tribes during the years 1817 to 1820, in exchange for their eastern possessions, lay within the Territory of Arkansas and were already occupied in part by white ** squatters '*. In the case of the Cherokee tribe the United States agreed by treaty to remove all intruders upon the ceded lands ; while the Choc- taws relied upon the promise of General Jackson, who was acting as commissioner on the part of the United States, that ' * the arm of the Government was strong, and that the settlers should be removed. * '^ Their reliance upon the Government was disastrous to themselves, for within a few years local interests caused even the national legislature to undermine their rights. saKappler's Indian Affairs, Laws and Treaties, Vol. II, p. 142; American State Papers, Indian Affairs, Vol. II, p. 549. For a map of the cesaions, aee Royce 's Indian Land Cessions in the Eighteenth Annual Beport of the Bureau of Ethnology, Plate VI. 208 IOWA JOURNAL OF HISTORY AND POLITICS The occasion was an angry remonstrance from the Terri- torial legislature of Arkansas against the action of Con- gress in establishing the western boundary of the Terri- tory.'* This line, the citizens complained, cut off from the Territory large numbers of **most respectable inhabitants" who had intruded upon the public domain. Henry Conway, the Delegate from ALrkansas, loudly maintained the alleged rights of the intruders. **I can never consent*', he wrote to the Secretary of War, **to any measure which is calcu- lated to check the prosperity of my Territory, or to destroy the interests of any portion of its inhabitants. * ^' In the Senate the memorial from Arkansas was presented by Benton and it was referred to a select committee con- sisting of Benton, King of Alabama, and Lowrie of Penn- sylvania.** This occurred in December, 1823. In March the committee reported a document of surprising ingenu- ity.*'' There were three questions comprising the solution of the case, the committee began to explain. Should the in- habitants cut off by the line of 1823 be left as they were without law to govern them t Or, should they be compelled to come within the present limits of the Territory? Or, should the western boundary be extended to include themt The first method the committee rejected, for reasons **too obvious to require specification. ' * The second was also re- jected with a confusing number of objections. And so, by elimination, what was left but the third plant Accordingly, the conmaittee reported a bill for the extension of the west- em boundary. How the adjustment of the Choctaw and Cherokee boundary lines with this new Territorial line ^* American State Papers, Indian Affaire, Vol. 11, p. 556; United States Statutes at Large, Vol. HI, p. 750. «» American State Papers, Indian Affairs, Vol. II, p. 556. s« Annals of Congress, lit Session, 18th Congress, p. 47. 87 Annais of Congress, Ist Session, 18th Congress, p. 420. THE PIONEERS AND THE INDIANS 209 might be accomplished the committee did not venture to prophesy, save merely to express a hint that the Executive would find such conflicts occasions for further treaties with the Indians. The bill as later amended in the Senate directed the Presi- dent to treat with the Choctaws for a modification of the Treaty of 1820.'® In this form it passed both houses and became law in May, 1824. Thus the Executive Department was forced into the position of breaking public faith with the western Choctaws. The consequence was what might have been expected : the Choctaws were compelled, in 1825, to retire west of the Arkansas line, leaving their promised lands in the hands of the irrepressible pioneers.*® The Oherokees on the lands to the north of them soon met the same fate.*® That such miserable procedures were the inevitable out- come of the haphazard and sporadic attempts in solving the Indian problem, Monroe was more than ever convinced. The last years of his administration were enough to show him that sectional bickerings and extravagant expense would ever be attendant upon a continuation of the present imsystematic Indian policy. With the opening of the sec- ond session of the Eighteenth Congress barely three months of legislative sittings were left to his administration ; yet he did not evade the bold presentation of the problem in its larger scope. He recommended to Congress the advisabil- ity of adopting *'some well digested plan'* of establishing S8 Annals of Congress, 1st Besiion, 18th Congress, p. 778 ; United States Stat- utes at Large, Vol. IV, p. 40. The Executive Department apparently disregarded that part of the act which extended the boundaries of the Territory of Arkansas west of the southwest corner of Missouri. — Note the United States Statutes at Large, Vol. VTI, p. 311; Vol. V, p. 50; Congressional Globe, 2nd Session, 26th Congress, p. 54. 89 Kappler's Indian Affairs, Laws and Treaties, Vol. II, p. 211. *o Kappler's Indian Affairs, Laws and Treaties, Vol II, p. 288. 210 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS an Indian district '* between the limits of our present States and territories, and the Eocky Mountain [s]^^ where the Government should carefully supervise their progress in civilization.*^ Having announced his attitude, the President left the elaboration of his ideas to his Secretary of "War, John C. Calhoun. Calhoun developed a plan — one unusual com- pared with those hitherto proposed. It was communicated to Congress on the 27th of January, 1825.** It contemplated the establishment of a permanent Indian Territory west of the settlements with a government uniting all tribes in one organization. To this end the Secretary recommended that Congress provide for a convention of the leaders of aU east- em tribes in order to explain to them the views and prom- ises of the government. Already the committees on Indian affairs in both houses were considering the first suggestions of Monroe in his mes- sage at the opening of Congress. Benton, the chairman of the Senate committee, approved a definite national plan of reUeving the western States from their undesirable Indian population. The bill which this committee reported came from the pen of Calhoun and gave legal form to the **weU digested'* plan which Monroe had suggested. Its title an- nounced it as an act for the preservation and civilization of the Indians. On February 23rd it passed the Senate.*' In the lower chamber the bill was referred to the standing committee of which John Cocke of Tennessee was chairman* The records do not indicate that it was ever considered in the Committee of the Whole House — perhaps because of the press of other matters. A bill of similar nature, con- *i Begister of Debates, 2nd Session, 18th Congress, Appendix, p. 7. *2 Begister of Debates, 2nd Session, 18th Congress, Appendix, p. 57 ; Senate Documents, No. 21; Niles' Weekly Begister, Vol. XXVII, p. 404. 48 Journal of the Senate of the United States, 2nd Session, 18th Congress, p. 187. THE PIONEERS AND THE INDIANS 211 cocted by the House committee itself, met the same fate. To the proposals of the President little further attention was given, save by the easily frightened Delegate from the Ter- ritory of Arkansas, who demanded that no lands of his con- stituency be granted to the emigrating Indians.** Such apathy on the part of western Congressmen, when Illinois, Indiana, Michigan Territory, Missouri, Mississippi, Alabama, and Georgia were looking with restless glances at the Indians within their borders, can only be explained by the supposition that sectional interests had not yet been combined into one great national plan. While Elliott of Georgia supported Calhoun *s bill in the Senate,**^ the re- mainder of the Georgia delegation appeared strangely si- lent in the House, except in respect to their own grievances with the Creeks and the Cherokees. Headed by Forsyth they called for the vengeance of Congress to descend upon these stiff-necked Indians. Their vexation — fanned into a passionate rage by the inertia of Congress — adopted the method of blocking all proposals to extend any act of cour- tesy or justice to these Indians, even when such acts would not interfere with the rights of Georgia.** ^^Niles' Weekly Begister, Vol. XXVII, p. 271. «s Begister of Debates, 2iid Session, 18th Congress, p. 639. ^ The Cherokee claim in regard to the Wafford Settlement gave one occasion for this ungenerous display on Georgia's part. Among the items of the mili- tary bill, the Committee on Ways and Means had included an appropriation to cancel the obligation of the long neglected treaty ceding the lands in question. — Begister of Debates, 2nd Session, 18th Congress, p. 536. The gist of the matter was that the Government had undertaken in the year 1804 to protect certain settlers who had invaded the Indian lands in violation of the Federal laws and treaties, but had failed to recompense the Cherokees for the land thus illegally seized. — Royce 's The Cherokee Nation of Indians in the Fifth Annual Beport of the Bureau of Ethnology, p. 186. John Forsyth and his colleagues protested against this appropriation. They were outvoted. — Begister of Debates, 2nd Session, 18th Congress, p. 546. The episode is an illustration of Congress condoning illegal settlements. * * The Cherokees ' ', said McLane of Delaware during the debate, ' ' were in pos- session of this land within the limits of Georgia, in 1804. Their lands were in- 212 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS THE END OF THE CBEEK CONTBOVEBSY Before the last session of his administration had closed Monroe was able to submit to the Senate tangible results of his efforts to continue the policy of treaty-making with the Creeks in Georgia. At Indian Springs on the 12th of Feb- ruary the commissioners of the Government had succeeded in persuading certain chiefs of the Creek nation to sign a treaty ceding all their lands lying within the State of Georgia.*^ Without inquiring too closely into the history of the negotiations Monroe transmitted it, late in February and only a few days before the end of his administration, to the Senate. This body, on the third of March, hastily ad- vised and consented to ratification,*® although the fact had become officially known that the Alabama chiefs of the Creek nation had never agreed to the cession.** On March truded on by citizens either of that state or some other; and an application was, in consequence, made by the Cherokees to the United States to dispossess the intruders. The Government of the United States felt that it was their duty to do so. Orders were issued accordingly, and, military force sent to put them into execution. When the troops arrived on the spot, they found that the set- tlers, for the most part, had crops then growing, and not gathered; and the of- ficers interceded with the Cherokees to delay the removal of the intruders until their crops could be gathered in, and finally succeeded in persuading them to sell the land to the United States. The Government accordingly issued a com- mission to Messrs. Meigs and Smith, to negotiate for the purchase. A treaty was held, in which the Indians agreed to sell, and the commissioners to buy their land. ... As soon as this treaty was made, the Indians abandoned their land, and the settlers were suffered to remain, and others to enter. The Indians executed the treaty in good faith, and the only question that we ought to have any difficulty in deciding, would be, not whether they are entitled to receive the arrearages of the annuity, but whether we ought not to allow them interest for the whole time it has not been paid. — Register of Debates, 2nd Session, 18th Congress, p. 539. *T Kappler's Indian A fairs. Laws and Treaties, Vol. II, p. 214. ^9 Executive Journal of the Senate (1828), Vol. Ill, p. 424. *9 Memoirs of John Quincy Adams, Vol. VII, p. 12. The correspondence transmitted to the Senate along with the treaty, must have appeared to a care- ful peruser strangely suspicious. — American State Papers, Indian Affairs, Vol. II, p. 579. THE PIONEERS AND THE INDIANS 213 7th John Quincy Adams, respecting the acts of his prede- cessor, proclaimed the treaty without ado.*® To the Georgians, who coveted the Creek lands like the vineyard of Naboth, the treaty was most gratifying. It promised to end their long contention with the Creeks and undoubtedly would have ended the affair had the treaty been genuine. But the scandalous conduct of the commis- sioners, although legalized by the Senate, was not to stand unrepudiated by either the President or the Senate itself* Before the next session of Congress the ugly rumors and hints of the early part of the year were fully confirmed in Washington. It became well known that an impotent and discredited faction of the Creeks had signed the treaty in direct opposition to the will of the whole nation. Acting up- on this light Adams directed the Secretary of War to nego- tiate a new treaty with the accredited chiefs of the Creeks who had journeyed to the capital protesting the affair of Indian Springs.*^^ By his action the President found himself immediately at- tacked by Governor Troup and the Georgia delegation in Congress.^^ While Governor Troup directed the quarrel with so much vehemence that his name was ever after known for angry defiance to the Federal Executive, the Georgia delegation in Congress were none the less extreme.*^* On January 7, 1826, they declared to the Secretary of War that Georgia would never admit the invalidity of the treaty of Indian Springs. Their method of proving its genuineness was an argumentum ad ignorantiam. The citizens of 60 Memoirs of John Quincy Adams, Vol. VII, p. 12. Compare with the mes- sage to the Senate, January 31, 1826. — Bichardson's Messages and Papers of the Presidents, Vol. II, p. 324. 61 Memoirs of John Quincy Adams, Vol. VII, pp. 74, 108. 62 Phillips 's Georgia and State Bights in the Annual Beport of the Americaf^ Historical Association, 1901, Vol. II, p. 59. 68 American State Papers, Indian Affairs, Vol. II, p. 747. 214 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS Georgia, they maintained, being * * resident near the scene of this controversy, and deeply interested in its result .... have been attentive observers of the process by which it has been conducted" — evidently meaning to imply that the Georgians were better judges than the Federal Government. The President did not surrender to the demands of Georgia, although his position was rendered the more per- plexing by the Creeks who, while willing to legally cede part of their lands, refused to cede any west of the Chatta- hoochee.*^* In his annual message on December 6th, Adams had prom- ised to submit the whole tangled affair to the consideration of Congress.**' If the President hoped thereby to secure congressional cooperation in solving the problem as Monroe had hoped in the preceding year he evidently changed his mind, for the special message was never transmitted. Web- ster undoubtedly helped him to this decision by his sound advice that nothing would be gained, since Congress would do nothing. He even explained to the President the various motives by which different members would be actuated to do nothing, leaving the Administration to pursue its way alone.**® Adams was so impressed with the fear of provok- ing a damaging controversy in Congress that he submitted none of the papers concerning the Georgia question when at last he sent to the Senate the new treaty which Barbour had negotiated with the Creek delegation in Washington as a substitute for the Treaty of Indian Springs.**^ Barbour's treaty did not provide for the cession of the entire Creek country in Georgia.**® So its reception by the 8* Memoirs of John Quincy Adams, Vol. VTI, p. 66. ss Begister of DeJxites, Ist Session, 19th Congress, Appendix, p. 4. 8« Memoirs of John Quincy Adams, Vol. VII, p. 73. «T Memoirs of John Quincy Adams, Vol. VII, p. 110. s9 Kappler 's Indian A fairs. Laws and Treaties, VoL II, p. 264. j^ THE PIONEERS AND THE INDIANS 215 Senate Committee on Indian Affairs might easily be fore- known, since Benton was chairman and Cobb of Georgia a leading member. The conunittee reported on March 17, 1826, that the Senate should not advise and consent to the ratification.**® Two weeks later Adams was able to submit a supplementary article by which the Creeks conceded the Senate 's point and ceded what was then supposed to be all their remaining lands in Georgia.®^ Benton *s conunittee of course accepted this concession, and reported back to the House the article without amendment.®^ In the Conunittee of the Whole a stubborn but unsuccessful effort was made by Berrien of Georgia to alter the first article so as to annul the treaty of Indian Springs without reflecting upon the na- ture of its negotiation.®^ Upon the final question of advis- ing and consenting the vote stood thirty yeas and seven nays.®^ The negative vote was headed by the two Georgia Senators. The five Senators who voted with them probably based their objection to the treaty on constitutional consid- erations.®* Bealizing that the Indians would be loath to emigrate even from the ceded lands, Berrien immediately introduced resolutions looking toward the Government 's assisting and encouraging such emigration.®* With that purpose in view a bill appropriating sixty thousand dollars passed both houses.®® 59 Executive Journal of the Senate (1828), Vol. Ill, p. 521. «o Kappler 's Indian Affairs, Laws and Treatiest Vol. II, p. 267. ^i Executive Journal of the Senate (1828), Vol. Ill, p. 526. •2 Executive Journal of the Senate (1828), Vol. Ill, p. 531. «8 Executive Journal of the Senate (1828), Vol. Ill, p. 533. «* This at least was the supposition of contemporaries. — See Niles ' Weekly Begister, Vol. XXX, p. 297. ^ti Executive Journal of the Senate (1828), Vol. Ill, pp. 527, 532; Begister of Debates, 1st Session, 19th Congress, p. 620. ^^ Begister of Debates, 1st Sesiion, 19th Congress, p. 2623; United States Statutes at Large, Vol. FV, p. 187. 216 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS Within a week of the ratification of the Washington Treaty the Committee on Appropriations in the House in- troduced a bill to carry into effect its provisions. The dis- cussion thereon was almost entirely by the Georgia delega- tion, who protested against the late action of the Senate and criticised the whole policy of Federal control of Indian Af- fairs as an abridgment of State sovereignty.*^ Their speeches did not, however, long delay the roll call on the bill which passed with 167 affirmative votes. All but one of the Georgia delegation voted in the negative.*® Again return- ing to the Senate we find Senator Benton self-righteously assuming the task of amending the bill so as to prevent the "corrupt distribution** of the purchase money ** among a few chiefs * * instead of to the whole nation.** The ratification of Barbour's Treaty would have prac- tically ended the Creek Indian contention with Georgia had not Governor Troup insisted upon surveying the boundary between Georgia and Alabama before the date set for the re- linquishment of the Indian lands — and, moreover, the line which he sought to establish passed through lands not ceded by the treaty.*'^ This action of surveying territory where the Indian title had not been extinguished was a palpable violation of the treaty and of the Federal trade and inter- course law of 1802.*^^ Adams ordered Governor Troup to desist ;^^ but the Governor supported by his legislature *f Begigter of Debates, Ist Sessioxi, 19th Congress, pp. 2606 et seq, Adams was also criticised by the opposition for not fulfilling his promises concerning submitting the whole Georgia transactions to Congress. — Begister of Dehates, 1st Session, 19th Congress, p. 2607. 88 Begister of Debates, 1st Session, 19th Congress, p. 2626. ••Benton's Twenty Years' View, Vol. I, p. 60. 70 Phillips's Georgia and State Bights in the Annual Bepori of the American Historical Association, 1901, Vol. II, p. 60 et seq, 71 United States Statutes at Large, Vol. II, p. 141. — See Section 5. 72 American State Papers, Indian Affairs, Vol. II, p. 744. THE PIONEERS AND THE INDIANS 217 again violently defied the Federal authority.^* The United States Attorney for the District of Georgia refused to obey the President's order to prosecute the surveyors J* On February 5, 1827, Adams appealed to Congress. He sent **the most momentous message he had yet written *'J*^ In both houses it was referred to select committees ; of the one Senator Benton was chairman, and over the other Eep- resentative Edward Everett of Massachusetts presided. The report of Benton 's committee on March 1st upheld the claims of Georgia ; while the House report maintained that the Treaty of Washington should be executed by **all neces- sary constitutional and legal means '^''® Both advised the Executive to continue his exertions to obtain a cession of the remaining Creek lands in Georgia as the only possible al- leviation of the embarrassment. This, indeed, was what Adams had already undertaken.'''' Late in the year the hun- dred and ninety thousand acres of pine barrens still held by the Creeks in Georgia were relinquished by treaty.^® Thus Georgia 's contention with these Indians was brought to an end. But this was not the end of all Indian quarrels. Ten thousand Cherokees still remained on Georgian soil, prom- ising troubles of their own ; while the attitude of the State of Alabama toward the Creeks still within her borders prom- ised a repetition of the strife so lately consummated in the sister State.*^® f^ American State Papers, Indian Affairs, VoL II, p. 149 et aeq.; NUes* Weekly Begister, Vol. XXXII, p. 16. 74 Phillips '8 Georgia and State Bights in the Annual Beport of the Ameriean Historiccd Assodation^ 1901, Vol. II, p. 62. 75 Memoirs of John Quincy Adams, Vol. VII, p. 221. 76 Begister of Debates, 2nd Session, 19th Congress, pp. 498, 1534. The Sen- ate report is in Senate Documents, 2nd Session, 19th CongreiB, No. 69. fT House Documents, 1st Session, 20th Congress, No. 238, p. 7. Secretary Barbour to Colonel Crowell, January 31, 1827. 78 Kappler 's Indian A fairs. Laws and Treaties, Vol. II, p. 284. T» American State Papers, Indian A fairs. Vol. II, p. 644. VOL. IX — 16 218 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS AGITATIONS FOB A GENERAL BEMOVAL POLICY Meanwhile the movement for westward colonization of the Indians was gaining ground. The story of the Senate bill of 1825 for **the preservation and civilization" of the In- dians — how it failed in the House — has already been told. The next congressional attempt at a general plan originated in the House, and likewise received inspiration and direction from the Executive Department, particularly from the new Secretary of War, James Barbour. In the early months of his administration Barbour tentatively nursed a plan for in- corporating the Indians in the body politic of the several States.®^ By the time, however, that the House Committee on Indian Affairs applied to him for advice in January of the year 1826 he had completely revised his first opinions.®^ The project of a bill which the Secretary prepared for the House committee aimed to establish an Indian Territory to be maintained by the United States and quite similar in de- tails to the first grade of territorial government.®^ This In- dian government he proposed to locate west of the existing States and Territories and entirely west of the Mississippi^ save that it was to include a part of the Michigan and Wis- consin country. That the bill proposed an Indian reserva- tion so close to the settlements in the Northwest would have been an object of protest had it received much attention in Congress. Despite this mistake Barbour's intentions were evidently, as he himself said, the result of a * * desire to com- ply with the requests of the People of the United States re- siding in the neighborhood of Indian settlements.'' As it 80 Memoirs of John Quincy Adams, Vol. VII, p. 89. «i Memoirs of John Quincy Adams, Vol. VII, p. 113. The Committee on In- dian Affairs had considered reporting to the House Calhoun's bill of the pre- ceding session. — Register of Debates, 2nd Session, 24th Congress, Appendix,, p. 55. 82 Begister of Debates, 1st Session, 19th Congress, Appendix, p. 40. THE PIONEERS AND THE INDIANS 219 was Chairman Cocke of the House committee reported a bill comprising the essential features of Barbour's plans on February 21st f^ but the records indicate that the Commit- tee of the Whole House never reported progress thereon. There can be no doubt of Cocke 's earnestness in the matter of removal and that he really did view with regret, as he said he did, the condition of the aborigines.^ ^ In the next session the opinion of the Secretary of War was again sought, this time by a resolution of the House re- questing information upon the obstacles in the way of re- moval beyond the Mississippi.®* The mover of the resolu- tion was John McLean of Ohio. Another Representative, Haile of Mississippi, presented a resolution exhibiting a different side of the removal question.®* It has already been noted that settlers were intruding upon lands in Arkansas granted to the Choctaws who had migrated from Mississippi and Alabama.®'' Haile now demanded an in- vestigation. Such breaches of the public faith, he explained, were causing suspicions among the remaining Indians in the State of Mississippi and increasing their opposition to emigrate. **If these encroachments are permitted,'' he said, * * the Indians will be fastened upon us without the hope of removal. ' ' The Delegate from Arkansas, who two years before had so energetically defended these pioneer intruders in the western boundary episode, moved an amendment to the res- olution, the real purport of which was to exonerate the citi- zens upon the lands in question. The House readily agreed 88 Journal of the House, let Session, 19th Congress, p. 276. The title of this, bill copied that of the year 1824, namely : ' ' A biU for the preservation and civ- ilization of the Indian tribes within the United States. ' ' 84 American State Papers , Indian A fairs, Vol. II, p. 667. 88 Register of Debates, 2nd Session, 19th Congress, p. 538. 86 Register of Debates, 2nd Session, 19th Congress, p. 544. 8T See above p. 207. 220 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS to the amendment.®® The question was too trifling for de- bate, but a world of prophecy lay hidden therein and por- tended the fate of the wanderers. Was the tragedy of the eastern portion of the Mississippi Valley to be repeated on the western side ? Were local interests to hamper and clog the already weak policy of Indian preservation? Were these tribes to be cast from territory to territory as soon as their lands were desired by settlers, all for the lack of a def- inite national system of removal and colonization? Congress had been advised for years that some system should be adopted. Jefferson, the Eeverend Jedidiah Morse, the Eeverend Isaac McCoy, Monroe, Calhoun, and Barbour had outlined plans and formulated projects for bills, but to no purpose. Local communities easily pre- vailed upon Congress to effect local removals ; but a nation- al plan to colonize the removed went begging. While Haile in the House was attempting to interest the Government in the removal of the Mississippi Indians, Sen- ator Eeed of the same State was calling upon the Adminis- tration for the causes of the failure of the late negotiations with the Choctaw and Chickasaw Indians.®* PersonfiUy he attributed the failure to the interference of certain whites living among these Indians, and hinted that missionaries to these tribes were also not above suspicion. The wretched- ness and misery of the Indians is so great, he said, that they * * are desirous of seeking a new abode on our Western bor- ders", but are prevailed upon to remain by the intrigues of **a few interested individuals, white men, and mixed- blooded Indians '^ Continuing Eeed said: It is well understood, that a great many white men, fleeing from their crimes, and from debt, have sought refuge from the conse- quences of both, upon the Territories occupied by the Indian tribes 88 Begister of Debates, 2nd Session, 19th Congress, p. 546. 99 Begister of Debates, 2nd Session, 19th Congress, p. 71. THE PIONEERS AND THE INDIANS 221 within the State of Mississippi. They are there contrary to the laws of the United States to the great detriment of the Southern country; and provision ought, long since, to have been made for their removal. Those are the People, many of them more savage than the Indians themselves, who instigate the tribes, for their own purposes, to decline every overture made for their removal, and for a cession of their Territory.*^ In the House it appears that John Cocke of Tennessee^ chairman of the Committee on Indian Affairs, also held that removal was retarded by the * * influence of a number of profligate vrhite men, who had fled from their debts or from justice, and had a personal interest in preventing the re- moval of the Indians/*®^ And when John Woods of Ohio expostulated at the coercive language used by the late com- missioners who had attempted to negotiate a treaty with the Choctaws and Chickasaws, Haile in reply thanked **the gentleman from Ohio for the sympathy he had manifested towards the Indians of Mississippi. The Indians are re- moved beyond the limits of the State of Ohio, and they no longer annoy the gentleman. His sympathy manifests it- self at a late period. ' '^^ James K. Polk of Tennessee also defended the commissioners against the charge of using co- ercive language,®® as did John Forsyth of Georgia, who could not well refuse aid to a sister State in the same pre- dicament that Georgia had faced from the beginning of the national epoch.®* The session passed with no more serious accomplishment than calling upon the Executive Department for informa- tion concerning the obstacles to removal. The reports which Barbour and his Commissioner of Indian Affairs, •0 Begister of Debates, 2nd Session, 19th Congress, p. 73. »i Begister of Debates, 2nd Session, 19th Congress, p. 838. 92 Begister of Debates, 2nd Session, 19th Congress, p. 839. »s Begister of Debates, 2nd Session, 19th Congress, pp. 842, 843. ? »* Begister of Debates, 2nd Session, 19th Congress, p. 847. i ^ 222 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS Thomas McKenney, prepared gave encouraging signs that a well directed continental plan of colonization would meet the disposition of the Lidian tribes and succeed in prac- tice.*' But Congress responded with no law. When Congress again convened on December 3, 1827, there was a brighter prospect for the adoption of some scheme of removal. Li the summer of 1827 Thomas McKen- ney had made a tour of the southern States in the interests of removal and had returned confident that at least three of the principal nations in the South were disposed to emi- grate.*® The results of his investigation were summed up by the Secretary of War and transmitted to Congress in the President's annual message.®^ Another stimulus to action was found in the person of Isaac McCoy, a Baptist mission- ary to the Pottawatomies who had become convinced that removal and colonization was the only hopeful solution of the Indian problem and who arrived in Washington to lobby for that purpose.*® Early in the session the House Committee on Indian Af- fairs took into consideration a plan for the gradual removal and establishment of a Territorial government for all the Indians.*® But distracting sectional jealousy robbed the plan of its national scope and allowed it to develop into an undignified scramble of the several States to insure their individual accommodations. The Georgia delegation know- ing that Georgia's legislature contemplated extending the State jurisdiction over the remaining Cherokee lands in that State refused to consider any plan which did not have OB House Documents, 2nd Session, 19th Congress, No. 28. 99Naes' Weekly Begister, Vol. XXXIH, p. 274. 07 Begister of Debates, 1st Session, 20th Congress, p. 2789. M Begister of Debates, Ist Session, 20th Congress, p. 661 ; Memoirs of John Quiney Adams, Vol. VII, p. 410; McCoy's History of Indian A fairs, p. 321; Bemarlcs on the Practicability of Indian Beform (Boston, 1827), p. 25. 99 Begister of Debates, 1st Session, 20th Congress, pp. 819, 823. THE PIONEERS AND THE INDIANS 223 peculiar reference to Georgia. The Mississippi delegation blocked all proposed legislation which did not conform to their peculiar needs.^^^ And two Eepresentatives of Ohio in the House, Woods and Vinton, intentionally embarrassed the proposition — the former because he opposed any plan of inducing the Cherokees to emigrate from Georgia, and the latter because he was seized by a fear that the proposed Indian Territory might be so placed as to impede the ex- pansion of Free-soil territory. ^^^ The Delegate from Ar- kansas did not fail to denounce all proposals for removing the Indians in the direction of his Territory. ^^^ And an un- expected opposition was found in a New York Eepresenta- tive — Henry E. Storrs — who opposed removal to the West as placing **an insuperable bar to the progress of emigra- tion, in that direction, by the Whites ' \ A sparse and un- civiUzed Indian population, he contended, should never hold these lands in the face of industrious white citizens who would turn the wilderness into fruitful fields.^«» There were not lacking, however, signs that the day for the adoption of a concerted policy was about to come. In June, 1828, Barbour was sent on the mission to England. He was succeeded in the portfolio of War by Peter B. Por- ter of western New York. The Indian policy of the new Secretary forecasted what might be expected when would begin the inevitable administration of the Teniiesseean whose four years of waiting were now nearly at an end. Porter believed that the missionaries and teachers among the Indian tribes were defeating the efforts of the Govern- ment agents to further the project of emigration. He rec- 100 Note the wrangle over the Indian Appropriation BiU. — Begister of De- bates, 1st Session, 20th Congress, p. 1533 et aeq. 101 Begister of Debates^ Ist Session, 20th Congress, pp. 1539, 1566, 1568-1584. 102 Begister of Debates, 1st Session, 20th Congress, p. 2494. los Begister of Debates, 1st Session, 20th Congress, p. 2482. 224 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS ommended that Federal aid to the cause of civilizing the Indians be withdrawn from all tribes east of the Mississippi and be expended solely upon those in the far West.^®* A similar opinion had been held by Cocke who was chairman of the House Committee on Indian Affairs in the eighteenth and nineteenth Congresses and who once reported to the House that the failure of the removal policy was due to the obstinacy of the Indians arising from their partial civiliza- tion.i«» But despite these manifestations the removal policy had not gained sufficient momentum to call for a definite com- mittal on the part of Congress. It is a curious commentary on American legislation to note that the western States did not attempt to conceal their true motive for expelling the Indians. No veil was thrown over the thoughts which rose uppermost in the minds of Congressmen from the frontier. The demands of western communities were hid under no shabby coats of hypocrisy. It was seldom if ever denied that the settlers coveted the lands of **the children of the forest ' \ White of Florida referred to the Seminoles as the Indians ** which are the annoyance of my constituents", and Lumpkin of Georgia declared that the Cherokees should learn the destiny of their race, namely, to flee before the face of civilization.^^® An Alabama Bepresentative frankly pronounced the Indians a *' curse upon the newer States* ^^^^ Nor were there lacking Eastern members to sympathize 104 Begister of Debates, 2iid Session, 20th Congress, Appendix, p. 10. 106 It is interesting to note that Indian Commissioner McEennej reported to Barbour, in 1827, that all teachers of Indian schools were believed to be, with a single exception, in favor of emigration westward. Concerning the effects of becoming civilized in prejudicing the Indians against removal Cocke was right. Witness for instance the tenacity with which the most civilized tribe, the Cher- okees, clung to their Georgian lands. io« Register of Debates, Ist Session, 20th Congress, pp. 1537, 1587. See also Ivt Session, 24th Congress, p. 1463. 107 Begister of Debates^ 2nd Session, 19th Congress, p. 838. THE PIONEERS AND THE INDIANS 225 with the West. A Maryland Eepresentative declared that he had seen the Indian half-breed, whose hand he declared was against every man and every man's hand against him; and for his own part he would rather have him **a little farther off^.^^® M'Duffie of South Carolina held it to be **the settled opinion of a large majority of the House, that the Indians within the limits of our settled States must ei- ther be induced to emigrate, or must infallibly sink into a state of indescribable and irretrievable wretchedness/^ He considered **the idea of civilizing and educating them as wholly delusive. The experiment had been tried, and the result had proved, that, while surrounded by the whites, the Indians acquired all the vices of a civilized People, and none of their virtues. *^^® Strangely enough it remained for a western Represen- tative to suggest at this time that the pioneers were respon- sible for the sufferings and degradation of the Indians. In a most sarcastic speech Vinton of Ohio declared that it would ever be impossible to place the Indians beyond the pale of corruption. If it were so much as known to what district the Indians were to remove, no matter how distant the country .... the pio- neers would be there in advance of them; men of the most aban- doned and desperate character, who hang upon the Indians to de- fraud them. You cannot run away from these men nor shut them out from access to Indians, scattered over the wilderness ; for, with the pioneers, the law is a jest, and the woods their element; the farther you go with the Indians, with just so much more impunity will they set your laws at defiance."*^ Harshly stigmatizing the plan of colonization as * * a high handed outrage upon humanity", he maintained that the Indians were fully capable of civilization, and proposed as 108 Register of Debates, Ist Sesmon, 20th Congress, p. 1566. 109 Register of Debates, 1st Session, 20th Congress, p. 1540. 110 Register of Debates, Iwt Session, 20th Congress, p. 1579. 226 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS an absolute solution of the whole matter that they should be granted farms in fee simple like the settlers. Before sectional jealousies and diversity of opinion the project of colonization crumbled again with the adjourn- ment of the first session of the Twentieth Congress. Four sessions had now opened and adjourned since Monroe first asked for some well-digested plan for relieving the western States of their Lidian encumbrance and preserving the Vi- dians from the inevitable and destructive pressure of west- em settlements. Many plans had been suggested but none crystallized into law. It was indeed with a melancholy but an altogether true reflection that Adams referred to the subject in his last annual message. **We have been far more successful", he said, *'in the acquisition of their lands than in imparting to them the principles, or inspiring them with the spirit, of civilization. ''^^^ JACKSON AND THE REMOVAL POLICY President Adams, although deeply interested in the wel- fare of the Lidians, lacked the confidence of Congress to inspire any far-reaching solution of the problem; nor is it certain that he had any definite solution in mind. It re- mained to the President of the eleventh administration, filled with the spirit of the West, to grip the discordant clamors of sectional interests into a nation-wide scheme: and that scheme was of course westward removal. Jackson understood the Lidian problem. He was a Tennessee pioneer, educated in the life of the woods, the prairies, and miUtia camps. His miUtary prestige rested as well upon his exploits as an Indian fighter as upon his defense of New Orleans against Pakenham. In three pitched skirmishes he had vanquished the Creeks, and the episodes of his Seminole campaign were household stories. Ill Begiater of Debates, 2nd Session, 20th Congress, Appendix, p. 5. THE PIONEERS AND THE INDIANS 227 As an Indian commissioner he had been the guardian of many tribes. Four important treaties with Creeks, Cher- okees, and Chickasaws he had negotiated in person. There was scarcely an Indian community in the South but had en- dured his chastisement or listened to his talks. Those who had accepted his advice had seldom regretted it ; those who had repulsed him had learned to rue their mistake. But withal Jackson had attained a reputation for justice. In some peculiar way he impressed the minds of his savage wards with respect, trust, and confidence. His election as President was actually hailed by the Cherokees with re- joicing. The first year of the new administration sufficed to show how utterly useless were their hopes. The Cherokees had attempted to establish a national government upon their lands within the State of Georgia. The President's atti- tude toward this anomalous Indian organization was in- stantly hostile, and the first annual message in December, 1829, minced no words in declaring that all attempts on the part of the Indians to erect independent governments with- in States would be rigidly suppressed. *'It is too late to in- quire**, read the message, ** whether it was just in the United States to include them and their territory within the bounds of new States. . . . That step cannot be re- traced. A State cannot be dismembered by Congress, or restricted in the exercise of her constitutional power. **^^* But in order to render a tardy justice to this long neglected race, Jackson resurrected the old plan of an Indian district west of the Mississippi. Despite the air of justice which pervaded the message there was one sentence which to Adams men wore the veil of hypocrisy. These words were: ''This emigration should be voluntary : for it would be as cruel as unjust to compel 112 Begister of Debates, let Session, 21st Congress, Appendix, pp. 15, 16. 228 IOWA JOURNAL OF HISTORY AND POLITICS the aborigines to abandon the graves of their fathers, and seek a home in a distant land/' From any charge of in- consistency, however, Jackson saved himself at this point by the admission that if the Lidians chose to remain within the limits of the States they might so remain providing they be subject to State laws. And in return for their obedi- ence they would without doubt, thought Jackson, be pro- tected in the enjoyment of those ''possessions which they have improved by their industry. ' ' These fair words could hardly have deceived anyone into believing that Jackson's policy was any other than a force policy. Could anyone doubt the true meaning of the closing sentence which read: ''It seems to me visionary to suppose that . . . . claims can be allowed on tracts of country on which they [the Lidians] have neither dwelt nor made improvements^ merely because they have seen them from the mountain, or passed them in the chase ' '. A month later the President 's attitude was tersely inter- preted by Governor Cass of Michigan Territory. The Pres- ident offers them a country beyond the Mississippi, wrote the frontier governor in the North American Review, but those who refuse to migrate must submit to the jurisdiction of the States.^^^ Congress and the country needed no further elucidation of the Presidential program. The new Congress received the dictation of the White House with a willingness that boded a speedy conclusion to the whole matter. The Committee on Indian Affairs in both houses immediately took the matter into consideration. Their reports might easily have been predicted by a perusal of their membership. Of the Senate Committee, Hugh L. White of Tennessee was chairman, and his four colleagues 118 North American Beview, January, 1830, Vol. XXX, p. 86. This article provoked various controversial replies among whdch may be noted the semi- religious appeal in the Americom MoniMy Magazine (Boston: 1829-1831) Vol. I, p. 701. THE PIONEERS AND THE INDIANS 229 were Troup of Georgia, Hendricks of Indiana, Benton of Missouri, and Dudley of New York.^^* The House Com- mittee was also headed by a Tennessee member, John Bell ; and his colleagues were Gaither of Kentucky, Lewis of Ala- bama, Storrs of Connecticut, and Hubbard of New Hamp- shire.^^** On February 22, 1830, the Senate Committee reported an elaborate argument in favor of removal, and a bill ' ' to pro- vide for an exchange of lands **.^^® Two days later the House Committee made its report accompanied by a bill *' to, provide for the removal of the Indian tribes *\^^'' The two bills were practically the same; and since the Senate bill was passed first the Committee of the Whole in the lower house substituted it for the original House bill.^^® The fact could not long be concealed from the Whigs that the leaders of the Democrats were making the bill a party measure and that the friends of the Administration were pledged to support it.^^® Jackson had issued his pronuncia- mento : the Indians must be removed. That fact was reason enough for the Jacksonian Democrats to vote aye. And the votes of most States Eights Democrats might certainly be relied upon in this affair. The crux of the subject was contained in the second sec- tion of the bill. It empowered the President to exchange any lands occupied by Indian nations within the boundaries of a State or Territory for lands beyond the Mississippi.^^^ 11* /ottmol of Senate, Ist Sessioiiy 21et CongresB, p. 23. 116 Journal of the House of Bepresentatives, Ist Session, 2l8t Congress, p. 30. lis Begister of Debates, 1st Session, 2l8t Congress, Appendix, p. 91. Senate Documents, No. 61. 117 Begister of Debates, 1st Session, 2l8t Congress, p. 581. 118 Journal of the House, 1st Session, 21st Congress, pp. 570, 648. The House asked the President for estimates of the expense of removing and supporting the Indians west of the Mississippi. — House Documents, No. 91. ii9Niles' Weekly Begister, Vol XXXVni, p. 402. 120 Niles' Weekly Begister, VoL XXXVILI, p. 234. 230 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS Not one word of coercion was employed. To all outward appearances the act called for voluntary removal. But the friends of the Lidian read between the lines and found there extortion, force, and heartlessness.^^^ For if the bill be- came law, would not its executor be the hero of the Seminole Indian Wart The philanthropists of the East were now fully aware that the crisis in Lidians affairs was reached and about to be passed. The rise or fall of the Administration 's Indian policy was to be determined by the vote on Senator White *8 bill. And if at first there was any doubt as to what this policy was, that doubt had entirely vanished on the appear- ance of the bill. Churches and benevolent societies, colleges and villages began to frame protesting petitions by the score.^^ The ''friends of the Indians'' had studied the able articles of Jeremiah Evarts appearing in the National Intelligencer under the name of WiUiam Penn. ''Cursed be he, that removeth his neighbor's landmark. . . . Cursed be he that maketh the blind to wander out of the way ' ', exclaimed this devoted idealist ; and the New England people said "Amen".^^^ As the Opposition were convinced that the inherent evil of the bill lay more in the drastic manner with which the pioneer President would certainly enforce it than in its con- tents, so the delegations from Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi and from the northwestern States saw the In- dians within their borders disappear before the iron hand of the President when he should come to apply the second section. Especially did the Georgia delegation rejoice that at last legal means for disgorging the Cherokees were in 121 Compare Niles' Weekly Begisier, Vol. XXXVIII, p. 67. 122 Senate Documents, Ist Session, 2l8t Congress, Nos. 56, 66, 73, 74, 76, 77, et cetera; House Documents, Nos. 253, 254, et cetera. ^i^ Essays on the Present Crisis in the Condition of the American Indians (Boston: 1829), p. 100. THE PIONEERS AND THE INDIANS 231 sight and they thereupon lost no opportunity to maintain the proposition of States Bights in the debate.^ ^* The case for Georgia was strong. Who was there but would admit that such a condition as the erection of an independent In* dian government within the borders of a State and not un- der the jurisdiction of the State was not only intolerable but unconstitutional? Constitutionally there could not be an imperium in imperio. But what if the Indians resisted the jurisdiction of civilization? Could there then be a better solution to the whole problem than to remove them to the far West — gently if possible, harshly if necessary? In the Senate the case for removal was tersely stated by Forsyth of Georgia, White of Tennessee, and McKinley of Ala- bama.^2* Not only did these advocates base their argument upon State Sovereignty, but they also flung wide the doctrine that removal was in the best interests of the ''ill-fated Indians.'^ Their position had been well canvassed in the conunittee re- port itself. How can Georgia have a republican form of government, read this document, unless a majority of the citizens subscribe to the rules to which all must conform? The Indians must either submit to State law or they must remove. The committee apprehended no reason that any of the States contemplated forcing them to abandon the coun- try in which they dwelt, should they subject themselves to the laws of these States. But obstinacy on the part of the Indians would, the conunittee admitted, result only in further distress. ^^® Frelinghuysen of New Jersey replied for the Opposition^ and he was ably supported by Sprague of Maine and Bob- i2« Begister of Debates, let Sesdon, 2l8t Congress, p. 325 et aeq, iss Begister of Debates, let Session, 2l8t Congress, pp. 305, 324, 325, 377^ 381. 120 Begister of Debates, 1st Session, 21st Congress, Appendix, pp. 91-98. 232 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS bins of Bhode Island. ^^^ Their speeches, while maintaining a dignified reserve, were nevertheless scathing criticisms of both the doctrine of State Sovereignty and of (Georgia *8 at- tempt to oust the Indians from their lands. That the claim of the Cherokees outdated the Constitution was their prin- cipal contention. In the end the bill passed the Senate.^^® Webster and Clayton were among the nineteen who voted in the nega- tive, although neither spoke at length against the bill. From the beginning of the session the result had been evi- dent although the Opposition, small as it was, had been so persistent as to cause much anxiety to Judge White. On April 28th, the Chairman expressed his relief in writing to a friend in these words : The Bill to provide for a removal of the Indians west of the Mississippi has finally passed the Senate by a vote of 28 to 19. This has taken off my mind a burthen which has been oppressive from the commencement of the session. I hope it may pass the other House. Cold as the notice taken of our exertions in the Telegraph is, no G^rgian nor Tennessean will ever be mortified by hearing the de- bate spoken of, if truth be told. We had, I think, in the estimation of all intelligent men, at least as much ascendancy in the argument as we had in the vote. As good fortune would have it, Judge Over- ton, Collingsworth, district attorney of West Tennessee, Major Armstrong, and many others from different quarters, were present, and know that our side was sustained in a style which gratified our friends, and mortified our enemies.^'* While congratulating himself upon the ascendancy of the Administration's argument. Judge White rejoiced that his bill had escaped the lime-light of the Webster-Hayne de- 127 Begisier of Debates, Ist Session, 2l8t Congress, pp. 305, 343, 374. 128 Journal of the Senate, Ist Session, 21st Congress, p. 268. i2» Scott 's Memoir of Hugh Lawson White, p. 270. The newspaper referred to, the Telegraph, was the organ published by Duff Qreen in the interests of Calhoun. THE PIONEERS AND THE INDIANS 233 bate. In the lower house, on the other hand, he had more to fear. Here the opposition was to be more intense. The sharp discussion was such as might be expected from a party measure. On May 13th the debate began in the Com- mittee of the Whole.^^® Bell of Tennessee, Lumpkin, Wayne, and Wilde of Georgia contended with Bates of Massachusetts, Edward Everett of Massachusetts, Storrs and Judge Spencer of New York, and Evans of Maine. Storrs in a logical speech pointed out the usurpation of the President when he refused protection to the Cher- okee nation from the Georgia laws of 1828.*^^ By this action, Storrs maintained, the President had (without consulting Congress) not only admitted the sovereignty of the State of Georgia, but also virtually nullified the Fed- eral intercourse laws and denied the validity of Indian treaties solemnly ratified by the Senate. The Executive has no power, declared Storrs, to abrogate treaties *'by an or- der in council '^ or to *'give the force of law to an executive proclamation.'^ Everett adroitly confronted the argument that removal would improve the condition of Georgia Indians by an em- barrassing question. What benefit would accrue to the al- ready civilized Cherokees to be driven from '* their houses^ their farms, their schools and churches * * to lead a wander- ing and savage life in the wilderness t^*^ He produced evi- dence to show the advanced stage of civilization attained by the Cherokees, and attempted to prove that the Choctaws and Chickasaws were not far behind them. Wilde of Georgia answered Everett with an argument similar to that displayed in the report of the Senate committee. He main- tained that Georgia would not object to permitting the 180 Begister of Debates, Ist Seedon, 21st Congross, p. 988. jsi Begister of Debates, lit Session, 2l8t Congress, p. 1000. 182 Begister of Debates, Ist Session, 21st Congress, p. 1060. VOL. IX — 17 234 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS Cherokees to remain and occupy such land as they could cultivate, provided they submitted '*in obedience to our laws, like other citizens/ *^^* But what right had the Cher- okees under the present conditions to impede progress by refusing their lands for settlement? K five-sixths of the Cherokee lands in Georgia were ceded there would yet re- main one thousand acres to every Lidian family. Foster of Georgia further expanded the idea of the Indian obstruction to the progress of civilization.^ ** They possessed, he main- tained, no national sovereignty: their title to lands was based strictly on occupancy. So far he did not exceed the opinion of the Supreme Court delivered by Justice Marshall in the case of Johnson vs. McLitosh.^^*^ But since that court declined to ' * enter into the controversy, whether agricultur- ists, merchants, and manufacturers, have a right, on ab- stract principles, to expel hunters from the territory they possessed, or to contract their limits*' it was necessary for the Georgia Representative to outdistance the Federal Ju- diciary when he proceeded to the last conclusions of his ar- gument, namely : the Lidians had no rightful claim upon the vacant lands surrounding them. And to the support of this conclusion Foster called no less an authority than the late President himself. Three decades before Adams, in an ora- tion delivered at the Anniversary of the Landing of the Pil- grims, had given the clearest expressions on this moral question, when he said : The Indian right of possession itself stands with regard to the greatest part of the country, upon a questionable foundation. Their cultivated fields; their constructed habitations; a space of ample sufficiency for their subsistence, and whatever they had amiexed to themselves by personal labor, was undoubtedly by the laws of li^Begister of Debates, 1st Session, 21st Congress, p. 1095. is^Begister of Debates, 1st Session, 2l8t Congress, p. 1030 et seq, 185 8 Wheaton 543. THE PIONEERS AND THE INDIANS 235 nature theirs. But what is the right of a huntsman to the forest of a thousand miles over which he has accidentally ranged in quest of prey t Shall the liberal bounties of Providence to the race of man be monopolized by one of ten thousand for whom they were cre- ated? Shall the exuberant bosom of the common mother, amply adequate to the nourishment of millions, be claimed exclusively by a few hundreds of her offspring! Shall the lordly savage not only disdain the virtues and enjoyments of civilization himself, but shall he controul the civilization of a world t Shall he forbid the wilder- ness to blossom like the roset . . . No, generous philanthro- pists! Heaven has not been thus inconsistent in the works of its hands ! Heaven has not thus placed at irreconcileable strife, its mor- al laws with its physical creation.^** All the debates for the last score of years had never ex- hibited a more beautiful argument for Indian expulsion. Was the contempt of Georgia for the Cherokees better ex- pressed than by the words, *' lordly savages*'? Should the '^Uberal bounties of Providence ''— one-third of the fair Georgia — be conferred upon a meagre Indian population, while civilization chafed in constrained limits t And should philanthropists forbid the wilderness to blossom Uke the rose t No, generous philanthropists ! Throwing sarcasm to the winds Foster's speech discussed the question from the broadest view-point. No matter how much his opponents might yearn to prove that ' ' the superior title of civilization" could never override the original claims of the natives, few were so bold as to attempt this impossible argument. Evans, however, did declare that civ- ilization should never demand that savages give space until its borders were full to over-flowing — which certainly was not the case in Georgia nor in the Middle West.^^^ But the fate of the bill was to be decided by party votes and not by argument. On the 18th of May the Conmiittee of 199 An Oration Delivered at Plymouth, December gg, 180(8 (Boston: 1802), p. 23 ; Register of Debates, Iflt Session, 21st Congress, p. 1031. 187 Register of Debates^ Ist Session, 21st Congress, p. 1043. 236 IOWA JOURNAL OF HISTORY AND POLITICS the Whole House reported the Senate bill with amendments. These were accepted, and on the 26th the bill passed by a vote of 103 to 97 and returned to the Senate.^ ^ For the minority, defeated by six votes, there was nothing left but to ''record the exposure of perfidy and tyranny of which the Indians are to be made the victims, and to leave the pun> ishment of it to Heaven '^ Adams furiously wrote in his diary.* ^® On the same day the amendments from the House were considered in the Senate. In the upper chamber the attitude was plainly intolerant of further discussion. Prompt con- currence in the relatively unimportant amendments was the ruling sentiment. But Frelinghuysen seized this last oppor- tunity to move an amendment providing that all tribes should be protected from State encroachment until they chose to remove.**® It was voted down. Another amend- ment by Sprague to the effect that all existing treaties should be executed according to the original intent was promptly rejected. Likewise was Clayton *s proposal that the act extend only to the Georgia Indians.*** The Senate thereupon concurred in the House amendments. The Presi- dent attached his signature on the 28th of May, and the bill facilitating Executive expulsion of Indians from the South and Middle West became a law.**^ Such was the victory of the removal scheme under the leadership of Jackson. The project long entertained by Jef- ferson, Monroe, Calhoun, and Barbour was at last consum- mated by a short act of eight briefly worded sections. As a measure to relieve the frontier of its encumbering Lidian 188 Begister of Debates, Ist Seesion, 2l8t Congreas, p. 1135. i8» Memoirs of John Quincy Adams, Vol. VIII, p. 206. The speeches m this debate were collected into book form and published at Boston in 1830. 1*0 Journal of the Senate, Ist Session, 21st Congress, p. 328. 141 Journal of the Senate, Ist Session, 21st Congress, p. 329. 1*2 United States Statutes at Large, Vol. IV, p. 411. THE PIONEERS AND THE INDIANS 237 population it was all that might be asked; for it granted carte hlanche to an energetic President — himself a man of the frontier. And no one doubted how he would use his newly granted power.^** But as a measure to promote the civilization of the removed aborigines it was an engine of destruction. The Indian Territory of Monroe, Calhoun, and Barbour had crumbled into dust. In despair the Cherokee delegation at Washington came to Webster and Freylinghuysen for personal advice: they were counselled to expect no relief from the legislature. Their last resource, said their counsellors and friends, lay in petitioning the Supreme Court. And this advice they ac- cepted.^** With the appeal of the Cherokees to the judicial depart- ment the problem concerning the removal of this nation passed for a time from legislative consideration. The Cherokee question, indeed the question of removal of all tribes, as far as Congress was concerned, was settled by the act of May 28, 1830. Whether the Judicial Department would decide against the removal of the Cherokees and whether the Executive would enforce any such decision if it were rendered were questions outside of legislative com- petence. AN INDIAN TEBBITOBY IN THE WEST The inadequacy of the Act of 1830 in disposing of the In- dians after they had emigrated beyond the Mississippi was 148 In 1836 John Bosi, the principal chief of the Cherokees, in a memorial to Congress, said concerning the act of May, 1830: "That law, though not so de- signed by Congress, has been the source from which much of the Cherokee suf- ferings have come." — Executive Documents, 1st Session, 24th Congress, No. 266, p. 9. For an account of how Jackson used his power, see Abel's Indian Consolida- tion in the Annual Beport of the American HistoriccU Association, 1906, Vol. I, p. 381 et seq, 1** Kennedy's Memoirs of the Life of WiOiam Wirt, Vol. U, p. 254. 238 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS apparent to even the uninterested. The friends of the Li- dians confidently expected more congressional action, and the several years following were full of proposals of all sorts.^*** Even before the birth of the act of 1830 Secretary Eaton had recommended the establishment of an Lidian Territory in his first report of December, 1829.^*® But the emphasis of the Executive had been so emphatically upon removal that the complete program of the Government had been overlooked. By 1832 the confusion of Lidian affairs in the West could scarcely be further overlooked. Congress resorted to the expedient of providing a commission to examine the appor- tioning of tribes to lands in the West and to arrange the quarrels among the various tribes. To these duties was also added that of preparing a plan for Lidian improvement and government.^*'' Li short the conunission was to devise a so- lution of the whole matter. By this time had occurred the resignation of Jackson's first cabinet. Lewis Cass who had interpreted the Presi- dent's Lidian policy in 1830 now succeeded Eaton as Secre- tary of War. Cass already had his solution in mind. Eight- een years of governing both the settlers and Lidians of Michigan Territory had convinced him that the visions of Calhoun and Barbour of an Lidian State were as vain as the tower of Babel.^*® Li his first report as Secretary he 145 The Reverend Isaac McCoy, a Baptist missionary to the western Indians, commenced in 1835 the publication of an Annual Begister of Indian A fairs as an organ for advocating reform. McCoy's plan embraced the establishment of an Indian Territory. Among other plans from different sources, should be noticed that proposing the assignment in severalty of lands belonging to the emigrating tribes. — Senate Documents, 2nd Session, 25th Congress, No. 425. i4« Register of Debates, 1st Session, 2l8t Congress, Appendix, p. 28. i*T United States Statutes at Large, Vol. IV, p. 595. i« For eighteen years, 1813-1831, Cass was Governor of Michigan Territory. The Qovemor was also Superintendent of Indian Affairs for the Territory. In THE PIONEERS AND THE INDIANS 239 summed up his conclusions in regard to the proper regula- tion of the Indians who had emigrated.^^^ Laying down as his first proposals the platitudes that the reservations in the West should be permanent, that whiskey should never be sold within the reservations, and that military forces should preserve peace on the borders, he proceeded to establish the proposition that the ownership in severalty of property and the pursuit of agriculture should be encouraged, although the pecuUar tribal relations and institutions of the Indians should not be disturbed. These practical considerations of Indian conditions quite discredited any idea of an Indian State as idealistic and visionary. Coming as they did from one so well versed in frontier affairs as was Secretary Cass they carried more than ordinary conviction. In spite of many plans of the next few years they remained substan- tially the policy of the Government for almost half a cen- tury. The proposals made by the Commissioners- of 1832 de- serve, on the other hand, some attention. Their long await- ed report was ready in the first session of the Twenty-third Congress. The remedy proposed therein was a Territorial government for the Indians.^^ On May 20, 1834, these pro- posals took concrete form when Horace Everett of Vermont, from the House Committee on Indian Affairs, reported three bills — the work of the Comomission. One bill assayed to reorganize the whole Department of Indian Affairs; one to regulate trade and intercourse with the Indians; this office the sucoeeB of Cass as guardian of the Indians is highly praised. — McLaughlin's Lewis Cass, p. 131. ^*9 Begister of Debates, Ist Session, 22nd Congress, Appendix, p. 14. In 1838, Hugh L. White, who from the year 1828 to 1840 was chairman of the Senate Committee on Indian Affairs reported to the Senate that the assign- ment of Indian lands in severalty was unwise. — Senate Documents, 2nd Session^ 25th Congress, No. 425. ^^0 Begister of Debates, Ist Session, 23rd Congress, Appendix, p. 10. 240 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS and the third to establish a Western Territory for the Indians.^ **^ The Trade and Literconrse Bill defined the * ' Indian conn- try *' as that part of the United States west of the Mississip- pi and not within the States of Missouri and Louisiana, or the Territory of Arkansas, and also all lands east of the Mississippi to which the Indian title had not been extin- guished. Over this country it extended regulations similar to the Trade and Intercourse Law of 1802 providing that traders should be licensed, that intruders and settlers should be removed by miUtary force, and that the country west of the Mississippi for legal purposes should be attached, part to the Territory of Arkansas and part to the judicial district of Missouri. The first two bills passed both houses, al- though late in the session, and were presented to the Presi- dent upon the last day.^*** The third bill — the only really new feature of the Com- missioners ' work — met instant opposition in the House and was tabled.^*^^ It proposed to establish a Western Territory for the Indians (who should be organized into a confedera- tion of tribes) which should enjoy the right of a Delegate to Congress. Ultimate admission as a State might be the log- ical outcome of this arrangement. Congress was not ready for any such solution nor were the western members willing to block the expansion of the West by a permanent Indian Territory such as the bill proposed. The excuse for tabling, and undoubtedly the chief reason for the moment, was lack of time for discussion.^" iBi Begister of Debates, Ist Session, 23rd Congress, p. 4200. Everett ac- companied the bills hj a scholarly report of his own composition. — See Beports of Committees, Vol. IV, No. 474. 162 Journal of the House, let Session, 23rd Congress, pp. 852, 911, 912, 915, 916; United States Statutes at Large, VoL IV, pp. 729, 735. lis Journal of the House of Bepresentatives, Ist Session, 23rd Congress, p. 834; Begister of Debates, p. 4779. iB^Note Archer's speech. — Begister of Debates, Ist Session, 23rd Congress, p. 4775. NUes' Weekly Begister, Vol. XLVI, p. 317. THE PIONEERS AND THE INDIANS 241 For several sessions following this first attempt Everett and Senator John Tipton of Indiana introduced bills for an Indian Territory. All failed to become law, although Tip- ton 's bill actually passed the Senate in two succeeding ses- sions.^^ The Executive stimulus to removal having been so ef- fective, what now were the Executive plans in regard to civ- ilization of the Indians in their new homes f Naturally one turns to Jackson. In the annual message of 1829 which pre- ceded the train of debates leading up to the act of May, 1830, Jackson distinctly suggested the plan of separate tribal governments on allotted lands in the West, with enough supervision on the part of the United States to pre- serve peace and to protect the Indians from intruders.^*^^ Jackson evidently gave no favor to the Utopian proposals for a united Indian State, although his message of De- cember 3, 1833, indicates a disposition open to conviction on this subject since he tells Congress that he awaits the report 155 In February, 1835, Everett's bill was taken from the table, half-heartedly debated, and then dropped. — Begister of Debates, 2nd Session, 23rd Congress, pp. 1445, 1462. On February 19, 1836, Everett reported for the second time a bill. — Journal of the House of Bepresentativee, 1st Session, 24th Congress, p. 369. Again in 1837 he reported a third bill. — Journal of the House of Bepre- sentatives, 2nd Session, 24th Congress, p. 325. His fourth bill was introduced in the year 1838. — Journal of the House of Bepresentatives, 2nd Session, 25th Congress, p. 330. In the session of 1835-1836, Tipton introduced a bill supplementary to the removal act of May, 1830. This bill omitted many details contained in the House bill, outlining a more general plan. An amiable report accompanied it. — Senate Documents, No. 246 ; Annual Begister of Indian A fairs, 1837, p. 71. The bill failed. — Joumai of the Senate, 1st Session, 24th Congress, p. 220. In the next session Tipton's bill was again introduced. — Joumai of the Senate, 2nd Session, 24th Congress, p. 31. Again in 1838 Tipton introduced another bill. — Joumai of the Senate, 2nd Session, 25th Congress, pp. 367, 385. This bill passed the Senate, but failed in the House. Again, being introduced in the next session, the Senate passed the bill, but it never came to a vote in the House. — Journal of the Senate, 3rd Session, 25th Congress, pp. 35, 272. ^^^ Begister of Debates, 1st Session, 21st Congress, Appendix, p. 16. • • 242 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS and recommendations of the Commissioners then examining western affairs.^*^^ It is difficult to see how this Commission could mnch enlighten the President. His detailed knowl- edge of Indian affairs and Indian nature has ever been a matter of fame. Be that as it may, the President desired some definite system of government. As to what this should be the awkward phrases of his message of December 7, 1835, indicate some vagueness on his part.^^ To regulate the In- dian affairs of the far West from Washington was a difficult matter. But the real need of the emigrant Indians was un- doubtedly protection and competent supervision by honest government agents resident among the tribes rather than any scheme of united Territorial government. If all Indian Agents in the West had been men of Jackson's type order would have been created out of chaos and the bitter criti- cisms of Calhoun would have been unfounded.^** While the Government was faltering in the choice of an Indian policy, projects from all sides were never lacking. Horace Everett in the House desired a western Territory and perhaps its future admission as a State. Similar but less definite views were championed in the Senate by Tipton of Indiana. The Reverend Mr. McCoy was ever urging a definite system of colonization and intertribal government; while Forsyth of Georgia presented a plan by which all In- dians should become citizens in the year 1900.^®^ But the problem was so baffling, the previous efforts at civilization so often discouraging, that Senator Bobbins might well ex- claim : * * HI fated Indians I barbarism and attempts at civi- i«T Begister of Debates, let Session, 23rd Congress, Appendix, p. 6. 168 Begister of Dehates, 1st Session, 24th Congress, Appendix, p. 10. ISO Begister of Debates, 1st Session, 24th Congress, p. 1459. i«o Annual Begister of Indian A fairs, 1838 ; Executive Documents, 2nd Ses- sion, 25th Congress, pp. 566, 579; Begister of Debates, 1st Session, 21st Con- gress, p. 327. THE PIONEERS AND THE INDIANS 243 lization are alike fatal to your rights ; but attempts at civi- lization the more fatal of the two/*^®^ The administration of Van Bnren was a wet blanket to all proposals for an Indian government. Not that the Presi- dent was hostile to an Indian Territory, for he continually reminded Congress of the need therefor.^®^ But neither Van Buren nor his immediate advisers were interested to the extent of making definite recommendations. Tacitly the bills of Everett and Tipton had the Administration support ; but curiously enough they were opposed by Benton as well as by Calhoun, while Clay never loaned his eloquence to their cause. Why should the most talented champions of Indian rights hold themselves aloof f The probable con- jecture is that both Clay and Calhoun considered the project futile. The year 1839 was not the end of proposals for an Indian government. Individual schemes were often projected, but never again did any bill similar to Tipton *s or to Everett 's pass either branch of Congress.^^ INDIAN WABS OF THB DBOADB 1830-1840 It was soon after the termination of the Seminole Indian War that Congress reduced the army of the United States to six thousand men. This was during the session of 1820- 1821. Clay, who was ever an advocate of the employment of militia in preference to a standing army, led the senti- ment in favor of reduction.^®* A desire on the part of Dem- ocratic members to retrench public expenditures induced i«i Begisier of Debates, let Session, 21flt Congress, p. 377. ^^^ Congressional Globe, 2nd Session, 25th Congress, p. 7; also 3rd Session, 25th Congress, p. 7. 163 For the later history of these efforts, see Abel's Proposals for ar^ Indian State in the Annual Beport of the American Historical Association, 1907, Vol. I, p. 99 et seq. 19* Annals of Congress, 1st Session, 16th Congress, p. 2233. 244 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS Hiem to follow Clay. The proposal was quite ruiopposed. Floyd of Virginia, who for two sessions had been advo- <5ating the military occupation of Oregon, spoke for the re- duction bill.^®* Even western members declared that a small army was sufficient for the protection of the frontier if supported by the local militia. Trimble of Kentucky went into an elaborate discussion to show that the line of forts from Michilimackinack to New Orleans formed a ** cordon*' of sufficient strength for the pi- oneers and was far superior to the protection of the frontier in the year 1802. He claimed that the pioneer settlements now were stronger than those in the early days of the cen- tury, and that the Indians of the West had become less numerous and less warlike.^*® Cannon of Tennessee could not refrain from delivering a eulogium upon the superiority of militia organized from the ** hardy sons of the West".^®^ Such argument cannot but raise the suspicion that west- erners were better pleased to execute the Indian trade and intercourse laws with their own hands than to submit to the more impartial supervision of regular army officers. As it was the bill passed both houses with large majorities.^®® As if to further relax the Government's control on the frontier, the factory system was abolished the next year. This department had been established in 1796 upon the recommendation of Washington. Its object was to counter- act the influence of Canadian fur traders and to control and protect the Indians by maintaining trading posts where the Indians might exchange their furs for goods at cost.^®* i^^ Annals of Congress, 2nd Session, 16th Congress, p. 891. iMAnnaU of Congress, 2nd Session, 16th Congress, p. 879. 167 Annals of Congress, 2nd Session, 16th Congress, p. 136. ^99 Annals of Congress, 2nd Session, 16th Congress, pp. 936, 379; Niles' Weekly Begister, Vol. XXII, p. 75. 160 Bichardson 's Messages and Papers of the Presidents, Vol. I, p. 185. Benton's Thirty Years' View, Vol. I, p. 21. THE PIONEERS AND THE INDIANS 245 The move against the department was by Benton. He ac-^ cused the factors of * * scandalous abuse ' ', and characterized the system as a means **to make the West purchase from the East ' '. Benton proposed that the trade be left entirely in private hands.^^® His bill passed both houses, provok- ing debate in neither, save a most violent speech by a Ken^ tucky representative who proposed to repeal all acts at- tempting to civilize the Indians.^^^ In Congress little attention was thereafter given^ to de- fenses of the northwestern frontier. Nor was there any great need of such defenses since peaceful conditions on the whole prevailed until the breaking out of the episode- known as the Black Hawk War.^^^ Hostilities began in the summer of 1831. In the following session of Congress, the condition of the Northwest received consideration and was the occasion of several eulogiums on behalf of the west- em people by western Congressmen. Senator Tipton of Indiana declared that the pioneers could not be blamed if they exterminated all the Indians from Tippecanoe to the Mississippi, unless the Government more energetically undertook the defense of the frontier. He said : It is our duty, in self-defence, to do this [i. e. exterminate the Indians] ; and, after it is done, let me not be told, you Western peo- ple are savag/es; you murdered the poor Indians. Do gentlemen expect us to beg the lives of our families upon our knees ? . . . Congress will adjourn in a few days; and when we return to our people, and tell them that we have done all in our power to procure men for their defence, and have failed, then, sir, our constituents know what to do, and upon you, not upon us, be the charge of what follows; for these wars will be brought to a close in the shortest possible way."* 170 Annals of Congress, Ist Session, 17th Congress, p. 317 et seq, ^"^^ Annals of Congress, 1st Session, 17th Congress, p. 1801. 172 Por an account of the war, see Stevens's The Black Hawk War, if^ Register of Debates, 1st Session, 22nd Congress, p. 1075. This was the same Senator Tipton who later advocated a Western Territory for the Indians^ 246 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS Again Senator Tipton declared : We must sweep these people [the Indians] from existence, or keep them peaceable. ... No one can imagine the distress that an alarm on the frontier produces, without witnessing it. Those who are at the point of attack, flee with their families ; those next in the rear, though more secure, are not safe. No man can leave his own family to help his neighbor ; and the consequence is, that they break up and desert their homes, taking little with them, and leave their property to be pillaged by the dishonest whites, as well as the Indians.^^* Senator Alexander Buckner of Missouri expressed **a deep feeling for the people of Illinois^', which was natural, for like Benton and Tipton he himself had fought in Indian wars.^^* On June 15, 1832, the bill to raise six hundred volunteers was passed — too late, however, to aid even in the closing campaign of the Black Hawk War.^^® The whole affair was reviewed by Jackson in his annual message to Con- gress in the following December, wherein he urged a more perfect organization of the militia for the protection of the western country.^'''' After praising the militia of Illi- nois and the government troops under Generals Scott and Atkinson, Jackson did not let pass the opportunity of point- ing out the moral to be learned by the savages from the de- feat of Black Hawk. "Severe as is the lesson to the In- dians," he said, **it was rendered necessary by their un- provoked aggressions, and it is to be hoped that its impres- sion will be permanent and salutary." That the Indians in fact were learning this lesson of civilization might be in- ferred from another part of the message, where Jackson was happy to inform Congress * * that the wise and humane ^"r^Begister of Debates, 1st Session, 22nd Congress, p. 1083. "^f^Begisier of Debates, 1st Session, 22nd Congress, p. 1087. i7« United States Statutes at Large, Vol. IV, p. 533. 177 Begister of Debates, 2nd Session, 22nd Congress, Appendix, p. 6. THE PIONEERS AND THE INDIANS 247 policy of transferring from the eastern to the western side of the Mississippi the Remnants of our aboriginal tribes, with their own consent and upon just terms, has been steadily pursued, and is approaching, I trust, its con- summation. ' ' The Black Hawk War was suppressed without any aug- mentation of the standing army. But the harrowing scenes of this episode were frequently pictured during the debates when Benton in the year 1836 proposed an increase of the army, avowedly for western defense. In the meantime attention was directed to the South. Hardly had three years passed after peace in the North- west, when there broke out one of the most perplexing of Indian hostilities — the Florida Indian War. For seven years this conflict continued. The tangled everglades and swampy wastes of Florida and the persistence of the In- dians long baffled and delayed the generals and troops of the United States; and withal some thirty millions of dollars were expended before the Seminoles were subdued. To an observer from afar the conduct of the war appeared bunglesome, its cause unjust, and its ultimate purpose simply the oppression and the extermination of a gallant band of exiled Indians. So the opposition to the Adminis- tration became loud in condemning the war and its manage- ment.^*^® Besides the early discussions upon the Florida War in the session of 1835-1836 other questions of similar nature were brought before Congress, which gave occasion for a review of all phases and problems of the question of south- ern frontier protection. Among these were the demand of Alabama for the removal of the Creek Indians,^*^® the 178 Benton '8 ThiHy Years' View, Vol. II, p. 70. nsJourruU of the Senate, 1st SeMion, 24th CongreMy p. 146; Senate Docu- ments, No. 132. 248 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS threatened hostilities of the Creeks,^®® the memorials pray- ing the recognition of the independency of Texas,^®^ as well as the demand from the West for an increase in army pro- tection.^®* In regard to the Seminole Indian War it appears that Congress took prompt action. No matter whether the cause was jnst or nnjnst, no delay occurred in providing for the immediate protection of the pioneers from the fury of the Indians. The first act of the session was an appro- priation for suppressing the hostiUties of the Seminoles and was hurriedly passed on January 14, 1836.^®* Two weeks later the second act of the session was passed, mak- ing a still larger appropriation.^®* Three days later a reso- lution was passed authorizing the President to furnish rations from the public stores to the frontiersmen in Flor- ida who had been driven from their homes by the depreda- tions of the Indians.^®*^ All of these measures were adopted without extended debate — only when the second appropria- tion was proposed Clay asked the cause of this war which was raging with such ** rancorous violence within our hoT- ders".^®® No one could adequately reply. Webster, the chairman of the finance committee who reported the bill, avowed that he could not give any answer to the Senator from Kentucky; but he added impressively: **The war rages, the enemy is in force, and the accounts of their ravages are disastrous. The Executive Government has ISO Begiater of Debates, Ist Sessioiiy 24th CongreaSy p. 2556; NQes' Weekly Begister, Vol. L, pp. 205, 219, 267, 321. 181 Eegister of Debates, Ist Seesion, 24th CongraeB, pp. 1286, 1414, 1759, 1762, 1877. 1S2 Register of Debates, iBt Session, 24th Congress, p. 3493. i«8 jjnited States Statutes at Large, Vol. V, p. 1. i«* United States Statutes at Large, Vol. V, p. 1. i«» United States Statutes at Large, Vol. V, p. 131. 186 Begister of Debates, 1st Session, 24th Congress, p. 290. THE PIONEERS AND THE INDIANS 249 asked for the means of suppressing these hostilities ''i and he conceived it necessary to provide for the imme- diate protection of Florida. Even the loquacious Ben- toUy despite the fact that he was in the confidence of the Administration, confessed his entire ignorance concern- ing the causes of the war.^®^ Nevertheless, after continued appropriations were de- manded by the Executive, and a bill to increase the army was vigorously advocated by its friends, the Opposition began to inquire earnestly into the cause of this commo- tion. '*One would have supposed ^^ remarked Clay, '^that all at once a gallant nation of some millions had been suddenly precipitated on our frontier, instead of a few miserable Indians."^®® Yet all the bills providing for the suppression of the Seminole hostilities which Jackson *s government asked for were promptly passed.^®* So also was the bill to provide for ten thousand volun- teers, Calhoun himself being the manager of the bill on the part of the Senate in the conferences between the two houses.^®® But Benton *s proposal to increase the stand- ing army met disagreement as shall be related below. To the opponents of the Government's Indian policy the cause of the Seminole hostilities was clear enough. Some blamed the pioneers, some the speculators, but all blamed the Government. Calhoun, for instance, exoner- ated the pioneers but denounced the frauds of the Indian Bureau. ^®^ He regretted that the speculators in Indian lands were not the persons to suffer, instead of the frontier inhabitants. Indeed, he said, it made his ** heart i^'r Begister of Debates, 1st Session, 24th Congress, p. 291. ^»»Begister of Debates, 1st Session, 24th Congress, p. 1756. 180 United States Statutes at Large, Vol. V, pp. 1, 8, 17, 33, 65, 131, 135, 152. 100 Journal of the Senate, Ist Session, 24th Congress, p. 366. 101 Begister of Debates^ Itt Session, 24th Congress, pp. 1459, 1460. VOL. IX — 18 250 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS bleed to think of the sufferings of the innocent frontier settlers.'* All these evils were the result of mismanage- ment. The Indian agents had generally been incapable or unfaithful. Calhoun continued: The Qovemment ought to have appointed men of intelligence, of firmness, and of honor, who would have faithfully fulfilled their obligations to the United States and to the Indians. Instead of that, men were sent out to make fortunes for themselves, and to op- press the Indians. ... If they would appoint honest, faithful^ intelligent men, to transact their business with the Indians, instead of broken down politicians, men sent out to be rewarded for party services, these Indian disturbances would soon cease; but unless that was done, it was apparent that there would be continual dis- turbances, creating causes for wars, to be followed by a large in- crease of the standing army. In the House Mr. Vinton of Ohio expostulated in these words : When the cry is sent up here that the people of the frontier are assailed by Indian hostility, we raise the means of making war upon them without a moment's delay; we crush them by our superior power. But we never inquire, while the war is going on, or after it is ended, into its causes; we make no investigation to learn who were the instigators of the war, or who was to blame I told the House there were those on the frontier who had an interest in exciting Indian wars ; that there were those who disregarded the rights of the Indians, and were disposed to encroach upon them; that if we omitted to investigate the causes of these disturbances, and thus induce those who have an interest in exciting them to think they can involve us without scrutiny and without exposure, we should have other Indian wars, in all probability, before the end of the session. ... If we suffer ourselves to go on in this way, in three years' time every Indian will be driven by force from every State and Territory of the Union. In the States and Territories, wherever they are, they are regarded as an incumbrance, and there is a strong desire to get them out of the way ; and if we will furnish the means without inquiry, they will be disposed of. Sir, our frontier inhabitants know our strength and their weakness ; and if THE PIONEERS AND THE INDIANS 251 we are to stand armed behind them, and let them have their way, we must expect they will overbear, and encroach upon them. The Indians with whom we are in contact know full well their weakness and our power ; and it is hardly credible that they will open a war upon us except from a strong sense of injury. . . . We ought to send the immediate means of defending our frontier inhabitants from massacre and pillage; and it is, in my opinion, our further duty to set on foot immediately an investigation into the cause of these disturbances ; and if we are in the wrong, we ought instantly to send commissioners to offer them reparation and do them justice. When we look at the contrast, and see how weak and defenceless they are, and how strong and mighty we are, the character of the House, the honor of the country, and the feelings of the world, call upon us to pursue this course toward them.^" Edward Everett summed up the causes of the Florida War to be the efforts of the whites to capture negro slaves among the Seminoles and to vnrest from these Indians their lands per fas aut nefas.^^^ But of all the speeches the most widely noted denunciation of the war was made by Everett's colleague, Adams the ex-President.^** The inoLmediate occasion for Adams's speech was a joint reso- lution from the Senate authorizing the President to dis- tribute rations to the suffering frontiersmen in Alabama and Georgia as had been done to the sufferers in Florida.^**^ Although stating that he should vote for the resolution because of his sympathy for the sufferers, Adams main- tained that **mere conuniseration, though one of the most amiable impulses of our nature, gives us no power to drain the Treasury of the people for the relief of the suf- fering".^®® After an irrelevant discourse in which the 182 Begtster of Debates, let SeBsion, 24th Congress, p. 3767. ^93Begi8ter of Debates, Ist Session, 24th Congress, p. 4158. i9*Niles* Weekly Begister, Vol. L, p. 276; Memoirs of John Quincy Adams, Vol. IX, pp. 290, 298. 195 Begtster of Debates, 1st Session, 24th Congress, p. 4032. i^^Begister of Debates, 1st Session, 24th Congress^ p. 4037. 252 IOWA JOUKNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS venerable statesman detected the curse of slavery in frontier disturbanoeSi he concluded his discourse by charging the cause of the Seminole War to the injustice of the present Administration. All preceding Adminis- trationSy he claimed, had sought to civilize the Indians and attach them to the soil upon which they lived. But this humane poUcy was now abandoned. Instead of it you have adopted that of expelling by force or by compact all the Indian tribes from their own territories and dwell- ings to a region beyond the Mississippi^ beyond the Missouri, be- yond the Arkansas, bordering upon Mexico ; and there you have de- luded them with the hope that they will find a permanent abode — a final resting-place from your never-ending rapacity and persecu- tion. ... In the process of this violent and heartless operation you have met with all the resistance which men in so helpless a con- dition as that of the Indian tribes could make. Of the immediate causes of the war we are not yet fully informed ; but I fear you will find them, like the remoter causes, all attributable to yourselves.^*^ Toward the end of the session a surprising memorial was presented to Congress from citizens resident at the seat of the Creek and Seminole hostilities, i. e. Eastern Alabama and Georgia.^®® These memorialists represent- ed that the Indian disturbances were ** caused by individ- uals jointly associated under the name of land companies, whose proceedings and contracts were of the most ne- farious character." The memorialists prayed that an in- vestigation be instituted, and intimated that it would be found that **the press of that country is entirely under the control of these heartless agitators, and that, through bribery and corruption, all channels of information to the public and to the Government on this subject are closed." Lewis of Alabama moved that the investigation be placed in the hands of the President with power to prose- 197 Begister of Debates, 1ft Session, 24th Congress, p. 4049. i9BBegi8ter of Dehtxtes, Ist Session, 24th Congress, p. 4578. THE PIONEERS AND THE INDIANS 253 cute the guilty persons if any might be apprehended. Wise of Virginia, Adams of Massachusetts, and Peyton of Tennessee sprang to the opposition. The Virginian moved to amend by selecting a committee of the House to investigate. Executive officers, he claimed, were impli- cated in the charges and to refer the matter to the Presi- dent would **have the effect to cover up these frauds, in- stead of exposing them."^®* After a hot debate, in which Peyton likened Andrew Jackson to Warren Hastings and dubbed all Indian agents as *' petty tyrants*' engaged in plundering the savages and ''then aiding and encourag- ing them to make war upon your defenseless frontier'', the amendment proposed by Wise was rejected and the motion of Lewis passed by so many ayes that the noes were not even counted.*^® The last annual message of Jackson in December, 1836, called for further appropriations to subdue the Seminoles and Creeks and urged an increase of the regular army as well as a reorganization of the militia.*®^ The appropria- tions were supplied by Congress, but not the increase in the standing army.^®^ In the following December his successor, perforce, repeated similar recommendations not only for the increase of the regular army but also to continue suppressing the Seminole hostilities.^^* Al- ready the members of Congress who had voted for the early appropriations merely in the hope that immediate aid would quiet the disturbances on the frontier were much provoked because of the never-ending campaigns. Webster mildly advised more deliberation in expendi- 199 Begister of Debates, Ist SesBion, 24th Congress, p. 4583. 200 Begister of Debates, Ist Session, 24th Congress, pp. 4597, 4604. ^oiBegister of Debates, 2nd Session, 24th Congress, Appendix, p. 8. 202 United States Statutes at Large, Vol. V, pp. 135, 152. toi Congressional Globe, 2nd Session, 25th Congress, p. 6. Also Appendix, p. 3. 254 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS tnres.*®* Twenty million dollars had been expended, he said, and little accomplished. Before greater appropria- tions were voted the whole matter should receive a thor- ough investigation. Preston of South Carolina also de- manded an investigation.^*^ And Senator Southard of New Jersey brought serious charges to the door of the Administration by maintaining that **a fraud was com- mitted upon the Florida Indians in the treaty negotiated with them for their removal to the West; that the war which has ensued was the consequence of this fraud; and that our Government was responsible to the moral sense of the community, and of the world, for all the blood that has been shed, and for all the money that has been expended, in the prosecution of this war.*^°® These pleas for investigation called down a torrent of abuse and wrath. Benton replied to Southard in a trenchant speech, the burden of which was a condemna- tion of ^Hhe mawkish sentimentaUty of the day ... . a sentimentaUty which goes moping and sorrowing about in behalf of imaginary wrongs to Lidians and negroes, while the whites themselves are the subject of murder, robbery and defamation. ^^^^^ Clay of Alabama replied to Webster and Preston in a harangue quivering with in- vective heaped upon philanthropists who assayed **to take care of the national honor I "^^^ Other arguments followed depicting the depraved condition of the Indians, and therefore their lack of rights. Indeed, almost all of the arguments in the entire Seminole War debates con- sisted largely of vivid defenses of pioneer character, and 204 Congressional Olobe, 2nd Sesgion, 25th Congren, Appendix, p. 373. 205 CongressioncH Olohe, 2nd Session, 25th Congress, Appendix, p. 373. 206 Congressional Olobe, 2nd Session, 25th Congress, Appendix, p. 353. 207 Congressional Olohe, 2nd Session, 25th Congress, Appendix, p. 354. 208 Congressional Olobe, 2nd Session, 25th Congress, Appendix, p. 376. THE PIONEERS AND THE INDIANS 255 philippics against the American aborigines, enlivened with bloody descriptions of the scalping knife and toma- hawk. The following words from the remarks of Towns of Georgia well illustrate the tone of these debates : Every mail from Georgia tells me the story of death ; butcheries the most revolting are perpetrated every day in the borders of Ala- bama, and on the frontiers of Georgia. . . . One scene of wide- spread desolation alone is to be seen in that quarter, where but a short time since there was peace, quiet, and prosperity. And such, sir, has been the imparalleled devastation of property and life, that there is scarcely a human being to be seen in all that country, unless it be the merciless foe, or some unfortunate settler flying from the tomahawk and scalping-knife. So sudden has been this war, when the Indian was ready to deal out death in all its horrors, few, if any, were prepared to give the slightest resistance; unprotected with arms or ammunition, the honest settler of the country felt it to be his first duty to yield to the entreaties of wife and children, to fly for safety ; and the melancholy story but too often reaches us, when thus flying, that many of them have fallen victims to the most cruel of all deaths, the scalping-knife and tomahawk.'®^ Alf ord of Georgia declared that when he heard appeals for justice to the Seminole Indians his mind ** reverted to his own people, who deserved the sympathy of the House more than the savage Indian. '^^^^ Richard M. Johnson of Kentucky pictured southern rivers as deluged **with the blood of innocence", and that Florida lay bleeding ** un- der the hand of savage barbarity. '^^^^ Mr. Jonathan Cilley of Maine declaimed as follows : My blood thrills in my veins to hear the conduct of faithless and murderous Indians lauded to the skies, and our sympathies invoked in their behalf, while in the same breath our own government and its most distinguished citizens are traduced and villified to the low- 209 Begister of Debates, let Session, 24fth Congress, p. 4034. 210 Begister of Debates, 2nd Session, 24th Congress, p. 1559. 211 Begister of Debates, lot Session, 24th Congress, p. 2725. 256 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS est degree. ... I hope gentlemen^ whose sensibilities are now so much enlisted in the conditions of the Seminoles and Cherokees, now in Florida and Georgia, will not forget how their own fore fathers .... when they were a frontier people .... dealt with similar enemies.*^ In a fiery harangue Mr. Bynum of North Carolina asked : What are our obligations to protect the exposed inhabitants of that Territory [Florida] t Surely all that is sacred .... should prompt us to a speedy and determined resolution not only to defend, but reserve that Territory at every hazard .... from the blood-stained hands of these unrelenting savages. Gentle- men surely could not be in earnest to talk of peace, until these bloody, perfidious, treacherous devils were whipped.*^* Peyton of Tennessee, replying to Adams of Massachu- setts, said: '^That gentleman does not know, living, as he does, far from such scenes, the vivid feeling of Southern and Western men, when they see hostile savages hovering around their villages, and lying in ambush, to murder the old and the young ".^^^ Thus, figuratively speaking, with brandishing of toma- hawk and scalping knife bill after bill appropriating mon- ey for the suppression of Seminole hostilities was passed. The reactions of Jackson's Indian policy fell upon his successor. Throughout the whole of Van Buren's term, the Seminole hostiUties raged in Florida, and the conduct of the warfare was constantly used by the Opposition in Congress as a weak point for attacking the Administra- tion. At last Benton in 1839, after consultation with his Administration friends, proposed a plan for the ultimate 2i« Congressional Globe, 2nd Session, 25th Congress, Appendix, pp. 78, 79. 218 Congressional Globe, 2nd Session, 25th Congress, Appendix, p. 75. 21* Begister of Debates, 1st Session, 24th Congress, p. 3520. These speeches may be compared with such current pamphlets as the Nar- raiive of the Massacre, by the Savages, of the Wife and Children of Thomas Baldwin (New York: 1836). THE PIONEERS AND THE INDIANS 257 suppression of these long-drawn-out hostilities.^" Fed- eral encouragement to the pioneers was the basis of Ben- ton's scheme. Settlers were to be emboldened to brave the dangers of Florida settlement by free grants of land, and ammunition, and provisions for one year. Into the de- fense of this measure Benton flung himself with his char- acteristic vigor, calling upon the North not to begrudge generous treatment to Southern pioneers since it was by armed occupation only that the treacherous lands of Flor- ida might ever be settled.^ ^® That the pioneers should possess the wilderness was Benton's pet axiom. ** Every inch of territory on this continent, now occupied by white people,** he exclaimed, ^'was taken from the Indians by armed settlers and pre- emptions and donations of land have forever rewarded the bold settlers who rendered this service to the civiliza- tion of the world. • • • The blockhouse, the stockade, the rifle, have taken the country, and held it, from the shores of the Atlantic to the far West; and in every in- stance grants of land have rewarded the courage and en- terprise of the bold pioneer. '^^^^ Armed settlement was ever the true course of pioneer progress in America. ** Cultivation and defense then goes hand in hand. The heart of the Indian sickens when he hears the crowing of the cock, the barking of the dog, the sound of the axe, and the crack of the rifle. These are the true evidences of the dominion of the white man; these are the proof that the owner has come, and means to stay ; and then they feel it to be time for them to go.*^^® The story of the recession 218 jViZc«' Weekly Begister, Vol. LV, p. 314; Benton's Thirty Years' View, Vol. II, p. 167, et seq.; Congressional Globe, 3rd Session, 25th Oongreas, p. 89. 2^^ Congressional Globe, 3rd Session, 25th Congress, Appendix, p. 165. 217 Congressional Globe, 3rd Bession, 25th Congress, Appendix, p. 163. 218 Congressional Globe, Ist Session, 26th Congress, Appendix, p. 73. 258 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS of the Lidians before the pioneers as told by Benton (himself a pioneer) thrills with a shuddering coldness; but its truth can not be gainsaid. Both Clay and Webster, as might be expected, opposed Benton 's bill for armed occupation and free grants — but unsuccessfully in the Senate.^ ^® Li the lower house the bill was lost.220 Among those who voted against the bill in the House was Joshua R. Giddings, who later leaped into prominence by his vehement speech in opposition to a bill proposed by Thompson of South Carolina. Thompson's bill provided for the removal of the Seminoles to the West.^^^ Giddings chose the subject of the Seminole War not so much to de- fend the Lidians as to attack the institution of slavery, and in his speech of February 8, 1841, he assigned as the causes of the Florida War the attempts of slave-hunters to capture fugitive negroes who had taken refuge with the Seminoles and intermarried with them. All the public treasure spent to suppress the hostilities, all the blood of the defenseless pioneers, women and children murdered by the Indians, and the disgrace to the American army he attributed to the at- tempts of the Georgia slaveholders seeking to recover their runaway slaves and to the ** unlawful interference by the people of Florida with the Lidian negroes ' \^^^ The replies which Giddings received were bitter and offensive, and, as might be expected, concerned slavery more than they did the war. Li the chaos of the Florida discussion Benton alone ap- peared with a clear-cut and consistent remedy for the exas- ^^9 Congressional Globe, 3rd Session, 25th Congress, p. 194. 220 Congressional Globe, 3rd Session, 25th Congress, p. 235. 221 Congressional Globe, 2nd Session, 26th Congress, Appendix, p. 346 ; Memoirs of John Quinoy Adams, Vol. X, p. 416. MS Congressionai Globe, 2nd Session, 26th Congress, Appendix, p. 349. THE PIONEERS AND THE INDIANS 259 peratmg condition in that Territory. His bill for armed occupation — the same which was rejected by the House in 1839 — was the embodiment of his program. With his usual tenacity Benton introduced this bill in the following sessions, and spoke on the subject, as he himself said, when- ever no other Senator manifested a desire to speak.**^ The scheme was ably supported in the Senate by Benton's col- league, Lewis F. Linn,22* by Clay of Alabama,^^** and by Tappan of Ohio;^^® and in the House support came from Butler of Kentucky — the latter sighing for the days of primitive simplicity when it was thought no disgrace to kill an Indian enemy.^*^ John Robertson of Virginia,*^® Crit- tenden of Kentucky ,22» and Preston of South Carolina^^ were opposed. **The inducements which you hold forth for settlers'', declared Crittenden, **are such as will address themselves most strongly to the most idle and worthless classes of our citizens. ' ' And again he said that * * these garrison citizens ' ' would in no respect resemble, nor could they accomplish the achievements of, the ** hardy and resolute pioneers of the West. ' '2** Senator Preston prophesied that the settlers un- der the proposed act would not be such as the * * daring, res- olute men ' ' who settled the Northwest frontier, but instead * * speculators, men expecting a bounty rather than desiring ^^^ Congressional Globe, Ist Session, 26th Congress, p. 20; 2nd Session, 27th Congress, p. 503. 224 Congressional Globe, 3rd Session, 25th Congress, Appendix, p. 165 ; End Session, 27th Congress, p. 623. 228 Congressional Globe, 1st Session, 26th Congress, Appendix, p. 47. 226 Congressional Globe, 1st Session, 26th Congress, Appendix, p. 74. 227 Congressional Globe, Ist Session, 26th Congress, Appendix, p. 669. 228 Congressional Globe, 3rd Session, 25th Congress, p. 202. 229 Congressional Globe, Ist Session, 26th Congrew, Appendix, p. 80. 230 Congressional Globe, Ist Session, 26th Congress, Appendix, pp. 74, 84. 281 Congressional Globe^ Ist Session, 26th Congress, Appendix, pp. 80, 81. 260 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS to make permanent settlements ' \^^^ Tappan of Ohio saw the matter in the same light when he said : ^ ^ The men you will probably obtain nnder this law, will be the idle and worthless population of our large cities *^^" Benton's persistence in the end won the day. The bill, despite dire predictions, was passed by both houses and signed by the President on August 4, 1842.*** Benton, as he tells the story in his Thirty Years^ View implies that the enacting of this law marked the close of the Seminole Indian War.^'^ There continued, however, a smouldering resist- ance from the wretched remnants of Florida tribes, who were not transplanted West, long after the announcement by the commanding officer of the army in August, 1843, to the effect that hostilities in Florida had ceased. Indeed, as late as 1858 Giddings, writing in his Exiles of Florida main- tained that the. United States was still in open war with these forlorn people.^^® As far as general interest was concerned, this session did mark the end of the discussion of the Florida War, save for the intermittent speeches of Abolitionists who used the subject as a handle for attacks upon slavery.**^ i*^ Congressional Oiohe, Ist SessioiXy 26th CongreeSf Appendix, p. 75. 2M Congressional Glohe, Ist Seesion, 26th Oongren, Appendix, p. 74. 2s« United States Statutes at Large, Vol. V, p. 502. a«B Benton's Thirty Tears' View, Vol. EC, p. 70. S8« GiddingB'B The Exiles of Florida, p. 316. SS7 The efforts of this Abolitionist in behalf of Seminole-Negro people are not to be east aside. His exertions for justice to them oontinoed after the greater part of them had been transported to their new homes in the Cherokee lands of the West. Here he sought in Congress to protect the Seminole-Negroes from the Creeks, who claimed them as slaves, and from slave-hunters from the States. During his last term in Congress, 1857-1859, Giddings puUished a re- markably inspiring account of the exiles of Florida. The object of this book, he frankly stated, was to disabuse the public mind of the opinion that the Sem- inole Wars were caused by the depredations of the Indians upon the white settlements, but rather by the persecutions of the Southerners and of a gov- ernment subservient to the institution of slavery. Qiddings closed his tragic THE PIONEERS AND THE INDIANS 261 FLANS FOB THB DEFENSE OF THE WESTEBN FBONTIEB The war panic in the fall of 1835 stdmnlated an interest in national defense which ultimately accrued to the advan- tage of the frontier. The President's annual message of December, 1835, had vigorously reviewed the diplomatic friction over the Spoliation payments from France, and his message of January, 1836, definitely called for naval and coast defenses.^^ Some months later the elaborate report of Secretary Cass upon the land and naval defenses was sent to the Senate.^^® But the war sensation was soon end- ed. For scarcely a month later the delayed installments were in the hands of the United States.^^ Meanwhile had occurred both the desultory debate upon Benton's resolu- tion to appropriate the surplus revenues for the purposes of national defense and the debate upon the elaborate pro- visions of the Fortification Bill reported by the Senate Mili- tary Committee.^*^ In this hubbub Benton and Linn contrived to bring some actual advantage to the fortification question. Western men were coming to consider the lack of adequate frontier defense as a matter of acute danger. For some time Benton and Secretary Cass had consulted with each other. Both were impressed with the danger of Indian uprisings in the Northwest (the region where the Black Hawk War was not soon to be forgotten) and both were of the opinion that the Seminole hostilities might stimulate the prairie Indians to like bold attacks. Reports from western army officers con- story with a relation of the fate of the exiles whom the United States had transported to the West. He pictured this band of miserable people, still har- assed by slave-hunters, finally attempting to flee toward Mexico. 288 Begister of Debates, 1st Session, 24th Congress, p. 167, Appendix, p. 3. 230 Begister of Debates, 1st Session, 24th Congress, Appendix, p. 81. 2M Begister of Debates, Ist Session, 24th Congress, p. 1426; NUes' Weekly Begister, Vol. L, p. 185. 2«i Begister of Debates, 1st Session, 24th Congress, pp. 130, 591. 262 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS firmed their fears.^*^ These military advices were to the effect that the force on the frontier was inadeqnate both to protect the settlements and to command respect from the warlike tribes. This condition was exhibited to the Senate in a letter from the War Department early in March.^*^ Secretary Cass called attention to the necessity of advanc- ing the troops and posts westward, simultaneously with the receding Indian country. As a basis for the development of the fortification of the new frontier he proposed new mili- tary roads and posts west of Missouri and Arkansas, as well as an increase of the army. These plans were substan- tially repeated in his report on the military and naval de- fenses made in April.^** Benton had already reported from the Military Committee a bill for the construction of a mili- tary road in the West, and now he reported a bill to increase the army of the United States in accordance with the recom- mendation of the Secretary of War.^*^ Li the House, Johnson of Kentucky had reported from the Military Committee a bill authorizing the President to raise ten thousand volunteers, and a bill for a military road and forts in the western country .^^^ The bill for the vol- unteers had special reference to the Florida War. In support of these measures Benton presented the Sen- ate with a mass of pertinent and detailed information. Using the estimates of Cass, Benton claimed the number of Indians upon the western and northwestern border to be 253,000 souls, of whom 50,000 were warriors.^ *^ To protect 2*2 American State Papers, Military Affairs, Vol. VI, p. 153; Register of Debates, 1st Session, 24th Congress, Appendix, p. 100. 2*^ Register of Debates, 1st Session, 24th Congress, Appendix, p. 96. 2** Register of Debates, Ist Session, 24th Congress, Appendix, p. 81. 2*& Congressional Globe, Ist Session, 24th Congress, Appendix, p. 126; Jour- nal of the Senate, p. 244. 246 Journal of the House of Representatives, 1st Session, 24th Congress, pp. 253, 454, 3593. 2*7 Register of Debates, Ist Session, 24tii Congress, p. 1746. THE PIONEERS AND THE INDIANS 263 the people of the West and Northwest from the incessant danger of such a vast array of savages only a small part of the small United States army was employed. The six thou- sand soldiers of the United States were distributed along the lake, maritime, gulf, and western frontiers — a circuit of some twelve thousand miles. The fortifications upon the maritime and gulf coast required a great part of the force ; and of that allotted to the West a part had to be kept not on the frontier but at a convenient position for mobilization* The greater division of the western troops were now on the Eed Eiver, watching the progress of events on the Texas frontier. The result was that the Middle West and North- west, always insufficiently guarded, were nearly stripped of defense — and this at a time when the Indian wars in the South were exciting the Indians in all quarters. The East- em States, moreover, owed a moral obligation to protect the Western States from the hordes of Indians which had been and were still being removed westward in order to relieve the old States from a dangerous and useless popu- lation. In his dramatic manner Benton appealed to the Senators *4n the name of that constitution which had for its first ob- ject the common defense of the whole Union'* to prevent a repetition in the Northwest of the scenes of **fire and blood, of burnt houses, devastated fields, slaughtered inhabitants, unburied dead, food for beasts and vultures, which now dis- figure the soil of Alabama, Florida, and Georgia*'.^*® Ben- ton 's fascinating arguments were reinforced by the earnest appeals of his colleague, Lewis F. Linn, and of Alexander Porter of Louisiana. The former maintained that the pres- ent frontier population of Missouri was ''very different from those hardy and warlike adventurers who conquered the valley of the Mississippi. They were generally per- 248 Begister of Debates, let Session, 24th Congress, p. 1750. 264 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS sons in easy circumstances^ who had emigrated from the East for the purpose of acquiring land for their growing families, and were more fitted for the pursuits of peace and industry than the hardships and dangers of Indian war- fare." To such it was all-important to pursue their usual vocations without the constant dread of savage depreda- tions. There was no doubt but that they could conquer the Indians, but it would only be after **many fair fields had been made desolate, and many a widow would be weeping over her fatherless children. "^^^ Linn also referred to the consequences of the removal policy. The Government was, he asserted, peculiarly responsible for the protection of the frontier States, after ^ ^ throwing large masses of Indians on them, contrary to the wishes of the frontier States, and in defiance of the solemn protest of one of them."**^ The unprotected condition of the Texan frontier was an- other argument for military augmentation. Besides linn, Preston of South Carolina, Porter of Louisiana, Buchanan of Pennsylvania, and Walker of Mississippi in the Senate prophesied much trouble from this direction and urged a more careful patrol of the southwestern border line.*®^ Of the various army bills under consideration, the Senate passed Benton's for the increase of the standing army, but passed it too late in the session to get action in the House.*'* On the other hand the House passed Johnson 's bill for the 240 Begister of Debates, Ist Session, 24th Congress, p. 1852. 2^0 Be gist er of Debates, Ist Session, 24th Congress, p. 1386. See also p. 1304. 251 Begister of Debates, 1st Session, 24th Congress, pp. 1386, 1391, 1394, 1417, 1755. Linn, however, denied that he urged the bill with a view toward the state of affairs in Texas. — See p. 1395. In the issue of the NattoncU Intelligencer, December 24, 1835, Rice Qarland, a Representative from Louisiana published a statement declaring that the Government had acquired too much land by extinguishing Indian titles and locating the Indians on the southwestern border. 262 Begister of Debates, 1st Session, 24th Congress, p. 1854. ) (:■ \.- THE PIONEERS AND THE INDIANS 265 ten thousand volunteers and his bill for a military road and posts in the West, and the Senate concurred therein.**^ Benton was determined, however, to increase the stand- ing army. In the next session he introduced another bill. The Senate was willing to pass it, with a majority of thir- teen, but the House deferred.*** The next regular session (1837-1838), however, saw the triumph of the bill. The irri- tating hostilities in Florida as well as the universal feeling of insecurity for the western frontier militated against further postponement. Even the sensation caused by the Caroline affair on the Canadian border contributed to the merits of the discussion.*** But the basic argument was that of defense for the West. Benton spoke in these words : The whole Indian population of the United States are now ac- cumulated on the weakest frontier of the Union — the Western, and Southwestern, and Northwestern frontier — and they are not only accumulated there, but sent there smarting with the lash of recent chastisement, burning with revenge for recent defeats, com- pletely armed by the United States, and placed in communication with the wild Indians of the West, the numerous and fierce tribes towards Mexico, the Bocky Mountains, and the Northwest, who have never felt our arms, and who will be ready to join in any in- road upon our frontiers.**' A Senator from the new State of Arkansas made a plea for his people. The Indians with whom our forefathers contended, he argued, were ** wholly undisciplined, and armed only with war clubs and bows and arrows*'; they were remote from each other and at war with each other. But the Indians who face the Arkansas frontier are better armed than even our citizens. These western Indians were ^tisBegister of Debates, let SeiBion, 24th Congress, pp. 3375, 3756, 1523, 1930. 2S4Begister of Dehaies, 2nd Session, 24th Congrets, p. 840; Jowmai of the Eouse of Bepresentatives, p. 600. 25& Congressional Globe, 2nd Session, 25th Congress, p. 484. 256 Begister of Debates, 2nd Session, 24th Congress, p. 813. VOL. IX — ^19 266 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS located ^'thousands of miles from this Capitol, and hnn- dreds of miles distant from the nearest points from which relief to the frontier settlements could be brought in the event of war. They have been taken from .... Georgia, Alabama, Indiana, Illinois, Ohio, and the Caro- linas, and located together upon the borders of the weakest and most remote States in the Union. ''^^^^ Linn replied to the charge made against the Missouri people of having plundered and oppressed the Indians on her borders^ There was not a man in either Missouri or Wisconsin who did not possess too much sense to attempt to plunder Indians. They all knew that at that game they were very sure to come off losers: for the Indians could beat all the white men on the face of the earth at stealing. No ; the people of Missouri had never robbed or trampled on these natives of the forest. All the injuries in the case had been perpetrated by Indians upon the peaceable white settlers and their families. The Indians had been represented as a x>oor, spiritless, down-trodden race, ignorant of their own rights, and con- tinually imposed upon by the whites. Nothing could be more op- posite to the truth. A deal of trash of this kind had been uttered in the course of this debate, by those who ought to know better. No people on the face of the earth were keener sighted, or more fully awake to their rights and interests, than the North American In- dians. . . . Never had they been more fierce, never more bent on war.*"* Such speeches exhibited much solicitude on the part of western members; but their statements were so sweeping and so generaUzing that the suspicion of exaggeration might well arise. Calhoun, Clay, and Crittenden of Ken- tucky called in question this warlike panic. **What had created so great a dread of those 70,000 Indians,'* ex- claimed the latter, * * composed of the fragments, the broken 2^f Begistcr of DebateSy 2nd Session, 24th Congress, p. 835. t^^ Register of Debates^ 2nd Session, 24th Congress, p. 837. / THE PIONEERS AND THE INDIANS 267 fragments, of a poor, disheartened, dispirited, down-trod- den people! It was in vain to effect a terror of this now fallen race, trampled in the dust, and broken in spirit, as an argument for the increase of the standing army.**^^® The pioneers of Kentucky and Tennessee, Crittenden told the Senate, had conquered their wilderness without the aid of Federal troops. Why should not the pioneers of the far West do the same in their region? Concerning the influence that annuities might have in pre- serving peace with the Indians, the opinions of Calhoun and Linn directly opposed each other. Calhoun believed that the Cherokees, Creeks, Choctaws, and Chickasaws, all of whom were friendly to the United States and received large annuities from the Government, would never forfeit these bounties by a hostile act.^®^ Linn replied : The great tribes, to whom large annual payments in money had been guaranteed, would not go to open war with this Gtovemment, lest their annuities should be forfeited ; but there were some smaller ^^^Begister of Debates, 2nd Session, 24th CongreaSy p. 829. The technical objection to Benton 's bill which pertained to a point of military economy Was that of replenishing the file of the regiments or of increasing the regiments. In other words that of increasing or not the proportion of priTates to the officers. Galhoon, who it will be recalled was Secretary of War under President Monroe, held that the staff of the army should be increased, and not the file. Clay disfavored a considerable standing army and advocated re- liance on the militia. — Register of Debates, 1st Session, 24th Congress, p. 1852 ; Congressional Globe, 2nd Session, 25tii Congress, p. 133. It is interesting to note some of the other objections to increasing the stand- ing army. For instance, Everett of Vermont objected because any increase in the army must be made up chiefly from an enlistment of foreigners, and he hoped never to ''see that day when Irishmen, Englishmen, and other aliens should be organized and armed to keep the citizens of his State in order." — Congressional Globe, 2nd Session, 25th Congress, p. 484. 260 Begister of Debates, 2nd Session, 24th Congress, p. 808. Calhoun's position on this point is self-explanatory. As told by the con- gressional reporter, Calhoun said in part: — ''The bill proposed to increase our existing military establishment. ... by the addition of 5,500 men, . . . and augmenting the expense of its maintenance by a million and a half or two millions of dollars. Was this necessary f He contended that it was 268 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS tribes not so restrained; these were not unlikely to commence a hostile movement; and, the moment they should do so, there were multitudes of the young warriors from the larger tribes ready and eager to join them.'*^ not. . . . Abroad we were at peace with all the world; and as to Mexico^ he believed no gentleman serioualy contemplated that we were to go to war with her. Never had there been a time when so little force was necessary to pot our Indian relations upon the safest footing. Our Indian frontier had^ within a few years, been contracted to one half its former dimensions. It had formerly reached from Detroit all the way round to the month of the St. Mary's, in Georgia; whereas, at present, its utmost extent was from St. Peter's to the Bed river. To guard this frontier, the (Government had nine regiments of artillery, seven of infantry, and two of dragoons. He would submit to every one to say whether such a line could not be amply defended by such a force. Supposing one regiment to be stationed at St. Louis, and an- other at Baton Bouge, there still remained seven regiments to be extended from St. Peter's to Bed river. Supposing one of them to be stationed at St. Peter's, one upon the Missouri, one in Arkansas, and one upon the Bed river, there were still three left at the disposal of the Government. He con- tended that this force was not only sufficient, but ample. He should be told that there was a very large Indian force upon this frontier. That was very true. But the larger that force was, the more secure did it render our posi- tion; provided the Government appointed among them faithful Indian agents,, who enjoyed their confidence, and who would be sustained by the Government in measures for their benefit. Of what did this vast Indian force consist t In the first place, there were the Choctaws, who had removed beyond the Mississippi with their own consent; a people always friendly to this Govern- ment, and whose boast it was that they had never shed, in a hostile manner^ one drop of the white man 's blood. Their friendship was moreover secured by heavy annuities, which must at once be forfeited by any hostile movement. Whenever this was the case, the Government possessed complete control, by the strong consideration of interest. Next came the friendly Creeks, who had all gone voluntarily to the west bank of the river. Then came the friendly Cherokees, who had done the same thing; and next the Chickasaws, whom we also held by heavy annuities. All this vast body of Indians were friendly toward the United States, save a little branch of the Creeks; and it would be easy for any prudent administration, by selecting proper agents, and sus- taining them in wise measures, to keep the whole of these people peaceable and in friendship with this Government, and they would prove an effectual barrier against the incursions of the wild Indians in the prairies beyond. But to increase largely our military force would be the most certain means of pro- voking a war, especially if improper agents were sent among them — political partisans and selfish land speculators. Men of this cast would be the more bold in their measures, the more troops were ready to sustain them". Note also a further speech on p. 826. Compare Nilea' Weekly Register, VoL LII, p. 99. 261 Begister of Debates, 2nd Session, 24th Congress, p. 838. THE PIONEERS AND THE INDIANS 269 Thronghont the debate there appeared vagae accusatioiis against Clay and Calhonn. Were Clay and Calhoun hostile to adequate frontier defense? No one can read the speeches on the Army Bill without perceiving that more than a few individuals considered them so to be. But such sentiments were without foundation. Clay's attitude had been ex- pressed on this very question time and time again for a score of years. It was always the same. Clay disliked a standing army; he would have the western country rely upon an efficient militia.^®^ As to Calhoun, if he were seeking an alliance between South Carolina and the West, as his correspondence during this period might lead one to suppose, then there existed a powerful political motive to prohibit his taking an attitude in any way unfriendly to Benton's Army Bill.^®^ But as a matter of fact, Calhoun was ever zealous for western de- fense. His administration of the War Department under Monroe exhibited in that respect a record which he could point to with pride.^®* Like Clay he opposed a large stand- ing army. While disapproving Benton's broad plan of mili- tary establishment, Calhoun nevertheless voted for the Army Bill in 1836 ;2®'^ and during the same session he was manager of the Volunteer Bill in the conferences between the two houses.^®^ 262 Clay '8 opposition to the Army Bill may haTO contributed to his unpopu- larity in some sections of the West in the same way that his Land Bill did. — Pelzer's The Early Democratic Party of Iowa in The Iowa Journal of His- tory AND Politics, Vol. VT, p. 30. 2«3 Calhoun Correspondence, Annu{U Beport of the American Historicdl Asso- ciation, 1899, Vol. II, pp. 349, 353, 366. ^^*Begister of Debates, 2nd Session, 24th Congress, p. 826. 2^'i Begister of Debates, Ist Session, 24th Congress, p. 1853. For Calhoun's votes against the bills of 1837 and 1838, see Begister of Debates, 2nd Session, 24th Congress, p. 840 ; Journal of the Senate, 2nd Session, 25th Congress, p. 170. 2M Journal of the Senate, 1st Session, 24th Congress, p. 366; Begister of Debates, p. 1503. 270 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS More truth, however, lies in the assertion that Benton pressed his Army Bills upon Congress with an eye single to his elaborate scheme of national defense. Benton was almost vindictively opposed to the Surplus Revenue Dis- tribution Bill. So the more surplus of the treasury diverted to the army, the less there would be for distribution to the States.**^ The frontier scare was a convenient argument. As a matter of fact the Indian outcry of the day was somewhat exaggerated.^^^ Even Benton admitted that the 267 Compare with Meigs' Benton, p. 171, and with Linn and Sargent's Life and Public Services of Br, Ltnn, p. 280. Many charges were made that the Fortification Bill of 1835, as well as the bill for the increase of the army, was a political maneuver. For instance, see Begister of Debates, 1st Session, 24th Congress, pp. 2390, 2436. s«*The following letters from the southwestern frontier show an ulterior motive in spreading rumors of Indian hostilities. One letter dated August 28, 1836, at Natchitoches, Louisiana, says: "One of the ostensible causes of this permanent military occupation of Texas is the reported disaffected state of a number of tribes or fragments of tribes, of Texian Indians, and some that once lived in the United States. The Tezans are pleased by the presence of our troops as giving their cause countenance, and with that policy they raise and spread rumors of threatened attacks. ' ' — NUes ' Weekly Begister, Vol. LI, p. 87. Another letter from Camp Sabine declares: *'This frontier is perfectly quiet. No Indian disturbances, and none likely to take place. The Indians are few in number, quietly pursuing their avocations, and in my opinion dare not mo- lest the frontier settlements of Louisiana; and it is believed that they have never entertained an idea of the kind. A thousand stories have been circulated to the prejudice of the Indians, which have proved false. On this frontier, a man would be considered very credulous, who should regard the reports that daily come from Texas." — NUes' Weekly Begister, Vol. LI, p. 162. A letter from Camp Nacogdoches, dated September 21st, says: "There is something singular in our occupation of Nacogdoches. There never has been, nor is there likely to be, any difficulties with the Indians. — They are as peaceable as could be expected, urging the necessity of keeping white men out of their country. ' ' — NUes' Weekly Begister, Vol. LI, p. 162. The maneuvers of General Gaines upon the Texan boundary in the summer of 1836 raised a storm of protest from those in the United States opposed to annexation, and the denials of possible Indian hostilities were quite likely exaggerated. However, these were undoubtedly false rumors about Indian dangers. Further opinions of the time may be found in Benjamin Lundy 's The War in Texas (Philadelphia: 1837), pp. 44-51; William Kennedy's Texas (London: 1841), Vol. II, p. 291; and Mrs. Mary Austin Holley's Texas (Lex- ington, Kentucky: 1836), p. 161. THE PIONEERS AND THE INDIANS 271 western people had their just proportion of the American army.^** It required no elaborate fortifications of stone and mounted cannon to repulse such an enemy as the abor- igines. Crudely constructed posts and a few mounted dragoons were enough.*^^ Such defenses were already on the frontier. But if adventurers advanced beyond the out- posts and into the Indian country, did they deserve any further protection from the Government! It was a western Representative, Bell of Tennessee, who turned the question by suggesting that an army was needed on the border as much 'Ho coerce our own settlers to an obedience of the laws * * as to awe the Indians.*^^ The War Department was interested in the enlargement of the army, and recommendations of the nature of Poin- sett's report in 1837 carried much weight ^^^ — so also did the mass of reports from regular army officers.^^' The De- partment outlined for congressional consideration an elab- orate system of fortifications in the West ; and in 1838 Ben- ton introduced a bill to put it into effect, but the bill wa^ lost in the press of other matters.^^* Congressional atten- tion, however, had been definitely called to the need of the West, and the appropriation bills for fortifications during 260 Register of Debates, Ist Session, 24th Congress, p. 1746. 270 This is the opinion of Secretary Cass. — Register of Debates, 1st Session, 24th Congress, Appendix, p. 81. 271 Congressional Globe, 2nd Session, 25th Congress, p. 483. 272 Senate Documents, 2nd Session, 25th Congress, No. 1, p. 171. 2^9 Senate Documents, 2nd Session, 25th Congress, No. 1, p. 204; Executive Documents, No. 276. 274 Congressionolicy of removing and colonizing the Indians in the States east of the Mississippi, to the westward of that river, in a region remote from the habitation of the white man, has been among the topics of universal and bitter discussion from one end of the Union to the other. Nor on any other subject has the course of General Jack- son's administration been more violently or unjustly assailed. And here I take leave to say, that so far from Indian hostilities having been provoked, either by the negligence or injustice of that admin- istration, they may, with much greater justice, be ascribed to the political philanthropy, so loudly and pharisaically displayed by its political opponents; and I will further say, that should war arise on the part of the Cherokees, the sin of it lies not at the door of this adjninistration, or its supporters. Bonldin of Virginia in an attempt to be sarcastic, almost raved when he declared : What is the policy, the design, of the United States, in regard to the Indians! .... Whence did they derive the title to all the wide domain of which they are the proud owner t Did they not derive it, or rather wrest it, from the possession of the natives — the Indians! and has it not been the uniform and persevering policy of the United States, hitherto, to drive them off, or exterminate them f What means this change of policy f Have they relented, or repented, and do they mean to change their policy f Let them, then, give up all the lands they have, by the tomahawk and scalping- knife, or the rifle, taken from that gallant but unfortunate race, and I will believe in their pity and their repentance. If they do not mean this, what do they mean f Do they mean, after having driven these unfortunate beings from the North and East to the South and Southwest, by treaties and cruelties far worse than have been lately practiced^ to use the whole power of the confederacy, thus acquired, *9ABeg%9ter of Debates, Ist SesBion, 24th Congress, p. 4505. THE PIONEERS AND THE INDIANS 279 to compel the people of Georgia and their neighbors to submit to the scalping-knife and the tomahawk! Do they mean that an inde- pendent savage nation shall remain forever in the heart of a civil- ized sovereign State f .... Do they mean that these savages shall remain there, scalping and tomahawking, under the protec- tion of the Federal Court or the Federal Gtovemment, until they have taken their vengeance on these helpless, defenceless women and children, and obtained as much money for their land as they may think proper to demand t^** Grantland, another Georgia Eepresentative, warned the House against ** misplaced philanthropy *\^®® But no warn- ing was necessary. The amendment offered by Adams was rejected without even a division; and Benton was able to congratulate the country that the North and the South had united, notwithstanding the opposition of Calhoun, in ex- pelling the Indians from the South.^*^ Jackson's administration was drawing to a close. Much had been accomplished for the policy of a general removal since the President 's inauguration in 1829 ; and Jackson did not forget to congratulate the nation upon the success of the removal policy in his last annual message of December, 1836. He considered this success consummated by the late treaty of New Echota.^®* To the Opposition these felicitations ap- peared, perhaps, premature, for the Cherokees under the terms of their treaty had still a year of grace before quitting their lands. The end of the first year of Van Buren's administration v^itnessed an increased public interest in the Cherokee ques- tion. The details of Jackson's treaty had become well known, and Webster could truly say in the Senate that there was a ** growing feeling in the country that great wrong had 295 Begister of Debates, Ist Sesiion, 24th Congress, pp. 4526, 4550. 2»e Begister of Debates, Ist Session, 24th Congress, p. 4554. ^^f Begister of Debates, Ist Session, 24th Congreis, p. 4565; Benton's TMr- iy Years* View, Vol. I, p. 626. 298 Begister of Debates, 2nd Session, 24th Congress, Appendix, p. 9. 280 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS been done to the Cherokees by the treaty of New Echota ' \^^ Multitudes of petitions adverse to the removal of the Cher- okees came to the House, only to be tabled at the motion of the Georgia delegation.*^^ Lumpkin denounced the ** slan- ders ' ' cast by these memorials with the evil purpose of dis- paraging the State of Georgia. He condemned ^'the idle, silly, and false sympathy set forth" as coming from a dis- tant people **who are obviously ignorant of the merits of the subject with which they are impertinently intermed- dling. ' ^^^ Clay of Alabama charged the northern Senators with an evident desire to ''loose the tomahawk and scalping knife" upon the Alabama frontiersmen,«>^ King of Ala- bama declared that the continued discussion of the subject in Congress created false hopes in the minds of the Cher- okees and would result in dangerous disturbances. And his colleague, Senator Clay, said that the recent scenes in Flor- ida ought to admonish all of the ''danger of tampering with a subject of such fearful importance, and that firmness and energy, with a rigid adherence to the terms of the treaty, was the only course to prevent war and bloodshed."*** When Webster ventured to say that "many excellent and worthy men had it in their consciences on their pillows, that some great wrong had been done to the Cherokees in the treaty of Echota ' \ the proverbial reply was made by Alfred Cuthbert of Georgia. "Where were the Indian tribes which once covered the territory of Massachusetts?", he said, us- ing phrases almost stereotyped by repeated expression. "Where slumbered the consciences of the people of Massa- 290 Congressional Glohe, 2xid Session, 25th Congress, p. 403. 800 Many petations came from Massachusetts. — JoumcA of the House of Representatives, 2nd Session, 25th Congress, pp. 726, 776, 778, 911, 986, 1020, 1127 ; Memoirs of John Quinoy Adams, Vol. IX, p. 518. 801 Congressional Globe, 2nd Session, 25th Congress, p. 376. 802 Congressionol Globe, 2nd Session, 25th Congress, p. 263. 808 Congressional Globe, 2nd Session, 25th Congress, pp. 263, 402. THE PIONEERS AND THE INDIANS 281 chusetts when these tribes were exterminated by themf Yes, sir, butchered!'* Further discussions were vain. * * The treaty must be ex- ecuted", thundered the Georgia delegation on all occasions. No bill was passed for Cherokee relief.*^* And at last, close following upon the adjournment of Congress, the problem was put forever beyond the pale of Congressional recon- sideration when the treaty was enforced in the Cherokee country by an officer of the army — General Winfield Scott. * * The full moon of May is already on the wane, * ' read his proclamation to the Cherokee people, **and before another shall have passed away, every Cherokee, man, woman, and child .... must be in motion to join their brethren in the far west. ' * When the last remnants of these people passed the Mississippi their petitions against removal ceased to annoy Congress.*^* DEFENSE OF THE OBEGON OOUNTBY The census map of 1840 presents a different picture of the frontier line than does the map of 1820.*^® In Louisi- ana, Arkansas, and Missouri the settlements had been ex- tended westward to Texas and to the edge of the Indian country. The country on the right bank of the Mississippi River was covered with farms as far north as Prairie du Chien, and straggling claims were found even further to the north and west. On the east side of the Mississippi the northern frontier had been pushed well into the interior of Wisconsin and Michigan. And the great inland frontiers which appear on the map of 1820 were fast disappearing; 304 Congressional Globe, 2nd Session, 25th Congress, p. 404. The ilogan of the Georgian delegation is illustrated by Lumpkin's Bpeeeh, p. 403. 305 l^iles' Weekly Begister, Vol. LIV, p. 210. 306 Eleventh Censtts, Population, Vol. I, Part 1, Map facing p. xiiv. For the military frontier, see Executive Documents, 2nd Session, 27th Congress, No. 2, p. 80, pi. D; and American State Papers, Military Affairs, VoL VII, Map facing p. 780. VOL. IX — ^20 282 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS for the land titles of the Cherokees, Creeks, Choctaws, Chickasaws, and of the northern tribes (with a few excep- tions like the Miamis and the Menominees) had been ex- tinguished and their lands surveyed and sold to the pioneers and southern planters. The two decades which had passed since the year 1820 had witnessed the consummation of the policy for Indian removal from the eastern half of the Mississippi Valley, and the scene of Indian affairs was now shifted across the Mississippi to the further West. Benton had long kept before Congress the necessity of patroling the southwestern frontier bordering upon Mex- ico, which was peculiarly exposed to the attacks of the no- madic Comanches and Apaches. In the year 1825 he called upon Congress to protect from the depredation of these In- dians the overland trade between Missouri, Santa Fe^ Chihuahua, and Sonora.*^^ Five years previously the trad- ers of the prairies had established the Santa Fe Trail over the desert prairie between the town of Independence on the Missouri Biver and the capital of New Mexico; and, said Benton in 1825, it seemed like a romance to hear of cara- vans of trade traversing in season the vast plain between the Missouri and the Bio del Norte. The biU Benton intro- duced for improving the Trail and pacifying the Indians en route was passed by both houses.*^® Starting from the same Missourian locale another and longer trail traversed the plains and mountains of the Northwest. This was the trail to Oregon. like the Santa Fe Trail its congressional guardians were the Missouri Senators, Benton and Linn. At an early day they urged Congress to protect the emigrants to Oregon. While the story of the struggle for Oregon belongs to another chapter of western history, there are parts of the story which too »07 Begister of Debates^ 2nd Session, 18th Congress, p. 341. »08 United States Statutes at Large, Vol. IV, p. 100. THE PIONEERS AND THE INDIANS 283 intimately concern the defense of American settiers on the frontier to be excluded from this narration. A discussion of one particular phase — defense of the Oregon pioneers — tangled as it is in a question of greater importance, will nevertheless throw a new light on the Oregon question. Since Benton and Linn are the heroes of the tale it is well to begin with their earliest exertions. Benton in his first term as Senator from the newly created State of Missouri ably supported Floyd's bill of 1822 for the armed occupa- tion of the Columbia Biver, which bill also contemplated grants of land to settlers and supervision of the Indians. He had also introduced resolutions on his own initiative looking towards the retention of the Oregon country.*^^ Sixteen years later, February 7, 1838, Lewis F. linn introduced the first of his series of bills for the establishment of an Oregon Territory f^^ and from that day until his death, he became the special advocate for Oregon. To what extent Benton and linn fostered these bills as an open defiance to England and a part of the game in the Oregon diplomacy and to what extent they favored them simply as a means to protect and give the emigrants a government can not be exactiy measured; nor would it be profitable to elaborately essay any such measurement. The latter motive is not to be entirely overlooked, although it is probably the lesser, in the case of Benton. It should be re- membered, however, that Benton was a western man ; and of western problems he studied the real conditions, not merely the theories. Unlike the ex-President who debated the same question in the House, and who had played a part in the early diplomacy of the case, Benton saw not only the raison d'etat but he also saw the great bare plains of the Northwest through which ran the Oregon Trail to the South 300 AnruUs of Congress, 2xid Sestion, 17th Congress, p. 246. 810 Congressional Globe, 2nd Session, 25th Congress, p. 168. 284 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS PasSy and the thousand slow moving caravans of daring men and pioneer women travelling toward the West to make their homes in the romantic land of the joint-occnpancy. The hopes and the fears of these emigrants he understood. And being himself of kindred spirit he championed their canse. Nor was Benton alone among western members. He typified the sentiment of western expansion. Linn and Douglas were of his mold. On February 6, 1840, Linn gave a new feature to the Ore- gon question by moving resolutions calling upon the Secre- tary of War for his opinion concerning establishing forts along the Oregon Trail for the purpose of encouraging and protecting the American fur traders and caravans to the new country.^^^ Poinsett's report in reply was agreeable to such a scheme and proposed locations for three posts along the Trail.*" Linn, however, did not include this item in his plan of Columbian colonization, although upon the 28th of April he introduced a biU to extend jurisdiction over Oregon. Later, in May, he agreed not to urge the Oregon question in any phase, pending the delicate state of affairs in the Northeastern boundary negotiations.*^* As to the Tyler administration, both the President and his Secretary of War, Spencer, were of the opinion that forts should be established on the Oregon Trail. Lideed, in his annual report of December, 1841, Spencer asked for a chain of posts from Council Bluffs to the mouth of the Columbia, and Tyler added his recommendation in the an- nual message.*^* Both, forsooth, cautiously limited their reasons to one, and that was protection of fur traders from the Lidians. Nine days following the President's message 811 Congressional Globe, let Session, 26th Congress, p. 166. 812 Senate Documents, let Session, 26th Congress, No. 231. 818 Congressional Globe, 1st Session, 26th Congress, p. 363. ^i^^ Congressional Globe, 2nd Session, 27th Congress, Appendix, pp. 4, 12. THE PIONEERS AND THE INDIANS 285 Linn introduced his Oregon bill revised up to date.*^*^ It contained a section providing for forts along a trail leading from the Missouri into * * the best pass for entering the val- ley of the Oregon*'.'^® Before it was discussed at length Lord Ashburton arrived in Washington, and again congres- sional discussion of the Oregon question was postponed be- cause of the international negotiations.*^^ The treaty with Ashburton was concluded in August of 1842, and when Congress convened in December the per- sistent and patient Linn again introduced his bill.*^* Li re- gard to Lidian affairs it provided for two agencies to super- intend all tribes of the westernmost West.*^* The omission of any compromise on the Oregon boundary in the Webster- Ashburton Treaty made the time ripe for acute discussion of such a bill. The opposition was decided. First Cal- houn,32o then M*Duffie,«2i Choate,*^^ Crittenden,»23 Ber- rien,*^* and Archer*^ spoke against it. Calhoun interpret- ed the measure as an act of hostility toward England, and upon this premise he argued for the rejection of the bill. The country was unprepared for war if England resented the action, was the burden of his thesis.*^* The section do- 31S Congressional Glohe, 2nd Session^ 27th Congress, p. 22. 816 For details of bill, see Niles' Weekly Register, Vol. LIX, p. 338; Con- gressional Globe, 3rd Session, 27th Congress, p. 112. 317 Linn and Sargent 's Life and Public Services of Dr. Linn, p. 239. 818 Congressional Globe, 3rd Session, 27th Congress, p. 61. 819 Congressional Globe, 3rd Session, 27th Congress, p. 112. »2o, Congressional Glob^, 3rd Session, 27th Congress, pp. 133, 227 j Appen- dix, p. 138. 821 Congressional Globe, 3rd Session, 27th Congress, pp. 198, 240. ^^2 Congressional Globe, 3rd Session, 27th Congress, pp. 171, 239; Appen- dix, p. 222. 823 Congressional Globe, 3rd Session, 27th Congress, p. 105. 824 Congressional Globe, 3rd Session, 27th Congress, p. 212. ^2i Congressional Globe, 3rd Session, 27th Congress, pp. 104, 220, 244; Ap- pendix, p. 130. 826 Congressional Globe, 3rd Session, 27th Congress, Appendix, p. 139. 286 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS nating lands to settlers he pointedly disapproved as a" vio- lation of treaty rights.*^^ Calhonn believed the tide of American emigration would soon reach the Bocky Moun- tains of its own accord and be ready to pour into the Oregon country. Such a theory would seem to preclude the idea that military posts should not precede actual settlement. Be that as it may, Calhoun closed his speech with a long defense of his conduct as Secretary of War when, perceiv- ing the resources of the Northwestern fur trade, he had ad- vanced the military stations high up the Mississippi and Missouri.**® Choate disapproved of the section making donations to settlers as a contravention of the Convention of 1827.'** And he further explained at length how Oregon had been exploited by Massachusetts enterprise. Might not the East, therefore, be the rightful judge of the disposition to be made of the country of the Northwest? So far as to the bill being an act of hostility to Great Britain it is difficult to conceive such a nature therein, save in the section making the donation of land. The other fea- tures gave the settlers the protection which Great Britain had already given her own Oregon citizens by act of Parlia- ment in the year 1821.^® But the proposed land grants were a questionable matter. Calhoun sought the reference of the bill to the Committee on the Judiciary in order to strike out this objectionable feature, but the friends of the bill would permit no such emasculation.'*^ On the other hand Calhoun was equally stubborn. When Bayard pro- posed an amendment to the effect that the proposed dona- i27 Congressional Glohe, 3rd Session, 27th Congress, p. 134. 9^B Congressumdl Globe, 3rd Session, 27th Congress, Appendix, p. 141. tn CangressiofuA Q^he, 3rd Session, 27th Congress, Appendix, p. 222. uo 1 and 2 Qeoige IV, cap. LXVL 881 Congressional Globe, 3rd Session, 27th Congress, pp. 134, 239. THE PIONEERS AND THE INDIANS 287 tions should be altered to mere claims against the United States, an arrangement which would be in no wise hostile to England, Calhoun objected.**^ On February 3rd, by a vote of 24 to 22 the bill passed the Senate ; but it failed in the House.*** Before the next ses- sion of Congress death had come to Senator Linn, leaving to his colleagues the legacy of his Oregon bill.*** In the two sessions following Linn's death several differ- ent Oregon bills were considered, but all failed to pass both houses.*** The discussions thereon were of course a part of the extensive Oregon debate and may be noticed here only because of references to the question of protection from the Indians, which was ever but a side issue. Benton continued to point out, as in earlieir speeches, the dangers which would ensue if the agents of the Hudson Bay Com- pany should instigate the natives to war upon the emi- grants.**® Buchanan,**^ Hannegan of Indiana,*** Doug- las**® — soon to be appointed chairman of the House Com- mittee on Territories — and Duncan of Ohio**® also pointed out this danger. Arguing from the same fact, namely, the hostilities of the Indians, Senator Dayton of New Jersey came to different 882 Congressional Globe, 3rd Session, 27th Congress, p. 134. 888 Congressional Globe, 3rd Session, 27th Congress, p. 240. For Linn 's bill, see Appendix, p. 154. Adams from the House Committee on Foreign Relations to whom the Senate bill was referred reported that the House do not concur therein. — Journal of the House, p. 382. 88* Benton 'a Thirty Tears' View, VoL 11, p. 486. ^^s Congressional Globe, 1st Session, 28th Congress, pp. 56, 77, 104, 366; 2nd Session, 28th Congress, pp. 36, 38, 63. 836 Congressional Globe, 1st Session, 28th Congress, p. 637. 337 Congressional Globe, 1st Session, 28th Congress, Appendix, p. 346. 888 Congresswnat Globe, 1st Session, 28th Congress, Appendix, p. 245. 880 CongressioncU Globe, 2nd Session, 28th Congress, p. 226. 840 Congressional Globe, 2nd Session, 28th Congress, p. 216 ; Appendix, p. 181. 288 IOWA JOURNAL OF HISTORY AND POLITICS conclusions. He declared that the United States conld nev- er wisely make ** Oregon a State of this Union . . . . [or] a separate government^ the effect of which would be to pen up 342,000 Indians between it and our western fron- tier. It would either be the cause of exterminating the In- dians, or making them a horde of depredators, or both.'***^ Senator Choate of Massachusetts, one of the most persist- ent opponents to the retention of Oregon, sought to prove that the Northwestern danger was overrated by western congressmen f^^ and Adams in the House implied that * * the enterprising, and warlike young men" of Oregon should be able to protect themselves.*** In December, 1845, Benton made a sensible move in the Oregon question — a move, indeed, which it is a matter of wonder was not made long before. He separated the prop- osition of immediate protection to the Oregon emigrants and the vital issue of the Oregon question. This was done by a bill which he reported from the Military Conunittee, providing for a regiment of mounted riflemen and several outposts with the object of guarding the Oregon Trail.'** Such a bill was one that could consistently be supported by Calhoun and Crittenden, although the latter considered it of little real importance.*** The Senate passed it on Jan- uary 8, 1846, but the House delayed its becoming law until almost a month after the adoption of the joint resolution to abrogate the Oregon Convention.**® The credit for this bill is not entirely to be laid to Benton. President Polk's bold message at the convening of Congress had practically rec- 841 Congressional Globe, 1st Session, 28th Congress, p. 315. 842 Congressional Globe, Isti Session, 28th Congress, p. 407 ; Appendix p. 587. 848 Congressional Globe, 2nd Session, 28th Congress, p. 228. 844 Congressional Globe, Ist Session, 29th Congress, p. 108. 845 Congressional Globe, 1st Session, 29th Congress, p. 162. 846 Congressional Globe, 1st Session, 29th Congress, pp. 162, 830. THE PIONEERS AND THE INDIANS 289 ommended that the question of providing defenses for the pioneers be separated from the question of the acquisition of Oregon. In this matter the President and Benton had, indeed, been in full accord for some time.^*^ The committees on Indian affairs in both houses reported bills to regulate trade and intercourse with the Oregon In- dians and to make peace with them ;^*® but both bills were postponed pending the outcome of the Buchanan-Pakenham Treaty and were never taken from the table during this ses- sion.^*® On August 5, 1846, almost at the close of the session, Polk was able to communicate to Congress the fact that ratifica- tions of the convention for the final adjustment of the Ore- gon question had been exchanged with Great Britain.**® At last the great objection to giving the Oregon settlers a government and protection from the Indians was overcome. The exclusive jurisdiction of the country was now vested in S47 Congressional Globe, let Sessioiiy 29th CongresSy p. 7 ; Diary of James K. Polk, Vol. I. p. 70. It should be noted that President Tyler also had advocated practically a separate discussion of protection to the emigrants. In his last annual mes- sage, December 3, 1844, after informing Congress that the negotiations of Secretary of State Calhoun with the British Government concerning the Oregon jurisdiction were still pending, he renewed his previous recommenda- tions for laws * ' to protect and facilitate emigration to that Territory. ' ' Con- cerning these measures Tyler said: *'The establishment of military posts at suitable points upon the extended line of land travel would enable our citizens to migrate in comparative safety to the fertile regions below the falls of the Columbia, and make the provision of the existing convention for the joint occupation of the Territory by subjects of Great Britain and the citizens of the United States more available than heretofore to the latter. These posts would continue places of rest for the weary emigrant, where he would be sheltered securely against the danger of attack from the Indians, and be enabled to recover from the exhaustion of a long line of travel. ' ' — Congressional Globe^ 2nd Session, 28th Congress, p. 3. The Executive attitude in 1844-1845 is dis- cussed on p. 387, but evidently Tyler's attitude had little weight in the matter. 848 Congressional Globe, 1st Session, 29th Congress, pp. 121, 888. 8*8 Congressional Globe, Ist Session, 29th Congress, p. 834 ; Journal of the Senate, p. 320. i^o Congressional Globe, 1st Session, 29th Congress, p. 1199. 290 IOWA JOURNAL OF HISTORY AND POLITICS the United States; and Congress under the Constitution was authorized to give the Territory a government. But for two years this power was held in abeyance, and the Oregon country remained in the same lawless state for want of congressional action. The cause of this inaction had al- ready been foreseen. The northern extremists pointed to- ward Calhoun. His policy of a **wise and masterly inac- tivity** in 1845 had been interpreted into **no more free soil territory ' ', and now his opponents were to find another sin to lay at his door. Calhoun was too shrewd a man not to know that the northern party would insist upon inserting a slavery restricting clause in the Territorial biU for Ore- gon. That country was north of the Mason and Dixon line. No one asserted that slavery would ever find a root there. Why then meet the question of slavery on a bill so vital to the Northwest! Simply because this was the logical op- portunity to force the issue of the constitutionality of slav- ^jy .861 g^^ Calhoun's opponents were not loth to accept the challenge, no matter what the cost of delay might be to Oregon. As soon as the President's message announcing the ex- change of ratifications in regard to the Oregon Convention of June and urging the early establishment of a government for that Territory was communicated to the House, Douglas from the Committee on Territories introduced a biU pro- viding both a government and Federal protection for Ore- gon.^* This bill had been prepared some months in ad- vance of the President's announcement and had been framed with an eye single to the welfare of the Territory. As introduced it contained no clause oti slavery to block its passage. But on the same day, after the House had put it «»i For Benton's criticism of Calhoun for ** forcing the issue", see his Thirty Years' View, VoL 11, p. 698, et seq. 8S2 Congressionai Globe, 1st Session, 29th Congress, p. 1200. THE PIONEERS AND THE INDIANS 291 through the first two readings in the Committee of the Whole, the bill was amended to forever exclude slavery from the Territory. The vote on this amendment was de- <5isive — 108 ayes and only 43 nays."* The expedition of the House in this matter was commendable. Within a few hours time Douglas's bill as amended passed the third reading and was sent to the Senate.*^* Undoubtedly the upper chamber would also have passed this bill with the same promptness had the slavery restrict- ing clause been reversed or entirely omitted. As it was the fiouthem majority tabled it at the instigation of Calhoun — 80 Benton claims.*^** Thus the Oregon people were left for a year in their extra-legal status, with no authoritative gov- ernment and embarrassed with threatening Indian wars. This was also their fate for another year, for the history of the first Territorial bill was repeated when the second bill -came from the House in the session of 1846-1847. The Sen- ate tabled it.*'® In the whole Oregon a£tair there is one man who stands out in a peculiarly satisfactory way — and that man is the President. Polk viewed the question with the executive at- titude. Oregon was without a government and without ade- quate protection. Both shoulij be immediately supplied. Twice, in a special and in an annual message, Polk told Congress this. He had even promised the Oregon settlers that he would demand action from Congress;**^'' but that was all he could do. The situation, he rightly described in 853 Congressional Glohe, let Scsiion, 29th Oongress, pp. 1200, 1204. 354 Congressional Globe, Ist SeeBion, 29th Congress, p. 1205. 855 Journal of the Senate, 1st Session, 29th Congress, p. 505; Benton's Thirty Years' View, Vol. 11, p. 698, et $eq, 856 Congressional Globe, 2nd Session, 29th Congress, pp. 199, 571. 357 Congressional Globe, 1st Session, 30th Congress, Appendix, p. 40. Com- pare Diary of James K. Polk, Vol. II, pp. 444-449; also NUes' Weekly Begister, Vol. LXXII, p. 148. 292 IOWA JOURNAL OF HISTORY AND POLITICS his Diary when he wrote: "The present defenseless condi- tion of the people of Oregon is wholly to be attributed to the neglect and inattention of Congress to their condition^ and • . • • refusal to legislate in accordance with the Exec- ntive recommendation *\**^® Polk could not lead Congress in the thorny path it had elected to pursue on the slavery question. It was with a decided tone of irritation that Polk remind- ed Congress in his annual message of December 7, 1847, that no government or Indian agencies for Oregon had been established.**^® The Federal defense of the Oregon Trail and the Oregon country at this time was indeed weak. Benton *s bill of 1846 had provided for a regiment of mount- ed riflemen for duty in the Northwest, but they had hardly been recruited before they were ordered to service in the Mexican War.*®® The Northwest was left quite defenseless. In regard to this condition the report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs sounded a distinct warning.'" Thirty thousand savages inhabited the Columbia Biver valley, the report pointed out, rendering the position of the settlers in this far-away country peculiarly exposed. Benton repeated this warning in the Senate. He attrib- uted **all the murderous outrages** committed by the In- dians upon Oregon settlers to the delay of the Government in extending its political jurisdiction and protection over the new Territory in the Northwest. * ' Our meritorious set- tlers, at a distance of three thousand miles, have deserved well of their country from their enterprise*', Benton de- 858 Diary of James K, Polk, Vol. IV, p. 155. 8B» Congressional Globe, Ist Session, 30th Congress, p. 10. 860 For the history of this regiment, see Diary of James K, Polk, Vol. IV^ p. 155 ; Congressional Globe, 1st Session, 30th Congress, Appendix, p. 20 ; 2n(l Session, 30th Congress, Appendix, p. 21; 1st Session, 3l8t Congress, Appendix,, pp. 11, 12. 861 Senate Documents, Ist Session, 30th Congress, No. 1, p. 752. THE PIONEERS AND THE INDIANS 293 dared, and he hoped ''they would not be left exposed to danger and inconvenience from calamities which a proper attention to their wants on the part of the Government would prevent. '*^®2 Senator Hannegan, one of the few re- maining Senators who seems to have retained the confi- dence of the Administration, called upon Congress to drop the useless discussion of slavery in regard to this question and give attention to *'the cries of our citizens in Oregon, surrounded by hostile Indians ' ^ Full intelligence of the beginnings of Indian hostilities in Oregon was confirmed in May, 1848, by the arrival in Wash- ington of two messengers to the President.®^* They came from the provisional government of the settlers. One had sailed by the way of San Francisco and the Isthmus of Pan- ama ; the other had followed the Oregon Trail to St. Louis, and thence to Washington. When their definite informa- tion of outbreaks on the Columbia River was received, Polk immediately communicated it to Congress and urged expe- dition. Territorial government should immediately be es- tablished and authority granted to raise a volunteer force for the protection of the inhabitants. Besides, according to the program Polk outlined for Congress, a regiment of mounted men should be enlisted. If aid was to be carried to Oregon before winter blocked access to the country from the land side immediate action was necessary. And a delay of another year **may prove destructive to the white settle- ments in Oregon", urged Polk.*®* With all the force that he could exert, Polk recommended personally to members of Congress the immediate needs of Oregon and proposed that the Missouri Compromise line be revived and extended to the Pacific.^^^ Such an agreement would make possible a M2 Congressional Globe, Ist Session, 30th Congress, p. 804. 863 Diary of James K. Polk, Vol. Ill, p. 463. M* Congressional Globe, 1st Session, 30th Congress, p. 788. 866 Diary of James K. Polk, Vol. Ill, pp. 501, 504; Vol. IV, p. 12. 294 IOWA JOURNAL OF HISTORY AND POLITICS logical retreat by both parties upon a precedent already es- tablished. Pricked by the exasperating condition in Oregon, the Sen- ate resumed discnssion of the Territorial bill, and after a prolonged debate resorted to a select committee headed by Senator Clayton.* •• This compromise committee respond- ed with a bill to organize the Territories of California and New Mexico as well as Oregon. The laws of the provisional government of Oregon prohibiting slavery were to remain until altered by the new Territorial legislature; while the legislatures of California and New Mexico were forbidden to make laws interdicting slavery.*®^ This compromise was finally accepted by the Senate, but the House contemp- tuously rejected it.*®® After the failure of the compromise of the Committee of Eight, Douglas proposed Polk's com- promise.**® The Senate accepted it, but the House again refused to compromise.*^® Finally at the end of a tiresome session the Senate gave up, and the Douglas bill with the restrictions of the Northwest Ordinance was accepted by both houses and presented to the President upon the last day of adjournment.*^^ Polk immediately gave his sanc- tion — which indeed he had been prepared to give for some time, although Calhoun had personally exerted his utmost influence upon him to obtain a veto.*^* The President's prompt signature was a rebuke to the long wrangle in Con- gress, which for two years had delayed justice to Oregon. M6 Congressionai Globe, let Session, 30th Congress, p. 932. 997 Congressionai Globe, 1st Session, 30th Congress, p. 950. The bill is printed on p. 1002. 888 Congressional Globe, Ist Session, 30th Congress, p. 1007. 860 Congressional Globe, 1st Session, 30th Congress, p. 1048. 3T0 Congressional Globe, Ist Session, 30th Congress, pp. 1061, 1062. 871 Congressional Globe, Ist Session, 30th Congress, p. 1078. 872 Diary of James K, Polk, Vol. IV, pp. 22, 72-74. THE PIONEERS AND THE INDIANS 295 OREGON TEBBITOBT AND THE INDIANS The first session of the Thirtieth Congress i>assed a Ter- ritorial bill for Oregon, but the entire program of legisla- tion for that Territory as laid down by the President in his message of May, 1848, was not carried out.'^' The struggle over the slavery clause had been too engrossing and all- absorbing for careful consideration of other details; and perhaps there was also some truth in the President's bitter reflection that Congress had been **more occupied at the last session in President making than in attending to the public business/'*^* On the tenth of October Polk wrote: I read to the Cabinet a communication which I received this morning from George Abemethy, the Governor of the Temporary Government in Oregon, dated April 3rd, 1848, in which he states that an Indian war is raging in Oregon, presents their destitution of arms and the means of defense, and earnestly calls upon the Government of the U. States for assistance and protection. We have no means of affording timely aid other than that which has been already ordered. It is most unfortunate that Congress had not granted the force for which I called to protect the people of Oregon in my message of May last. . . . Congress not only re- fused to do this, but after the orders had been issued, upon the con- clusion of the Mexican War, to have the Mounted Rifle Begt. march to Oregon the last summer for their protection, that body, without the recommendation of the Executive & against our wishes, author- ized every man of that Regiment who would ask it to be discharged. The effect [of] this was .... to disband the Regiment & to recruit it again, and in the mean-time the season was too far ad- vanced to enable the Regiment to be marched across the Rocky mountains before the impassable snows of winter would set in. The present defenseless condition of the people of Oregon is wholly to be attributed to the neglect and inattention of Congress to their con- dition, and .... refusal to legislate in accordance with the Executive recommendation at the last Session.*^' 873 Congressional Globe, Ist Session, 30th Congress, p. 788. 374 Diary of James K. Polk, Vol. IV, p. 155. 876 Diary of James K, Polk, VoL IV, pp. 154, 155. 296 IOWA JOURNAL OF HISTORY AND POLITICS In lien of a military force during the autumn of 1848, Polk used the navy to succor the Oregon people. Orders were transmitted to the commander of the American squad- ron in the Pacific to dispatch to the assistance of the Oregon settlers a part of the naval forces under his comjuand, and to furnish them with arms and ammunition and protection until the army could arrive.*^® When Congress convened in December a large part of the President's message was de- voted to the state of affairs in the Oregon country.'^ ^ In plain words Polk exhibited the culpable neglect of Congress for **the continuance of the Indian disturbances'* and for **the destitution and defenseless condition of the inhabit- ants. ' ' If Indian agencies had been established in Oregon, Polk declared, the aboriginal tribes would have been re- strained from making war. The immediate and only cause of the existing hostility of the In- dians of Oregon is ... . the long delay of the United States in making to them some trifling compensation .... for the country now occupied by our emigrants, which the Indians claimed, and over which they formerly roamed. This compensation had been promised to them by the temporary government established in Oregon, but its fulfillment had been postponed from time to time, for nearly two years, whilst those who made it had been anxiously waiting for Congress to establish a territorial government over the country. The Indians became at length distrustful of their good faith, and sought redress by plunder and massacre, which finally led to the present difficulties. A few thousand dollars in suitable presents, as a compensation for the country which had been taken possession of by our citizens, would have satisfied the Indians, and have prevented the war. Again the President called upon Congress to provide In- dian agents to reside among the Indian tribes and for ap- propriations to enable these agents to cultivate friendly 979 Congressional Globe, 2nd Session, 30th Congress, p. 7. 877 Congressional Globe, 2nd Session, 30th Congress, pp. 6, 7. THE PIONEERS AND THE INDIANS 297 relations with them. Especially did the President recom- mend an appropriation to cover the militia service of **onr fellow-citizens of Oregon [who] have been compelled to take the field in their own defense * \ Howbeit, the session passed by with little effort to formu- late into law any of these Presidential recommendations. The militia claims were not, of course, even broached, for the reason that there was no one to present them for allow- ance. By the Organic Act of August 14, 1848, the Territory was entitled to be represented by a Delegate to Congress.*^® None appeared, however, in this session, for the Territorial act had been passed so late in the summer of 1848 and the journey to Oregon was so long that time did not permit a Delegate to arrive or even to be elected before the ses- sion of 1848-1849 adjourned. The Organic Act had been carried to the new Territory by the first Governor and Mar- shal whom the President had hastily dispatched to the West immediately following the passage of the act of August 14, 1848. Taking the Santa Fe and Gila trails to California, because the approaching winter forbade access by way of the Oregon Trail, these officers crossed the continent to San Pedro harbor ; thence they sailed to their destination, arriv- ing on the second day of March, 1849. The proclamation of Oregon 's Organic Act was made the next morning. The days of legislative neglect were now numbered. Af- ter the establishment of the Territorial government, a Dele- gate to Congress was elected.*^® This Delegate — Thurs- ton by name — arrived at Washington in November before the first session of the Thirty-first Congress convened. The character of this first Delegate from the Northwest is worthy of note. Bom in Maine and educated at Bowdoin College, Thurston emigrated to Oregon in 1847 while yet a 878 United States Statutes at Large, Vol. IX, p. 329. 879 The Whig Almanac, 1850, p. 51. VOL. IX — 21 298 IOWA JOURNAL OF HISTORY AND POLITICS young man. Despite his short sojourn in the new Territory of the Northwest, he is said to have rivaled the crudest of western politicians with his harsh and impulsive manners and his over-bearing confidence.^® Be that as it may, Thurston knew what legislation the Territory needed and how to obtain it from Congress. He addressed himself most carefully to the committees of both houses before tak- ing the floor of the lower house in person. The results of his activities may be judged from the statute book of the United States at the end of the session.'®^ One of the first bills which the Delegate had a share in bringing to a successful issue was a bill reported to the Senate by its Committee on Indian Affairs.*®* Early in the session the committee had under advisement a resolution offered by Douglas concerning the expediency of extin- guishing the Indian title to certain portions of the western Territories, including Oregon and California.^' Senator John Bell of Tennessee was chairman; and seems to have depended entirely upon Delegate Thurston for his informa- tion in regard to conditions in Oregon.®®* It was high time that some measure be taken in regard to Indian cessions. All American settlers save those who appropriated to them- selves the property of former British subjects were nothing more nor less than trespassers upon unceded Indian terri- tory. There was not an inhabitant, Bell truly declared, who could improve his land or build a home with confidence, be- cause there was no land to which some Indian tribe did not set up a claim.®®** The necessity of the inmiediate extin- 880 Bancroft 's History of Oregon, Vol. II, pp. 114, et seq, 881 United States Statutes at Large, Vol. IX, pp. 437, 438, 440, 496. 882 Congressional Globe, 1st Session, 31st Congress, p. 262. 883 Journal of Senate, 1st Session, 31st Congress, pp. 42, 62, 122. 884 Congressional Globe, 1st Session, 31st Congress, p. 262. 9BS Congressional Qiohe, let Session, Slst Congress, pp. 262, 411. THE PIONEERS AND THE INDIANS 299 guishment of these Indian titles in order to preserve peace was beyond the need of elaborate proof. Under the man- agement of the chairman and Douglas the bill passed the Senate in April and the lower house on May 29th.*®® Well it was for the good fame of the American Indian policy that the Indian treaty bill preceded in point of time a certain bill already reported to the House by its Committee on Public Lands. This was a bill to survey the public lands of Oregon and to make donations to the white settlers. Al- though following so closely upon the act to treat with the Indians for the purchase of their Oregon lands the objec- tion does not seem to have been made that the act of May 29th might not be successful in exfinguishing the Indian titles. The right of the Oregon settlers to the Indian lands upon which they had squatted without so much as asking leave was unquestioned in Congress, and no one burdened the Delegate to frame a defense of their technical trespass- ing.*®^ In regard to military matters, the Senate was equally compliant to western demands. Jefferson Davis, Chairman of the Committee on Military Affairs, introduced a bill to increase the army with the avowed purpose of protecting the Indian f rentier.*®® **You cannot stop the travel to Cal- ifornia ' \ said Rush of Texas, thinking more of his own lo- cality than of the Northwest, **or the settlement on the frontiers of Texas and in New Mexico, and it becomes there- fore the imperative duty of Congress to protect them.'**®* The bill passed both houses.**® Moreover, in the following session Thurston with the aid of Douglas**^ and Armistead 886 Congressional Globe, Ist Session, 31st Congress, pp. 798, 1090. 887 Congressional Globe, Itt Session, 31st Congress, pp. 791, 1030. 888 Congressional Globe, Ist Session, 3l8t Congress, pp. 395, 1139. ZS9 Congressional Globe, 1st Session, 3l8t Congress, p. 1180. 890 United States Statutes at Large, Vol. IX, p. 438. 801 Congressional Globe, 2nd Session, Slst Congress, p. 332. 300 IOWA JOURNAL OF HISTORY AND POLITICS Burt,'** Chairman of the House Committee on Military Af- fairsy procnred a settlement of the Caynse War claims — the same militia claims mentioned by Polk in his last annual message.*** At the close of the Thirty-first Congress, Thurston might truly write his constituents that the last of the measures to meet Oregon's present needs had been consummated.**^ All this was done in spite of the exhaustive debates on the compromise bills which excluded the much needed legisla- tion in the first session. The attention of Congress had been definitely fixed upon the Pacific coast and the period of its neglect was past. CONCLUSION As to the frontier in the three decades from 1820 to 1850 the story is briefly told by the census maps for the begin- ning and the end of the period. In 1820 this frontier had hardly crossed the Mississippi above the Missouri settle- ments ; and vast stretches of wilderness existed even within the boundaries of some eastern States. By 1850 the west- ernmost frontier was far beyond the Mississippi, while the interior frontiers had been reduced to ahnost nothing, espe- cially in the South. The land titles of the Indians had been extinguished in exchange for lands beyond the Arkansas and the Missouri rivers, and the aborigines who had been the annoyance of every Middle State were now far re- moved.*®" But even in their new homes the advance of civilization was following the Lidians. From Texas they were being pushed northward; from the Iowa country pressure west- 892 Congressional Globe, 2nd Session, Slst Congress, p. 446. 80S United States Statutes at Large, Vol. IX, p. 566. 894 Bancroft 's History of Oregon, Vol. II, p. 134. 896 Eleventh Census, Population, Vol. I, Part 1. Map facing p. xxiy. THE PIONEERS AND THE INDIANS 301 ward and southward was about to begin ; while their retreat across the Rocky Mountains, as if it were not already pro- hibited by Nature, was cut off by the new settlements in Oregon and California. Economic forces were the cause of this contraction of the Indian country. Every period of financial distress in the older States increased the influx of settlers into the bounty lands of the West, while large German and Irish migrations from Europe had swelled the tide of pioneers. Now in all this matter the sympathy of the majority in Congress was with the advance of civilization, as the pre- ceding pages have shown time and again. How pertinently had the case been stated by Adams in 1802 1 The rights of the lordly savage were light in the balance with the rights of civilization. This even the philanthropists could not dis- prove; nor did many care to deny it. But withal the ma- jority in Congress was ever aware of Indian rights. Sel- dom do we find even individuals who had the heartlessness to condemn the Indians as hopeless or to assert that the only **good Indian" was a **dead Indian**. Their rights were to be observed and their customs respected as much as was possible in the nature of the case. Their lands were to be purchased by annuities and by the grants of new lands in the far West. Treaties negotiated with minorities of tribes were rejected. Trade and intercourse laws, revised and perfected as needs arose, were to guard them from the lawless encroachments of the whites. Against lawless in- vaders the army of the United States was to strike. But on the other hand any Indian denial of the inevitable retreat before civilization was suppressed. There could not exist an imperium in imperio in Georgia nor in any oth- er State. Civilization must not be thus thwarted. The pio- neer settlers on the frontier, also, deserved on their part protection from savage resentment, and unprovoked hos- 302 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS tilities must be suppressed and punished, and prevented in the future by separation. Thus Congress was between two fires. While westerners complained that the Indian title was not being extinguished rapidly enough, many easterners denounced in bitter terms the policy of removing the Indians. Each side had its spokesmen in the long debates on the removal question. When it came to vote, however, the policy of continuing the western expansion was not impeded. Even before all of the Indians had retreated across the Mississippi, the frontier line had also passed beyond its western bank; and much of the Lidian history of the Mid- dle West was beginning to be repeated in the far West The annexation of Texas, and the acquisition of the South- west and of Oregon enlarged the Lidian problem without adding many new features. The problem in Oregon had been under congressional consideration since 1840. When action was finally taken in 1849 and in 1851, that action was simply a repetition of the former Federal policy as to In- dian lands and supervision. The questions relating to the Calif omian and Texan Indians belong properly to the next decade. Kenneth W. CoiiOROVB Habvabd Univeesity Cambeidoe SOME PUBLICATIONS AMERICANA GENERAL AND MISCELLANEOUS The Library of Congress has recently published an elaborate catalogue of American and English Genealogies in the Library of Congress. The work of taking the United States Census of 1910 is described with considerable detail in the Report of the Director which has recently been published. The fourth number of the Maryland Quarterly, published by the Maryland Peace Society, contains a paper entitled The Peace Move- ment Practical, by Theodore Marburg. An Education Department Bulletin published in February by the New York State Library is devoted to a digest of American Ballot Laws, 1888-1910, compiled by Arthur C. Ludington. The Story of the Short Ballot Cities is the title of a pamphlet published by the Short Ballot Organization, which contains infor- mation concerning the workings of the short ballot under the com- mission plan of municipal government. A paper on The Doctrine of Continuotts Voyage, read by Charles Noble Gregory at the Guildhall in London on August 2, 1910, at a conference of the International Law Association, has been reprint- ed from the Harvard Law Review. The Importance of Judicial Settlement is the subject discussed by Elihu Root in a pamphlet published in February by the Amer- ican Society for Judicial Settlement of International Disputes, the headquarters of which are at Baltimore. A Bulletin of the Virginia State Library published in October contains a v^ry comprehensive Bibliography of the Conventions 808 304 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS and Constitutions of Virginia including References to Essays, Let- ters and Speeches in the Virginia Newspapers, prepared by Earl G. Swem. Samuel O. Dunn is the writer of a pamphlet devoted to Current Bailway Problems. The valuation of railways, the limitation of railway profits, railway rates and efSciency, and the new long and short haul law are the problems discussed. General Wesley Merritt is the subject of a biographical sketch, by Eben Swift, in the March number of the Journal of the United States Cavalry Association. Among the Reprints and Translations is a lengthy article on The Campaign of 1777, by Charles Francis Adams. David Ricardo: A Centenary Estimate is the title of a mono- g^raph by Jacob H. Hollander, which appears as number four, series twenty-eight of the Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical and Political Science. It is divided into three chapters devoted respectively to the life, work, and influence of the great economist. Pamphlets published during January, February, and March by the American Association for International Conciliation are re- spectively: School Books and International Prejudices, by Albert Bushnell Hart; Peace and the Professor, by Grant Showerman; and Wom^in and the Cau^e of Peace, by Baron d'Estoumelles de Constant. E. P. Ripley contends for the value-of-the-service principle in the regulation of railway rates in an article on The Railroads and the People, which is reprinted from The Atlantic Monthly for January. The writer has discussed the subject in a sane and conservative manner, devoting himself to its ethical phases rather than its ju- dicial aspects. The Heroic Story of the United States Sanitary Commission, 1861-1865, by William Howell Reed, which has been reprinted from the Christian Register, is a contribution in a field in which com- paratively little has been written. The work of the various agen- cies engaged in the alleviation of suffering in tiie armies during the war deserves much study. SOME PUBLICATIONS 305 One of the most pretentious works of genealogy which has ap- peared recently is that devoted to the Descendants of Edward Small of New England and the Allied Families with Tracings of English Ancestry, prepared by Lora Altine Woodbury Underbill. The work covers three large volumes, and is amply illustrated by nu- merous excellent cuts. An account of the visit of Governor John Winthrop, of Con- necticut, to New Amsterdam in July, 1661, is to be found under the title, A Notable Visit to New Amsterdam, in the January number of The New Netherland Register. The most extended article is one dealing with Pioneers and Founders of New Netherland, which is •contained in the February number. Hiram Bingham, in the January number of the Bulletin of the American Geographical Society, writes a description of Potosi, the ■ancient and interesting South American city which was so long famous for its fabulous wealth. F. Y. Emerson is the writer of a pertinent article on Geographical Influences in the Distribution of Slavery, which is continued in the February number. The Twenty-fourth Annual Report of the Commissioner of Labor, recently issued from the (Jovemraent Printing OfBce, consists of the first volume of a treatise on Workmen's Insurance and Compensa- tion Systems in Europe. The systems employed in Austria, Bel- gium, Denmark, France, and Germany are treated in this volume by diflPerent writers. The work will be in two volumes. Albert Anthony Giesecke is the author of a volume entitled American Commercial Legislation Before 1789, published by the University of Pennsylvania. The book deals with England's com- mercial policy toward the American colonies; import, export, and tonnage duties; bounties, inspection laws, and embargoes; port regulations; and commercial policy from the Revolution to 1789. There is a bibliography which, as the author indicates, is only partial. The Legislative Power of Congress Under the Judicial Article of the Constitution is the subject discussed by Frank J. Goodnow in an article which opens the December number of the Political Science 306 IOWA JOUBNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS Quarterly. Clement F. Robinson writes on The Mortgage Record- ing Tax; Joseph B. Ross tells of Agrarian Changes in the Middle West; and Charles Franklin Emerick presents an article on A Neg- lected Factor in Race Suicide. The four hundred page BuUetin of the University of Mississippi published in June, 1910, is entitled Historical Catalogue of the University of Mississippi, 1849-1909. It contains a history of the University and of all the various departments and schools, together with sketches of the Presidents and Chancellors and lists of trus- tees, officers, professors, instructors and students, from the begin- ning down to the present time. The volume is worthy of hearty commendation. Edinburgh in 1544 and Hertford's Invasion is the title of a con- tribution by J. Balfour Paul which appears in the January num- ber of The Scottish Historical Review. A number of Jacobite Songs are contributed by Andrew Lang. Henry W. Meikle is the writer of a brief article on Two Glasgow Merchants in the French Revolution. Other articles are : Charter of the Abbot and Convent of Cupar, 1220, by James Wilson; and an illustrated account of A Roman Outpost on Tweedside: The Fort of Newstead, by Joseph Anderson. The January number of The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science is devoted to the general subject of Electric Railway Transportation. Traffic and financial problems and public regulation of electric railways are the main subdivisions under which the numerous articles are grouped. The supplement to this number contains a number of addresses on the subject of The Need for Currency Reform. In the March number The Public Health Movement is the topic of discussion. Among the articles in The Survey during the past three months are: The Findings of the Immigration Commission, by H. Parker Willis; Immigrant Rural Communities, by Alexander E. Cance and Immigrants in Cities, by E. A. Ooldenweiser (January 7) The St. Louis Meetings, by Henry Raymond Mussey (January 14) The Correction and Prevention of Crime, by Edward T. Devine SOME PUBLICATIONS 307 (January 21) ; The Pittsburgh City Plan, by Frederick Law Olm- sted (February 4) ; The Social Basis of Religion, by Simon N. Pat- ten (March 4). Arthur Wentworth Hamilton Eaton is the author of a nine hun- dred page volume devoted to The History of Kings County, Nova Scotia: Heart of the Acadian Land. The volume, as is further indicated on the title page, contains a sketch of the French and their expulsion, and a history of the New England settlers who came in their place, together with a large number of brief bio- graphical and genealogical sketches. The work is apparently done with care, but it is to be regretted that are no citations of sources and that the index is so brief. Among the articles in the January number of the Journal of the American Institute of Criminal Law and Criminology are the fol- lowing : Needed Reforms in the Law of Expert Testimony, by Ed- ward J. McDermott ; Crime and Punishment, by George W. Kirch- wey ; and Public Defense in Criminal Trials, by Maurice Parmalee. In the March number may be found : Needed Reforms in Criminal Law and Procedure, by William P. Lawler; The Unequal Applica- tion of the Criminal Law, by Gerard G. Brandon; and the State's Guardianship Over Criminals, by Stephen H. Allen. Volume four, number one of The University Studies published by the University of Illinois is devoted to a monograph on The Origin of the Land Grant Act of 1862 and Some Account of its Author, Jonathan B. Turner, written by Edmund J. James. The author's thesis is that Jonathan B. Turner, who was at one time a professor in Illinois College at Jacksonville, deserves the credit for having brought about the movement which resulted in the Morrill Act of 1862, making land grants to the States to encourage education along the lines of agriculture and mechanic arts. The Lure of Buried Wealth is the title of an interesting article by Louis Baury, which appears in the December number of Amer- icana, J. B. Ofner is the writer of a discussion of Military Orants in the United States, which is begun in this number and concluded in the January number. In the latter number may also be found 308 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS an account of The President's New Year Receptions, Then and Now, by Helen Harcourt ; and an unsigned article on The Settlement of the Maine Boundary Dispute, The series of articles on Little Wars of the Republic, by John R. Header, runs through these munbers and an installment may also be found in the February number. A. L. Smith is the writer of an article entitled A Nation in the Making, which appears in The Yale Review for February. The Union of South Africa is the subject discussed. Another article deals with the Taxation of Corporate Franchises in Massachusetts and is written by Charles A. Andrews. A second chapter on The Statistical Work of the Federal Oovemment is contributed by Julius H. Parmalee. In a discussion of Rhine and Mississippi River Terminals, E. J. Clapp points out some important facts concerning the possibilities of river transportation in America. The concluding article is an analytical description of The British Election Address, by George L. Fox. The January number of The Quarterly Journal of the Univer- sity of North Dakota opens with an excellent article by O. G. Libby on The Correlation of Literature and History, in which he points out how the spirit of various periods of the world's history has been reflected in the great literature of those periods, and how, on the other hand, literature has had a great influence over the people and has thus helped in shaping their ideals. There is a second chapter of John Morris Gillette's discussion of the City Trend of Popula- tion and Leadership; Andrew Alexander Bruce contributes An Un- written Chapter in the History of South Africa; and Frank L. McVey discusses A Rational System of Taxing Natural Resources, Among the articles in the Columbia Law Review for January are : The Constitutionality of Race Distinctions and the Baltimore Segregation Ordinance, by Warren B. Hunting; and Nature and Scope of the Power of Congress to Regulate Commerce, by Freder- ick H. Cooke. In the February number Alfred Hayes, Jr. is the writer of a discussion of Partial Unconstitutionality with Special Reference to the Corporation Tax. Two contributions of special interest among the contents of the March number are : American SOME PUBLICATIONS 309 Citizenship, by Dudley 0. McGovney ; and The Exclusive Power of Congress over Interstate Commerce, by Charles W. Needham. A cumulative index of over one hundred pages, covering the first ten volumes of the Review, has recently been published. In an article in the January number of The American Journal of Sociology Sophonisba P. Breckinridge and Edith Abbott point out the need of improvement and regulation in the Housing Conditions in Chicago Back of the Yards. Gteorge E. Vincent presents some observations concerning The Rivalry of Social Groups, in which he shows the importance of studying the conduct of the individual from the standpoint of the social group to which he belongs. Municipal Review 1909-1910, by Clinton Rogers Woodruff; and The Transition to an Objective Standard of Social Control, by Luther Lee Bernard, are other articles in this number. An article of interest to the average citizen is one by William Z. Ripley on Railway Speculation which opens the February number of The Quarterly Journal of Economics. The writer outlines the course of speculative activity since 1890 and illustrates his points by discussions of various railroad pools and syndicates, closing with suggested remedies and an estimate of future developments. Rob- ert H. Smith is the author of an article on Distribution of Income in Great Britain and Incidence of Income Tax. Other articles are : Economic History and Philology, by Leo Wiener ; a second install- ment of Railway Rate Theories of the Interstate Commerce Com- mission, by M. B. Hammond ; and Some Aspects of the Wool Trade of the United States, by P. T. Cherington. The presidential address on the subject of The Law and the Facts, delivered by Woodrow Wilson at the seventh annual meeting of the American Political Science Association occupies first place in the February number of The American Political Science Review. The address is a plea for a more earnest eflPort to fathom the spirit and the motives behind political phenomena, rather than the mere study of the facts as they appear on the surface. Paul S. Reinsch pre- sents a careful survey of Diplomatic Affairs and International Law, 1910, Oswald Ryan discusses The Commission Plan of City Gov- ernment in the light of its workings thus far, and his conclusions 310 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS on the whole are distinctly favorable to the plan. Tendencies To- ward Ministerial Responsibility in Oermany is the subject of an article by Walter J. Shepard. The State of New York has added another handsome volume to its already large list of publications of documentary material. This time it is volume one of the Minutes of the Executive Council of the Province of New York which is printed, and the editor is the State Historian, Victor Hugo Paltsits. The material included in this vol- ume covers the administration of Francis Lovelace, the second English Governor of New York, from 1668-1673. No minutes for the administration of Richard NicoUs, the first Governor, have been found and in fact it is not known that any such records were kept. Besides the minutes themselves, which occupy less than half of the volume, there are a number of Collateral and Illustrative Documents which throw much additional light on the transactions of the Council. The editorial work has evidently been done with great care. The documents have been transcribed with commend- able accuracy, and the notes and annotations are unusually fuU and explanatory. Defense of American Commerce and the Spirit of American Unity is the subject of an article by Henry Moore Baker which appears in The Journal of American History for the first quarter of the current year. The article centers about the siege of Louisburg in 1745 and the events immediately preceding. Under the heading, Original Manuscript of a Witness of the American Revolution, Yamum Lansing Collins contributes a description of the battle of Princeton and of the ravages of the British and Hessians, written by an eye-witness. The results of an Investigation into American Tradition of Woman Known as '^Molly Pitcher'^ are presented by John B. Landis. Among the other contributions are : a third in- stallment of transcripts from Original Orderly Books Written on the Battlefields of the American Revolution, by Charles Tallmadge Conover ; Discovery of the Cheat Anthracite Regions of the Middle West, by Louise Hillard Patterson ; and a discussion of a Journey to the Northern Regions "before the American Republic, by Eliza- beth W. Chandler. SOME PUBLICATIONS 311 WESTERN An address by J. B. Oakleaf on Abraham Lincoln: His Friend- ship for Humanity and Sacrifice for Others has been printed in an extremely neat and attractive pamphlet. A History of Macalester College, by Henry Daniel Punk, is a three hundred page volume of western interest. The volume has been written in a scholarly manner, with frequent references to sources of material, and is worthy of emulation on the part of other colleges and universities. Among the articles in The Graduate Magazine of the University of Kansas for January is a brief sketch entitled Thirty Years Ago at K. U., by Edwin C. Meservy. The February number opens with an article on The Alien, by R. D. O'Leary. There are also a num- ber of articles paying tributes to the memory of the late Professor Frank Egbert Bryant. A bulletin published in December by the University of Oregon contains the proceedings of the Second Annual Commonwealth Conference held at the University on February 11 and 12, 1910. The University is performing a worthy service in maintaining this conference at which questions relative to the welfare and progress of the State of Oregon are discussed. Cherokees **West** 1794 to 1839 is the title of a volume compiled and published at Glaremore, Oklahoma, by Emmet Starr. It con- tains, in the first place, a number of reminiscent letters written by Cephas Washburn, an early missionary among the Cherokees. Then follow a number of laws of the Cherokee Nation, together with some historical notes relative to the tribe. The lack of an index is to be deplored. Mr. Starr announces his praiseworthy intention to pub- lish a number of other volumes on the Cherokees. The Pox Farm in Mason County, Kentucky, near Maysville and not far from the historic town of Washington, is the locality the aboriginal history of which is related by Harlan I. Smith in a mono- graph on The Prehistoric Ethnology of a Kentucky Site, which constitutes volume six, part two of the Anthropological Papers of 312 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS the American Museum of Natural History, The writer has sac- ceeded in an admirable manner in reconstructing the life of the pre- historic inhabitants of the locality, and the monograph contains a large number of excellent illustrations. The Stone Age in North America is the title of a two-volume work by Warren K. Moorehead, which has come from the press of the Houghton Mi£9in Company. It is, as stated on the title page, an archaeological encyclopedia of the implements, ornaments, weapons, and utensils of the prehistoric races of this continent. The many hundred illustrations, some of thei^ in color, form a most praiseworthy part of the work, which throughout gives evidence of a vast amount of diligent labor in preparation. lOWANA A Biographic Sketch of 8. B. McCaU, written by C. L. Lucas, is printed in the Madrid Register-News of March 23, 1911. A supplement to the Morningside College Bulletin issued in De- cember contains the proceedings and addresses at the inauguration of President Freeman on October 6, 1910. The Swastika, Its History and Significance is an article by Thomas Carr in the January number of The American Freemason, and there is a second installment in the February number. College Purpose and College Failures is the topic of a sketch in the February number of The Chrinnell Review, where may also be found a brief article on Orinnell College and Public Affairs. A neat pamphlet containing an account of the Dedication of the First English Evangelical Lutheran Church of Cedar Rapids opens with a brief historical sketch of the church, which was organized in 1856. The Sage of Monticello is the topic of a sketch by William Cyrus Hanawalt in the January number of Midland Schools. Here may also be found a Proposed Pension Bill for the benefit of public school teachers. The Efficiency and Limitations of Bank Examinations is the title of an article by M. A. Kendall which appears in The Northwestern SOME PUBLICATIONS 313 Banker for January. The Banker and the Farmer, by Henry Wal- lace; and Banking and Finance, by E. B. Qumey, are other articles in this nnmber. Some interesting local history of Jefferson County is to be foun^ in an article on The Oldest Burj^ng Ground in the County, by Hiram Heaton, in the issue of the Fairfield Tribune for January 25, 1911. Emma Robinson Eleckner is the writer of a little pamphlet en- titled Sioux City. The author traces the history of the city from the time when Lewis and Clark and their party camped on Iowi| soil at that point, and buried Sergeant Charles Floyd on a high bluff overlooking the river. A handsome volume of over two hundred pages contains the Re- port of the Iowa State Drainage Waterways and Conservation Com-r mission for the biennial period ending in January, 1911. The Commission was created by an act of the legislature in 1909 and consequently this is the first report. A large number of excellent illustrations and maps accompany the report. 0. A. Byington is the writer of a brief article on Universii$ Alumni and the Legislature which is printed in the January nun^ ber of The Iowa Alumnus. In the February number there is a state- ment concerning the Resignation of President MacLean, and an article by Mira Troth on General Thomas J. Henderson, who was a student in the institution known as Iowa City University in 1845- 1846. The proceedings of the Eleventh Annual Conference of the Iowa Daughters of the American Revolution have been printed in a neat pamphlet. This organization is performing valuable historical ser- vices in the way of marking and preserving historic sites, colleetiiig historical relics, and educating the people on historical subjects. It is also aiding in the movement for child labor legislation and other similar reforms. A paper on Education for the Iowa Farm Boy, read by H. C. Wallace before the Prairie Club of Des Moines, has been printed in pamphlet form. The author discusses the systems of agricultural VOL. IX— 22 314 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS education .and rural public schools employed in yarious European countries, and compares tiiem with the conditions, past and present, along the same lines in this country in general and in Iowa in par- ticular. The great need for improvement is pointed out. ^^ Yida E. Smith is the writer of a Biography of Patriarch Alex- ander Hale Smith which occupies first place in the January number of the Journal of History published at Lamoni by the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints. An Open Letter of Charles W. Wandell to the President of the United States is an- other contribution, and the remainder of the Journal is largely taken up with continuations of biographical sketches, as is also the April number. In the February number of Midland Municipalities there may be found An Open Letter to County Attorneys of Iowa, by f^rank O. Pierce. Municipal Law of Iowa, by A. W. Osborne ; Uniform Ac- counting, by Henry Shuff ; and Need of Comparative Reports and Uniform Accounting, by Thomas H. Pratt, are among the articles in this number. In the March number there are some extracts from a paper on Railroad Taxation in Iowa, by Frank T. True; and Extracts from a Paper on Tax Reform in Iowa, by John E. Brind- ley. SOME RECENT PUBUCATIONS BY IOWA AUTHORS Bailey, Bert Heald, Two Hundred Wild Birds of Iowa (New edition). Cedar Rapids : Superior Press. 1911. Betts, George Herbert, The Recitation. Mount Yemon, Iowa: Hawk-Eye Publishing Co. 1911. Breckenridge, Mrs. John, Mahanomah. New York: Cochrane Publishing Co. 1911. Brewer, Luther A., and Wick, Barthinius L., History of Linn County, Iowa. Cedar Bapids: The Toreh Press. 1911. Brindley, John E., History of Taxation in Iowa (2 volumes). Iowa City: The State Historical Society of Iowa. 1911. SOME PUBLICATIONS 315 Brown, John FranUin, The Training of Teachers for Secondary Schools in Oermany and the United States. New York : The Macmillan C!o. 1911. Cooky (George Cram, The Chasm. New York : Frederick A. Stokes Co. 1911. Fairbanks, Arthur, A Handbook of Greek Religion. New York: American Book Co. 1911. Garland, Hamlin, Hesper. New York: Grosset and Dnnlap. 1911. Herr, Horace Dnmont, Country and River-side Poems. Humboldt : Published by the author. 1910. James, Edmund Janes, The Origin of the Land Grant Act of 1862. XJrbana : Univer- sity of Illinois. 1911. Jones, Marcus Eugene, Montana Botany Notes. Missoula: University of Montana. 1911. Eleckner, Emma Robinson, Sioux City. Sioux City : Published by the author. 1910. Mangold, George B., Child Problems. New York: The Macmillan Co. 1911. Marshall, Carl Coran, and (Goodyear, Samuel Horatio, Inductive Commercial Arithmetic. Cedar Rapids: Goodyear- Marshall Publishing Co. 1911. Rich, Joseph W., The Battle of Shiloh. Iowa City: The State Historical So- ciety of Iowa. 1911. Rockwood, Elbert W., Laboratory Manual of Physiological Chemistry (Revised and enlarged edition). Philadelphia: F. A. Davis Co. 1910. Starch, Daniel, Principles of Advertising. Madison: University Cooperative Co. 1910. Tilton, John Littlefield, Pleistocene Deposits in Warren County, Iowa. Chicago : Uni- versity of Chicago. 1911. 316 IOWA JOURNAL OF HISTORY AND POLITICS Veblen, Oswald (Joint author), Projective Oeometry. Boston : Ginn & Co. 1911. Wallace, H. C, Education for the Iowa Farm Boy. Des Moines: The Club. 1911. White, Hervey, A Ship of Souls: A Oroup of Poems. Woodstock, New York: Maverick Press. 1911. New Songs for Old. Woodstock, New York: Maverick Press. 1911. In An Old Main's Garden: Poems of Humor. Woodstock, New York: Maverick Press. 1911. SOMB REGENT HIBTOBIOAL FTEMS IN IOWA NEWSPAPERS The Register and Leader T. E. Booth — One of the Honored Veterans of Newspapering in Iowa, January 8, 1911. Dr. A. A. Noyes — Oldest Practicing Physician in the United States, January 8, 1911. Earliest Street Cars of the Des Moines System, January 15, 1911. James Hayes — One of Iowa's Noted Pioneers, January 22, 1911. Mrs. Mary McFall — One of the Pioneer Women of Iowa, January 22, 1911. Story of the Early Iowa Banditti and the Fight at Bellevne, Jan- uary 29, 1911. Calvin Brockett, a Polk County Pioneer, by L. F. Andrews, Jan- uary 29, 1911. "Uncle" Asa Turner, January 29, 1911. Circus Men Who Were Bom in Iowa, February 5, 1911. Crimes of Pioneer Days, by L. F. Andrews, February 5, 1911. Founder of the Henderson Family, a Pioneer of Four States, Feb- ruary 5, 1911. Lincoln as his Neighbors Knew Him, by Wayne Whipple, February 12, 1911. A Oet-Bich-Quick Scheme of the Olden Days, by L. F. Andrews, February 12, 1911. SOME PUBLICATIONS 317 Memories of the Prohibitory Amendment Campaign of 1882, by Mrs. Addie B. Billington, February 12, 1911. Cousins of Abraham Lincoln Living in Iowa, February 12, 1911. Some Men Who Helped Make Iowa at an Early Date, by L. F. Andrews, February 19, 1911. How Edward P. Heizer Made Gk)od in the Newspaper Oame, Feb- ruary 19, 1911. Judge David Ryan's Career, by L. F. Andrews, March 5, 1911. General William L. Alexander — One of Iowa's Famous Fighting Men, March 5, 1911. Jones County Calf Case which Began in 1874, March 5, 1911. Iowa Soldiers at Columbia, South Carolina, by A. W. Hepler, March 19, 1911. John Howard Stibbs — An Iowa Soldier on Commission that Tried Wirz, March 19, 1911. Indian Stone Implement Collection at the State Museum of His- tory, by T. Van Hyning, March 19, 1911. Injustice to the Tama Indians, by 0. H. Mills, March 19, 1911. The Burlingtan Hawk-Eye Twenty Years Ago. (In each Sunday issue.) The Last White Man Scalped by MusquaMe Indians in Iowa, by 0. H. Mills, January 15, 1911. Sketch of Life of Lafayette Young, January 22, 1911. The Tax Ferret Must Go, January 29, 1911. Failure of the Third Party Prohibitionists in Iowa Politics, Janu- ary 29, 1911. Abraham Lincoln's **Must", by George L. Ferris, February 5, 1911. Tribute to T. G. Foster, February 5, 1911. Recollections by W. P. Elliott, February 19, 1911. Hugh L. Cooper, Father of the Keokuk Water Power, by G. Walter Barr, February 26, 1911. The Law of the Taxation of Moneys and Credits, by W. M. Kelly, February 26, 1911. The Test of a Year of the Commission City Govemmenti March 12, 1911. 318 IOWA JOURNAL OF HISTORY AND POLITICS Sketch of Lives of Mr. and Mrs. Angust Feldman, March 19, 1911. The Pioneer Ross Family in Burlington and Southern Iowa, March 26, 1911. The Dubuque Telegraph-Herald Review of News and Events in Dubuque and Vicinity During 1910, January 1, 1911. Booster Club in Olden Days, January 15, 1911. Old Murder Case Recalled at Tama, January 22, 1911. Dr. A. A. Noyes — Oldest Physician in the United States, January 22, 1911. Robert T. Lincoln, son of Abraham Lincoln, February 12, 1911. The Sioux City Journal Twenty Years Ago. (In each Sunday issue.) Recollections of Dakota in Territorial Days, January 1, 29, and February 19, 1911. Personal Recollections of Lincoln, January 29, 1911. The Wreck of the Kate Sweeney, February 19, 1911. HISTORICAL SOCIETIES PUBLICATIONS An address on The History of the West and the Pioneers, by Benjamin F. Shambangh, has been reprinted from the Proceedings of the State Historical Society of Wisconsin for 1910. Number five of the Memorial Papers of the Society of Colonial Wars in the District of Columbia contains a biographical sketch of OUbert Thompson, by Marcus Benjamin. The Sauks and Foxes in Franklin and Osage Counties, Kansas, is the title of an article by Ida M. Ferris, which has been reprinted from the eleventh volume of the Kansas Historical Collections. A brief article on Medford Milkmen, by Francis A. Wait, may be found in the January number of The Medford Historical Reg- ister. An unsigned article bears the title, How Medford Began to Orow. The December number of the Records of the American Catholic Historical Society is largely taken up with Propaganda Documents relative to the appointment of the first Bishop of Baltimore, con- tributed and edited by E. P. Devitt. In the January-February number of the Records of the Past may be found the Preliminary Report to the Minnesota Historical So- ciety on the Kensington Rune Stone, The report on the whole is favorable to the authenticity of the stone. The Third Biennial Report of the North Carolina Historical Commission contains an account of the work of the Commission during the years from 1908 to 1910, together with a report of other historical activities in the State during that period. The Proceedings of the Bunker Hill Monument Association at the annual meeting on June 17, 1910, contains three addresses: the presidential address by John Collins Warren; Fighters and Spec- 319 320 IOWA JOURNAL OF HISTORY AND POLITICS tators at Bunker HiU, by Curtis Onild, Jr. ; and A Hero of Dor- chester Heights, by Archer Bnfler Hulbert. A Memorial Tablet at Ticonderoga is the title of a pamphlet is- sued by the Ticonderoga Historical Society. It contains an account of the exercises on October 4, 1910, at the unveiling of a tablet pre- sented by the Ticonderoga Pulp and Paper Company. The New England Historical and Oenedlogical Register for Jan- uary opens with two biographical sketches : Charles Edtvin Hurd, by Edward Henry Clement ; and James Brown of Middletown, Conn., by Edwin A. Hill. Among the other contributions is a continuation of Albion Morris Dyer's discussion of the First Ownership of Ohio Lands. The Journal of the Presbyterian Historical Society for December opens with The Earliest Account of Protestant Missions, A. D. 1557, by J. I. Gk)od. The Early History of the Ninth Presbyterian Church and the Chambers Independent Church is contributed by John Ed- mands; and under the head of Ancient Documsnts and Records there are a number of petitions To the General Assembly of the Delaware State. A new series to be known as the Kentucky Historical Series, ed- ited by Jennie C. Morton, has been initiated. The first volume to appear is one by John Wilson Townsend, entitled Kentucky: Mother of Oovemors, Mr. Townsend has presented in a very readable way some biographical data concerning a large number of the chief ex- ecutives of Commonwealths and Territories who were sons of Ken- tucky either by birth or by adoption. Two brief discussions of the much mooted question of whether the American Indians or an earlier race built the mounds, written by E. Ralston Goldsborough and John Sexton Abercrombie, are printed in The Archaeological Bulletin for December. Newly Dis- covered Ruins of the Ancient Pueblos, by J. A. Jeancon ; Notes from Pulaski County, Kentucky, by W. L. GriflSn ; and The Indian Trails in Clark County, Ohio, by W. H. Ryner, are other contributions. Among the articles in the January number of the Deutsch-Amer- ikanische Oeschichtsbldtter are: The Americanizing Influence of HISTORICAL SOCIETIES 321 the Foreign Press in America, by Emil Baensch; Ziistdnde in einer kleinen Sictdi von Missouri vor 50 Jahren, by Julius Elaufmann; General W. T, Sherman as a College President, by David French Boyd; Die Deutschen in der PoUtik im Staate Indiana, by W. IT. Fritsch ; and Die Deutsch-Amerikaner and die deutsche Revolution, by C. F. Huch. John F. Philips is the writer of an article on Governor WiUard Preble Hall appearing in the January number of the Missouri His- toricdl Review in the series of articles on the Administrations of Missouri Governors. Joseph H. Schmidt presents some Recollec- tions of the First Catholic Mission Work in Central Missouri. E. M. Violette discusses The Battle of KirksvUle, August 6, 1862; and there is a second installment of Monumental Inscriptions in Mis- souri Cemeteries. Henry FoUansbee Long is the author of an historical sketch of The Salt Marshes of the Massachusetts Coast which may be found in the Historical Collections of the Essex Institute for January. There are continuations of The Houses and Buildings of Oroveland, Mass., by Alfred Poore ; and of the Revolutionary Orderly Book of Capt. Jeremiah Putnam of Danvers, Mass., in the Rhode Island Campaign; and a fifth chapter in Sidney Perley's study of Marble- head in the Year 1700. Nathaniel Pope is the subject of a biographical sketch by William A. Meese which appears in the January number of the Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society. Isabel Jamison contributes an interesting sketch of the Independent Military Companies of Sangamon County in the 30* s. The story of Judge Theophilus L. Dickey and the First Murder Trial in Kendall County is told by Avery N. Beebe. Some Extracts from the Memoir of Alvan Stone are presented under the head of reprints. The principal contributions in the nineteenth number of the Publications of the American Jewish Historical Society are: The Jews and Masonry in the United States before 1810, by Samuel Oppenheim ; A List of Jews Who were Orand Masters of Masons in Various States of this Country, by Albert M. Friedenberg; Jews in 322 IOWA JOURNAL OF HISTORY AND POLITICS Connection with the CoUeges of the Thirteen Original States prior to 1800, by Leon Hiihner ; and The Beginnings of Russo-Jewish Im- migration to Philadelphia, by David Sulzberger. A contribution to the literature on the subject of the Mound Builders is to be found in Bennett H. Young's monograph on The Prehistoric Men of Kentucky, which constitutes number twenly-five of the FUson Club Publications. The writer gives a brief diacnflmon of the theories concerning the origin and identity of the Mound Builders and then proceeds with a history of the life and habits of these ancient people in Kentucky, and with a description of the ma- terial remains left by them. The April, July, and October, 1910, numbers of The "Old North- west'* OenecUogiccU Quarterly are combined into one number. The first contribution is the Journal of John Cotton, M. D., who was a lineal descendant of the famous John Cotton of colonial times. An- other article is on the subject of the Fugitive Slave Law of Ohio. Other articles are: Prince's Annals and Its Notable List of Sub- scribers, by David E. Phillips ; and The Notable Pedigree of Wen- dell Phillips and Phillips Brooks, by the same writer. The belated September number of The Quarterly of the Oregon Historical Society opens with an extended biographical sketch of Peter Skene Ogden, Fur Trader, by T. C. Elliott. T. W. Davenport writes a brief appreciation of The Late Oeorge H. Williams. Pub- lic expenditures is the subject treated in the installment of the Financial History of the State of Oregon, by F. G. Young, here printed. Under the heading of Documents there is a letter and cir- cular of information for prospective emigrants to Oregon. The Heroic Career of a Kentucky Naval Officer: Rear Admiral Lucien Young is described by George Baber in the January number of The Register of the Kentucky State Historical Society. John Wilson Townsend contributes a brief sketch of Rosa Vertner Jef- frey: Noted Kentucky Singer. Martha Stephenson's discussion of Education in Harrodsburg and Neighborhood Since 1775 is con- cluded in this number. There is another installment of the Cor- respondence of Oov. Isaac Shelby, copied from the State Archives by W. W. Longmoor. HISTORICAL SOCIETIES 323 In Yolomes fifteen and sixteen of the Documentary History of the State of Maine the Maine Historical Society continues the publica- tion of The Baxter Manuscripts, edited by James Phinney Baxter. The letters and documents presented in volume fifteen cover the period from January, 1777, to April, 1778, and illustrate the part played by the people of Maine during the early years of the Revo- lution. Volume sixteen covers the months from April, 1778, to August, 1779, and contains an especially good collection of ma- terial dealing with the Penobscot Expedition. The life and services of the late Oeorge Pierce Oarrison, whose death has been greatly felt in historical circles, is discussed by H. Y. Benedict in an article in The Quarterly of the Texas State His- torical Association for January. Stephen F. Austin: A Memorial Address was delivered by Alex. W. Terrell on the occasion of the removal of the remains of Stephen F. Austin from Peach Point to the State Cemetery at Austin in October, 1910. The remainder of the Quarterly is taken up with a scholarly monograph on Apache Relations in Texas, 1718-1750, by William Edward Dunn. Some Extracts from a Journal Kept During the Earlier Cam- paigns of the Army of the Potomac, by Charles C. Bombaugh, which are printed in the December number of the Maryland Historical Magazine, relate the experiences of a surgeon with the brigade of General E. D. Baker. Under the heading, Oeorge Pedbody and his Services to the State, are published a number of letters from the Executive Archives. The Last Bloodshed of the Revolution is the subject of an article by Francis B. Culver. A number of letters re- lating to the Battle of Bladensburg, and an article on The Quit Rent in Maryland, by Beverly W. Bond, Jr., may also be found among the contents of this number. Two contributions, with an introductory note, make up the con- tents of the July-September, 1910, number of The Quarterly Publi- cation of the Historical and Philosophical Society of Ohio, The first is the Trenton circular To the Respectable Public, written by John Cleves Symmes on November 26, 1787, in which he set forth the advantages and prices of the lands which he owned on the Miami 324 IOWA JOURNAL OF HISTORY AND POLITICS River and which he hoped to sell to emigrants from New England. The second is a letter from John Cleves Symmes to Elias Boudinoi discussing St. Clair's disastrous campaign against the Indians in 1791. The October-December number is devoted to the annual re- port of the Society for the year ending December 5, 1910. A thirty page, illustrated article by A. B. Stout on Prehistoric Earthworks in Wisconsin opens the January number of the Ohio Archaeological and nistoric(U Quarterly. Then follows an address by Frederick Jackson Turner on The Place of the Ohio Valley in American History. Mrs. Jennie C. Morton is the writer of a brief paper on the history and character of the American Indian which appears under the title A Vanishing Race, adopted from Edward S. Curtis 's picture of the same name. Some notes concerning the Wy- andot chief tan, Tarhe — the Crane, are contributed by Basil Meek, who is also the writer of an article on Oener08ition of in- structor in political science at Western Reserve University. The amount of work devolving ux>on the Legislative Reference Department of the Indiana State Library during the recent session of the legislature was so large that four additional assistants were required. An effort is being made at Grinnell College to raise a fund of $450,000 for the establishment of a Department of Public Affairs embracing chairs in political science, sociology, economics, and mod- em history. Elihu Root, John W. Foster, Andrew Carnegie, Eugene Wam- baugh, Charles Noble Gregory, Simeon E. Baldwin, and Harry Pratt Judson were among the speakers at a conference on interna- tional arbitration held at Washington, D. C, December 15-17, 1910. Qovemor Deneen in his message to the legislature of Illinois in January urged that action be taken providing for the marking of the route traversed by Abraham Lincoln when removing from Ken- tucky to Illinois. He suggests that the route thus marked shall be known as **The Lincoln Way''. The movement in favor of the so-called ** Short Ballot", limitiTig the number of elective offices in State and local governments, has 880 NOTES AND COMMENT 331 become qtiite wide-spread. During the year 1910 the movement re- ceived decided encouragement in New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, New Jersey, Iowa, Sonth Dakota, Washington, and California. The commission form of municipal government is rapidly gaining ground in Illinois where a number of the smaller cities, including Springfield, Joliet, Quincy, Eewanee, Oalesburg; Peoria, Jackson- ville, Moline, and Bock Island, have either decided to vote on the question or are actively agitating the subject Professor Herbert E. Bolton expects to return to Mexico during the coming summer to continue his work in the archives of that country. He spent the greater part of the mid-winter holidays in tracing the route of Father Eino, an early missiouary and explorer who is thought to have been the first white man within the limits of Arizona after Coronado. It is understood that Professor Bolton is planning to publish Father Eino's chronicle of early Spanish ex- plorations which has recently been discovered. It is largely as the result of Professor Bolton's work that provision has been made for indexing the Mexican archives. CONTRIBTTTORS Kbknbth W. Coloeovb, Pertrna Scholar at Harvard TTni- TOnity. Born at Waukon, Iowa, in 1886. Graduated from tht Iowa State Normal School in 1906. Graduated from Ths Statt lhiiT«int7 of Iowa in 1909. BeeeiTed the degree of !£. A. at The State TTniTermty of Iowa in 1910. Wou the Colonial Damee Prize for the heat eesay on Iowa history in 1908. Won the Jesap Prize for the heat eaaay on present-day citizenship is 1909. Aathor of The Delegates to Congnts from the 7emf«ry of Iowa. Glabbnob Bat AimNEB, Member of The State Historical So- ciety of Iowa. Bom in Illinois. Gnwlneted from the Iowa State Nonoal School in 1891. Saperintoident of Schools at Waverly, Adel, Avoca, and Tipton, Iowa. Graduated from The State Univermty of Iowa in 1903. Received the degree of M. A. at The State Univendty of Iowa in 1909. Aathor (tf i Topical History of Cedw County, Iowa. •' 1 ^ ^9- T L9H i- THE IOWA JOURNAL OF fflSTORY AND POLITICS '^Z' JULY NINBTBBN HUNDRED BLBVBN VOLUME mm NUMBBR THREE ▼OL.IX— 23 I THE EXPEDITION OF ZEBULON MONTGOMERY PIKE TO THE SOURCES OF THE MISSISSIPPI With the purchase of Louisiana in 1803 the United States assumed the responsibiUty of the control of a territory whose expanse was twice the nation's area and whose bor- ders were little known. When the news of the conclusion of the negotiations reached President Jefferson he was sur- prised and not a little embarrassed, for it was his plan to purchase simply the port of New Orieans and such tract of land thereabouts as would gain the command of the mouth of the Mississippi, which was so vital to American com- merce. But now he found the whole of the vaguely defined Province of Louisiana thrust upon him, and with it the burden of a fifteen million dollar debt.^ Jefferson showed his good statesmanship when at this critical period he planned for an immediate and thorough exploration of the new territory.^ At the south a command 1 Hosmer 's The History of the Louiaiarui Purchase, p. 148 ; Hosmer 'b A Short History of the Mississippi V alley , pp. 118-127; Salter's Iowa: The First Free State in the Louisiana Purch4ise, p. 51 ; Whiting *s Life of Zehulan Mowt- gomery Pike, published in Jared Sparks 't Library of American Biography, Vol. XV, pp. 221, 222. For a full account of the history of this period, tee Adama'a History of the United States, Vol. II, pp. 1-134; McMaster's A History of the People of the United States, Vol. II, pp. 621-635; Vol. Ill, pp. 1-36. s Even before the purchase of the Louisiana territory President Jefferson transmitted to Congress a confidential message under date of January 18, 1803, in which he advocated the exploration of the newly acquired territory and out- lined an expedition which should "explore the whole line, even to the Western ocean, have conferences with the natives on the subject of commercial inter- course, get admission amoDg them for our traders, as others are admitted, agree on convenient deposits for an interchange of articles, and return with the in- formation acquired, in the course of two summers. ' ' — Annais of Congress, 7th Congress, Second Session, 1802-1803, pp. 25, 26. See also Biehardson's Mes- sages and Papers of the Presidents, VoL I, pp. 353, 354. 335 336 IOWA JOURNAL OF HISTORY AND POLITICS of the lower Mississippi had opened the West to the control of the government by way of numerous tributaries. Bnt to the northy west, and southeast there was much uncer- tainty as to the boundaries. On the north the territory ex- tended to the as yet undiscovered sources of the Mississippi. It was assumed that the mountains, which at that time were almost unknown to the white man, formed the western boundary line, but the amount of territory which lay be- tween them and the Mississippi was a matter of mere con- jecture. And still more uncertainty prevailed with respect to the boundary on the southeast.^ In his choice of explorers President Jefferson exercised remarkable judgment, of which the results of the explora- tions are ample evidence. In the army he found the most efficient men for the work, although few scientific men were available even from that source. Moreover, funds for car- rying on the work were not to be had without much effort Jefferson seems to have been reluctant in asking for extra means for the work — probably because he felt that there would be opposition to an appropriation, since the adminis- tration was strongly in favor of ^^ economical reform'*.* Early in 1804 Captain Meriwether Lewis and Lieutenant William Clark were chosen for the purpose of exploring the Missouri to its source and of discovering the most advan- tageous water route to the Pacific Ocean. This expedition covered a period of about three years and is without doubt the most remarkable and creditable of the early explora- tions of the Louisiana country.*^ 8 WMting 's lAfe of Zehulan Montgomery Pike, published in Jared Sparki *b Library of American Biography, Vol. XV, pp. 221, 222. « Whiting's Life of Zehulon Montgomery Pike, published in Jared Sparki 'i Library of American Biography, Vol. XV, pp. 222, 223. See also Salter's lowi: The First Free State in the Louisiana Purchase, pp. 52, 53, 61; and McMaster's A History of the People of the United States, Vol. II, pp. 628, 629. s For a complete account of this expedition, see Thwaites 's Original JounuAs of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, Vols. I- VII. EXPEDITION OP ZEBULON M. PIKE 337 Contemporaneous with and probably not less worthy than the work of Lewis and Clark were the explorations of Zebulon Montgomery Pike, who, however, had the misfor- tune to receive his commission from the commander of the western army. General James Wilkinson, instead of from the government.® Bom in what is now a part of Trenton, New Jersey, on January 5, 1779,'' Zebulon M. Pike moved during his child- hood to Easton, Pennsylvania. There he received such edu- cation as the rural schools of the time afforded. He is described by some of his school-mates as ^ ^ a boy of slender form, very fair complexion, gentle and retiring disposi- tion, but of resolute spirit'' and always capable of defend- ing himself when put to the test.® The time spent in ob- taining an education was necessarily short, since he entered his father's company as a cadet when he was about fifteen r. Thomas Bees. There is also an edition in French and one in Dutch. — Coues 's The Expeditions of ZehuJon Montgomery Pike, Vol. I, pp. xxxiii-xliv. EXPEDITION OF ZEBULON M. PIKE 339 estmg to note that at the close of the author's preface a note by the publisher is inserted to the effect that he ''owes it to truth, and to colonel Pike, to state that he very much doubts whether any book ever went to press under so many disadvantages ' \ Lieutenant Pike himself realized many of its defects. The following extracts from one of his letters will serve to explain many of its faults : The journal in itself will have little to strike the imagination, but a dull detail of our daily march. . . . The daily occur- rences were written at night, frequently by firelight, when extreme- ly fatigued, and the cold so severe as to freeze the ink in my pen, of course have little claim to elegance of expression or style ; . . . I do not possess the qualifications of the naturalist, and even had they been mine, it would have been impossible to have gratified them to any great extent, as we passed with rapidity over the country we surveyed. . . . And indeed, my thoughts were too much engrossed in making provisions for the exigencies of the morrow, to attempt a science which requires time and a placidity of mind which seldom fell to my lot.^' Of the three divisions of the work the first, with its ap- pendices, is devoted entirely to an account of the expedi- tion to the sources of the Mississippi. The material con- tained therein forms the basis of the account given in the following pages of this essay. Late in the afternoon of August 9, 1805, Lieutenant Pike sailed from his encampment near St. Louis in a keel boat with a party of twenty men,^* carrying with him provisions 13 Pike's An Account of Expeditions to the Sources of the Mississippi and through the Western Parts of Louisiana, etc. (original edition, 1810), Ap- pendix to Part I, p. 32. 14 In the Appendix to Part III, pp. 67, 68, of the edition of 1810, Lieutenant Pike gives a lift of the persons employed in the expedition. Of the twenty men in the company, there were two corporals, one sergeant, and seventeen privates. The name of an interpreter is also included in the list bnt he was not of the original party which started from the encampment near St. Lonis. 340 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS for only four months. For more than eight months he and his imrty were to push their way northward amid dangers and hardships which all but cost them their lives. But with the consciousness that he was the first citizen of the United States to undertake the ascent of the river, and with the assurance that whatever he should discover would be eager- ly received by the public, his enthusiasm rose above any misgivings with regard to the trials of the undertaking. With considerable difficulty, due to rainy weather and the numerous islands in the channel, Lieutenant Pike and his company made their way to the Des Moines Biver, which marks the junction of the present Commonwealths of Iowa, Illinois, and Missouri. Here the rapids presented a formidable obstacle — more especially because there was no one on board who had ever passed them. The rapids were eleven miles in length ^^with successive ridges and shoals extending from shore to shore. . . . The shoals continue the whole distance. ''^^ In the midst of the diffi- culty the party was met by an agent to the Sao Indians in this vicinity, who piloted them safely to his establishment above the rapids. Here Lieutenant Pike found himself on the east bank of the river at a point where the dty of Nau- voo, Illinois, is now located. Directly opposite was the vil- lage of the Sac Indians on the present site of Montrose, Iowa. Impressed with the suitability of the location for a trad- ing establishment for the Sac, Fox, Iowa, and Sioux In- dians of the region. Lieutenant Pike tarried for the greater part of a day. In council with **the chief men of the vil- lage'' he expressed the desire of the President of the United States ^Ho be more intimately acquainted with the 16 Thia description appears in the entrj of Augoit 20th in Pike's An Aeeowkt of BxpedUiont to the Sowees of the Miasiaeippi and through the Wettem FmrU of LomUiama, ote. (original edition, 1810), Part I, pp. 4, 5. EXPEDITION OP ZEBULON M. PIKE 341 situation, wants, &c. of the different nations of the red peo- ple, in our newly acquired territory of Louisiana**.^* In addition there was some discussion of the location of a trading establishment, but no definite conclusions were reached. After presenting the Indians with some ^^ tobacco, Bjiives, and whiskey ^^ Lieutenant Pike proceeded up the river about six miles, landing on the spot where Fort Madi- son was erected three years later and where the city by the same name now stands. Lieutenant Pike made no par- ticular mention of the place, nor did he recommend it as a suitable location for a fort or trading post.*^ Two days later the party reached the present site of Burlington, Iowa, which Lieutenant Pike mentions as ^^a very handsome situation for a garrison^'*^ and describes in some detail. The channel of the river passes under the hill, which is about 60 feet perpendicular, and level on the top. Four hundred yards in the rear, there is a small prairie of 8 or 10 acres, which would be a convenient spot for gardens ; and on the east side of the river, there is a beautiful prospect over a large prairie, as far as the eye can ex- tend, now and then interrupted by groves of trees. Directly under the rock is a limestone spring, which, after an hour's work, would afford water amply sufiScient for the consumption of a regiment. The landing is bold and safe, and at the lower part of the hill, a road 18 Pike's An Account of Expeditions to the Sources of the Mississippi and through the Western Parts of Louisiana, etc. (original edition, 1810), Part I, p. 5. IT Some few writen have erroneously credited Pike with the founding of Fort Madison. For instance, in the Portrait and Biographical Album of Lee County, Iowa, p. 627, the writer claims that the first settlers at Fort Madison were troops sent out by our government under command of Captain Z. M. Pike to protect the country both from the British and the Indians. A similar error is made by Stevens in his Black Hawk War, p. 37. The selection of Fort Madison was made in September, 1808, by Lieutenant Alpha £[ingeley. — Annais of Iowa, Third Series, Vol. VI, p. 314. 18 This site is the one now oeeupied by Grapo Park at BarHngton, Iowa. 342 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS may be made for a team in half an hour. Black and white oak tim- ber in abundance. The mountain continues about two miles, and has five springs bursting from it in that distance.^* ' Li this vicinity the Indians seemed to be quite numerous. Horses and other signs of inhabitants were seen along the river bank. A few miles above the bluffs Lieutenant Pike met a company of Indian traders, with three boats from Mackinac, who informed him that out on the prairie only two and a half miles was located one of the largest Sac vil- lages.2o After continuing a short distance up the river, Pike and one of his men went on shore for a hunt.-^ The journal does not state which bank of the river they were on, but from the description of the country it is not difficult to infer that they were hunting on Iowa soil. Owing to the marshi- ness of the ground, two of their favorite dogs became ex- hausted and were lost in the return to shore. Two men im- mediately volunteered for the search. But at evening nei- ther men nor dogs had returned. Lieutenant Pike, how- ever, was not in the habit of waiting for anyone on shore. Accordingly, the party continued up stream but always camped on the Iowa side and made every effort to attract the attention of the lost men by firing guns at various inter- vals. But the men were bewildered by the marshy ground and the thick undergrowth of the lowlands, and for eight days they wandered northward half -exhausted from lack of food. They finally chanced to fall upon a village of Fox Indians, whose chief gave them com and moccasins and sent them with a guide to the mines of Dubuque where they 10 Pikers An Account of Expeditions to the Sources of the Mississippi and through the Western Parts of Louisiana, etc. (original edition, 1810), Part I, p. 7. 20 Lieutenant Pike was now at a point which was considered half way be- tween St. Louis and Prairie du Chien. 21 This was on Saturday, August 24, 1805. EXPEDITION OP ZEBULON M. PIKE 343 found their commander and the remainder of his company. Meanwhile Lieutenant Pike had passed the mouth of the Iowa River, which he merely mentions in his journal. He had passed the present site of Muscatine — at one time known as Bloomington — which he describes as the point ** where the river Hills join the Mississippi ' \ He had crossed the rapids of Rock River with even more diflSculty than those of the Des Moines. It was here that he met Black Hawk, who recalled the occasion in detail many years later. Although Lieutenant Pike makes no mention of the meeting with Black Hawk, the Indian chief's account of the visit is so accurate in many points, which may be verified, that it is hardly to be doubted. Black Hawk stated that when the boat arrived at Rock River **the young chief came on shore with his interpre- ter", made a speech, and gave some presents to the Indians. Continuing, the chief said : We were all well pleased with the speech of the young chief. He gave us good advice ; said our American father would treat us well. He presented us an American flag, which was hoisted. He then re- quested us to pull down our British flags — and give him our Brit- ish medals — promising to send us others on his return to St. Louis. This we declined, as we wished to have two Fathers! . . . He went to the head of the Mississippi, and then returned to St. Louis. . . . He was a good man, and a great brave and died in his country's serviee.^^ It was at noon on Sunday, September 1st, that Lieutenant Pike arrived at Dubuque's lead mines, where he was ''sa- luted with a field piece, and received with every mark of at- tention, ]}y Monsieur Dubuque, the proprietor".-^ Pike 21* Autobiography of Black Hawk, p. 26. >3Pike^8 An Account of Expeditions to the Sources of the Mississippi and through the Western Parts of Louisiana, etc. (original edition, 1810), Part I, p. 10. Julien Dubuque, a French Canadian, came to this vicinity for the purpose of trading with the Indians. Taking a squaw as his wife, he soon made friends 344 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POIilTICS was charged by General Wilkinsoii with orders to make cer- tain investigations relative to the lead mines. But owing to the fact that there were no horses at the house and the mines were six miles away, the Lieutenant found it ^'impoe- sible to make a report by actual inspection". His report was therefore nothing more than a series of evasive and in- definite answers to questions put by Pike.^^ In transmit- ting the report to Wilkinson, Lieutenant Pike himself says that ^^the answers seem to carry with them the semblance of equivocation ^\ While at Dubuque's quarters. Lieutenant Pike took on board a Frenchman by the name of Blondeau, who proved a useful addition to the party since he could speak the lan- guage of the Indians. Up to this point Lieutenant Pike had been without an interpreter, and for this reason had found himself at a great disadvantage among the Indians. But with means for making known the purpose of his explora- tion, '*he found himself at once the object of friendly atten- tion",^ although the first question put by the Indians was always whether they were ''for war, or if going to war". Through his interpreter Lieutenant Pike learned that the Indians of this vicinity were much in dread of white men, that * * the women and children were frightened at the very name of an American boat", and that the men believed the with the Foxes. The diAcoverj of the lead mines induced him to seeure ''a per- mit to work the mines, with a monopoly of the right" under date of November 22, 1788. Thus was founded the first white settlement in Iowa. Dubuque died on March 24, 1810. His claim was sold at St. Louis for the payment of his debts.— See Salter 's Iowa: The Fint Free State in the Lomd- ana Purchase, pp. 41-45, 79, 86. s« The report to General Wilkinson appears in the Appendix to Part I, p. 5, of the original edition of 1810. Perhaps the only definite statement made hj Dubuque was that the mines were about twenty-seven leagoea long and from one to three leagues wide, yielding from twenty to forty thonaand pounds of lead per annum. M Whiting's Life of ZebuUm Montgomery Pike, publiahed in Jarad Spaifci'k jAbfwy of Aw^eriean Biography, VoL XV, p. 238. EXPEDITION OP ZEBULON M. PIKE 345 whites to be ^^very quarrelsome, and much for war, and also very brave''. Such information was ^^nsed as pru- dence suggested''.^* On September 4th lieutenant Pike reached Prairie du Chien at the junction of the Wisconsin and Mississippi, and opposite McGregor, Iowa. Prairie du Chien, an early French settlement, had been distinguished as a center for the fur trade of the lake region, but at the time of Pike's visit it was little more than a village of Indian traders.*^ Among these traders Lieutenant Pike spent several days, engaged in making choice of a suitable location for a post, holding councils with neighboring tribes of Indians, and in preparing for the remainder of the journey. As the most suitable location for a military post in this region. Lieutenant Pike recommended a bluff just north of the present town of McGregor, Iowa, which commanded both the Wisconsin and the Mississippi.^ Plenty of timber and a spring near-by added to the desirability of the situa- tion. On the whole, however, the Lieutenant considered the Burlington site far superior. Finding that it would be impossible to continue the ascent of the river with so large a craft. Lieutenant Pike hired two light barges and began the work of transferring provisions and baggage to the new boats. With the addition of two interpreters, Pierre Bosseau and Joseph Beinulle,^ the party left Prairie du Chien on September 8th **with some expectation and hope of seeing 26 Pike 'a An Account of Expeditions to the Sources of the Mississippi and through the Western Parts of Louisiana, etc. (original edition, 1810), Part I, pp. 11, 12. 27 For an account of Prairie du Chien and other trading posts of the upper Mississippi, see Folwell's Minnesota, pp. 39, 40. 28 Coues 's The Expeditions of Zehulon Montgomery Pike, Vol. I, p. 37. 2» This name is probably that of Joseph Beinville or Benville. He was sm interpreter of some note. 346 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS the head of the Mississippi and the town of Saint Louis" before the end of the winter. This statement, in a letter to General Wilkinson,^^ shows how little the Lieutenant real- ized that many weeks of suffering and discouragement lay between him and the source of the Mississippi, and that months of bitter hardship must separate him from his encampment at St. Louis. Nevertheless, such hopes as this alone kept up his courage and made possible the long struggle. A few miles above Prairie du Chien the party met Waba- sha, the chief of the four lower bands of the Sioux. The Sioux had been enjoying a feast the night before. In conse- quence, the salute which they gave to Lieutenant Pike and his party as they arrived in front of the lodges was attend- ed by **some hazard*', since **some of them, even tried their dexterity, to see how near the boat they could strike. They may, indeed, be said, to have struck on every side of us. When landed, I had my pistols in my belt, and sword in hand.*'^^ Hereupon the chief invited Lieutenant Pike and some of his men to accompany him to his lodge for a conn- cil. In a speech of considerable length Wabasha ex- pressed his pleasure at ha\ing the young Lieutenant in his own village and a desire always to remain at peace with the white and red people. To this Lieutenant Pike replied in a statement of the objects and purposes of his expedi- tion. He gratefully accepted a pipe which Wabasha pre- sented to him to be shown to the upper bands as a token of peace, which later was of much service." 80 Pike's An Account of Expeditions to the Sources of the Mississippi and through the Western Parts of Louisiana, etc. (original edition, 1810), Ap- pendix to Part I, p. 3. 81 Pike 's An Account of Expeditions to the Sources of the Mississippi and through the Western Parts of Louisiana, etc. (original edition, 1810), Part It p. 15. S2 This pipe was used in the council at Leech Lake on Febniaiy 16, 1806. EXPEDITION OP ZEBULON M. PIKE 347 While in the village Lieutenant Pike witnessed a ** medi- cine dance'' which was attended by **many curious ma- noeuvres. Men and women danced indiscriminately. They were all dressed in the gayest manner; each had in their hand, a small skin of some description, and would frequent- ly run up, point their skin, and give a puff with their breath ; when the person blown at, whether man or woman, would fall, and appear to be almost lifeless, or in great agony; but would recover slowly, rise and join in the dance ' '. Tliis they called their great medicine dance or dance of re- ligion.^^ Before his departure Pike presented the chief with to- bacco, knives and eight gallons of made whiskey (three- fourths water). Leaving the Sioux village on the afternoon of September 10th, and proceeding but a few miles further. Lieutenant Pike crossed what is now the northern boundarv of the State of lowa.^* Seven months passed before he again camped on Iowa soil. On September 23rd the party reached a Sioux village lo- cated near the site of old Fort Snelling. Here a council with the chiefs of the village was held by which Lieutenant Pike secured for the government a grant of a tract of land containing about 100,000 acres, for which he gave in return presents to the amount of only about two hundred dollars.^ 38 Pike '8 An Account of Expeditions to the Sources of the Mississippi and through the Western Parts of Louisiana, etc. (original edition, 1810), Part I, p. 17. «< Cones 's The Expeditions of Zebulon Montgomery Pike, Vol. I, p. 48; Sal- ter's The Eastern Border of Iowa in 1805-6 in Iowa Historical Beeord, Vol. X, p. 115. 8B This tract of land was near the mouth of the Minnesota Biver and later included the site of Fort Snelling and the city of Minneapolis. — Pike's Ex- plorations in Annals of Iowa, Third Series, VoL I, p. 532. A copy of the speech delivered by Lieutenant Pike, a copy of the treaty, and a copy of a letter addressed to General WUkinson on the subject appear as Documents No. 3 and 4 in the Appendix to Part I of Pike's An Account of 348 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS So far as negotiations with Indian tribes are conoernedi this was doubtless lientenant Pike's most important enter- prise. Referring to the transaction in a letter to General Wilkinson, he remarks that the grant was obtained ^'for a song". At the same time he valnes the land at only two hundred thousand dollars. Lieutenant Pike's speech in the council forms a part of the journal and is a most interesting document. It shows a keen understanding of the character of the Indians as well as remarkable tact. There is, however, one pecnliar and altogether amusing portion of the document, which is sig- nificant of Lieutenant Pike 's usual attitude toward the sub- ject referred to. After a rather strong exhortation against tiie purchase of intoxicating liquors, witii much emphasis on their injurious effects, Lieutenant Pike concludes his speech as follows : **I now present you with some of your father's tobacco, and some other trifling things, as a memorandum of my good will, and before my departure I will give you some liquor to clear your throats '*. This clearing process seems to have required sixty gallons of liquor.** When Lieutenant Pike had reached the Falls of St Anthony he began to realize that he had made a serious blunder in starting on his expedition so late in the season; for many of his men, unused to the climate and necessary hardships, were daily succumbing to illness and fatigue. Pike writes of the situation as follows: ** These unhappy circumstances .... convinced me, that if I had no regard for my own health and constitution, I should have Expeditions to the Sources of the Mississippi and through the Western Pcrts of Louisiana, etc. (original edition, 1810), pp. 6-13. For a detailed criticism of the treaty and accompanying eommonieationBy see Coues'e The Expeditions of Zehulon Montgomery Pike, Vol. I, pp. 232-239. '•Pike's An Account of Expeditions to the Sources of the Mississippi tmd through the Western Parts of Louisiana, etc. (original edition^ 1810), Part I, p. 25; see also Appendix to Part I, p. 8. EXPEDITION OP ZEBULON M. PIKE 349 some for those poor fellows, who were killing themselves to obey my orders/'®^ Accordingly, several days were spent in the erection of block-houses which should serve as a shelter for the sick and those who were otherwise unable to continue the journey. An abundance of game in the vicinity insured not only comfort for the men who were left behind but also ** plenty of provision '^ for the return voy- age. In order to hasten progress, which was daily becoming more and more difficult on account of the rapid freezing of the river, the heavy boats were exchanged for canoes. These were constructed with no little trouble owing to the scarcity of tools, there being in the whole party * * only two falling-axes and three hatchets". In spite of many hin- drances three canoes were completed, but one sank when loaded with a large quantity of ammunition. In the process of drying this powder it exploded and nearly blew up **a tent and two or three men with it".*® Such misfortunes, combined with the ** isolation and in- activity" of the region, cooled somewhat the ardor of the young commander. He confessed that he found himself ** powerfully attacked with the fantastics of the brain, called ennui ' ', and elsewhere adds the following : It appears to me, that the wealth of nations would not mduce me to remain secluded from the society of civilized mankind, surround- ed by a savage and unproductive wilderness, without books or other sources of intellectual enjoyment, or being blessed with the culti- vated and feeling mind, of a civilized fair.'* 37 Pike's An Account of Expeditions to the Sources of the Mississippi and through the Western Parts of Louisiana, etc. (original edition, 1810), Part I, p. 34. 38 Whiting's Life of Zebulon Montgomery Pike, published in Jared Spaiks's Library of American Biography, Vol. XV, p. 246; Pike's An AceowU of Bx- peditions to the Sources of the Mississippi and through the Western Parts of Louisiana, etc. (original edition, 1810), Part I, pp. 36, 37. 8» Pike's An Account of Expeditions to the Sources of the Mississippi and VOL. IX — 24 350 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POIilTICS The freezing and thawing of the river made it impossible for the party to proceed with any degree of safety or rapid- ity. Accordingly, all but one canoe were abandoned early in December. Provisions and baggage were loaded on sleds, each drawn by two men abreast. The difficulties which beset this method of transportation are well illus- trated in the following entry of December 26th: ** Broke four sleds; broke into the river four times, and had four carrying places ' \^^ On many days the distance covered did not exceed three or four miles. Writing of his misfortunes. Lieutenant Pike said: ** Never did I undergo more fatigue, in performing the duties of hunter, spy, guide, commanding officer, &c. Sometimes in front ; sometimes in the rear ; fre- quently in advance of my party 10 or 15 miles ; that at night I was scarcely able to make my notes intelligible."*^ Under such circumstances together with conBiderable dis- couragement among his men. Lieutenant Pike found it diffi- cult to keep up his spirits. But as the weather became cold- er and the ice stronger, progress was much easier. As much as twenty miles a day were covered. Early in January signs of Chippeway Lidians were seen, from whom Lieutenant Pike had every reason to expect a demonstration of hostility. His fears, however, were soon relieved when four of these Indians presented themselves at his camp in company with an English trader who was lo- cated at a post on Sandy Lake. Mr. Grant, the English trader, accompanied Lieutenant Pike and his party to the through the Western Parts of Louisiarui, etc. (original edition, 1810), Part I, pp. 37, 64. 40 Pike '6 An Account of Expeditions to the Sources of the Mississippi and through the Western Parts of Louisiana, etc. (original edition, 1810), Part I, p. 55; Whiting's Life of Zebulon Montgomery Pike, published in Jared Sparks 's Library of American Biography, Vol. XV, pp. 250, 251. *i Entry of December 23, 1805. — Pike 'a An Account of Expeditions to the Sources of the Mississippi and through the Western Parts of Louisiana, etc. (original edition, 1810), Part I, p. 55. EXPEDITION OP ZEBULON M. PIKE 351 British trading post, where they made their headquarters for several days.*^ Such a sojourn among the trading es- tablishments of this region was altogether agreeable to Lieutenant Pike since one of the objects of his expedition was to investigate and report upon the trading posts of the upper Mississippi. On several occasions he was received in a most cordial and hospitable manner by the officials in charge of the various posts of the Northwest Company. His accounts of existing conditions are detailed and quite authentic. Aside from general observations on the trade, Lieutenant Pike's journal contains some interesting cor- respondence between himself and one of the traders, Hugh M'Gillis. Under date of February, 1806, Lieutenant Pike sent a conmiunication to Mr. M'Gillis,*^ which contained a frank discussion of the conditions existing among the trading posts and some pointed remarks on the relations between the Northwest Company and the government of the United States. He affirmed the right of the British to carry on trade with the Indians within the territory of the United States, but protested strongly against their exemption from * * paying the duties, obtaining licenses, and subscribing unto all the rules and restrictions of our laws". It was esti- mated that the United States was annually defrauded of duties to the amount of $26,000.** For the correction of this evil the establishment of a government custom house at the mouth of the St. Louis Eiver was suggested. 42 Pike's An Account of Expeditions to the Sources of the Mississippi and through the Western Parts of Louisiana^ etc. (original edition, 1810), Part I, pp. 56-58. 4s Pike's An Account of Expeditions to the Sources of the Mississippi and through the Western Parts of Louisiana, etc. (original edition, 1810), Ap- pendix to Part I, pp. 14-16. 44 Pike's An Account of Expeditions to the Sources of the Mississippi and through the Western Parts of Louisiana, etc. (original edition, 1810), Ap- pendix to Part I, p. 37. 352 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS In addition^ lieutenant Pike mentioned the fact that the savages were being aUenated from onr government by re- ceiving at the hands of the traders British medals and flags. In conclusion. Lieutenant Pike expressed the opinion that, in case war should be declared between the United States and Great Britain, these establishments would serve as so many posts for the deposit of arms and ammunition. In spite of a certain bluntness, with no attempt to evade any real convictions on the subject under discussion, there is a tone of genuine courtesy. In an equally courteous reply,**^ Mr. M'Gillis expressed his desire to pay the duty on goods imported by the North- west Company if it could be done without conveying goods already received to the custom house at Mackinac. Owing to the fact that most of the year's supply of goods had al- ready been received, such transportation would be a "vast expense and trouble ' \ With regard to the use of the posts as garrisons in time of war, Mr. M 'Gillis was astonished to learn that the Amer- ican government should have apprehended any such pur- pose. He explained that the establishments were for the security of property and life in a country exposed to the cruelty of many savages. * * We never formed the smallest idea", he added, **that the said inclosures might ever be useful in the juncture of a rupture between the two powers, nor do we now conceive that such poor shifts will ever be employed by the British government, in a country over- shadowed with wood, so adequate to every purpose. Forts might in a short period of time be built far superior to any stockades we may have occasion to erect." «s This letter bears the date of February 15, 1806, and appears in Pike's A% Account of Expeditions to the Sources of the Miseissippi and through tho Western Parts of Louisiana, etc. (original edition, 1810), Appendix to Part I, pp. 17-19. EXPEDITION OP ZEBULON M. PIKE 353 Although apparently unconscious of the error conunitted by exhibiting the flag of Great Britain in American terri- tory, Mr. M'Gillis pledged himself to use his ** utmost en- deavors, as soon as possible, to prevent the future display of the British flag, or the presenting of medals, or the ex- hibiting to public view, any other mark of European power, throughout the extent of territory known to belong to the dominion of the United States *\ The communication is concluded with a high tribute to Lieutenant Pike 's personal integrity and to the government which he represented. On January 20th Lieutenant Pike resumed his journey toward the source of the Mississippi, reaching the junction of the waters of Leech Lake with the main channel of the river on the last day of the month. Instead of continuing in the direction of Lake Winnibigoshish, up what is now considered the main course of the river. Lieutenant Pike turned westward and made his way to Leech Lake, believ- ing that he had accomplished the chief object of his expedi- tion, and firmly convinced that this was the ultimate sonrce of the great Father of Waters.*® The conclusion with respect to the Leech Lake system is not surprising since the idea was quite prevalent among the traders and Indian tribes of the region, from whom Lieu- tenant Pike obtained most of his information. Other **true sources" have been found by subsequent travellers, and the last has gone a little beyond his precursors, and thus fan- cied himself entitled to the merit of being called the Bruce of the Mississippi. This may be; but it is probable that all have been right. It would be difiScult to determine which branch of a large tree extends furthest from the parent root. It may be equally, or more so, to determine which of the many head branches of the Mississippi, that have been discovered, is the most remote from the «• Coues 's The Expeditions of Zehulon Montgomery Pike, Vol. I, note, pp. 152, 153; Pike's Explorations in Annals of Iowa, Third Series, Vol. I, pp. 532, 533. 354 IOWA JOURNAL OF HISTORY AND POLITICS Oulf of Mexico; and the initial gush of its waters undoubtedly varies. A wet season may open many small tributaries to a small lake, which had no existence in a dry season. Hence the spring traveller, and the traveller of the summer solstice, may have dif- ferent descriptions to give, and yet both be correct.*^ It was on February 14th that Lieutenant Pike began preparations for the homeward journey. Two days later he held a council with some of the Chippeway Lidians of the lake region. In a speech of considerable length Lieutenant Pike persuaded the Indians to give up most of their British medals and flags.*® Furthermore, he urged the Chippeways to cease their hostilities with the Sioux, who had also promised to bury the hatchet. As a token of their promise the young American produced the pipe of Wabasha.** As a result of this council two of **the most celebrated war- riors'* accompanied the party to St. Louis, where Lieuten- ant Pike planned to have a council of peace with represent- atives of the various tribes in the Upper Mississippi Val- ley. Amid '^acclamations and shouts" on the part of the In- dians, the party took their departure from Leech Lake on February 18th. Marching by land across wooded and marshy ground, they did not reach the Mississippi Eiver until six days later.*^^ Lieutenant Pike had long since ^T Whiting's Life of ZebtUan Montgomery Pikej published in Jared Sparks 't Library of American Biography, Vol. XV, pp. 255, 256. M In return for their British medals and flags. Lieutenant Pike pledged him- self to send those of the United States to the savage chiefs, ' ' but owing to the change of agents, and a variety of circumstances, it was never fulfilled". Bee- ommendations were made, however, to General Wilkinson that such pledge be kept for the good of the government. — See Pike's An Account of Bxpeditiomi to the Sources of the Mississippi and through the Western Parts of LouisiaMO, etc. (original edition, 1810), Appendix to Part I, p. 31. «• See above note 32. so Pike's An Account of Expeditions to the Sources of the through the Western Parts of Louisiana, etc. (original edition, 1810), Part I, pp. 71, 73. EXPEDITION OP ZEBULON M. PIKE 355 learned that the only expeditious method of travel was by means of snow shoes. With the aid of these he was able to make the descent of the river in much less than half the time consumed in the ascent. But in spite of many advantages the task proved arduous enough, as the following entry in the journal will show : The pressure of my racket strings brought the blood through my socks and mockinsons [moccasins] , from which the pain I marched in may be imagined.^^ On March 5th Lieutenant Pike found himself at the post where he had left the sergeant in charge of the sick. Much to his chagrin he found that, while he himself had been ex- tremely frugal in the use of provisions in order that a goodly supply might be on hand for the downward journey, the sergeant in charge of the post had squandered nearly all of the provisions in his custody and had given away practically all of the whiskey, including a keg which the Lieutenant had for his own use." The party remained at the post until April 7th. Mean- while several councils were held with some Menominee In- dians in the immediate vicinity. Without any new or im- portant experiences Lieutenant Pike continued the descent, arriving at the northern boundary of the present State of Iowa on April 16th. At noon on the following day he reached the camp of Wabasha where he remained all day and night in the hope of seeing the chief, who unfortunately remained out all night on a hunting trip.^* Bi Pike's An Account of Expeditions to the Sowrees of the Miseiaeippi and through the Western Parts of Louisiantk, etc. (original edition, 1810), Part I, p. 73. s2 Whiting's Life of ZebuXon Montgomery Pike, pnbliilied in Jared Sparks 't lAhrttry of American Biography, VoL XV, pp. 256, 267. Bs Pike's An Account of Expeditions to the Sources of the Mississippi and through the Western Parts of Louisiana, etc. (original edition, 1810), Part I, p. 99. 356 IOWA JOURNAL OF HISTORY AND POLITICS Leaving some powder and tobacco for him, Lieutenant Pike left in the morning for Prairie du Chien, which he reached at two o 'clock in the afternoon. Here he received a hearty welcome, being presented with some much-needed supplies and treated in a most hospitable manner by the traders and Indians of the place. Moreover, he ** received a great deal of news from the States and Europe, both civil and military '* — a welcome bit of the civilization from which he had been isolated for so many months. On the afternoon of April 20th Lieutenant Pike witnessed a most interesting game of * * the cross ' ' on the prairie * * be- tween the Sioux on the one side, and the Puants and Rey- nards on the other". He describes the game as follows : The ball is made of some hard substance and covered with leather, the cross sticks are round and net work, with handles of three feet long. The parties being ready, and bets agreed upon, (sometimes to the amount of some thousand dollars) the goals are set up on the prairie at the distance of half a mile. The ball is thrown up in the middle, and each party strives to drive it to the opposite goal ; and when either party gains the first rubber, which is driving it quick round the post, the ball is again taken to the center, the ground changed, and the contest renewed ; and this is continued until one side gains four times, which decides the bet. It is an interesting sight to see two or three hundred naked savages contending on the plain who shall bear off the palm of victory ; as he who drives the ball round the goal is much shouted at by his companions. It some- times happens that one catches the ball in his racket, and depending on his speed endeavors to carry it to the goal, and when he finds himself too closely pursued, he hurls it with great force and dex- terity to an amazing distance, where there are always flankers of both parties ready to receive it ; it seldom touches the ground, but is sometimes kept in the air for hours before either party can gain the victory. In the game which I witnessed, the Sioux were vic- torious, more I believe, from the superiority of their skill in throw- ing the ball, than by their swiftness, for I thought the Puants and Reynards the swiftest runners.*** B4 Pike's An Account of Expeditions to the Sources of the Mississippi and EXPEDITION OP ZEBULON M. PIKE 357 The remainder of the journey was uneventful. Numer- ous unimportant councils and meetings with various In- dians took place, and in many cases British medals were given up. The account of the descent, however, is extreme- ly meagre, there being almost no mention of the country through which the party passed. This is probably due to the increase in the distance covered on the return — only about two months being spent in the descent, while the as- cent had occupied more than six months. It was on April 30, 1806, that the party arrived at the town of St. Louis.^*^ It would seem that there had not been a loss of a single man on the expedition, since a report*^® of the number of persons returned to St. Louis corresponds exactly to the number of the original party. When his reports and observations were completed. Lieutenant Pike had accomplished far more than his or- ders. He had given to the public, as well as to the govern- ment officials, information which was not only new but espe- cially accurate in details. This information covered every phase of the voyage, and included extended observations with regard to the climate, soil, drainage, timber, etc., of the country. The results of careful and painstaking inves- tigation of the British trade brought many corrupt prac- tices to light which resulted in preventatives on the part of the general government. Knowledge of the Indians — their tribes, numbers, and characteristics — was afforded by tables and charts carefully compiled and included in Lieutenant Pike's journal. Without doubt the efforts of Lieutenant Pike did much to create a friendly attitude to- through the Western Parts of Louisiana, etc. (original edition, 1810), Part I, p. 100. B<^ The time consumed in the exploration was, therefore, eight months and twenty-two days. B« Annals of Congress, 10th Ck>ngress, Second Session, 1808-1809, p. 1794. 358 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS ward the United States on the part of the Indians of the Iowa and upper Mississippi regions. British medals and flags were replaced by the stars and stripes; hostilities among various tribes ceased; and there was a marked in- crease in the respect of the Indians for the American peo- ple. Although Lieutenant Pike so far as possible carried out the orders of General Wilkinson as well as those of the gov- ernment, there seems to be no record of any compensation*^ either to Lieutenant Pike or to any of his companions for their untiring efforts. At various times attempts were made in Congress to secure such compensation, but all such efforts were in vain. Conunittees were appointed, reports were heard, and the matter was even presented in the form of bills.*^® The measure, however, was successively de- feated, even though it was always by a small majority. Ethyl Edna Mabtin The State Historical Society op Iowa Iowa Cfty ftT AnnaU of Congress, 10th Gongreei, First Session, 1807-1808, Vol. II, pp. 1659, 1767; Annals of Congress, lOth Congress, Second Session, 1808-1809, pp. 486, 487, 862, 902, 1788, 1794; Annals of Congress, 11th Congress, 1809-1810, Part I, pp. 218, 263; AnniUs of Congress, 12th Congress, First Session, 1811- 1812, Part II, p. 1576. ^» Annals of Congress, lOth Congress, First Session, 1807-1808, VoL n, p. 1767; Annals of Congress, 10th Congress, Second Session, 1808-1809, pp. 862, 902; Annals of Congress, 11th Congress, Part I, pp. 218, 263. On July 3, 1812, a petition from Lieutenant Pike asking compensation for services rendered in exploring the interior parts of North America was pre- sented. But this was ordered to be laid on the table and it seems never to have been considered. — Annals of Congress, 12th Congress, First Session, 1811- 1812, Part II, p. 1576. THE SETTLEMENT OF WOODBURY COUNTY [The following paper is the reeolt of a limitod though critical inyestiga- tion undertaken hj Professor Garver with a view (1) to ascertaining from whence the early settlers of Woodbury County came, and (2) to suggesting the variety of viewpoints from which data upon such a subject may be studied. — Editor.] Woodbury County is situated on the western border of the State of Iowa, and is bounded on the west by the Mis- souri and Big Sioux rivers. It is a little north of the cen- ter of the State, there being three counties to the north of it and five to the south. It is one of the largest counties of the State both in area and in population. Sioux City, the largest town, contains about 50,000 inhabitants : the rest of the population dwell in villages or upon farms. Thus it is seen that Woodbury County is in no sense peculiar; its characteristics are similar to those of hundreds of other counties of the great north central States. Moreover, the one magnet which served to attract the first settlers was an abundance of rich, fertile land to be had at a remarkably low price. The permanent settlement of eastern Iowa was begun in the early thirties ; the occupation of western Iowa occurred about twenty years later. The period of the settlement of Woodbury County may be set down, roughly, as from 1850 to 1870. The town of Sioux City was laid out in 1854 and 1855. While the ranks of the old settlers are being rapidly thinned by death, there remain in the county a considerable number of residents who came prior to 1870, and some, even, who were here before 1860. The comparative newness of the county has made possible the collection of the data upon which this study is based. John Fiske, the historian, has called attention to the fact 359 360 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS that the migrations of Americans westward from the old States to new have been, to a remarkable degree, along par- allels of latitude.^ Li connection with this statement, at- tention is called to the fact that Iowa covers abont three degrees of latitude extending, practically, from forty de- grees and thirty minntes to forty-three degrees and thirty minntes, north. If the northern and the sonthem bonn- daries of Iowa are projected eastward across the United States to the Atlantic Ocean, they enclose a zone which would include in the north central States, the northern part of Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio, as well as the south- em part of Wisconsin and Michigan ; in the north Atlantic group, the northern two-thirds of Pennsylvania, the north- em third of New Jersey, and all of that part of New York (about two-thirds) which lies south of Lake Ontario; and in New England, all of Rhode Island, Connecticut, and Massachusetts, together with the southern part of Vermont and New Hampshire. These, then, are the States from which we may expect the early settlers of Woodbury County to have come if Fiske's statement is correct. For the purpose of securing the data required for this brief study a blank was prepared, which, together with a letter explaining the same, was sent to about one hundred and forty old settlers of Woodbury County. The blanks were in the following form : 1 — Name. 2 — Present address. 3 — Place of birth (Give both State and County). 4 — Date of birth. 5 — Nationality. 6 — When did you move to lowat 7 — Prom what State 1 8 — When did you move to Woodbury County! 9 — Prom what County, if from another County in lowat 1 Fiike'6 CivU Oavemment in the United States, p. 81. SETTLEMENT OF WOODBURY COUNTY 361 10 — Please give the names and addresses of other old settlers in your neighborhood. To these inquiries replies were received from ninety-two individuals. Two of the replies were incomplete and could not be used. Appeal was then made to other sources, with the result that the desired information was gathered con- cerning ten additional old settlers. Thus, facts were at hand relative to one hundred different individuals — a con- venient number with which to deal. By a comparison and analysis of the different items, some interesting results are ascertained. Taking up, in the first place, the matter of the nativity of the one hundred old settlers whose migrations are here in- vestigated, we find that twenty-six of them were bom in foreign countries and seventy-four in the United States. A somewhat different statement of results may be made by adding those bom in Canada and in the United States, in which case it may be said that twenty-two were bom in Europe (including the British Isles) and seventy-eight in America. Twenty-six per cent of foreign-bom settlers seems to the writer to be a rather large proportion in view of the fact that Woodbury County is in the very heart of the United States and that it was settled so late in the his- tory of our country — at a time when so many Americans were moving westward. And yet that same **lure of the land** which drew the Americans out of Vermont and New York proved, no doubt, equally attractive to the foreign im- migrant. Of the twenty-six old settlers bom outside of the United States, Germany gave birth to eight, England and Ireland to five each, Canada to four, Switzerland to two, and France and Denmark to one each. These facts give Ger- many the lead, unless those bom in England, Ireland, and Canada are added together and the total of fourteen is 362 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS credited to the British Empire. Li this group of foreign settlers those of Teutonic stock predominate over those of Celtic stock in about the proportion of two to one. The years 1850 and 1870 have been mentioned above as bounding, in a rough way, the period of the settlement of Woodbury County. Li the former year the number of States in the American Union numbered thirty-one, in the latter year thirty-seven. A comparison of the facts rela- tive to the seventy-four old settlers who were natives of the United States shows them to represent thirteen States as follows : twenty-four were bom in New York ; eight each in Vermont and Pennsylvania; seven in Ohio; six in Illi- nois ; four each in Indiana, New Hampshire, and Connecti- cut; three in Massachusetts; two each in Virginia and Iowa ; and one each in Maine and Missouri. If the States here mentioned are grouped into sections, the result shows that, of the seventy-four individuals under discussion, there were bom twenty in New England, thirty- four in the middle Atlantic States (including Virginia and West Virginia), none in the southem States, eastern di- vision, seventeen in the east central States (including Ken- tucky), three in the west central States (including Mis- souri), and none in the southem States, western division. Thus it is seen that the middle Atlantic section leads with thirty-four to its credit, and that New England comes sec- ond with twenty. In the two divisions of the north central States, taken together, twenty also were bom. None seems to have been bom in either division of the southern States^ but this is because the grouping adopted above, following the plan of present day geograpliies,^ includes Virginia among the middle Atlantic States and Missouri in the west- em division of the north central States. There are twenty-eight States either wholly or largely 2 Frye '• Complete Geography, etc. SETTLEMENT OF WOODBURY COUNTY 363 east of the Mississippi River. As far as the facts under analysis are concerned only eleven of these gave birth to pi- oneers of Woodbury County. The only southern State to contribute was Virginia. A more remarkable fact, perhaps, is that in those sections in which the largest numbers were bom there were States (located side by side with those most largely represented) which in themselves gave birth to none of the old settlers. Thus, in New England every State is represented except Rhode Island. In the middle Atlantic section three States are represented (New York, Pennsyl- vania, and Virginia), while four are not (New Jersey, Del- aware, Maryland, and West Virginia). It is rather inter- esting to speculate as to why New York and Pennsylvania should give birth to so many Woodbury County pioneers, relatively speaking, and neighboring States to none. It is true, however, that West Virginia, Maryland, and most of New Jersey are south of the latitude of Iowa. In the east- ern division of the central States three are represented (Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois), and three are not (Michigan, Wisconsin, and Kentucky). Michigan and Wisconsin were not old enough to be the birth-place of pioneers who should settle new lands as early as 1850. Wliile Kentuckj- was old enough, it was probably far enough to the south of the lati- tude of Iowa and especially of Woodbury County, to make the latter fact sufficient reason for her failure to send us any old settlers. Glancing for a moment at the individual States and the number of Woodbury County pioneers to whom each gave birth, it is seen that New York leads with Vermont, Penn- sylvania, Ohio, and Illinois following in order. New York^s lead is large — in fact more of our number were bom with- in her boundaries than within those of her three closest competitors taken together. New York gave birth to more of our old settlers than all of the rest of the middle Atlantic 364 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS section together ; more than all of New England ; and more than all of the central States. Indeed New York was the mother of twenty-four per cent of the one hmidred pioneers whose careers form the basis of this study; of thirty-two per cent of the seventy-four who were bom in the United States. New York, Vermont, and Pennsylvania — three contiguous States — taken together, gave birth to forty out of seventy-four or fifty-four per cent of those bom in the United States. If Virginia and Missouri are counted as southern States, as has been the rule in American history, then three of our number were bom in the South as against seventy-one in the North. Three, also, were bom west of the Mississippi as against seventy-one east of it. Iowa was a free State and would not admit slaves. This fact coupled with that other fact that Iowa was far to the north, and out of the latitude of the southern States, probably accounts for the smallness of the number bom south of the Mason and Dixon line. Another item on the blanks sent out called for the nation- ality of each old settler ; but owing, perhaps, to the fact that sufficient explanation was not given, it would not be safe to draw many conclusions from the data returned. For ex- ample, some counted themselves as ** Americans** whose parents were evidently bom abroad; while others an- swered **of German descent'* whose ancestors had un- doubtedly been in the United States for several genera- tions. To be brief, forty-four out of one hundred indicated a foreign ancestry, although we learned above that only twenty-six had been bom outside of the United States. The numbers returned for each nationality were: Amer- icans, forty-seven; ** Yankees**, nine; English, nine; Ger- mans, nine ; Irish, eight ; French Canadians, three ; French, two ; Welsh, two ; Swiss, two ; Dutch, one ; and Danish, one ; SETTLEMENT OP WOODBXJRY COUNTY 365 together with six who gave a double nationality. It is in- teresting to note that nine called themselves ** Yankees**, of whom five were bom in New England. Adding these nine Yankees to the group of Americans, we have fifty-six of the latter. About all that it seems safe to say on the sub- ject of nationaUty is that twenty-six were bom abroad and that the number of bona fide Americans is fifty-six. This leaves eighteen to be accounted for. Undoubtedly all of them could classify as Americans of some degree. As between Teutons and Celts, the proportion seems to be about four of the former to one of the latter. One element (namely, the French Canadian) did not figure as largely in the returns as the writer had reason to expect from the large number of that class who trapped and traded in this section in its early days. Indeed, only three designated themselves as French Canadians. The reasons for such a small number need to be noticed, and so this matter will be recurred to again in another connection.^ Of the twenty-six pioneers bom abroad (out of the one hundred studied) twenty-four made at least two moves, coming first to some other one of the United States and mi- grating later to Iowa. Still another made two moves, com- ing from Ireland to Canada and thence to Iowa. Only one came directly from his foreign home to Woodbury County. Of the twenty-four who stopped in other States before com- ing hither, seven came first to Illinois, four to New York, four to Ohio, two to Nebraska, two to Wisconsin, and one each to New Hampshire, Pennsylvania, Indiana, Tennessee, and Missouri. It has already been explained that one foreign-bom pio- neer moved from Ireland to Canada and thence to Iowa, and that a second one moved directly from Canada to this State. Somewhat earlier in the paper it was noted that two 3 See below, p. 3S1. VOL. IX — 25 366 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS were bom in Iowa. One of these never left his native State, while the other one moved to Kansas and back again. In the following analysis the latter case is ignored, that is to say, the move to Kansas and back is ignored and the indi- vidual is treated as a native lowan who never left Ids State. Eliminating these four cases, we have the result that ninety- six pioneers, out of one hundred, came to Iowa from some other State of the American union. Of the ninety-six, seventy-two were native-bom and twenty-four foreign- born, as has already been shown. These ninety-six settlers came into Iowa from eighteen diflFerent States. The States from which they came, to- gether with the number in each case, are as follows : from Illinois, twenty-six; New York, fifteen; Ohio, eleven; Wis- consin, eight ; Pennsylvania and Indiana, five each ; Massa- chusetts, Virginia, Vermont, Missouri, and Minnesota, three each; Connecticut, New Hampshire, Michigan, and Nebraska, two each; and from Tennessee, Montana, and California, one each. The number that moved to Iowa from each State is radically diflFerent from the number that was bom in each. A glance at the first and last columns of the accompanying table will show how true is this statement. (See Table I.) The migrations of ninety-six persons to Iowa may seem to be a simple matter, but in reality it is one of great com- plexity. The case of New York may be taken as an illus- tration. In that State twenty-four of our pioneers were born. Nine of them moved directly from the Empire State to Iowa. The other fifteen came to this State indirectly, that is to say, they moved first to other States and came thence to Iowa. Of this number seven came by way of Illi- nois, four by way of Wisconsin, and one each by way of Massachusetts, Ohio, Vermont, and Montana. Altogether fifteen came directly from New York to Iowa. This num- SETTLEMENT OP WOODBURY COUNTY 367 ber was made up of the nine natives of the former State, already mentioned, and six who came into New York from the outside. Two of the six entered New York from other States — one each . from Connecticut and Pennsylvania. The other four came from foreign countries — two from Germany, one from England and one from Ireland. Thus thirty old settlers were bom in New York or came through that State to Iowa. Fifteen came direct to this State and fifteen through other Commonwealths. The cases of sev- eral other States are as complicated as that of New York — just as many elements entering in, although not so many pioneers may have been concerned. Because of this complexity it is out of question to re- view all of the facts relative to each State. They are pre- sented in detail, however, in the accompanying table. (See Table I). Column one shows how many pioneers (out of ninety-six) were bom in each State. Colunm two shows how many of these came directly to Iowa, and column three how many came indirectly. Columns four and five indicate the number that came from other States and from foreign countries, respectively, through each State to Iowa. The last column shows the number that came directly from each State to this one. The numbers given in the first column should equal the sum of those given in the second and third columns. The numbers found in the last colunm should equal the sum of those in the second, fourth, and fifth col- umns. It will also be noticed that colunms three and four total the same, as they should. With the facts before us as vividly as the table presents them, it is possible to make several valuable comparisons. Let us take first the figures of the first two colunms, those showing the number of births in each State and the number of the same that came directly to Iowa. The facts show that all that were bom in the three States of Virginia, Illinois, 368 IOWA JOTJBNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS and MisBonri came directly to tbiB State. Maine is the only State representiiig the other extreme. Prom other States the natiTe-bom pioneers came directly to Iowa in such ra- TABLEI S 1 ll 11 III 1: ,t 11^ 1 Sis 11 Hi Maine Venn out ConnecticQt 0 1 2 1 1 0 0 0 0 2 3 3 2 Total for Bection 20 5 IS 10 Pennsylvania Virginia 24 8 9 4 2 15 15 S 3 Total for aection 34 15 19 23 Ohio Ulinoia Michigan WucnaBia 4 2 6 0 0 13 11 3 ZG 2 8 Total for section 14 52 NebrBBka Missonri 0 0 1 3 2 3 Total for sectioa 1 8 Montana California 0 0 0 0 0 J 1 1 1 Total scattared 0 0 1 0 1 2 3 Grand Totals 72 33 30 39 24 96 tioB as one out of four, four out of eight, or nine out of twenty-four. The general average of all these different ra- tios is found in the totals which show that out of seventy- two native-bom pioneers, thirty-three, or nearly forty-six per cent, came direct from the State of their birth to this State. SETTLEMENT OF WOODBURY COUNTY 369 The results of this comparison for each section follow : New England, 5 out of 20 or 25 per cent came direct to Iowa. Mid. Atlantic, 15 out of 34 or 44 per cent came direct to Iowa. North Central, 12 out of 17 or 70 per cent came direct to Iowa. As might have been expected the percentage increases as the section is located closer and closer to Iowa. Another fruitful comparison may be made of the number of pioneers bom in each State and the total number that came directly from each State to Iowa. (See columns one and six of Table I). One might expect these numbers to be practically the same, but this supposition is far from the truth. Not all that were bom in each State came directly to Iowa as we have already seen, and certainly not all that came from each State were bom in the Commonwealth from which they happened to come. The total number of pioneers that came directly from the various States to Iowa was made up of three groups : first, those bom in the States from which they came; second, those received from other States ; and third, those received from foreign nations. The first of these three groups has just been discussed. The facts relative to the second may 1)8 found by reference to column four of Table I. A com- parison of columns four and six shows what proportion of the numbers sent to Iowa by each State was received from other States. Four States, indeed, (New Hampshire, Penn- sylvania, Nebraska, and Tennessee) received none; while four others (California, Montana, Minnesota, and Michi- gan) received all they sent from this source. In most cases such accessions were small, only four States (Ohio, Minne- sota, Wisconsin, and Illinois) receiving as many as three each. Wisconsin with six and Illinois with thirteen are easily in the lead. This is logical since these States border Iowa on the east and were natural gateways into the latter in the early days. 370 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS The results of this comparison by sections are instructive. In the following table the figures in the first column indicate the persons received from other States; the figures of the second column indicate the persons sent to Iowa. New England received 4 out of 10 sent, or 40 per cent. Middle Atlantic received 3 out of 23 sent, or 13 per cent. East Central received 26 out of 52 sent, or 50 per cent. West Central received 4 out of 7 sent, or 57 per cent. From this showing it is seen that the middle Atlantic sec- tion received the smallest percentage of pioneers sent to Iowa from other States. It is logical, again, that the north central sections should receive the largest percentage from the same sources because they are on the road to Iowa, so to speak. In the case of New England the percentage is large ; but this may be abnormal since the total number of individuals was so small that the movements of one or two had an undue effect upon the results. Finally, it may be said that the total number of pioneers received from other States was thirty-nine out of ninety-six sent to Iowa, or six more than the number of native-bom sent directly from their native States. The third group which goes to make up the ninety-six sent directly to this State comprises the foreign-bom. The fig- ures for this group are to be found in column five of Table I. A comparison with column six shows the proportion of the foreign-bom to the total number sent. Eight States re- ceived none from this source, while five received one eacb, and two received two each. New York, Ohio, and Illinois received the largest numbers; the two first named States four each, and the last named seven. Nebraska and Tenn- essee received all the pioneers whom they sent to Iowa from this source — which, of course is only a coincidence. If we tabulate the results for the sections we get the f ol- SETTLEMENT OP WOODBURY COUNTY 371 lowing percentages — the first figures stand for the number of f oreign-bom received : New England received 1 out of 10 sent to Iowa, or 10 per cent. Middle Atlantic received 5 out of 23 sent to Iowa, or 22 per cent. East Central received 14 out of 52 sent to Iowa, or 27 per cent. West Central received 3 out of 8 sent to Iowa, or 43 per cent. The percentages favor the western sections. While all of the foreign-born pioneers under consideration came ulti- mately to Iowa, it is a fact that their original attraction was for the western States in preference to the eastern sections. The total number of foreign-bom received was twenty-four or exactly twenty-five per cent of the whole number sent di- rectly to Iowa. It is not to be understood that the contingents sent to Iowa by the various States were made up in every case of all three of the elements mentioned above. Indeed, this was true of only five States, namely, New York, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and Missouri. Wisconsin sent no native-bom pio- neers to Woodbury County; New Hampshire and Pennsyl- vania contributed none received from other States; while Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Virginia sent none who were bom abroad. Four States, namely, Michi- gan, Minnesota, Montana (Territory), and California sent neither native-bom nor foreign-bom settlers — their whole contingents being received from other States. Nebraska and Tennessee sent only foreign-bom. The number of pio- neers of each class sent by the sections are as follows : States Native-horn Born in other States Foreign-horn NcAv England 5 4 1 Middle Atlantic 15 3 5 East Central 12 26 14 West Central 14 3 From this tabulation it will be seen that the native-bom element was the most important one in the contingents sent 372 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS by New England and the middle section ; while the two di- visions of the north central section received from other States the largest single element in their contributions — in each case exactly one-half of the total number sent. Having treated in this detailed way of the various ele- ments that went to make up the total number of pioneers who came from the different States directly to Iowa, a brief comparison should be made between the latter and the total number that was bom in each State. The figures may be found in columns one and six of Table I. There it will be seen that a total of seventy-two pioneers* of Iowa were bom in twelve different States, and that a total of ninety-six came to this State from eighteen different States. It may also be noticed that pioneers were bom in only one State (Maine) which sent none directly to Iowa; while seven States which gave birth to none, sent settlers to our State. Six States gave birth to more than they sent, one to the same number, while twelve sent more than were bom with- in their borders. It has already been mentioned that New York gave birth to the largest number with Vermont, Penn- sylvania, and Ohio following in order, while Illinois sent the largest number directly to Iowa, with New York, Ohio, and Wisconsin coming next in order. As a rule the States farther east gave birth to more of our numbers, but those farther west sent us the larger contingents. The compari- son bv sections is instructive. « New England gave birth to 20 pioneers, sent Iowa 10. Middle Atlantic gave birth to 34 pioneers, sent Iowa 23. East Central gave birth to 17 pioneers, sent Iowa 52. West Central gave birth to 1 pioneer, sent Iowa 8. From this showing it may be seen that there is a relative falling off in the first set of figures and a relative gain in the second, without exception, as we come westward. The * Excluding from consideration the two born in Iowa. SETTLEMENT OF WOODBURY COUNTY 373 middle Atlantic States were the birth-place of the largest number of pioneers (thirty-four or nearly one-half of the seventy-two bom in the United States) and yet its percent- age relative to the number actually sent was not as great as that of New England. By far the largest number of settlers came directly from the north central section, even that division west of the Mississippi making a respectable showing. It appears, then, that the early settlers of Woodbury County were largely bom in the middle Atlantic and New England States and that they came to their future home chiefly from the east central and middle Atlantic States. This brings up the question of the route, or routes, by which they came westward — a question already touched upon in an indirect way, but one of such importance that it needs further treatment. Table I contains two columns of figures (the third and the fourth) which tell in a general way the story of the routes taken by the westward moving pioneers. By comparing the figures of column three with those of col- umn two for a moment it will be seen that New England sent fifteen out of twenty bom in that section to Iowa indi- rectly ; that is to say, they moved first to other States and came thence to this State. The middle Atlantic States sent nineteen out of thirty-four by the same indirect route; but column three does not show by what States these pioneers came to Iowa. Column four contains the same total of fig- ures as three, referring indeed to the same thirty-nine in- dividuals ; but while it shows the numbers received by cer- tain States which sent them on to Iowa, it does not indicate tlie States from which they were received. These two sets of facts, needed to throw light upon the subject of the routes taken, are shown in Table II. Table II is designed to illuminate the facts given in col- umns three and four of Table I. Down the left-hand side of 374 IOWA JOURNAI^ OP HISTORY AND POLITICS the table appear the names of the States and countries in which the one hundred pioneers who comprise this study were bom. In column one is ^ven, merely for convenient FABLE II 1 £ 1 1 £ 1 i 1 1 1 ^ i 1 ■ 1 o i , ^ s s 1 s S s 1 1 i i New Hampshire Vermont Oonneclirnt 4 3 i U I 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 a 3 1 - New York rennsylvania Virginia 24 B 2 1 1 I i . 1 1 7 1 1 4 ' 16 4 0 ._... IndiaoB niinoia Uicbigan Wiieonrin 7 i e 0 0 i 1 2 I e 0 : 1 1 3 a 0 0 0 1 NobrMka Uiwouri Iowa 0 1 8 0 1 a 0 0 0 Montana l| D California || 0 i a 0 "6 Q 0 II Germanj' Ensland IrelaiKl Canada 8wit»r)and Pranee Denmark 5 S 4 I 1 3 1 1 1 1 s 1 1 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1' ' 1! 1 1 B 6 5 3 2 1 I Sent Directly H 1 01 2' 31 31 2N15| 51 3 111 6 31 2 3H 11 ll 111 ail reference, the total number bom in each, Reading across the page from left to right one may see, by reference at the same time to the names at the top of the table, by what SETTLEMENT OF WOODBURY COUNTY 375 States — that is by what routes — the native-born of each State and country came to Iowa. The total number sent in- directly by each State and country is given in the last col- umn, at the right-hand side of the table. The number of native-bom pioneers sent directly to Iowa by the States of their birth are given in the squares which run diagonally across the table from the upper left-hand comer toward the lower right-hand comer — the numbers being indicated by heavier type in order to differentiate them from the oth- ers of the table. The figures in heavy type are omitted in making up the totals given at the right-hand side of the table. At the top of the table are found the names of the States and the one country which sent pioneers directly to Iowa. Glancing down the columns one may see, by reference at the same time to the names at the left-hand side of the table, from what States and countries — that is, by what routes — the pioneers sent to Iowa were received. The figures at the bottom of the table indicate the total number sent to Iowa directly by each State. In this case the numbers standing for the native-born pioneers sent directly (indicated by the heavy type) have been added. Table I was limited to those States of the American union which gave birth to or sent pioneers on to Iowa. Table II includes those foreign coun- tries, as well, which performed similar services. The name of Canada occurs at the top of the table because it sent one native-bom pioneer direct to Iowa. The name of Iowa ap- pears on the table, but it affects only the figures of the first column. The table under consideration shows very plainly two things : first, by what States, or routes, the native-bom of each State and country were sent to Iowa when they did not come direct from their places of birth ; and second, from what States and countries — that is by what routes — the 376 IOWA JOURNAL OF HISTORY AND POLITICS pioneers, exclusive of native-born, sent to Iowa by the dif- ferent States, were received. Taking up the first group, who may be referred to as native-bom pioneers sent to Iowa indirectly, we see that Pennsylvania sent four indi- viduals by way of four different States, that Vermont sent six by way of five States, while New York sent fifteen by way of six States. The States through which these pio- neers were sent are scattered from Vermont to California. The only preferences shown by individual States were a slight one by the Vermont pioneers for the Illinois route and a more decided one by New Yorkers for the Illinois and Wisconsin routes. Among the foreign-born, the English show a slight preference for Ohio and the Germans for New York; the only marked preference being that of the Ger- mans for the Illinois route. A comparison, section by section, reveals the following marked preferences for the route of the east central States : New England seni; • Middle Atlantic sent Central States sent Foreign nations sent The totals for the sections show that, out of sixty-four pio- neers sent to Iowa indirectly, forty came by way of the eastern division of the central States as against twenty- four by way of all other sections. If those coming by the western division of the central States are added to those sent by way of the eastern division, the results become f ortj^-seven as against seventeen. The results just presented are complemented by those growing out of a review of the second group of facts which Table II was constructed to illustrate. In noticing the States and countries from which the pioneers, sent to Iowa by the various States, were received we are giving atten- By Central States By all other sections 8 7 15 4 3 2 14 11 SETTLEMENT OP WOODBURY COUNTY 377 tion to the same body of facts as those just analyzed but from a different point of view. Excluding native-bom pioneers, a glance at the table shows that New York sent to Iowa six settlers received by her from five different sources, Wisconsin eight, received from five sources, Ohio seven received from six sources, and Illinois twenty re- ceived from nine different sources — that is, from nine States and foreign countries. In every case the sources were widely scattered. The chief sources for Illinois were New York, Germany, and Vermont; for Wisconsin, New York ; for Ohio, England ; and for New York, Gtermany. Out of sixty-four pioneers sent indirectly to Iowa, New England shows no one source of supply predominating over another. The middle Atlantic States and the western division of the central States received from foreign nations a few more than from other sources. The east central States attracted fifteen from the middle Atlantic section, fourteen from foreign nations, and eight from New England. From such analyses as these it is seen that the pioneers of Woodbury County came from many different places by way of many different routes. The tracing of the routes followed is complicated by the fact that a large number of the individuals concerned made two or more moves, instead of only one, in coming to Iowa. Three distinct elements enter into the proposition. In the first place, there are those native-bom pioneers who came to Iowa from the places of their birth by indirect routes. Then there are those who came directly from certain localities. This num- ber was made up of two groups, namely, native-bora pio- neers who came directly from the places of their birth and those received from other localities to be sent on to this State. The routes followed may, in a general way, be di- vided into two parts. First, many routes leading from the 378 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS birth-places of the pioneers converged upon certain inter- mediate points. Chief among these were Illinois, Wis- consin, Ohio, and New York. The chief section upon which the routes of pioneers converged was, of course, the north central section. The second part of the route taken led directly from certain centers to Iowa. The most important centers, as far as the States of the Union are concerned, are exactly the same as the chief converging points just mentioned; but, since the pioneers coming over these routes included an element of native-bom settlers as well as those received from other sources, the centers in ques- tion mav not be ranked in the same order. While Illinois leads, New York comes second, Ohio third, and Wisconsin fourth. The second part of the general route followed led directly from these States to Iowa. As far as sections are concerned, the main-traveled route led from the north cen- tral section with that from the middle States second, and that from New England third. The reader can get a clear mental picture of the general routes followed by conceiving a map with a heavy line lead- ing from Europe to the north central States and a some- what lighter line from Europe to the middle Atlantic sec- tion ; a heavy line leading from the middle Atlantic section to the north central States, and a somewhat lighter one from New England to the same locality ; and lastly a heavj' line leading from the north central States to Iowa together with lighter lines from the middle Atlantic section and from New England to this State. A complete map show- ing all the by-paths followed by various groups or indi- viduals would contain many more lines than those just indi- cated, but the picture here drawn shows the main-traveled routes and avoids the confusion which would arise from the crossing and re-crossing of lesser by-paths. Before leaving this part of the subject it may be pointed SETTLEMENT OP WOODBURY COUNTY 379 out that seven pioneers (out of ninety-six) entered Iowa by way of the southern States. Three of them came from Virginia, three from Missouri, and one from Tennessee. Four (out of ninety-six) came liither from western States as follows: from Nebraska two, and from Montana (Ter- ritory) and California one each. None of these four were natives of the States from which they came. From the States which border upon Iowa there came a total of forty-two pioneers. It is interesting to note that thirty-four of these came from the two States on the east- em border, leaving eight to enter from the four States on the three other sides of Iowa. The numbers entering by way of each border State were: from Illinois, twenty-six; Wisconsin, eight; Minnesota, three; Nebraska, two; South Dakota, none; and Missouri, three. The large numbers coming from Illinois and Wisconsin are accounted for by the fact that those States were situated directly in the path- way of the incoming pioneers. Bearing in mind the fact that so much early travel was by way of the Missouri River, the one surprising result in the comparisons just made is that so few settlers, relatively speaking, came to Wood- bury County from Missouri. Possibly the pioneers coming from Missouri desiring, like Daniel Boone, to be ever on the frontier, had moved on to newer regions before the data for this paper were gathered. The writer is sure that this occurred to a certain extent, especially in connection with the French Canadians to be mentioned below.^ Out of one hundred pioneers whose movements form the basis of this study, sixty-six came directly to Woodbury County upon reaching the State of Iowa; thirty-four stopped first in some other coimty before coming here. It may be of interest to note from what particular counties some of them came. A total of sixteen came from four » See below, p. 381. 380 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS oonnties as follows: from Dubuque, where the first settle- ment in the State was made, came eight; from Potta- wattamie, four ; and from Linn and Monona, two each. The other eighteen came from as many different counties scat- tered all over the State. Ten came from counties bordering on the Mississippi ; nine from counties on the western bor- der of Iowa. Of the latter, seven came from counties on the Missouri. If these were added to the three who came from the State of Missouri, it may be said that at least ten came by the Missouri River route. The most interesting fact brought out in the last para- graph is the large number of pioneers coming to Wood- bury County from Dubuque County located clear across the State on the Mississippi River. Of the eight who came from the latter county, one was native-bom, two were from Pennsylvania, and five from foreign countries. Dubuque and Woodbury counties are in the same latitude. To-day they are connected by the Illinois Central Railway, but this consideration was of no great importance since seven of the pioneers came to Woodbury Coimty before the rail- way was built. From counties bordering on Woodbury there came five pioneers: one each from Plymouth and Cherokee on the north, one from Ida on the east, and two from Monona on the south. Stopping in other counties of Iowa before coming on to Woodbury had the effect of increasing the number of moves made by our pioneers on their way hither. From the char- acter of the questions asked on the blanks sent out it is not possible to determine the exact number of moves made by the one hundred pioneers on their way to Woodbury County. We are able, however, to figure out that twenty- two made at least one move ; sixty at least two ; and eight- een at least three moves before arriving at their destina- SETTLEMENT OF WOODBURY COUNTY 381 tion. It is not surprising to find that all of the eighteen who moved at least three times are included in the number of those who came to Woodbury from some other county of the State. In this very limited study of the pioneer settlers of Woodbury County, Iowa, the emphasis has been placed upon the source of supply, or the nativity of the pioneers, the routes by which they came to this county, and the num- ber of moves made on the way. Eelative to the first point, it was found that twenty-six out of one hundred were bom abroad, chiefly in Germany, England, Ireland, and Canada. The three who came from Canada were French Canadians. It was remarked above® that such a small number did not do justice to this particular people because it has been con- clusively shown by Mr. C. B. Marks that the first settlers of the county were French Canadians and that they came to this locality in considerable numbers.^ The explanation may be found in the character of the French Canadians themselves. When they first came into this vicinity, prob- ably as early as the thirties, it was in the capacity of traders, trappers, boatsmen, hunters, etc. They belonged largely to the river and the river trade, to the period of exploration rather than to that of settlement. It was their work to open up the new country, not to possess it per- manently: they paved the way for actual settlers. When the latter came it was time for the French Canadian to move on up the river to newer and wilder regions — regions better suited to his particular kind of life. This was actu- ally done by large numbers, and is a fact which, when taken in connection with the time that had passed before this « See above, p. 365. 7 Marks 's PoJit and Present of Woodbury County, Iowa, p. 763 aeq. See alao his article entitled French Pioneers of Sioux City and South Dakota in the South Dakota Historical Collections, Vol. IV, pp. 255-260. VOL. IX — ^26 382 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS investigation was attempted, sufficiently accounts for the small showing made by the French Canadians in the popu- lation elements of the county to-day. The figures showed seventy-four pioneers born in the United States — only three of them in the South. Among the sections, the middle Atlantic States led, with New England and the north central States following in order. Among the States, New York, Vermont, and Pennsylvania stood out especially prominent as the birth-place of Wood- bury County pioneers, giving birth to forty out of the seventy-four native Americans, or fifty-four per cent. New York alone had twenty-four to her credit, contributing thirty-two per cent of the native-bom Americans and twenty-four per cent of all. It is not too much praise to call the Empire State the '* Mother of Woodbury County Pioneers ' '. We have also seen that our hundred pioneers moved into Iowa from eighteen different States, together with one com- ing from Canada. More than half came from the north central States, with the middle Atlantic States and New England coming next in order. Among the States, Illinois led with the large total of twenty-six to her credit. New York came second with fifteen, while Ohio and Wisconsin sent eight each. The foregoing analysis has brought out the radical dif- ference between the pioneers bom in a State and those sent to Iowa — a difference, not only in numbers but also in composition. The complexity of the matter of the routes taken has also been revealed. Out of seventy-two native born, thirty-three came to Iowa directly from the States of their birth, thirty-nine indirectly by way of other States. Those coming from the various States were found to be made up of three clafeses: namely, native bom, those re- ceived from other States, and those received from foreign SETTLEMENT OP WOODBURY COUNTY 383 nations. The foreign bom came chiefly by way of the north central States. Among the States they preferred Illinois, New York, and Ohio in order. As to the general route followed, an attempt was made to divide it into two parts : first, converging upon certain sec- tions and States ; and second, leading from those places to Iowa. Later it was seen that a thirji part of the general route was to be found within the State of Iowa. The main- traveled routes were pictured as running from Europe to the north central and middle Atlantic States ; from the lat- ter section and New England to the north central States; and from all three sections, but especially from the north central section, to Iowa. Within the State the chief routes were from Dubuque and Pottawattamie counties to Wood- bury. Among other results it was found that four pioneers entered the State from States west of Iowa; seven from southern States ; and forty-two from States bordering upon this one. The number coming from Missouri was surpris- ingly small. Thirty-four stopped in other coimties of the State before moving to Woodbury. In general the pioneers studied may be said to have done much moving about be- fore they settled down — much more, indeed, than facts brought out in the paper indicate. Although this study has been based upon facts which con- cern only one hundred individuals, the writer has no reason to believe that the results would have been radically dif- ferent, as far as percentages are concerned, if figures had been at hand relative to a much larger number. The one important exception of the French Canadians has already been noted. We may say, therefore, that the findings of this paper relative to the nativity of the pioneers of Wood- bury County, Iowa, and to the routes traveled by them in coming to the county are reasonably accurate. What is 384 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS true of Woodbury County would, probably, be true also of northwestern Iowa. The same claim could not be made for the eastern and southeastern parts of the State which are much older sections and — to mention only one point — received large numbers of settlers from Kentucky, Vir- ginia, and other southern States. It may be said in closing that John Fiske's dictum, re- ferred to at the beginning of this paper, namely, that ^ ^ The westward movement of population in the United States has for the most part followed the parallels of latitude", has been found to be remarkably true when applied to the set- tlement of Woodbury County, Iowa. Frank Habmon Gabvbb MoBNiNasmE College Sioux Crrr Iowa THE TERRITORIAL CONVENTION OP 1837 The Territorial Convention which was held at Burlington on November 6, 7, 8, 1837, was perhaps the most important convention held in the Iowa country prior to the establish- ment of the Territory in July, 1838. Three subjects of vital concern were acted upon: (1) the Missouri boundary line; (2) preemption laws; and (3) the division of the Territory. Documentary materials relative to this conven- tion are given below. They include (1) Proceedings of a Public Meeting of the Citizens of Des Moines County held on September 16, 1837; (2) Proceedings of a Public Meet- ing of the Citizens of Dubuque County held on October 13, 1837; (3) Proceedings of a Public Meeting of the Citizens of Louisa County held on October 21, 1837; (4) Proceed- ings of a Public Meeting of the Citizens of Henry County held on October 23, 1837; (5) Proceedings of the Terri- torial Convention held at Burlington on November 6, 7, 8, 1837; (6) Memorial on the Subject of the Missouri Boun- dary Line; (7) Memorial on the subject of Preemptions; and (8) Memorial Praying for a Division of the Territory. PROCEEJ)INGS OP A PUBLIC MEETING OP THE CITIZENS OP DES MOINES COUNTY HELD ON SEPTEMBER 16, 1837 [The people of Dee Moinee County took the initiatiye in oaUing the Terri- torial Convention of 1837. The following account of the meeting held at Burlington is reprinted literally from the Iowa News (Dubuque), Vol. I, No. 18, September 30, 1837. — Editoe.] At a large and respectable meeting of the people of Des Moines county, held in this town on Saturday, the 16th inst., in pursuance of previous public notice, the Hon. Isaac Lep- 385 386 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS FLEB, was called to the Chair, and C. S. Jacobs, Esq., ap- pointed Secretary. The chair having briefly and appropriately stated the ob- jects of the meeting, it was moved by David Eorer, Esq., and seconded by Col. W. W. Chapman, that a committee of five be appointed to draft resolutions expressive of the sense of the meeting. Whereupon, the Chair appointed David Eorer, Esq., Col. W. W. Chapman, Judge William Morgan, Col. Arthur Ingram and Dr. George W. Teas, said committee, who having retired for a short time, returned and presented the following resolutions, which, after due deliberation, were unanimously adopted. 1st. Resolved, That while we have the utmost confidence in the abiUty, integrity and patriotism of those who control the destinies of our present Territorial Government, and of our delegate in the Congress of the U. States, we do, never- theless, look to a division of the Territory, and the organ- ization of a separate Territorial Government, by Congress, west of the Mississippi river, as the only means of imme- diately and fully securing to the citizens thereof, the bene- fits and immunities of a government of laws. 2d, Resolved, That we view with extreme solicitude and regret, the efforts of a portion of the people of Missouri to obtain an extension of their northern boundary line, and deem it the duty of ourselves and all our fellow-citizens west of the river, to take prompt measures to prevent the same, as an infringement upon our Territorial rights. 3d. Resolved, That as settlers on the public lands of the United States, we are entitled to the protection of the Gov- ernment in our homes, and the improvements made by, or paid for by us ; and that [it] is a duty we owe to ourselves and our fellow-citizens, to call the attention of Congress to that subject by a fair and full presentation of our claims. 4th. Resolved, That we respectfully and earnestly rec- TERRITORIAL CONVENTION OP 1837 387 ommend to the people of the Territory west of the Missis^ sippi river, immediately to hold county meetings in their respective counties, and appoint three delegates from each county, to meet in Convention at this place, on the first Monday in November next, to take into consideration the subjects embraced in the foregoing resolutions, and the best means of securing the speedy action of Congress thereupon. 5th. Resolved, That as the county of Du Buque is large and ought and should, in the opinion of the citizens thereof, be divided, it be entitled to a double representation, or six members, in said Convention, if they deem it expedient or necessary to appoint so many. 6th. Resolved, That we deem it our duty to call the at- tention of the Executive of the Territory to the encroach- ments of the State of Missouri upon our Territory, and that he be hereby requested to use all means within his control to maintain the sacrcdness of our boundary and laws. 7th. Resolved, That the repeated and constant failures of the mails in the western portion of this Territory, and the habitual neglect and gross delinquencies of some of the contractors for the conveyance thereof, is such as in a great measure to deprive the people of the benefits of the public mail ; and that the Postmaster General is hereby and most earnestly requested to correct such abuses, if practicable, at the earliest possible period. 8th. Resolved, That we have selected the town of Bur- lington as the place of meeting of the proposed Convention, by reason of its being the temporary seat of Government, and as the place of the meeting of the Legislature about that time. 9th. Resolved, That the people of Des Moines county be, and are hereby requested to meet on the second Saturday, 388 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS the 12th of October next, in this town, at 10 o 'clock, A. M., for the purpose of selecting three delegates to the afore- said Convention. Charles Mason, Esq., hereupon made an appropriate ad- dress to the meeting upon the subject of the 7th resolution. — The total inadequacy of the present mail arrangement, and the shameful neglect and delinquencies of some of the mail contractors and post masters — and concluded by mov- ing that a committee of be appointed to draft a petition to the Post Master General, stating the facts in the case, and soliciting his immediate attention to a correction of the evils complained of, whereupon the chair appointed upon said conmdttee, Charles Mason and C. S. Jacobs, Esquires, of Burlington, Mr. Mason Wilson, of Augusta, Mr. Jona- than Morgan, of Flint, Mr. William Stewart, of Marshall, Mr. John Lorton, of Casey Prairie, and Mr. James G. Guf- fey, of Taney Town. Judge Morgan then moved that this committee be di- rected to furnish each Post-Master in the county of Des Moines (old Des Moines) with a copy of the Petition when prepared for circulation and signature. C. S. Jacobs, Esq., addressed the meeting upon the sub- ject of the mails for some time, and observed that he appre- hended the resolution in regard thereto, just passed, though very good in itself, did not go far enough, and cover as much ground as the importance of the subject seemed to require, and he would, therefore, offer a short preamble and resolutions in addition, which were unanimously adopted. — Whereas, The present arrangement of the mails for this portion of the Territory of Wisconsin, is not such as the population, business character, enterprise and intelli- gence of the people require or deserve — Therefore, be it TERRITORIAL CONVENTION OP 1837 389 Resolved, That a committee be appointed, to consist of seven persons, whose duty it shall be to draft a petition to the Post Master General, stating fully the facts of the case, and requesting him to take such steps as may be deemed necessary in the premises. (This committee was appointed under the resolution of Mr. Mason, for which this was substituted.) Resolved, That it is the decided opinion of this meeting, that there should be a tri- weekly eastern mail to this town. Resolved, That it be strongly recommended to the Post Master General to establish as early as may be practicable, a tri- weekly, or semi-weekly mail to this place, to intersect the eastern mail at Peoria, 111. Resolved, That it be recommended to the Post Master General, to take the earliest and most efficient steps to cor- rect the abuses now existing in the present mail arrange- ment — to investigate the conduct and official character of the mail contractors in this portion of the Territory — and also, the manner in which the Post-masters execute their duties. Resolved, That our delegate in Congress be requested to use his utmost influence and exertion, to induce the Post Master General to have the several subjects of these reso- lutions carried into early and full effect. On motion of Jas. W. Woods, Esq., it was Resolved, That the foregoing proceedings be published in the Wisconsin Territorial Gazette, and such other papers in the Territory as feel an interest in the subject matter of them. On motion of Judge Morgan, the meeting adjourned. Isaac LsFFiiEB, Ch'n. C. S. Jacobs, Sec'y. 390 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS PBOCEEDINOS OF A PUBLIC MEETING OF THE CITIZENS OF DUBUQUE COUNTY HELD ON OCTOBEB 13, 1837 [The following account is reprinted literally from the Iowa News (Da- buque), Vol. I, No. 20, October 14, 1837. — Editor.] At a general public meeting of the citizens of Du Buque and vicinity, convened at the Court House on Friday 13th inst., pursuant to previous notice, Wabneb Lewis, Esq. was called to the Chair, and John Plumbe, Jr. appointed Secretary. Whereupon the following preamble and resolutions were adopted. Whereas, a number of our fellow-citizens assembled at Burlington on the 16th day of September last, recommend- ed, amongst other things, that a convention of delegates, representing the people of Wisconsin residing in that por- tion of the Territory lying west of the Mississippi river, should be held at Burlington on the first Monday of No- vember next for the purpose of consulting upon the pro- priety of petitioning Congress to organize us into a separate Territory. And whereas, the people of Du Buque county do approve of said recommendation, and do cordiaUy unite with their fellow-citizens of Burlington in desiring a full and fair expression of public opinion and promoting con- cert of action upon this important subject, therefore Resolved, That there be twenty-one delegates to repre- sent the county of Du Buque in said convention, and in case of the death, resignation, refusal to serve, or absence of one or more of said delegates, that the vacancy so created shall be filled by such person or persons as a majority of the delegates attending may select and appoint. Resolved, That J. T. Fales, W. W. Coriell, S. Hempstead, John Plumbe, Jun., L. H. Langworthy, L. Jackson, F. Ge- hon, T. S. Wilson, W. Hutton, and J. M. Harrison, be dele- gates to said Convention, to represent the Town and TERRITORIAL CONVENTION OP 1837 391 vicinity of Dnbuque, and that we recommend to the inhab- itants of the different settlements in this county to meet together for the purpose of choosing delegates of their own. Resolved, That in the opinion of this meeting, the im- portance of our Territory on the score of population, com- mercial enterprise, and of immense agricultural and min- eral resources, demand that we should be organized at once as a separate Territory. Resolved, That we have full and unabated confidence in our worthy and highly esteemed Executive, Henry Dodge, believing as we do, that his administration of our Terri- torial Government has been conducted with sagacity, pru- dence and great honesty of purpose. Resolved, That we have undiminished confidence in our Delegate to Congress, Geo. W. Jones, and that he deserves the thanks of the community for the zeal, ability and promptitude which he has evinced in the discharge of the trust which has been reposed in him. Resolved, That the proceedings of this meeting be pub- lished in the papers of the Territory. Wabkeb Lewis, Chairman. John Plumb, Jr. Sec^y. PROCEEDINGS OF A PUBLIC MEETING OF THE CITIZENS OF LOUISA COUNTY HELD ON OCTOBE»B 21, 1837 [The following account is reprinted literally from the Wisconsin Territoriai Gazette and Burlington Advertieer (Burlington) , Vol. I, No. 17, November 2, 1837.— Editor.] At a large and respectable meeting of the people of Louisa county, held in the town of Wapello, on Saturday the 21st inst. in pursuance of previous notice, William Milli- gan, Esq. was called to the chair, and Z. C. Inghram ap- pointed Secretary. The object of the meeting was briefly and appropriately 392 IOWA JOUBNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS stated by James M. Clark, Esq. It was moved by Daniel Brewer, and seconded by J. M. Clark, that a committee of five be appointed to draft resolutions expressive of the sense of the meeting: whereupon the Chair appointed Daniel Brewer, John H. Benson, B. S. Searls, Isaac H. Binearson, Esq. and William H. B. Thomas said committee, who, after having retired for a short time, returned and presented the following resolutions, which, after due delib- eration, were unanimously adopted. 1. Resolved, That we highly approve of the objects and motives of the Territorial Convention, to be holden in Burlington; and that so far as lies in our power we will heartily co-operate with our brethren in the adjoining coun- ties, in carrying those motives into effect. 2. Resolved, That we deem it highly essential to the interest and convenience of our Territory that a division of the same take place, and that, in our opinion, the Missis- sippi suggests a very natural and proper Une of separation. 3. Resolved, That the deficiency of post offices, the in- equality of mails, and the apparent gross delinquencies of mail contractors in this western part of our Territory, are evils, which call loudly for .redress, and that we would sug- gest to the Territorial Convention the propriety of using their influence and exertions to have these abuses ferreted out and corrected. 4. Resolved, That we look upon the attempts of a por- tion of Missouri to encroach upon our Territory, as highly unjust and aggressive, and that however much we may re- gret that any difficulties should arise between us, we are determined to resist her encroachments by every just and honorable means. 5. Resolved, That, as settlers upon these frontiers, en- during the privations and hardships always incident to the settling of new countries, we are justly entitled to be se- TERRITORIAL CONVENTION OP 1837 393 cnred in the possession of our homes and improvements by the passage of a pre-emption law in onr behalf. 6. Resolved, That we would suggest to our own dele- gates, and the convention at large, the propriety of calling the attention of Congress to this subject by memorial or otherwise. 7. Resolved, That we deem this a fitting occasion to ex- press our entire satisfaction with the present boundaries of our county, and look upon those who are endeavoring to effect a division of the same as acting contrary to the best interest of the county at large. The committee reported the following list of delegates, viz : William L. Toole, James M. Clark, Esq., and John J. Binearson, who were chosen by the meeting. 8. Resolved, That the proceedings of this meeting be published in the Burlington Gazette. William Milligak, Ch'n. Z. C. Inghram, Sec'y. PROCEEDINGS OF A PUBLIC MEETING OF THE CITIZENS OF HENBY COUNTY HELD ON OCTOBER 23, 1837 [The following account is reprinted literally from tfae Wiscofmn Territorial GcLsette and Burlington Advertiser (Burlington), VoL I, No. 17, November 2, 1837. — Editor.] A meeting of the citizens of Henry county was held at Mount Pleasant on the 23rd inst. Mr. John H. Bandolph was called to the chair, and Dr. J. D. Payne appointed Secretary. W. L. Jenkins, Esq. explained the object of the meeting, and the proceedings of the late Burlington meeting were read and approved of. A motion was then made, that the meeting ballot for three delegates to the proposed conven- tion, to represent Henry county; whereupon, tellers being appointed, it appeared that Messrs. W. H. Wallaob, J. M. Mters, and M. L. B. Hughes were duly elected. 394 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS Resolved, That the proceedings of this meeting be pub- lished in the Wisconsin Territorial Gazette. John H. Randolph, Preset. J. D. Payne, Sec'y. PBOCEEDINGS OF THE TEBBITOBIAL CONVENTION HEIiD AT BURLINGTON ON NOVEMBEB 6, 7, 8, 1837 [The proceedings along with the memorials adopted by the Convention were printed in pamphlet form and thus transmitted to Congress. A oopj of this pamphlet was discovered by the writer in the office of the Clerk of the House of Representatives at Washington. The text of the printed pamphlet does not differ from what appeared in the Iowa News, The following account is re- printed literally from the Iowa News (Dubuque), Vol. I, No. 23, November 25, 1837.— Editor.] The Convention of Delegates, from that portion of the Wisconsin Territory west of the Mississippi, met at the capitol, in the town of Burlington, on Monday, Nov. 6, 1837. The Convention was called to order by C. S. Jacobs, Esq. of Des Moines co., and on motion of Mr. Warren, of Du Bnque, Mr. Jacobs was elected Chairman, pro tern, of the Convention for the purposes of organization; and on motion of Mr. Russell, of Du Buque, J. W. Pabker, Esq. of Du Buque was elected Secretary pro tem. On motion of Mr. Davis of Musquitine, the counties were called over to ascertain the names of the Delegates from each. The following gentlemen answered to their names, exhibited their credentials, and took their seats in Con- vention. From the county of Du Buque. — P. H. Engle, J. T. Fales, G. W. Harris, W. A. Warren, W. B. Watts, A. F. Russell, W. H. Patton, J. W. Parker, J. D. Bell, J. H. Rose. From Des Moines county. — David Rorer, Robert Rals- ton, Cyrus S. Jacobs. Van Buren county. — Van Caldwell, J. G. Kenner, James Hall. TERRITORIAL CONVENTION OP 1837 395 Henry county. — W. H. Wallace, J. D. Payne, J. L. Myers. Musqnitine comity. — J. B. Struthers, M. Couch, Eli Rey- nolds, S. C. Hastings, James Davis, S. Jenner, A. Smith, E. K. Fay. Louisa county. — J. M. Clark, W. L. Toole, S. J. Binear- son. Lee county. — Henry Eno, John Claypool, Hawkins Taylor. Ordered, That the Convention elect its officers by ballot. On motion of Mr. Davis, a majority of all the votes pres- ent was made necessary to the election of officers. Mr. C. S. Jacobs was elected President of the Convention upon the first ballot and Messrs. J. M. Clark and W. H. Wallace, Vice Presidents ; and Messrs. J. W. Parkeb and J. E. Struthers, Secretaries. The Convention then adjourned till to-morrow, at 3 o'clock, P. M. Friday, Nov. 7 — The convention assembled at 3 o'clock pursuant to adjournment, and was called to order by the President. On motion of Mr. Warren, Resolved, That the Governor, members of the Legislative Council, Judges, and members of the bar of Buriington, be invited to take seats within the bar. On motion of Mr. Eno, Resolved, That a committee of seven be appointed by the President, to draft a memorial to Congress on the subject of the attempt making by the state of Missouri to extend lier northern boimdary line. Messrs. Eno, Claypool, Kenner, Ralston, Davis, Watts, and Toole were appointed said committee. On motion of Mr. Kenner, Resolved, That a committee of six be appointed by the 396 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS President to prepare a memorial to the Congress of the U. States, praying for the passage of an act, granting the right of pre-emption to actnal settlers on government lands, and that said committee report the same to this convention at some period before its adjournment. Messrs. Engle, Kenner, Payne, Stmthers, Patton, Borer, and Smith were appointed said committee. On motion of Mr. Borer, Besolved, That a committee of seven be appointed by the President, to draft a memorial to the Congress of the United States in relation to the organization of a separate territorial Government in that part of the Territory of Wis- consin west of the Mississippi river, Messrs. Borer, Hastings, Caldwell, Myers, Glaypool, Binearson, and Harris were selected to compose said com- mittee. On motion, the Convention adjourned until to-morrow, at 2 o'clock P.M. Wednesday, Nov. 8. The Convention met [pursuant] to adjournment and was called to order by the President. The committees appointed yesterday to draft memorials, being prepared to report, Mr. Engle, chairman of the com- mittee appointed to draft a memorial in relation to pre- emptions, reported a memorial, which, on motion, was unanimously adopted. Mr. Eno, chairman of the committee to draft a memorial upon the subject of the northern boundary line of Missouri, reported a memorial, which, on motion, was unanimously adopted. Mr. Borer, chairman of the committee appointed to pre- pare a memorial relative to the division of the Territory, TERRITORIAL CONVENTION OP 1837 397 reported a memorial^ which, on motion, was nnanimonsly adopted. On motion of Mr. Davis, Resolved, imanimonsly, that the Hon. G. W. Jones, is en- titied to the thanks of the citizens of the Territory, for the able manner in which he has discharged the various and complicated duties imposed upon him, as our delegate in Congress. On motion of Mr. Davis, Resolved, unanimously. That we entertain the highest of respect for the able, patriotic, and distinguished manner in which his excellency, Governor Dodge, has at all times ad- ministered the affairs of the Territory. On motion of Mr. Hastings, the following was unanimous- ly adopted : In order that a full expression of the sentiment of this convention may be publicly made known, upon the subject of the extension of the northern line of the state of Mis- souri, therefore. Be it resolved. That we most cordially approve of that part of the message of the Executive of this Territory, which relates to the said northern boundary, communicated to the Legislative Assembly at their present session, and with him believe that Missouri has made an encroachment upon our Territorial rights in extending her northern boundary lines, north from where it was formerly located. On motion. Resolved, That the Legislative Council and House of Representatives be requested to co-operate with the Con- vention, in memorializing Congress on all the subjects acted upon by this Convention. On motion of Mr. Davis, Resolved, nem. con., That the members of the Convention jtender their thanks to the members of the House of Repre- voL. IX— 27 398 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS sentativeSy for their liberality in tendering the use of Hall for our deliberations. On motion of Mr. Warren, Resolved, unanimously, That the President of the Con- vention be requested to forward the proceedings of this Convention, with the memorials, to our delegate in Con- gress, Hon. G. W. Jones. On motion of Mr. Fales, Resolved, unanimously. That a vote of thanks be tendered to the officers of this Convention, for the able and impartial manner in which they have discharged the duties that de- volved upon them. On motion of Mr. Hastings, Resolved, That the memorials be signed by the officers and members of the Convention. On motion of Mr. Davis, Resolved, That all editors in the Territory be reqnested to publish the proceedings of this Convention. On motion, Resolved, That a committee of three be appointed to superintend the printing of the proceeding of this Conven- tion. Messrs. Ralston, Davis, and Engle were appointed said committee. The President, in a short, impressive manner, returned thanks to the Convention, in behalf of himself and associate officers, for the honor conferred upon them. The Convention adjourned, sine die. Cyrus S. Jacobs, President. J.M^CnABK, I Vice PresidentB. W. H. WAUiACE, I Vi 1. 3 J. W. Pabkeb, I Secretaries. J. R. Stbuthbbs, f TERRITORIAL CONVENTION OP 1837 399 lOSMOBIAIi ON THE SUBJECT OF TH^ MISSOUBI BOUNDABT LINE [The following memorial which was adopted by the Territorial Convention 18 reprinted literally from the Iowa New$ (Dnbnqne), VoL I, No. 23, November 25, 1837.— Editob.] To the Honorable the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States, in Congress assembled: The Memorial of a Convention of Delegates, from the sev- eral counties in the Territory of Wisconsin, west of the Mississippi river, convened at Burlington, in said Ter- ritory, Nov. 6, 1837, RESPECTFULLY BEPBESENTS I That your memorialists are desirous of asking the atten- tion of Congress to the adjustment of the boundary line between the State of Missouri and the territory of Western Wisconsin. Much excitement already prevails among the inhabitants situated in the border counties of the State and Territory, and it is much to be feared, that, unless the speedy action of Congress should be had upon the subject, difficulties of a serious nature will arise, militating against the peace and harmony which would otherwise exist among them. At the last session of the Legislature of Missouri, Commissioners were appointed to run the northern boun- dary line of the State. They have recently been engaged in the work, and according to the line run by them, there is included within the limits of the State of Missouri, a con- siderable tract of country, hitherto supposed to belong to the Territory of Wisconsin, and which is still believed of right to belong to it. The northern boundary line of Mis- souri was run several years ago by conmdssioners appoint- ed by the State of Missouri, and will cross the Des Moines river at a point about twenty-four miles from its mouth. — This line, if continued on due east, would strike the Missis- sippi river near the town of Fort Madison, about ten miles above the rapids in said river, long since known as the Des 400 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS Moines rapids ; and this line, so run by the commissioners, has always been considered as the boundary line between the State and Territory. The present commissioners, ap- pointed by the State of Missonri, giving a different con- struction to the act defining the boundary line of the State, passed up the Des Moines river in search of rapids, and have seen proi)er to find them some twelve or fourteen miles further up the river than the other commissioners of Missouri formerly did, and, selecting a point which they call the rapids in the Des Moines river, have from thence marked out a line which is now claimed as the northern boundary line of the State. Were this line extended due east, it would strike the Mississippi river at the town of Burlington, some thirty miles above the rapids, as stated above, as the Des Moines rapids. Missouri was constituted an independent State, and her boundary lines defined, in June 1820. At that time, the country bordering on the Des Moines river was a wilder- ness, and little was known, except from the Indians who lived on its banks, of its geographical situation. There was at that time no point on the river known as the Des Moines rapids, and at the present time, between the mouth of the river and the Raccoon forks, a distance of two hundred miles, fifty places can with as much propriety be designated as the one selected by the commissioners of the State of Missouri. Your memorialists conceive that no action of the State of Missouri can, or ought to affect the integrity of the Terri- tory of Wisconsin; and standing in the attitude they do, they must look to the General Government to protect their rights and redress their wrongs. The difficulties, which, for so long a period of time, existed between the Territory of Michigan and State of Ohio relative to their boundaries, will, it is hoped, prompt the speedy action of Congress on TERRITORIAL CONVENTION OP 1837 401 this exciting subject. Confidently relying upon the wisdom of the General Government, and its willingness to take such measures as will settle this question, the people of Wiscon- sin will peaceably submit to an extension of the northern boundary line of the State of Missouri, if so be, that Con- gress shall ordain it ; but until such action, they will resist to the utmost extremity any attempt made by the State of Missouri to extend her jurisdiction over any disputed Ter- ritory. We, therefore, pray that Congress will appoint Commis- sioners, whose duty it shall be to run the line between the State of Missouri and the Territory of Wisconsin accord- ing to the spirit and intention of tiie act defining tiie boun- dary lines of the State of Missouri, and to adopt such other measures as in their wisdom they may deem proi)er. MEMOBIAL ON THE SUBJECT OF PBE-BMFTIOKS [The following memorial which wai adopted by the Territorial Convention IB reprinted literallj from the Iowa New$ (Dubuque), VoL I, No. 23, November 25, 1837.— Editor.] To the Honorable the Senate and House of Representatives, of the U. States. A Convention of citizens representing all the counties in that part of Wisconsin Territory lying west of the Missis- sippi river, have assembled at Burlington the present seat of Government of said Territory for the purpose of taking into consideration several measures immediately affecting their interests and prosperity. Among the most important of these is the passage by your honorable bodies at the ses- sion about to be commenced, of a pre-emption law by which the settlers on the public land shall have secured to them at the minimum price, the lands upon which they live, which they have improved and cultivated without fear of moles- tation, or over-bidding on the part of the rich capitalist and 402 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS speculator. It is a fact well known to yonr honorable bodies^ that none of the land in Wisconsin west of the Mis- sissippi River in what is called the ^^lowa District/^ has yet been offered for sale by the Government. It is equally true that that tract of country is now inhabited by twenty- five thousand souls composing a population as active, intel- ligent, and worthy as can be found in any other part of the United States. The enterprise of these pioneers has con- verted what was but yesterday a solitary and uncultivated waste into thriving towns and villages, alive with the en- gagement of trade and commerce, and rich and smiling farms, yielding their bountiful return to the labors of the husbandman. This district has been settled and improved with a rapidity unexampled in the history of the country, emigrants from all parts of the United States and from Europe are daily adding to our numbers and importance. An attempt to force these lands thus occupied and improved into market to be sold to the highest bidder, and to put the money thus extorted from the hard earnings of an honest and laborious people into the coffers of the public treasury, would be an act of injustice to the settlers which would scarcely receive the sanction of your honorable bodies. In most cases the labor of years and the accumulated capital of a whole life has been expended in making improvements on the public land, under the strong and firm belief that every safeguard would be thrown round them to prevent their property, thus dearly earned by years of suffering, privation and toil, from being unjustly wrested from their hands. Shall they be disappointed! Will Congress refuse to pass such laws as may be necessary to protect a large class of our citizens from systematized plunder and rapine! The members composing this convention, representing a very large class of people, who delegated them to speak in their stead, do most confidently express an opinion that TERRITORIAL CONVENTION OP 1837 403 your honorable bodies will at its present session pass some law removing ns from danger, and relieving ns from fear on this subject. The members of this convention for them- selves, and for the people whose interests they are sent here to represent, do most respectfully solicit that your honor- able bodies, will, as speedily as possible, pass a pre-emption law giving to every actual settler on the public domain who has made improvements sufficient to evince that it is bona jfide his design to cultivate and occupy the land, a right to enter at the minimum government price, one half section for that purpose, before it shall be offered at public sale. MEMORIAL PRATING A DIVISION OF THE TERRTTORT [Tbe following memorial which was adopted by the Territorial Convention is reprinted literally from the Iowa New$ (Dubuque) , Vol. I, No. 23, November 25, 1837.— Editor.] I'o the Honorable the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States, in Congress assembled: The Memorial of a general Convention of Delegates, from the respective counties in the Territory of Wisconsin, west of the Mississippi river, convened at the capitol in Burlington, in said Territory, Nov. 5th, 1837, RESPECTFULLY RE^PBBSENTS : That the citizens of that part of the Territory west of the Mississippi river, taking into consideration their remote and isolated position, and the vast extent of country in- cluded within the limits of the present Territory, and the utter impracticability of the same being governed as an en- tire whole, by the wisest and best administration of our municipal affairs, in such manner as to fully secure indi- vidual right and the right of property, as well as to main- tain domestic tranquility, and the good order of society, have by their respective representatives, convened in gen- 404 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS eral convention as aforesaid, for the purpose of availing themselves of their right of petition as free citizens, by- representing their situation and wishes to your honorable body, and asking for the organization of a separate Terri- torial Government over that part of the Territory west of the Mississippi river. Without, in the least, designing to question the official conduct of those in whose hands the fate of our infant Ter- ritory has been confided, and in whose patriotism and wis- dom we have the utmost confidence, your memorialists can- not refrain from the frank expression of their belief that, taking into the consideration the geographical extent of her country, in connexion with the probable population of West- em Wisconsin, perhaps no Territory of the United States has been so much neglected by the parent government, so illy protected in the political and individual rights of her citizens. Western Wisconsin came into the possession of our gov- ernment in June 1833. Settlements were made, and crops grown, during the same season ; and even then, at that early day, was the impulse given to the mighty.throng of emigra- tion that has subsequently filled our lovely and desirable country with people, intelligence, wealth, and enterprize. From that period until the present, being a little over four years, what has been the Territory of Western Wisconsin f Literally and practically, a large portion of the time with- out a government. With a population of thousands, she has remained ungovemed, and has been quietly left by the parent government to take care of herself, without the privilege on the one hand to provide a government of her own, and without any existing authority on the other to govern her. From June 1833 until June 1834, a period of one year, there was not even the shadow of government or law, in all TERRITORIAL CONVENTION OP 1837 405 Western Wisconsin. In June 1834, Congress attached her to the then existing Territory of Michigan, of which Terri- tory she nominally continued a part, until July 1836, a period of little more than two years. During the whole of this time, the whole country west, sufficient of itself for a respectable State, was included in two counties, Du Buque and Des Moines. In each of these two counties there were holden, during the term of two years, two terms of a county court, (a court of inferior jurisdiction,) as the only sources of judicial relief up to the passage of the act of Congress creating the Territory of Wisconsin. That act took effect on the 3d day of July, 1836, and the first judicial relief af- forded under that act, was at the April term following, 1837, a period of nine months after its passage ; subsequent to which time there has been a court holden in but one county in Western Wisconsin only. This, your memorial- ists are aware, has recently been owing to the unfortunate indisposition of the esteemed and meritorious judge of our district; but they are equally aware of the fact, that had Western Wisconsin existed under a separate organization, we should have found relief in the services of other mem- bers of the Judiciary, who are at present, in consequence of the great extent of our Territory, and the small number of judges dispersed at too great a distance, and too con- stantly engaged in the discharge of the duties of their own districts, to be enabled to afford relief to other portions of the Territory. Thus, with a population of not less than twenty-five thousand now, and of near half that number at the organization of the Territory, it will appear that we have existed as a portion of an organized Territory, for sixteen months, with but one term of courts only. Your memorialists look upon those evils as growing ex- clusively out of the immense extent of country included within the present boundaries of the Territory, and express \ 406 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS their conviction and belief, that nothing would so effec- tually remedy the evil as the organization of Western Wis- consin into a separate Territorial government. To this your memorialists conceive themselves entitled by prin- ciples of moral right — by the sacred obligation that rests upon their present government to protect them in the free enjoyment of their rights, until such time as they shall be permitted to provide protection for themselves ; as well as from the uniform practice and policy of the government in relation to other Territories. The Territory of Indiana, including the present states of Indiana, Illinois, and Michigan, and also much of the east- em portion of the present territory of Wisconsin, was placed under one separate territorial government, in tiie year 1800, at a time when the population amounted to only five thousand six hundred and forty, or thereabouts. The Territory of Arkansas was erected into a distinct territory, in 1820, witii a population of about fourteen thou- sand. The Territory of Illinois was established in 1809, being formed by dividing the Indiana Territory. The exact population of Illinois Territory, at the time of her separa- tion from Indiana, is not known to your memorialists, but the population in 1810, one year subsequent to that event, amounted to but eleven thousand five hundred and one whites, and a few blacks — in all, to less than twelve thou- sand inhabitants. The Territory of Michigan was formed in 1805, by again dividing the Indiana Territory, of which until then, she composed a part. The population of Michigan, at the time of her separation from Indiana, your memorialists have been unable to ascertain, but in the year 1810, a period of five years subsequent to her separate organization, her pop- ulation amounted to but about four thousand seven hundred and sixty ; and in the year 1820, to less than nine thousand TERRITORIAL CONVENTION OP 1837 407 — so that Michigan existed some fifteen years, as a distinct Territory, with a population of less than half that of West- em Wisconsin at present; and each of the above named Territories, now composing so many proud and flourishing states, were created into separate territorial governments, with a much less population than that of Western Wis- consin, and that too at a time with a national debt of mil- lions. Your memorialists therefore pray for the organiza- tion of a separate territorial government over that part of the Territory of Wisconsin west of the Mississippi river. PROCEEDINGS OP A COUNCIL WITH THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS [The report given below of the proceedings of the Coaneil, held bj Oovemor Henry Dodge of the original Territory of Witeonain, with the Chiefs and prin- eipal men of the Chippewa Nation of Indians in July, 1837, is taken from YoL I, Nos. 11 and 14 of the Iowa News, a newspaper pablished at Dabnqne. The report is reprinted literally, no attempt having been made to secure uni- formity in the spelling of the Indian names which appear in the report and in the treaty. The articles of the treaty concluded at this Council are taken from Kappler's Indian Affairs, Laws and Treaties, Vol. 11, p. 491. — Editob.] PBOCEEDINGS OF A COUNCIL HELD BY GOVEBNOB DODGE WITH THE CHIEFS AND PBINCIPAL MEN OF THE CHIPPE,WA NATION OF INDIANS, NEAB FOBT SNELLING, AT THE CONFLUENCE OF THE ST. PETEBS AND MISSISSIPPI BIVEBS, COMMENCING ON THE 20 TH DAY OF JULY, 1837. The head men of the nation having, by direction of Governor Dodge, been advised of his desire to meet them in council, their different bands assembled together near Fort Snelling, between the 1st and 20th of July to the number of about a thousand men, women and children, and on the last mentioned day, met the Governor at the council house. Gen. Wm. R. Smith, of Pennsylvania, appointed by the President of the United States, the colleague of Gov. Dodge in the commission, did not arrive to be present at the coun- cil. The following named Chiefs were present, and recog- nized as such by the Governor : From Leech Lake. — Aish-ke-boge-kozhe, or Flat Mouth, and Ozawickanebik, or the Yellow Snake, commonly called by the French Fiereaince, or elder brother. From Gull Lake and Swan River. — Pa-goona-kee-zhig, or Hole in the day, & Songa-komok, or the Strong Ground. From Mille Lac. — Wash-ask-ko-kowe, or Bat 's Liver. 408 COUNCIL WITH THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS 409 From Sandy Lake. — Ea-nan-dwa-winza, or Le Broch- enx. From Snake Biver. — Naudin, or the Wind, Sha-go-bai, or the Six Pay-a-jig, and Na-qna-na-bic, or the Father. From Fond du Lac. — Mongo-sit, or Loon's Foot, and Shin-go-be or the Spruce. St. Croix Biver. — Pe-she-ke, or the Buffalo. Ver Planck Van Antwerp, of Indiana, appointed by the President Secretary to the Commissioners, was also pres- ent at the meeting of the Council. The council pipe having been first smoked by Gov. Dodge, with the Chiefs, the Governor addressed them as follows — Chiefs, Head men, and Warriors of the Chippewa Nation: "Your Great Father, the President of the United States, has sent me to see you in council to propose to you the purchase of a small part of your country, east of the Missis- sippi Biver. This country, as I am informed, is not valuable to you for its game, and not suited to the culture of com, and other agricultural purposes. Your Great Father wishes to purchase your country on the Chippewa and St. Croix rivers for the advantage of its pine timber, with which it is said to abound. A map of the country which your Great Father wishes to buy from you will be shewn to you, in which the rivers and water courses are laid down; and such explanations given through your interpreter, as will fully explain to you the particular part of your country east of the Mississippi Biver, which your Great Father proposes to purchase for the use of his white children. Your Great Father knows you are poor, and this pine region is not valuable to you for hunting purposes; his wish is to make you a fuU compensation for the country by 410 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS giving you its full value, payable in such manner as will be most serviceable to your people. An estimate will be made of the probable value of your country, which it is proposed to purchase, of which you will be informed. I will request you, after fully deliberating upon the subject, to tell me your price for the country with as little delay as possible. Your Great Father, the President, was desirous that the Chippewas should be f uUy represented in this council, that all might know what had been done, and that equal justice should be done to all. I wish you to be prepared with your answer to the proposition made you, at our meeting in council to-morrow.'* Gov. Dodge having concluded his remarks and intimated his readiness to hear anything which the Chiefs or prin- cipal men might have to say to him, Aish-ke-boge-khoze (Flat Mouth) advanced and spoke as follows: My father, I have but little to say to you now. Living in a different part of the country from that which you propose to buy from us, I will be among the last of those who will speak to you upon that subject. After those shall have spoken who live in & nearer to that country, I will talk more to you. My father, my people have all the same opinion with me, and wiU abide by what I shall say to you ; I have come to listen first, to all you have to say to us, and will afterwards speak to you. My heart is with you. I have nothing more to say now. Nadin (the Wind) then came forward and said, **My fa- ther, I once shook hands with our great Father beyond the mountains, as I do with you now. I have not much to say at present, and my brother who stands near me wishes to speak with you. To-morrow, I expect that some more peo- ple will be here from the country you wish to buy from us. I was present when they began to run the boundary line between our country and that of the Sioux at the Bed COUNCIL WITH THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS 411 Deer's Bump. When you are ready to examine that line I will say more to you. ' ' Pe-she-ke (the Buffalo) **My Father, I am taken by sur- prise by what you have said to us, and will speak but few words to you now. We are waiting for more of our people who are coming from the country which you wish to buy from us. We will think of what you have said to us, and when they come, will tell you our minds about it. Men will then be chosen by us to speak with you. I have nothing more to say now. Na-can-ne-ga-be (the man that stands foremost) My fa- ther, the people will come from the country where my fathers have lived before me. When they arrive here, they will speak to you. Until then I have nothing more to say. Gov. Dodge, after urgently impressing upon the Chippe- was the necessity of remaining quiet and at peace with the Sioux, during the continuance of the council, adjourned to meet again to-morrow. Friday, July 21st. The Governor was advised this morning by Mr. Vine- yard, their agent, that the Chippewas did not wish to meet in council to-day, as the people whom they expected had not yet arrived, and they wanted more time to talk with one another. Saturday, July 22. The morning being cloudy, with an appearance of rain, the council did not meet until 3 o'clock P. M., when Gov. Dodge directed the Interpreter to say to the Indians, that when he had parted with them two days ago, they had told him that they expected to meet more of their friends here, and were desirous before taking any further steps about what he had spoken to them, of talking to one another — that he had now met them to hear what they might have to say about their absent friends, and to listen to any com- 412 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS mnnications which they might wish to make to him in re- gard to the comicils which they had held, and the condnsion to which they had arrived. After an interval of 15 or 20 minutes, during which time the Interpreter, by direction of the Governor, repeated the expression of his readiness to hear any remarks which the Indians might wish to make to him, Aish-ke-boge-kozhe, (Flat Mouth) rose and said, ^'My Father, I shall say but little to you at this time. I am called a chief. I am not the chief of the whole nation, but only of my people, or band. I speak to you now only because I see nobody else ready to do so. I do not wish to take any further steps about what you have proposed to us, until the other people arrive who have been expected here. They have not yet come, and to do anything before their arrival, might be considered an improper interference, and unfair towards them. The resi- dence of my band is outside of the country which you wish to buy from us. After the people who live in that country shall have told you their minds, I will speak. If the lands which you wish to buy were occupied by my band, I would immediately have given you my opinion. After listening to the people whom we are expecting, and who will speak to you, I will abide by what they say, and say more to you myself. My father, on getting up to speak to you, I hardly knew what to say. If I say no more, it is not because I am afraid to speak my mind before my people and those of the whole nation, and all others present, but because I have nothing more to say. Pe-she-ke (the Buffalo) I am deaf and cannot hear dis- tinctly what is said. I have seen the lips of the great chief move, but did not well hear his words, I have turned each ear to him to listen. There is another man here who has the confidence of my people beside myself, but we do not COUNCIL WITH THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS 413 wish to say more, until the rest of our nation we are ex- pecting shall arrive. Pay-a-jig. My father, your children are not displeased with what you have said to them, but they wish you to give them four times more tobacco than you have given them. My father, what has happened to yout Have you cut off your breasts, that you cannot suckle your children. If you did so, it would render them more pliant and ready to yield to your wishes. This was the case at the treaty of Prairie du Chien. I was there, and know what was done. The boundary line between our country and the Sioux was then established, and my people wish now to have it explained to them. I have been told by the warriors and chiefs to say what I have said to you. I do not say it of my own accord. My people have chosen me and another to talk with you about the proposition that you have made to them to buy a part of our country. I am ready to proceed whenever the others are ready. Other men of power and authority are behind, and are expected here. They will soon come, when we will give you our answer. Nadin (the Wind.) There is no dissatisfaction; we are all contented. Your children around you, both Chippewas and Sioux, wish to be friendly together, and want to carry on a little trade and bartering among ourselves. My father, I wish you would give the same advice to the Sioux you have given us, but do not wish to prevent them from making friendly visits. Monday, July 24. The Council met at 11 o'clock, A. M. Gov. Dodge directed the Interpreter to inform the lu- dians that four chiefs of their nation whom they had been expecting, had arrived at their encampment, and that fifty others were said to be near here, who had come from La Pointe with Messrs. Warren and Bushnell, who would prob- voL. IX — 28 414 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS ably arrive this evening, and as they were all of the same nation and brethren; he wished those present to consult with them ; that he did not wish to hurry their deliberations among themselves, but to give them full time to consult their friends, who had arrived, and those who were coming, and that he would not hear any thing they might have to say to him. Nadin (the Wind) then rose and said, *'My father, I am very sorry to keep you so long in a state of suspense re- specting the matters which you have proposed to us. My people are glad to see you, and are gratified at the proposi- tion you have made to them. My father, I now speak to you through the lips of the Buffalo (the latter had advanced to the Governor's table with '*the Wind,*' shaking him by the hand and remarking that he would do the same with all those present, but his arm was too short; after which he stepped back to allow the ''Wind*' to speak for him). He has been to see our Great Father beyond the mountains, and has come back safe. When I look at you I am struck with awe. I cannot suflSciently understand your impor- tance, and it confuses me. I have seen a great many Amer- icans, but never one whose appearance struck me as yours does. You have heard of the coming of those whose absence has prevented our proceedings in the matter proposed to us. This is the case with all our people here. My father, listen to what I am going to say to you. I listened to our Great Father beyond the mountains and have never for- gotten what he said to me. Others will speak after me, whose language will please you and put all things right. My father, we are a distracted people, and have no regular system of acting together. We cast a firm look on the peo- ple who are coming and all think alike about this matter. What we are going to say will not dissatisfy, but please you. COUNCIL WITH THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS 415 Pay-a-jig (The one who stands alone.) What I am going to say to you is not my own language but the words of the chiefs and others among you. They look at you who are all white, while they are half breed. How can we forget our traders in this matter. You are come to dispense bene- fits to us, and we much think of the traders. I think well of them. They have used me well and supported me, and I wish to do them justice. We should certainly be all very miserable if they would not do for us what they have done heretofore. And if we do wrong to them, how can we ex- pect it. My father, look around on all your red children, the trader has raised them, and it is thro' his means that they are as they are. We wish you to do them justice. They will, by this means, go on and support us as hereto- fore. I referred, when I began to speak, to the half breeds ; many of them have been brought up among us, and we wish to provide for them. Ma-je-ga-bo, (The man who stands foremost) My father, I shall not say much to you now. You are not a man to be spoken to in a light manner. I am not a Pillager, (the com- mon name of the Leech Lake Band) but went among them when small, which gives me the right to speak as one of them. My brother, (the Wind) stands beside me, and we are descended from those who in former days were the greatest orators of our nation. My father, I am not back- ward in sajdng what I wish, I am not going to say any thing to make your heart lean, and am not going to tell you what will be said by the chiefs. I will answer you when you make us an oflFer for our lands. As soon as our friends ar- rive, and I hear their decision, I will say all I have to say. I finish that subject for the present, and will speak upon another. My father, listen closely to me, I will hide nothing from you that has passed. But for the traders, you would not see all your children setting around you as they do to- 416 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS day. It was not the chiefs, but the traders who have sup- ported them to the present time. Our Great Father has told us that an agent would be sent to us, but he has not yet been among us. The traders are in our country to trade for the skins of animals, which we take to them. Half of what they bring into the country and sell to yotir children is lost to them. I am glad to see the agent here who is to go into our country, and support our young men, women and children. We wish to do justice to the half breeds who have been brought up among us, and have them provided for. Sha-go-bai, (the Little Six) My father, I heard of you when I was yet a young man, a long time ago — and now I see you. I am struck with awe when you look at me. I am startled when the wind comes rustling by, and the thunder- cloud, though I know it will pass along without harming, alarms me. So it is, my father, when you talk to your chil- dren around you of their lands, which you wish to buy from them. I have great confidence in the chief here, and others who are coming. When they come to treat fully with you, we (pointing to the two men standing beside him, and him- self) will set far off and listen. I sprung from the same stock with the people who stand behind you — white men — (Sha-go-bai, half breed) and am related to all the half breeds in the country where I live. My father, look at the man who is standing near me. His and my ancestors were the chief men of the country that you want to buy from* us. The traders have raised our children and we like them. I owe my life to the traders, who have supported us. I am glad to see the agent here who will live among us, and give us tobacco when we want it. Pe-she-ke (the Buffalo.) My father, listen to what I am going to say to you, let it enter deeply into your ear, and rest upon your heart. Tho' I may appear little in your COUNCIL WITH THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS 417 sight, when I address the warriors of my tribe they listen to me. Nobody — no trader has instructed me what to say to you. Those who have spoken before me have told you the truth, and I shall hereafter speak upon the same sub- ject. I have been supported by the trader, and without his aid, could not get through the winter with naked skin. The grounds where your children have to hunt are as bare as that on which I now stand, and have no game upon them. My father, I am glad to see you here, to embrace the earth. We have not much to give the traders, as our lands and hunting grounds are so destitute. Do us a kindness by pay- ing our old debts. I have nothing more to say. You are our father, and we look up to you, and respect you. I have come here and seen you, and my heart is at peace. I have talked with my warriors, and heard their words, and my mind is tranquil. Aish-ke-hoge-bozhe (Flat Mouth.) My father, your eyes are upon me, and mine upon you. Wherever I have been the print of the white men's hands have been left upon my own. Yours are not the first I have shaken. It is I and those men (pointing to the Elder Brother, the Strong Ground, and the Hole in the Day,) who have brought many of your children here. Their opinions are mine. My an- cestors were Chiefs of the tribes, and the villages while they lived. I do not, however, hold my title from them, but have obtained it by my own acts and merits. My father, when I came here this morning, I supposed you wanted to talk to us about the lands you wished to get from us, and not about the traders. After the question about selling the land shall be settled, it will then be time enough to talk about these traders. My father, I shall not be backward in speaking about what you propose to us, at the proper time. Many of my people have told me to say so ; but we can do nothing until 418 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS the other people arrive. We must listen to them. As I have told you before, after they shall speak I will say more. Pa-goona-kee-zhig (the Hole in the Day.) He who is the master of all, hears me speak. I know the traders, and what has been their conduct. I know which of them are good men, and those who are bad and act like drunken men. When our people come, I will speak again. Wash-ask-ko-kowe, (Bat's Liver.) My father, I am but little accustomed to speaking, and am generally one who listens. My father here (the agent) knows me and is ac- quainted with my character. If I wished to speak much I should feel no shame for my personal appearance ; but this you may not wish to hear. We are talking about the land which you have come for. I have walked over it with my war club in my hand. My forefathers and those of Pa- goona-kee-zhig, (Hole in the Day,) were the chiefs and pro- tectors of that country, and drove the Dakcotah away from it. My father, it is only to you that I look and listen, and not to the bad birds that are flying about us through the air. My own merit has brought me to the place I occupy to-day ; and I do not wish any body to push me forward as a speak- er. I have nothing to add now, but will say more when the business about the land has been settled. Que-we-shan-shez, (Big Mouth.) My father, what I am going to say to you now is not of much consequence. I have smoked with my friends and come to tell you the result After reflecting upon the subject, we concluded to agree with those who have already spoken to you. We do not wish to do anything to injure the people who wear hats. My father, all that has prevented us from doing what you came here to have us do, is that we have been waiting for others of our people, who have been expected here, and who we are afraid to dissatisfy; I never before have spoken to COUNCIL WITH THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS 419 your people at any length, and fear, my father, that you will think I am drunk, but I have here (putting his hand to Mb head) a great deal of sense which I have obtained from the white people, and as soon as the others of our nation come we will tell our minds to you. Sha-wa-nig-na-nabe, (South feather seated.) My father, what I have to say to you place it strongly at your heart. The Master of life and the earth both listen to us. The Master of life made the earth, the grass, and the trees that grow upon it, and the animals that roam over it. When the Great Spirit made the earth, he placed the red men upon it ; it became very strong. Some of our chiefs are now here, and others are coming. They do not wish to act precip- itately. Sheing-go-be, (the Spruce.) My father, I shall speak but few words to you. It is only I who can tell you the truth about the lands where I live, if you speak of the lands yonder, (pointing towards the country to be purchased.) I will not talk f ooUshly about them here in the midst of so many of those who first possessed the country (Ojibbe- ways.) Altho* I am but a child, I speak to the middle of the subject, and you shall hear straight about my lands, because I am the master of them. After you have spoken further about them, the Master of life will hear me answer you. Man-go-sit, (the Loon's Foot.) My father, I do not wish to say much. You do not know who I am and from whence I have sprung. I only wish to tell you now who my an- cestors were. I am the son of Le Brocheux, one of the greatest Chiefs of our nation. I have before given my thoughts to my children who have spoken to you, and I think before I speak. When I talk to the chiefs, I do not speak long. Ma-ge-go-be, after a long speech to the Indians, urging 420 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITIGS them to sell the land, but before doing so, to preiss upon fbe Governor to give them presents and furnish them with more provisions, said My father, this is all your children have now to say about our lands. They are all going to take a rest, and will then say more to you. Nadin (the Wind.) My father, when I saw our great fa- ther beyond the mountains, he gave me sense. Listen to me and let me tell you the truth. I listen to you and accede to your purposes. Tou must not suppose that things will not be as you wish. We are now arranging things to your liking. The station of Chief is a very diflScult one, but when I was acknowledged as one by our great father beyond the mountains, I thought I never should be refused any thing I asked for. Tour look is so firm that I think it would not be possible for you not to do what you wished. You have every thing around you, and can give us some of the cattle that are around us on the prairie. At the treaty of Prairie du Chien, the case was as difficult as this. The great Chief then fed us well with cattle. Gov. Dodge then directed the Interpreter to say, that their father, the Agent, would tell them whether he would give them cattle, and that he wished to see them in council early in the morning to-morrow; that he was glad to hear their friends would be here this evening, that as the weath- er was now good, they must make up their minds as soon as they could ; that he hoped the chiefs would see that their people kept on friendly terms with the Sioux. Tuesday, July 25th. Governor Dodge was informed this morning that seventy- five or eighty Indians belonging to four or five different bands from Lakes de Flambeau and Coutereille La Pointe, &c. had just arrived, accompanied by the sub-agent Mr. Bushnell, and Mr. Warren, the trader at La Pointe. These COUNCIL WITH THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS 421 gentlemen waited upon Gov. Dodge immediately on their arrival, and informed him that the Indians who had come with them could not go into council with him to-day. At their suggestion, therefore, and at the solicitation of Mr. Warren, the Governor postponed the meeting of the coun- cil until 9 o'clock to-morrow morning. Wednesday, July 26. On meeting in Council this morning, in addition to the Ojibbeways who had been present before, a large number of others appeared. The following are the bands to which they belong, and the names of the Chiefs. From Lac de Flambeau — Na-wa-ghe-wa, **The Knee,** 0-ge-ma-ga, ''The Dandy,*' Pa-se-quan-gis, **The Commis- sioner,** Wa-be-ne-me-ke, **The White Thunder,** Pish-ka- ga-ge, ''The White Crow.** Lake Coutereille. — We-non-ga-be, "The Wounded Man,** and Ke-wa-se, "The Old Man.** La Pointe, on Lake Superior. — Ghe-bish-ghe-kon, "The BuflFalo,** and Ta-qua-ga-nai, "Joining Lodges.** Gov. Dodge directed that in the future proceedings in the treaty, Stephen Bonga and Patrick Quinn should interpret the English language into Chippewa, and Scott Campbell and Jean Baptiste Dube, from Chippewa into English. He then addressed the Indians thus : My Children of the Chippewa Nation, assembled here: I have been informed that since I last met you, your people, whose absence had prevented the proceeding with our Council have arrived here. I wish now to learn from you if this is the case, and whether you are ready to proceed. I have before made a proposition to you, which those then present have, I pre- sume, communicated to you, who have recently arrived, for the purchase of a portion of your territory. You have de- ferred giving me an answer until your friends should ar- 422 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS rive, and as I believe they are now all here, I will renew my proposition to you, and will shew you a map explaining which part of your country it is I wish to buy. I will now place the map before me, and wish the chiefs and head men, and particularly those from that part of the country which I wish to purchase, to wit : Lakes De Flam- beau and Coutereille, and the Chippewa, St. Croix and Bum River, to come forward and examine it witii me, as I direct it to be explained, and after this examination I wish you to inform me, whether or not you will sell this country to me. Ghe-bish-ghe-kon, (The Buffalo, from Lake Superilor,) replied: We have come from a distance, and but lately ar- rived here, and what you have proposed to us, we want more time to think about. The notice you have given us is rather too short. Let us wait another day, and to-morrow we will be able to give you our answer. The Governor directed it to be said to them, that they could examine the map and have it explained to them; con- suit each other between this and to-morrow morning, and be prepared then to give him an answer; that he did not wish to hurry them, but that he had already waited pa- tiently during several days, and was anxious to bring the business to a close as soon as possible; that he would now be glad to hear any thing from any of the Chiefs who might wish to speak to him, and that if they desired it, he would remain during the whole day for that purpose. He then explained the map fully to the Chiefs and principal men, and repeated to them that he had been informed that the country he wished to get from them, was very destitute of game, and of little value for agricultural purposes, but that it abounds in pine timber, for which their great father the President of the United States, wished to purchase it from them for the use of his white children ; that he would give them a fair price for it ; that he wished them to under- COUNCIL WITH THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS 423 stand the map, and to enable them to do so, had mentioned and pointed out to them natural boundaries, commencing at the mouth of Crow Wing river, then to the source of the St. Croix river, thence to the head waters of the Wisconsin and down said river to the Plover Portage, where the line dividing the territory from the other Indians conmienced; while on the west the tract would be bounded by the Missis- sippi river ; that he wished them to be prepared to-morrow to give him an answer whether they would sell the land, and their price for it; that he wished them all to go home satis- fied, so that when they met their people there they might not be ashamed to tell them what, they had done ; that so many bands of their nation from such remote parts of it had never before, he believed, met together, and that he wished them now to advise with each other, to unite and act together as one people ; that he wished them to consult to- gether this evening, and select out of their number two chiefs in whom they had confidence, to speak for them ; that he wished to meet them all in council, but that not more than two should speak, to save time, that they should direct the two speakers what to say to him ; although they were of different bands, yet they were of the same nation, and their interests were in conmion; that he wished them all to be satisfied with what should be done ; that their great father, the President of the United States, would be just to them, and that they should be just towards each other — that in their consultations he desired they should remember their half breed relatives, and be just towards their traders, and that he would now be glad to hear any thing the chiefs might have to say. Pay-a-jik replied, that he and his brothers had talked to- gether, and had chosen a speaker. After waiting half an hour and none of the other chiefs having spoken, the Qovemor again took occasion to urge 424 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS upon the Chippewas the necessity of being at peace with the Sioux. Several chiefs came forward to ask questions respecting the map of the country wished to be purchased, and seemed to understand and be satisfied with it. The council ad- journed till to-morrow. Thursday, July 27th. The Council met at 11 o ^clock, A. M. Ma-ghe-ga-bo, (The Trapper) Pa-goona, Pe-shig, (The Hole in the Day,) came forward as speakers in behalf of their nation. Ma-ghe-ga-bo, was dressed in the full Indian, costume, naked, with the exception of his leggings, breecdi cloth and flapp, highly painted with red, his hair hanging loosely on his shoulders, a coronet of the feathers of the bald eagle placed on his head by the chiefs, and several medals hung around his neck. He advanced to the Governor, and with the map before him, pointing to it with his finger, said: My father, this is the country which is the home of your children. I have covered it with a paper, (he had done so) and so soon as I remove that paper the land shall be yours. I have listened closely to the words the chiefs have told me to say to you. My father, when we first met here, we smoked and shook hands together. Four times we have gone through the same ceremony, and now, on the fifth, we have come to give you an answer. I stand here to represent the chiefs of the different bands of my nation, and to tell you that they agree to sell you the land you want. My father, in all the country we sell you, we wish to hold on to that which gives us life — the streams and lakes where we fish, and the trees from which we make sugar. I have but few words to say, but they are the words of the chiefs, and very important. The being who created us, COUNCIL WITH THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS 425 made us naked. He gave you and your people knowledge and power to live well. Not so with us; we had to cover ourselves with moss and rotten wood, and you must shew your generosity towards us. The chiefs will now shew you the tree we wish to preserve. This is it (placing an oak sprig upon the table.) It is a different kind of tree from the one you wish to get from us. Every time the leaves fall from it, we will count it as one winter past. My father: You have told us what you want, and I an- swer you in the name of the chiefs. I am no chief, but a warrior, and the badge that I wear is to noiake me respected by my people. We have understood you will pay us in goods and money for our lands, and we Jsh to know now how much you will give us for them. Gov. Dodge then directed the interpreter to say to them : As the lands belong to you, I wish you to tell me what you wish me to pay you for it. If you cannot come to a conclu- sion among yourselves, I would recommend you to ask aid of your fathers (the sub-agents Vineyard & Bushnell.) But if you can determine among yourselves, do so. Ma-ghe-ga-bo — My father. If you offer us money and goods we will take both. You see me count my fingers, (coimting six.) Every finger counts ten. For so many years we wish you to pay us an annuity. After that our grand children, who will have grown up, can speak for themselves. We will consult with our fathers, (the sub- agents) and ask them what is the value of the land, and what annuity we ought to receive for sixty years. My fatlier, take the land you ask from us. Our chiefs have good hearts. Our women have brought the half breeds among us. They are poor, and we wish them to be provided for. They are here, and have left many of their children behind them. We wish to divide with them all. 426 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS This is the decision of the chiefs. Since we have met here this morning we have fully made up our minds to comply with your wishes. My father, we will not look back at what has happened before, but wiU begin our business anew with you from this day. What you propose to give ns, we wish to share only with our half breeds, that our people may en- joy the benefits of it. We will hold firmly what you give us that nobody may get it from us. My father, we once more recommend our half breeds to your kindness. They are very numerous. We wish you to select a place for them on this river, where they may live and raise their children, and have their joys of life. If I have well understood you, we can remain on the lands and hunt there. — We have hereto- fore got our living on them. We hope your people will not act towards ours as your forefathers did towards our own, but that you will always treat us kindly as you do now. My father, we understand you have been told that our country is not good to cultivate. It is not true. There is no better ground to cultivate than it until you get up to where the pine region commences. My father, you will now see all your children in whose behalf I speak. All the chiefs who agree to sell you the land will now rise. (They did so, to the number of thirty and upwards.) Ma-ghe-ga-bo, then raised the paper he had placed over the map, took Gov. Dodge by the hand, and con- tinued. My father, I will not let go your hand until I have counted the number of our villages. The Great Spirit first made the earth thin and light, but it has now become heavi- er. We do not wish to disappoint you and our great father beyond the mountains in the object you had in coming here. We therefore grant you the countrj'^ you want from us, and the chiefs who represent all the villages within its limits are now present, the number of the villages (nineteen) is marked on this paper, and I present it to you in acknowl- COUNCIL WITH THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS 427 edgment that we grant you the land. This piece (retaining in his hand another piece of paper) we will keep, because we wish to say something more on it. At the conclusion of this treaty, you will ask us to touch the quill, but no doubt you will grant us what we ask before we do so. At the end of the treaty I will repeat what the chiefs have to say to you, and keep this paper for that purpose. My father, the Great Spirit has given us a clear sky to talk together to-day. We must now rest, and when we meet again we vill speak further. Gov. Dodge. Do you wish me to give you my answer this evening, or wait until to-morrow morning! Answer — To- morrow morning. Gov. Dodge. It is proper for me to explain to you, that your great father never buys land for a term of years. I will agree that you shall have the free use of the rivers and the privilege of hunting on the lands you are to sell, during the pleasure of your great father. If you sell these lands, you must sell them as all the other Indian nations have done, and I tell you this now that you may not hereafter say I have deceived you. Your great father has sent me here to treat you as his children — to pay you the whole value of your lands, and not to deceive you in any thing I may do or say. If you consult with your two fathers, (the sub-agents) it is my wish that they may do you justice. Yon have spoken frequently of your half-breeds. It is a good principle in you to wish to provide for them, but you must do so in money, and cannot give them land. You have mentioned that you wish to receive one half I may agree to give you in money, and the other half in goods. I do not object to this, but have a proposition to make to you now, which I wish you to consider. Your great father recom- mends that you should take from year to year in part pay- ment for your lands, certain sums of money to provide 428 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS teachers to educate your children and make them wise like white people. Farmers to teach you to cultivate the ground, for agricultural implements, and seeds to plant in the earth, for provisions and salt, for tobacco, for black- smiths, iron, &c., and for mills and millers to grind the com you may raise. If you consent to this, let me know early to-morrow morning. Friday, July 28th, 1837. The Council met at 12 o'clock. After smoking and shak- ing hands — Aish-ke-boge-kho-ze, (Flat Mouth) said — My father, your children are willing to let you have their lands, but wish to reserve the privilege of making sugar from the trees, and getting their living from the lakes and rivers as they have heretofore done, and of remaining in the country. It is hard to give up the land. It will remain and cannot be destroyed, but you may cut down the trees, and others will grow up. You know we cannot live deprived of lakes and rivers. There is some game on the land yet, and for that we wish to remain upon it. Sometimes we scrape the trees and eat the bark. The Great Spirit above made the earth, and causes it to produce that which enables us to live. My father, we would long ago have agreed to let you have the lands, but when we agreed upon any point, there have been people to whisper in our ears — to trouble and dis- tract us. What the chiefs said yesterday they abide by. They cannot look back and change. My father, the Great Spirit above placed us on this land ; and we want some benefit from the .sale of it; if we could derive none, we would not sell it, and we want that benefit ourselves. I did not intend to speak; what I say is the lan- guage of the chiefs. I was not in council yesterday, be- cause I was not well. I have heard many things said — that we were going to put out the fires of the white people COUNCIL WITH THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS 429 in our country — that we were going to send the traders out of it ; but I know nothing about it, and when I speak, it is not with sugar in my mouth. My father, your children are rejoiced to see the agents here to-day, one of whom is to live on Lake Superior, and the other on the Mississippi, to keep peace in the country. We are pleased that our agents may estimate the value of our lands, that our young men, women, and children may go home with their hearts at ease. We will wait to hear what you offer for the lands, and will then make you our answer. We will depend upon our two fathers (agents) to interest themselves for us ; and will submit it to them whether what you offer us is enough. My father, there are many of your children here from a distance, and among them are three chiefs from the Chip- pewa river, and what they say is the opinion and wish of the people living there. They tell me to say to you that they have granted a privilege to some men of cutting timber on their lands, for which they are paid in tobacco and am- munition for hunting. They wish you not to break their word with these people, but to allow them to cut timber. They have granted you all you asked of them, and they wish you now to grant their request. Gk)v. Dodge. My friends, I have listened with great at- tention to your chiefs from Leech Lake. I wUl make known to your great father your request to be permitted to make sugar on the lands, and you will be allowed during his pleasure to hunt and fish on them. It will probably be many years before your great father will want all these lands for the use of his white children. As you have asked me what I will give for the country, I will now tell you, and will reo- onmiend the manner in which it ought to be paid to you. For that part of your country which I wish to buy, I offer you the sum of $800,000. I propose to give you an annuity VOL. IX — ^29 430 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS for twenty years of $20,000 in goods and money, one half in each, or all in goods if you choose, to provide $3,000 a year for the same time, to provide you with blacksmiths, &c., &c., (as in the treaty.) After the Governor had finished speaking, the council was adjourned. Saturday, July 29th, 1837. There were present about twenty chiefs at the opening of the council this morning. After the pipe was passed among them. Gov. Dodge said, he was now ready to proceed with the business before them, and wished to know whether they had agreed to accept the price he had offered them for the land they had sold to their great father, and whether they would accept the payment in the manner he had offered them. The chiefs present appeared unwilling to make an immediate reply, but talked among themselves in a low tone. After half an hour had passed, the warriors and braves to the number of several hundred, highly painted, with tomahawks and spears in their hands, carrying before them the war flag of their nation, and the flag of the United States, dancing round the flags, to the sound of their drums, with an occasional whoop were seen advancing toward the bower where the countil was held, When they had come near the place where the Governor was seated, Mage-ga-bo and Ma-go-bai, two of the principal warriors advanced and after shaking hands with him, Ma-go-bai said: My father, you see before you to-day the principal warriors who have spoken with you since you have invited your children to meet you. My father, the Great Spirit looks upon us alL The Master of life made all the different bands of our na- tion, and we are brothers. My father, the warriors of our people wish to be just. Our traders have clothed and sup- ported our young men, women, and children. They have made our hearts glad, by being among us. We owe a debt COUNCIL WITH THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS 431 to our traders and desire that they should be paid. Your children are poor, and not able to do them justice without the assistance of our great father. When you said you wished to buy our land your children were pleased. We thought you would give us a great deal, for the land and the tree you want ; and that we should then be able to pay our traders. My father, the hearts of our warriors were yester- day made lean, and a dark cloud passed over our eyes, when we heard what was said to you. My Father, we do not wish to displease you: you have been kind to us since we have been here, and your looks have always been pleas- ant. If you will not pay what we owe to our traders, we will return to our country, and live upon our lands. We now wait for your answer.. The Governor replied : Your great father is much pleased to find that his red children wish to be just, and wiU assist you to pay what you owe to your traders. I will give sev- enty thousand dollars to pay your debts, in addition to the $800,000 which I promised to give your people and half breeds. Your father will, therefore, without taking any thing from that which you were to receive satisfy your traders. After the Governor had ceased speaking, all the Chippe- was present gave token of satisfaction, and assented to the offer which had been made. The Governor then said — Nothing more is now necessar}' but to reduce what has been agreed upon to writing. The Secretary will prepare the papers, and we will meet again the afternoon, that the chiefs may touch the quill. Ma-ge-ga-bo then requested, in the name of all the braves, permission to hold a dance under the walls of Fort Snell- ing. The request having been granted, the gates of the fort were closed by the orders of Capt. Scott, o^ a matter of precaution. About three hundred braves imimediately 432 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POIjITICS afterwards commenoed the dance, in token of their joy and satisfaction that their wishes had been acceded to. This appeared to us to be intended as the greatest compliment and token of respect that could be paid by the Indians to the Commissioner; it also afforded the warriors oppor- tunity to boast of their deeds of bravery, to tell how many scalps they had taken from their enemies, (the Sionx.) We observed a great many of the Sioux standing near the ground where the dance was held, looking on with an air of apparent indifference, and listening quietly as each war- rior successively related his feats of arms, in the pauses of the dance. After the dance was ended, the Chippewas again assembled in council for the purpose of signing the treaty which had been prepared by the Secretary of the Commission. After many of the chiefs had touched the quill, the interpreter was directed to ask Pish-ka-ga-ge, (The White Crow,) to put his signature to the paper. This chief, (from Lake de Flambeau) had not spoken during the holding of the council, although he had come from that part of the Chippewa country whidi had been purchased by the Government, and was under- stood to be the most influential chief in his band. The White Crow having advanced and shaken hands with the Governor, said: My father, while the chiefs of my people have talked with you, I have yet said nothing. But you must not suppose that I am unable to speak on proi>er oc- casion, or that my people do not listen. The Great Spirit looks upon me, and is not displeased when I tread upon the land occupied by my forefathers. Since I have been here, my mind has been disturbed by the talking of many people, (alluding to the traders) so that I was not satisfied to speak to you. I am pleased with what the chiefs have said and what has been done. The Governor then said, as Pish-ka-ga-ge did not arrive COUNCIL WITH THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS 433 in time to receive any of the presents given to the principal chiefs, he shall yet receive what was intended to be pre- sented as an acknowledgment of his station as chief. Pish- ka-ga-ge then said, My father, I now touch the quill, (touch- ing the pen in the hand of the Secretary, Mr. Van Antwerp) and at the same time I touch all the whiskey in your pos- session. The remaining chiefs then present signed the treaty, and the Indians immediately prepared to return to their coun- tr\\ TRRATY WITH THE CHIPPEWA 1837 A rticles of a treaty made and concluded at St. Peters (the confluence of the St. Peters and Mississippi rivers) in the Territory of Wisconsin, between the United States of America, by their commissioner, Henry Dodge, Oov- ernor of said Territory, and the Chippewa nation of Indians, by their chiefs and headmen. Article 1. The said Chippewa nation cede to the United States all that tract of country included within the following boundaries : Beginning at the junction of the Crow Wing and Missis- sippi rivers, between twenty and thirty miles above where the Mississippi is crossed by the forty-sixth parallel of north latitude, and running thence to the north point of Lake St. Croix, one of the sources of the St. Croix river; thence to and along the dividing ridge between the waters of Lake Superior and those of the Mississippi, to the sources of the Oclia-sua-sepe a tributary of the Chippewa river; thence to a point on the Chippewa river, twenty miles below the outlet of Lake De Flambeau ; thence to the junction of the Wisconsin and Pelican rivers ; thence on an east course twenty-five miles; thence southerly, on a course parallel 434 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS with that of the Wisconsin river, to the line dividing the territories of the Chippewas and Menomonies ; thence to the Plover Portage ; thence along the southern boundary of the Chippewa country, to the commencement of the boundary line dividing it from that of the Sioux, half a days march below the falls on the Chippewa river; thence with said boundary line to the mouth of Wah-tap river, at its junction with the Mississippi; and thence up the Mississippi to the place of beginning. Article 2. In consideration of the cession aforesaid, the United States agree to make to the Chippewa nation, annually, for the term of twenty years, from the date of the ratification of this treaty, the following payments. 1. Nine thousand five hundred dollars, to be paid in money. 2. Nineteen thousand dollars, to be delivered in goods. 3. Three thousand dollars for establishing three black- smith shops, supporting the blacksmiths, and furnishing them with iron and steel. 4. One thousand dollars for farmers, and for supplying them and the Indians, with implements of labor, with grain or seed ; and whatever else may be necessary to enable them to carry on their agricultural pursuits. 5. Two thousand dollars in provisions. 6. Five hundred dollars in tobacco. The provisions and tobacco to be delivered at the same time with the goods, and the money to be paid ; which time or times, as well as the place or places where they are to be delivered, shall be fixed upon under the direction of the President of the United States. The blacksmith shops to be placed at such points in the Chippewa country as shall be designated by the Superin- tendent of Indian Affairs, or under his direction. If at the expiration of one or more years the Indians COUNCIL WITH THE CHIPPEWA INDIANS 435 should prefer to receive goods, instead of the nine thousand dollars agreed to be paid to them in money, they shall be at liberty to do so. Or, should they conclude to appropriate a portion of that annuity to the establishment and support of a school or schools among them, this shall be granted them. Abticle 3. The sum of one hundred thousand dollars shall be paid by the United States, to the half-breeds of the Chippewa nation, under the direction of the President. It is the wish of the Indians that their two sub-agents Daniel P. Bushnell, and Miles M. Vineyard, superintend the distri- bution of this money among their half-breed relations. Article 4. The sum of seventy thousand dollars shall be applied to the payment, by the United States, of certain claims against the Indians; of which amount twenty-eight thousand dollars shall, at their request, be paid to William A. Aitkin, twenty-five thousand to Lyman M. Warren, and the balance applied to the liquidation of other just demands against them — which they acknowledge to be the case with regard to that presented by Hercules L. Dousman, for the sum of five thousand dollars; and they request that it be paid. Article 5. The privilege of hunting, fishing, and gather- ing the wild rice, upon the lands, the rivers and the lakes in- cluded in the territory ceded, is guarantied to the Indians, ' ^ 456 IOWA JOURNAL OF HISTORY AND POLITICS Ownership of Ohio Lands, by Albion Morris Dyer. A sapplement to this number contains the proceedings of the Society at the an- nual meeting held on January 25, 1911. The Relation of Archaeology to History is the subject of an ad- dress by Carl Russell Fish, which appears in the December- February number of The Wisconsin Archeologist. Arlow B. Stout writes a brief sketch on The Winnebago and the Mounds. Charlea E. Brown is the contributor of two articles, one on Silver Trade Crosses, and the other on A Qroup of Indian Mounds on the Peca- tonica River. There are also some Notes of the Four Lakes Indians^ and a notice of The Centenary of Increase Allen Laphatn. The January-March number of The Qttarterly Publication of the Historical and Philosophic The Lieutenant Governor and the Speaker of the House will now receive $2,000 each, that is, double the compensation of members. ^Des Moines and Lee counties are reduced to one representative each and Black Hawk and Wapello will get two representatives each. 5 For instance see Laws of Iowa, 1911, pp. 105, 106, 126, 140. ^Law8 of Iowa, 1911, p. 201. f Laws of Iowa, 1911, pp. 3, 4. BLaws of Iowa, 1911, p. 185. THE THIRTY-FOURTH GENERAL ASSEMBLY 477 primary from the first Tuesday after the first Monday in June to the first Monday in June,* and the other relating to the nomination of persons whose names do not appear on the ofl5cial ballot.^ *^ Local government in Iowa, being dependent upon the General Assembly, offers to the legislator a fertile field for the production of new statutes. In respect to county gov- ernment there is the usual biennial grist of powers vested in or denied to the Board of Supervisors. Perhaps the most important act affecting the governing board of the county was the subjecting of the Board of Supervisors to the provisions of the Cosson Law, which provides for their removal for misfeasance, malfeasance, or nonfeasance in oflSce.^^ Another act makes the removal of county seats more difficult.^* Furthermore, the oflSce of County Sur- veyor was abolished, and the Board of Supervisors was authorized to employ a competent person * ' for the purpose of making general specifications for the grading, repairing and building of roads, bridges and culverts, and to perform such other duties as the board of supervisors may deter- mine".^^ The Board of Supervisors was also authorized, with the consent of the voters at an election, to levy a tax not to exceed one mill upon the dollar for the purpose of prospecting for coal.^* Except for the provisions requiring the County Attorney to appear in behalf of the township trustees in counties of less than twenty-five thousand population whenever they 9 Laws of Iowa, 1911, p. 42. 10 Laws of Iowa, 1911, pp. 42, 43. 11 Laws of Iowa, 1911, p. 43. 12 Laws of Iowa, 1911, p. 15 18 Laws of Iowa, 1911, p. 18 1* Laws of Iowa, 1911, p. 22. 478 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS are made parties to litigation," all of the laws relating to the township enacted by the Thirty-fourth General Assem- bly will be referred to under the head of road legislation. Municipal legislation must ever be a patchwork of statutes as long as the present scheme of municipal organ- ization maintains. Therefore each successive General Assembly grinds a full hopper of laws relating to or affect- ing cities and towns. Twenty-six acts were passed in 1911 giving cities and towns power to act in matters where they ought to be able to act without special legislative authority. To make vaUd actions where authority has been wanting or where doubt has arisen thirty-three legalizing acts were passed for the relief of cities and towns." Li addition several other acts of minor importance affecting cities as well as the other grades of local government were passed.^'' The commission plan of city government was amended by four different acts, the most important of which was the re-writing of the provisions relative to the civil service." From the standpoint of city ** boosting" the act provid- ing for the creation of a department of pubUcity in cities is deserving of special notice. The purpose of this depart- ment is declared to be ''collecting and distributing, by correspondence, advertising and other means, information relating to the industrial, commercial, manufacturing, resi- dential, educational and other advantages and resources of such city."" Of the two hundred and seventy acts of the Thirty-fourth General Assembly not many can be said to be of general public interest. Minor statutory changes, acts dealing with IB Laws of Iowa, 1911, p. 23. i« Out of forty-seven legalizing acts passed. 17 Laws relative to taxation, etc. 18 Laws of Iowa, 1911, p. 38. !• Laws of Iowa, 1911, p. 41. THE THIRTY-FOURTH GENERAL ASSEMBLY 479 technical subjects or the various state departments not of general interest will not be considered. Most of the laws passed which are of general interest may broadly be classed as * * Social and Economic Legislation ' ' — the field of legis- lation which has furnished every State legislature its most difficult problems. This class of legislation, which is fre- quently called **freak legislation'* by the special interests affected, will be considered under special headings. TAXATION The subject of taxation received more attention from the Thirty-fourth General Assembly than it had received in many years. A temporary tax commission was created for the purpose of securing information looking toward a com- plete revision of the tax laws.^^ An act exempting moneys and credits from more than nominal taxation was passed,^^ and may be regarded as an invitation to capital to remain in and come to the State. Li connection with this act men- tion should be made of the act prohibiting the employment of tax ferrets to discover moneys and credits which the assessor has failed to locate.^^ The former assessment of moneys and credits at the ordinary rate of taxation, to- gether with the employment of tax ferrets, has been held to be one of the influences responsible for the marked de- crease in the population of the State. The collateral inheritance tax law was completely re- written, and covers fifteen pages in the printed laws.*^ The act exempts estates of less than one thousand dollars after deducting debts. The old soldiers' tax exemption was in- creased from $800 to $1,200.^* It is also of interest to note 20 Law8 of Iowa, 1911, p. 229. 21 Laws of Iowa, 1911, p. 45. 22 Laws of Iowa, 1911, p. 48 zi Laws of Iowa, 1911, pp. 50-64. 24 Laws of Iowa, 1911, p. 44. 480 IOWA JOURNAL OP HISTORY AND POLITICS that the Thirty-fourth General Assembly by joint resolu- tion ratified the proposed income tax amendment to the Constitution of the United States.^*^ LABOR LBQISLATION Among the laws enacted by the Thirty-fourth General Assembly is a long act of fifty-two sections entitled ** Mines and Mining ''y which codifies and strengthens the former provisions relative to safety and sanitation in mines. The new features of the act relate largely to protection against fire.*« Another act of much importance is one looking toward a more comprehensive code of labor laws. A temporary com- mission, known as the Employer's Liability Commission,^'' was created to ** investigate the problem of industrial acci- dents and especially the present condition of the law of liability for injuries or death suffered in the course of in- dustrial employment as well in this state as in other states, and shall inquire into the most equitable and effectual meth- od of providing compensation for losses suffered *'. The work of this commission, like that of the