Class

Book_

Copyright N°.

COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT.

DEDICATED
TO

MY DISTINGUISHED GUIDES THROUGH THE UPPER

PALEOLITHIC CAVERNS OF

THE PYRENEES, DORDOGNE, AND THE CANTABRIAN MOUNTAINS OF SPAIN

EMILE CARTAILHAC
HENRI BREUIL
HUGO OBERMAIER

1

<p

MEN OF
THE OLD STONE AGE

THEIR ENVIRONMENT, LIFE
AND ART

HITCHCOCK LECTURES OF THE UNIVERSITY OF
CALIFORNIA, 1914

BY THE SAME AUTHOR

THE ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF

LIFE. Illustrated. 8vo net $3.00

" Besides being a striking contribution to the theory
of the origin of life, embodying all that is soundest
in modern thought and research, this book gives as
fascinating an account of the prehistoric condition of
the earth and of the earliest forms of life that existed
upon it as any reader could desire for his information
and delight." — North American Review.

Charles Scribner's Sons

PL. I. Neanderthal man at the station of Lc Moustier, overlooking the valley of the Vezere,
Dordogne. Drawing by Charles R. Knight, under the direction of the author.

F

MEN OF
THE OLD STONE AGE

THEIR ENVIRONMENT, LIFE
AND ART

BY

HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN

SC.D. PRINCETON, HON. LL.D. TRINITY, PRINCETON, COLUMBIA, HON. D.SC. CAMBRIDGE

HON. PH.D. CHRISTIANIA

RESEARCH PROFESSOR OF ZOOLOGY, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY

VERTEBRATE PALAEONTOLOGIST U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, HONORARY CURATOR OF VERTEBRATE

PALEONTOLOGY IN THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY

ILLUSTRATIONS BY
UPPER PALEOLITHIC ARTISTS

AND

CHARLES R. KNIGHT, ERWIN S. CHRISTMAN
AND OTHERS

THIRD EDITION

With new notes and illustrations on the archeology of

Spain and North Africa

NEW YORK
CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS

1918

i

<\

6

Copyright, 1915, 1918, by
CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS

Published November, 1915

Second edition, January, 19 16

Reprinted, March, May, June, 1916

Third edition, September, 19 18

W 2^ ,m ,

,A50343«

PREFACE

This volume is the outcome of an ever memorable tour
through the country of the men of the Old Stone Age, guided by
three of the distinguished archaeologists of France, to whom the
work is gratefully dedicated. This Palaeolithic tour* of three
weeks, accompanied as it was by a constant flow of conversation
and discussion, made a very profound impression, namely, of
the very early evolution of the spirit of man, of the close relation
between early human environment and industry and the devel-
opment of mind, of the remote antiquity of the human powers of
observation, of discovery, and of invention. It appears that men
with faculties and powers like our own, but in the infancy of edu-
cation and tradition, were living in this region of Europe at least
25,000 years ago. Back of these intelligent races were others,
also of eastern origin but in earlier stages of mental development,
all pointing to the very remote ancestry of man from earlier
mental and physical stages.

Another great impression from this region is that it is the
oldest centre of human habitation of which we have a complete,
unbroken record of continuous residence from a period as remote
as 100,000 vears corresponding with the dawn of human culture,
to the hamlets of the modern peasant of France of A. D. 191 5.
In contrast, Egyptian, ^Egean, and Mesopotamian civilizations
appear as of yesterday.

The history of this region and its people has been developed
chiefly through the genius of French archaeologists, beginning
with Boucher de Perthes. The more recent discoveries, which
have come in rapid and almost bewildering succession since the
foundation of the Institut de Paleontologie humaine, have been
treated in a number of works recently published by some of the

* The folding map at the end of the volume exhibits the entire extent of the author's
tour.

vii

viii PREFACE

experienced archaeologists of England, France, and Germany. I
refer especially to the Prehistoric Times of Lord Avebury, to the
Ancient Hunters of Professor Sollas, to Der Mensch der Vor-
zeit of Professor Obermaier, and to Die diluviale Vorzeit Deutsch-
lands of Doctor R. R. Schmidt. Thus, on receiving the in-
vitation from President Wheeler to lecture upon this subject
before the University of California, I hesitated from the feeling
that it would be difficult to say anything which had not been
already as well or better said. On further reflection, however,
I accepted the invitation with the purpose of attempting to
give this great subject a more strictly historical or chronological
treatment than it had previously received within the limits of
a popular work in our own language, also to connect the environ-
ment, the animal and human life, and the art.

This element of the time in which the various events occurred
can only be drawn from a great variety of sources, from the
simultaneous consideration of the geography, climate, plants and
animals, the mental and bodily development of the various
races, and the industries and arts which reflect the relations be-
tween the mind and the environment. In more technical terms,
I have undertaken in these lectures to make a synthesis of the
results of geology, palaeontology, anthropology, and archaeology,
a correlation of environmental and of human events in the Euro-
pean Ice Age. Such a synthesis was begun many years ago in
the preparation of my Age of Mammals, but could not be com-
pleted until I had gone over the territory myself.

The attempt to place this long chapter of prehistory on a
historical basis has many dangers, of which I am fully aware. Af-
ter weighing the evidence presented by the eminent authorities
in these various branches of science, I have presented my con-
clusions in very definite and positive form rather than in vague or
general terms, believing that a positive statement has at least the
merit of being positively supported or rebutted by fresh evidence.
For example, I have placed the famous Piltdown man, Eoanthro-
pus, in a comparatively recent stage of geologic time, an entirely
opposite conclusion to that reached by Doctor A. Smith Wood-

PREFACE ix

ward, who has taken a leading part in the discovery of this famous
race and has concurred with other British geologists in placing it
in early Pleistocene times. The difference between early and late
Pleistocene times is not a matter of thousands but of hundreds of
thousands of years; if so advanced a stage as the Piltdown man
should definitely occur in the early Pleistocene, we may well
expect to discover man in the Pliocene ; on the contrary, in my
opinion even in late Pliocene times man had only reached a stage
similar to the Pithecanthropus, or prehuman Trinil race of Java ;
in other words, according to my view, man as such chiefly evolved
during the half million years of the Pleistocene Epoch and not
during the Pliocene.

This question is closely related to that of the antiquity of
the oldest implements shaped by the human hand. Here again
I have adopted an opinion opposed by some of the highest au-
thorities, but supported by others, namely, that the earliest of
these undoubted handiworks occur relatively late in the Pleis-
tocene, namely, about 125,000 years ago. Since the Piltdown
man was found in association with such implements, it is at once
seen that the two questions hang together.

This work represents the co-operation of many specialists on
a single, very complex problem. I am not in any sense an ar-
chaeologist, and in this important and highly technical field I have
relied chiefly upon the work of Hugo Obermaier and of Dechelette
in the Lower Palaeolithic, and of Henri Breuil in the Upper Pa-
laeolithic. Through the courtesy of Doctor Obermaier I had the
privilege of watching the exploration of the wonderful grotto of
Castillo, in northern Spain, which affords a unique and almost
complete sequence of the industries of the entire Old Stone Age.
This visit and that to the cavern of Altamira, with its wonderful
frescoed ceiling, were in themselves a liberal education in the pre-
history of man. With the Abbe Breuil I visited all the old camp-
ing stations of Upper Palaeolithic times in Dordogne and noted
with wonder and admiration his detection of all the fine grada-
tions of invention which separate the flint-makers of that period.
With Professor Cartailhac I enjoyed a broad survey of the Lower

x PREFACE

and Upper Palaeolithic stations and caverns of the Pyrenees
region and took note of his learned and spirited comments.
Here also we had the privilege of being with the party who entered
for the first time the cavern of Tuc d'Audoubert, with the Comte
de Begouen and his sons.

In the American Museum I have been greatly aided by Mr.
Nels C. Nelson, who has reviewed all the archaeological notes
and greatly assisted me in the classification of the flint and bone
implements which is adopted in this volume.

In the study of the divisions, duration, and fluctuations of
climate during the Old Stone Age I have been assisted chiefly
by Doctor Chester A. Reeds, a geologist of the American Museum,
who devoted two months to bringing together in a comprehensive
and intelligible form the results of the great researches of Albrecht
Penck and Eduard Bruckner embraced in the three-volume
work, Die Alpen im Eiszeitalter . The temperatures and snow-
levels of the Glacial Epoch, which is contemporaneous with the
Old Stone Age, together with the successive phases of mammalian
life which they conditioned, afford the firm basis of our chronology;
that is, we must reckon the grand divisions of past time in terms
of Glacial and Interglacial Stages; the subdivisions are recorded
in terms of the human invention and progress of the flint industry.
I have also had frequent recourse to The Great Ice Age and the
more recent Antiquity of Man in Europe of James Geikie, the
founder of the modern theory of the multiple Ice Age in Europe.

It is a unique pleasure to express my indebtedness to the
Upper Palaeolithic artists of the now extinct Cro-Magnon race,
from whose work I have sought to portray so far as possible
the mammalian and human life of the Old Stone Age. While
we owe the discovery and early interpretation of this art to a
generation of archaeologists, it has remained for the Abbe Breuil
not only to reproduce the art with remarkable fidelity but to
firmly establish a chronology of the stages of art development.
These results are brilliantly set forth in a superb series of volumes
published by the Institut de Paleontologie humaine on the founda-
tion of the Prince of Monaco; in fact, the memoirs on the art

PREFACE xi

and industry of Grimaldi, Font-de-Gaunie, Altaniira, La Pasiega,
and the Cantabrian caves of Spain (Les Cavernes de la Region
Cantabrique), representing the combined labors of Capitan, Car-
tailhac, Verneau, Boule, Obermaier, and Breuil, mark a new epoch
in the prehistory of man in Europe. There never has been a
more fortunate union of genius, opportunity, and princely support.

In the collection of materials and illustrations from the vast
number of original papers and memoirs consulted in the prepara-
tion of this volume, as well as in the verification of the text and
proofs, I have been constantly aided by one of my research as-
sistants, Miss Christina D. Matthew, who has greatly facilitated
the work. I am indebted also to Miss Mabel R. Percy for the
preparation and final revision of the manuscript. From the
bibliography prepared by Miss Jannette M. Lucas, the reader
may find the original authority for every statement which does
not rest on my own observation or reflection.

Interest in human evolution centres chiefly in the skull and
in the brain. The slope of the forehead and the other angles,
which are so important in forming an estimate of the brain ca-
pacity, may be directly compared throughout this volume, be-
cause the profile or side view of every skull figured is placed
in exactly the same relative position, namely, on the lines es-
tablished by the anatomists of the Frankfort Convention to
conform to the natural pose of the head on the living body.

In anatomy I have especially profited by the co-operation of
my former student and present university colleague Professor
J. Howard McGregor, of Columbia, who has shown great ana-
tomical as well as artistic skill in the restoration of the heads of
the four races of Trinil, Piltdown, Neanderthal, and Cro-Magnon.
The new reconstruction of the Piltdown head is with the aid of
casts sent to me by my friend Doctor A. Smith Woodward, of the
British Museum of Natural History. The problem of reconstruc-
tion of the Piltdown skull has, through the differences of inter-
pretation by Smith Woodward, Elliot Smith, and Arthur Keith,
become one of the causes celebres of anthropology. On the plac-
ing of the fragments of the skull and jaws, which have few points

xii PREFACE

of contact, depends the all-important question of the size of the
brain and the character of the profile of the face and jaws. In
Professor McGregor's reconstruction different methods have been
used from those employed by the British anatomists, and ad-
vantage has been taken of an observation of Mr. A. E. Anderson
that the single canine tooth belongs in the upper and not in
the lower jaw. In these models, and in all the restorations of
men by Charles R. Knight under my direction, the controlling
principle has been to make the restoration as human as the
anatomical evidence will admit. This principle is based upon
the theory for which I believe very strong grounds may be
adduced, that all these races represent stages of advancing and
progressive development; it has seemed to me, therefore, that
in our restorations we should indicate as much alertness,
intelligence, and upward tendency as possible. Such progressive
expression may, in fact, be observed in the faces of the higher
anthropoid apes, such as the chimpanzees and orangs, when in
process of education. No doubt, our ancestors of the early
Stone Age were brutal in many respects, but the represen-
tations which have been made chiefly by French and German
artists of men with strong gorilla or chimpanzee characteristics
are, I believe, unwarranted by the anatomical remains and are
contrary to the conception which we must form of beings in the
scale of rapidly ascending intelligence.

Henry Fairfield Osborn.

American Museum of Natural History
June 21, 1915.

In sending forth the second edition I have been able to add
the results of recent research on the jaw of the Piltdown man,
and on the presence of anthropoid apes in Europe during the

Old Stone Age.

H. F. O.

December 20, 191 5.

PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION

The call for a third edition of this volume has afforded me
an opportunity not only to correct a number of minor errors in
the illustrations and text, to which friendly reviewers and critics
have called attention, but also to add an account of the Palaeo-
lithic history of Spain and of the western region of northern
Africa.

The relations of the ancient life of the Iberian Peninsula
with that of Tunis, Algiers, and Morocco were at times very
close indeed. In fact, the very characteristic industry known as
the Capsian, which developed in North Africa during Upper
Palaeolithic times, extended throughout southeastern Spain, the
two regions constituting a single archaeologic province. The art
of Alpera and Cogul, which in the earlier editions of this work
was attributed to Neolithic times, belongs rather to the close of
the Palaeolithic and was probably contemporary with the Cap-
sian and Tardenoisian flint industry of these stations. It em-
braces hunting scenes with numerous human figures in silhouette,
wholly distinct from the possibly contemporaneous Magdalenian
art of the north.

Before perusing Chapter VI, which covers the close of
the Upper Palaeolithic in France, the reader will therefore do
well to turn to the new and extensive note in the Appendix
describing this African life and industry. A clear understanding
of the sources of the flint industry of Aurignacian times and also
of the Tardenoisian flint industry and so-called Azilio-Tardenoi-
sian culture described in Chapter VI will thus be gained.

Although the recent researches in Spain have greatly ex-
tended our knowledge, it is still to France that we turn for the
most significant developments in the prehistory of Europe.
Since the first publication of this work French archaeology has

sdv PREFACE

suffered by the tragic death of Dechelette in the war; and also
by a suspension of the wonderful course of discovery and re-
search that marked the decade preceding the fateful year of
1914. Many problems — especially those discussed in the earlier
chapters of this work — which might have been cleared up by
further French research have remained untouched. For the
same reason it would be premature to reconsider the chronologic
succession of human types and geologic events which was pro-
visionally proposed in the first edition of this work in 191 5. We
hope that brighter days are coming when science and art may be
able to resume their peaceful paths, and that materials may
then be gathered for a fourth edition of this work in which some,
at least, of the many unanswered questions may be reconsidered
in the light of further researches in the archaeology of France.

The anatomy of Palaeolithic man has been debated in a long
discussion about the Piltdown Race, and even at this writing it
is not finally agreed that the Piltdown jaw belongs with the Pilt-
down skull, because the new evidence brought forward by Dr.
Smith Woodward, although strong, is not deemed entirely con-
clusive. This uncertainty is an instance not of the failure of
scientific inquiry, but of the general desire of scientists to accept
only that which has been conclusively demonstrated and to keep
on seeking for conclusive evidence. Similar uncertainty exists
regarding the anatomy of the Brunn Race, to which no new con-
tributions have been made. It is interesting to record the fact
that Professor J. H. McGregor, whose models and restorations
of Palaeolithic man included in the illustrations of this book
have been so widely appreciated, is now making a special and
intensive study of Palaeolithic man which will no doubt be attended
by important results. Similarly, another colleague of the author,
Professor William K. Gregory, is studying anew the evolution of
the anthropoid apes and other Primates, so that further light on the
anatomy and evolution of primitive man may shortly be expected.

Henry Fairfield Osborn.

May 1st, 1918.

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION '

PAGE

Greek conceptions of man's origin i

Rise of anthropology 3

Rise of archaeology 10

Geologic history of man 18

Geographic changes 34

Climatic changes 37

Migrations of mammals „ 42

CHAPTER I

Ancestry of the anthropoid apes „ 49

Pliocene climate, forests, and life 60

Transition to the Pleistocene 62

The first glaciation 64

The First Interglacial Stage 66

Early Pleistocene fauna 69

The Trinil race 73

Eoliths, or primitive flints 84

The second glaciation 86

The Second Interglacial Stage 90

The Heidelberg race 95

Migrations of the reindeer 102

The third glaciation 104

CHAPTER II

Date of the Pre-Chellean industry 107

Geography and climate 116

XV

xvi CONTENTS

PAGE

The river-drift stations . '. 119

Pre-Chellean industry 126

The Piltdown race 130

Mammalian life 144

Chellean industry 148

Chellean geography 154

Paleolithic stations of Germany 159

ACHEULEAN INDUSTRY l6l

The use of fire 165

acheulean industry l66

The second period of arid climate 173

Late Acheulean implements 177

The Neanderthal race of Krapina 181

CHAPTER III

Close of the Third Interglacial 186

The Fourth Glacial Stage 188

Arctic tundra life 190

Environment of the Neanderthal race 196

Mammals hunted by the Neanderthals 202

Cave life 211

The Neanderthal race 214

mousterian industry 244

Disappearance of the Neanderthals

256

CHAPTER IV

Opening of the Upper Paleolithic . . 260

The Grimaldi race 264

Arrival of the Cro-Magnons 269

Upper Paleolithic cultures 275

CONTENTS xvii

PAGE

Upper Paleolithic races 278

Geography and climate 279

Mammalian life .• 284

The Cro-Magnon race ......... 289

Burial customs . . 0 ....... . 303

aurignacian industry ........ 305

-— -"the birth of art „ 315

Origin of the Solutrean culture . . 330

Human fossils . 333

The Brunn race 334

Solutrean industry . 338

Solutrean art ......... 347

CHAPTER V

Origin of the Magdalenian culture

Magdalenian culture

Magdalenian climate .

Mammalian life . . .

Human fossils . . .

Magdalenian industry

Upper Palaeolithic art

Magdalenian engravings

Magdalenian painting

Art in the caverns

Polychrome painting .

Magdalenian sculpture

Extent of the Magdalenian culture

Decline of the Magdalenian culture

Cro-Magnon descendants ......

35i
354
360

364
376
382

392
30
408
409
414
427
434
449
45i

xviii CONTENTS

CHAPTER VI

PAGE

Close of the Old Stone Age 456

Invasion of new races 457

Mas d'Azil 459

Fere-en-Tardenois 465

Azilian-Tardenoisian culture 466

Mammalian life 468

Azilian-Tardenoisian industry 470

The burials at Ofnet 475

The new races . : 479

Ancestry of European races ...... 489

Transition to the Neolithic 493

Neol thic culture 496

Neolithic fauna 498

Prehistoric and historic races of Europe 499

Conclusions 501

APPENDIX

NOTE

I. Lucretius and Bossuet on the early evolution of man 503

II. Horace on the early evolution of man 504

III. AESCHYLUS ON THE EARLY EVOLUTION OF MAN 505

IV. 'Urochs' or 'Auerochs' and 'Wisent' 505

V. The Cro-Magnons of the Canary Islands 506

VI. The length of Postglac al time and the antiquity of

THE AUR GNACIAN CULTURE 51O

VII. The most recent discoveries of anthropoid apes and

SUPPOSED ANCESTORS OF MAN IN INDIA 511

VIII. Anthropoid apes discovered by Carthaginian navigators 511

IX. The jaw and skull of the Piltdown man 512

X. Family sepulture of La Ferrassie, France 513

XL Paleolithic history of northwestern Africa and

southern Spain 514

Bibliography 527

Index 547

ILLUSTRATIONS

Plate I. Neanderthal man at the grotto of Le Moustier (in tint)

Frontispiece

PAGE

Plate II. Discovery sites of the type specimens of human and pre-
human races (in color) facing 19

Plate III. Pithecanthropus, the ape-man of Java 87

Plate IV. The Piltdown man ■ 145

Plate V. The Neanderthal man of La Chapelle-aux-Saints .... 203

Plate VI. The 'Old Man of Cro-Magnon' .'".' 273

Plate VII. Cro-Magnon artists in the cavern of Font-de-Gaume (in

facing 358

Plate VIII. Bison painted by Palaeolithic artists in the cavern of Alta-

mira (in color) facing 414

FIG.

1. Modern, Palaeolithic, and chimpanzee skulls compared .... 8

2. Skull and brain of Pithecanthropus, the ape-man of Java .... 9

3. Three great types of flint implements 11

4. Evolution of the lance-point 15

5. Map — Type stations of Palaeolithic cultures 16

6. Section — Terraces of the River Inn near Scharding 25

7. Section — Terraces of the River Rhine above Basle * 26

8. Section — Terraces of the River Thames near London 28

9. Magdalenian loess station of Aggsbach in Lower Austria .... 29

10. Section of the site of the Neanderthal cave 31

11. Sections showing the formation of the typical limestone cavern . . 32

12. Map — Europe in the period of maximum continental elevation . . 35

13. Section showing snow-lines and sea-levels of the Glacial Epoch . . 37

14. Chronological chart — Great events of the Glacial Epoch .... 41

15. Zoogeographic map 45

16. The gibbon 5°

xix

xx ILLUSTRATIONS

FIG.

17. The orang 51

1 8. The chimpanzee, walking . 52

19. The chimpanzee, sitting 53

20. The gorilla 55

21. Median sections of the heads of a young gorilla and of a man . . 56

22. Side view of a human brain of high type 57

23. Outlines of typical human and prehuman brains (side view) . . 58

24. Outlines of typical human and prehuman brains (top view) ... 59
\

25. Map — Europe during the Second Glacial Stage 65

26. The musk-ox 66

27. The giant deer (Megaceros) 68

28. The sabre-tooth tiger (Machcerodus) 70

29. Restoration of Pithecanthropus, the Java ape-man 73

30. Discovery site of Pithecanthropus 74

31. Section of the volcano of Lawoe and the valley of the Solo River 75

32. Map — Solo River and discovery site of Pithecanthropus .... 75

33. Section of the Pithecanthropus discovery site 76

34. Skull-top of Pithecanthropus, top and side views 77

35. Head of chimpanzee, front and side views 78

36. Restoration of Pithecanthropus skull, side view 79

37. Restoration of Pithecanthropus skull, three views 80

38. Pithecanthropus, the Java ape-man, side view 81

39. Pithecanthropus, the Java ape-man, front view 82

40. Side view of a human brain of high type 83

41. Outlines of human and prehuman brains, side and top views . . 84

42. The hippopotamus and the southern mammoth 92

43. Merck's rhinoceros and the straight-tusked elephant 93

44. Map — Geographic distribution of Merck's rhinoceros, the hippo-

potamus, and the straight-tusked elephant 94

45. Section of the Heidelberg discovery site 96

46. The sand-pit at Mauer, discovery site of the Heidelberg man . . 97

47. The Heidelberg jaw . 98

ILLUSTRATIONS xxi

FIG. PAGE

48. Jaws of an Eskimo, of an orang, and of Heidelberg (side view) . . 99

49. Jaws of an Eskimo, of an orang, and of Heidelberg (top view) . . roo

50. Restoration of Heidelberg man 101

51. Map — Europe during the Third Glacial Stage 105

52. Chronological chart of the last third of the Glacial Epoch . . . 108

53. Map — Pre-Chellean and Chellean stations 109

54. Map — Europe during the Third Glacial Stage no

55. Excavation at Chelles-sur-Marne in

56. Map — Western Europe during the Third Interglacial Stage . . . 116

57. Three terraces on the Connecticut River 120

58. Four forms of the Chellean coup de poing 121

59. Section — Terraces on the Somme at St. Acheul 122

60. Very primitive palaeoliths from Piltdown 127

61. Pre-Chellean coups de poing from St. Acheul 128

62. Pre-Chellean grattoir or planing tool from St. Acheul 129

63. Discovery site of the Piltdown skull 131

64. Section of the Piltdown discovery site 133

65. Primitive worked flint found near the Piltdown skull 134

66. Eoliths found in or near the Piltdown site 135

67. Piltdown skull and skull of South African Bushman . . . . . 136

68. Restoration of the Piltdown skull, three views 137

69. Section of the Piltdown skull, showing the brain 140

70. Brain outlines of the Piltdown man, of a chimpanzee, and of mod-

ern man, compared 140

71. The Piltdown man, side view 142

72. The Piltdown man, front view 143

73. Map — Pre-Chellean and Chellean stations 149

74. Section — Middle and high terraces on the Somme at St. Acheul . 150

75. Excavation on the high terrace at St. Acheul 151

76. Small Chellean implements 153

77. Map — Palaeolithic stations of Germany 160

78. Entrance to the grotto of Castillo 163

xxii ILLUSTRATIONS

FIG. PAGE

79. Section — archaeologic layers of the grotto of Castillo 164

80. Map — Acheulean stations 167

81. Late Acheulean station of La Micoque in Dordogne 168

82. Method of 'flaking' flint 169

83. Method of 'chipping' flint 170

84. The fracture of flint 171

85- Large Acheulean implements 173

86. Map — Valleys of the Dordogne and the Garonne 175

87. The valley of the Vezere 176

88. Acheulean implements, large and small 178

89. A Levallois flake 179

90. The grotto of Krapina 181

91. Section — Valley of the Krapinica River and grotto of Krapina . . 182

92. Section — The grotto of Krapina 183

93. Skull from Krapina, side view 184

94. Map — Europe during the Fourth Glacial Stage 189

95. The woolly rhinoceros and the woolly mammoth 190

96. Typical tundra fauna 193

97. Map — Palaeolithic stations of Germany ' . . . . 195

98. The type station of Le Moustier 197

99. Excavations at Le Moustier 198

100. The Mousterian cavern of Wildkirchli 200

101. Entrance to the grotto of Sirgenstein 201

102. The woolly mammoth and his hunters 208

103. The woolly rhinoceros 210

104. Map — Distribution of Pre-Neanderthaloids and Neanderthaloids . 214

105. The Gibraltar skull, front view 215

106. Section of the Neanderthal discovery site 216

107. The Neanderthal skull, side view 217

108. The skull known as Spy I, side view 220

109. Discovery site of La Chapelle-aux-Saints 222

ILLUSTRATIONS xxiii

FIG. PAGE

no. Entrance to the grotto of La Chapelle-aux-Saints ; 223

in. The skull from La Chapelle-aux-Saints, three views 224

112. Human teeth of Neanderthaloid type from La Cotte de St. Brelade . 225

113. Skulls of a chimpanzee, of La Chapelle-aux-Saints, and of a modern

Frenchman, side view 227

114. Outlines of the Gibraltar skull and of a modern Australian skull 228

115. Skull of La Chapelle-aux-Saints compared with one of high modern

type, side view 230

116. Skulls of a chimpanzee, of La Chapelle-aux-Saints, and of a modern

Frenchman, top view 231

117. Diagram comparing eleven races of fossil and living men .... 233

118. Section of the skull of La Chapelle-aux-Saints, showing the brain . 235

1.19. Brain outlines of La Chapelle-aux-Saints, of a chimpanzee,. and of

modern man, compared 235

120. Brains of Lower and Upper Palaeolithic races, top and side views . 236

121. Skeleton of La Chapelle-aux-Saints 238

122. Thigh-bones of the Trinil, Neanderthal, Cro-Magnon, and modern

races 240

123,"* The Neanderthal man of La Chapelle-aux-Saints, side view . . . 242

124. The Neanderthal man of La Chapelle-aux-Saints, front view . . 243

125. Map — Mousterian stations 245

126. The Mousterian cave of Hornos de la Pefia 246

127. Outlook from the cave of Hornos de la Pefia 247

128. Typical Mousterian ' points' from Le Moustier 250

129. Mousterian ' points ' and scrapers 251

130. Late Mousterian implements 255

131. Entrance to the Grotte du Prince near Mentone 262

132. Section of the Grotte des Enfants 265

133. The Grimaldi skeletons 267

134. Skull of the Grimaldi youth, front and side views 268

135. Map — Distribution of Upper Palaeolithic human fossils .... 279

136. Chronological chart of the last third of the Glacial Epoch . . . 280

137. 'Tectiforms' from Font-de-Gaume 283

xxiv ILLUSTRATIONS

FIG. PAGE

138. Map — Distribution of the reindeer, mammoth, and woolly rhi-

noceros .... 285

139. Section of the grotto of Aurignac 290

140. Section of the grotto of Cro-Magnon 291

141. Skull of Cro-Magnon type from the Grotte des Enfants .... 292

142. Head showing the method of restoration used by J. H. McGregor . 293

143. The rock shelter of Laugerie Haute, Dordogne 296

144. Skeleton of La Chapelle-aux-Saints and skeleton of Cro-Magnon

type from the Grotte des Enfants, compared 297

145. Sections of normal and platycnaemic tibias 298

146. The 'Old Man of Cro-Magnon,' side view 300

147. The 'Old Man of Cro-Magnon,' front view' 301

148. Brain outlines of Combe-Capelle, of a chimpanzee, and of modern

man, compared 303

149. Evolution of the burin, early Aurignacian to late Solutrean . . . 307

150. Typical Aurignacian grattoirs, or scrapers 309

151. Evolution of the Aurignacian 'point' 311

152. Prototypes of the Solutrean 'laurel-leaf point' . . ... . . . 312

153. Map — Aurignacian stations 314

154. Outlook from the cavern of Pindal 315

155. Mammoth painted in the cavern of Pindal 316

156. Primitive paintings of animals from Font-de-Gaume 318

157. Woolly rhinoceros painted in the cavern of Font-de-Gaume . . . 319

158. Carved female figurine from the Grottes de Grimaldi . . . . . 321

159. Female figurine in limestone from Willendorf 322

160. Female figurine in soapstone from the Grottes de Grimaldi . . . 323

161. Superposed engravings of rhinoceros and mammoth from Le Tri-

lobite . . . 324

162. Silhouettes of hands from Gargas 325

163. The rock shelter of Laussel on the Beune 326

164. Section of tin- industrial layers at Laussel 327

165. Bas-relief of a woman from Laussel 328

ILLUSTRATIONS * xxv

PAGE

Bas-relief of a man from Laussel 329

Map — Solutrean stations § 331

The skull known as Briinn I, discovered at Briinn, Moravia . . . 335

Solutrean 'laurel-leaf points' . .. . . . 339

The type station of Solutre 342

Excavations at Solutre 343

Typical Solutrean implements 346

Mammoth sculptured on ivory, from Predmost, Moravia .... 349

Engraved and painted bison from Niaux 353

Decorated sagaies or javelin points of bone 354

Horse's head engraved on a fragment of bone, from Brassempouy . 355

Painting of a wolf, from Font-de-Gaume 356

Crude sculpture of the ibex, from Mas d'Azil 357

Decorated batons de commandement 359

Chronological chart of the last third of the Glacial epoch . . . 362

Engraved and painted reindeer from Font-de-Gaume 365

Four types of horse frequent in Upper Palaeolithic times . . . . 367

Horse of Celtic type, painted on the ceiling of Altamira .... 363

Four chamois heads engraved on reindeer horn, from Gourdan . . 369

Typical alpine fauna 371

Typical steppe fauna 374

Ptarmigan or grouse carved in bone, from Mas d'Azil . . . . . 375

The rock shelter of Laugerie Basse, Dordogne -377

Human skull-tops cut into bowls, from Placard 379

Male and female skulls of Cro-Magnon type, from Obercassel . . 381

The type station of La Madeleine 3%3

Magdalenian flint implements 386

Magdalenian bone harpoons 387

Magdalenian flint blades with denticulated edge 390

Bone needles from Lacave • 391

Map — Palaeolithic art stations of Dordogne, the Pyrenees, and the

Cantabrian Mountains 394

xxvi ILLUSTRATIONS

FIG. PAGE

197. Primitive engravings of the mammoth from Combarelles .... 397

198. Preliminary engraving of painted mammoth from Font-de-Gaume . 397

199. Charging mammoth engraved on ivory, from La Madeleine . . . 398

200. Human grotesques from Marsoulas, Altamira, and Combarelles . 399

201. Entrance to the cavern of Combarelles, Dordogne 400

202. Engraved cave-bear, from Combarelles 401

203. Magdalenian stone lamp, from La Mouthe 401

204. Entrance to the cavern of La Pasiega 402

205. Engraved bison from Marsoulas 403

206. Herd of horses engraved on a slab of stone, from Chaffaud . . . 404

207. Herd of reindeer engraved on an eagle radius, from La Mairie . . 405

208. Stag and salmon engraved on an antler, from Lorthet .... 406

209. Engraved lioness and horses, from Font-de-Gaume 407

210. Painted horse of Celtic type, from Castillo 408

211. Galloping horse of steppe type, from Font-de-Gaume 408

212. Entrance to the cavern of Niaux 409

213. Engraved horse with heavy winter coat, from Niaux 410

214. Professor Emile Cartailhac at the entrance of Le Portel .... 411

215. Engraved horse and reindeer, from La Mairie 412

216. Engraved reindeer, cave-bear, and two horses, from La Mairie . . 413

217. Engraved wild cattle, from La Mairie 413

218. Preliminary etched outline of bison from Font-de-Gaume .... 414

219. Entrance to the cavern of Font-de-Gaume 415

220. Map of the cavern of Font-de-Gaume 416

221. Narrow passage known as the ' Rubicon,' Font-de-Gaume . . . 417

222. Plan showing reindeer and procession of bison, Font-de-Gaume . . 419

223. Plan showing preliminary engraving and painting of the procession

of mammoths, superposed on drawings of bison, reindeer, and

horses 420

224. Example of superposition of paintings, from Font-de-Gaume . . 421

225. Entrance to the cavern of Altamira 422

226. Plan of paintings on the ceiling of Altamira 423

ILLUSTRATIONS xxvii

FIG. PAGE

227. The ceiling of Altamira 424

228. Painting of female bison lying down, from Altamira 425

229. Royal stag engraved on the ceiling of Altamira 426

230. Statuette of a mammoth carved in reindeer horn, from Bruniquel . 427

231. Entrance to the cavern of Tuc d'Audoubert 428

232. Engraved head of a reindeer from Tuc d'Audoubert 429

233. Two bison, male and female, modelled in clay, from Tuc d'Audou-

bert 430

234. Horse carved in high relief, from Cap Blanc . 431

235. Horse head carved on a reindeer antler, from Mas d'Azil .... 432

236. Statuette of horse carved in ivory, from Les Espelugues .... 432

237. Woman's head carved in ivory, from Brassempouy 433

238. Map — Magdalenian stations 435

239. Necklace of marine shells, from Cro-Magnon ........ 437

240. Map — Palaeolithic stations of Germany 439

241. Reindeer engraved around a piece of reindeer antler, from Kess-

lerloch 441

242. Entrance to the grotto of Kesslerloch 444

243. The rock shelter of Schweizersbild 445

244c The open loess station of Aggsbach 448

245. Saiga antelope carved on a bone dart-thrower, from Mas d'Azil . . 449

246. Western entrance to the cavern of Mas d'Azil 460

247. Azilian harpoons of stag horn 462

248. Azilian galets colories, or painted pebbles 464

249. Tardenoisian flints 467

250. Map — Azilian-Tardenoisian stations 47 I

251. Azilian stone implements 473

252. Double-rowed Azilian harpoons of stag horn, from Oban .... 474

253. Section — Archaeologic layers in the grotto of Of net 476

254. Burial nest of six skulls, from the grotto of Of net ...... 477

255. Brachycephalic and dolichocephalic skulls from Ofnet 478

256. Broad-headed skull of Grenelle 482

xxviii ILLUSTRATIONS

FIG. PAGE

257. Entrance to the grotto of Furfooz on the Lesse 482

258. Section of the grotto of Furfooz 483

259. One of the type skulls of the Furfooz race 483

260. Restoration of the man of Grenelle 484

261. Implements and decorations from Maglemose 487

262. Ancestry of the Pre-Neolithic races 491

263. Stages in the manufacture of the Neolithic stone ax 493

264. Stone hatchet from Campigny 494

265. Stone pick from Campigny 494

266. Restoration of the Neolithic man of Spiennes 495

267. Stag hunt, painting from the rock shelter of Alpera 497

268. Map — Distribution of the types of recent man in western Europe . 499

269. Cross section of the Piltdown site 513

270. Map — Early Palaeolithic and Capsian stations of Spain and north-

west Africa 515

271. Maps — Industrial migration routes into Spain 517

272. Map — Palaeolithic stations of Spain and Portugal 519

273. Late Palaeolithic paintings at Alpera — human figures . . . . . 523

274. Progressive conventionalization of the human figure 524

275. Bows and arrows shown in the paintings of Alpera 525

Map of Palaeolithic Tour folded at the end of the volume

MEN OF
THE OLD STONE AGE

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

INTRODUCTION

GREEK CONCEPTIONS OF MAN'S ORIGIN — RISE OF ANTHROPOLOGY,
OF ARCHAEOLOGY, OF THE GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF MAN — TIME
DIVISIONS OF THE GLACIAL EPOCH — GEOGRAPHIC, CLIMATIC, AND
LIFE PERIODS OF THE OLD STONE AGE

The anticipation of nature by Lucretius* in his philosophical
poem, De Rerum Naturay accords in a broad and remarkable way
with our present knowledge of the prehistory of man:

"Things throughout proceed
In firm, undevious order, and maintain,
To nature true, their fixt generic stamp.

Yet man's first sons, as o'er the fields they trod,
Reared from the hardy earth, were hardier far;
Strong built with ampler bones, with muscles nerved
Broad and substantial; to the power of heat,
Of cold, of varying viands, and disease,
Each hour superior; the wild lives of beasts
Leading, while many a lustre o'er them rolled.
Nor crooked plough- share knew they, nor to drive,
Deep through the soil, the rich-returning spade;
Nor how the tender seedling to re-plant,
Nor from the fruit-tree prune the withered branch.

"Nor knew they yet the crackling blaze t'excite,
Or clothe their limbs with furs, or savage hides.
But groves concealed them, woods, and hollow hills;
And, when rude rains, or bitter blasts o'erpowered,
Low bushy shrubs their squalid members wrapped.

* Lucretius was born 95 B. C. His poem was completed before 53 B. C. In the
opening lines of Book III he attributes all his philosophy and science to the Greeks.
See Appendix, Note I.

1

% MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

"And in their keen rapidity of hand
And foot confiding, oft the savage train
With missile stones. they hunted, or the force
Of clubs enormous; many a tribe they felled,
Yet some in caves shunned, cautious; where, at nighty
Thronged they, like bristly swine; their naked limbs
With herbs and leaves entwining. Nought of fear
Urged them to quit the darkness, and recall,
With clamorous cries, the sunshine and the day:
But sound they sunk in deep, oblivious sleep,
Till o'er the mountains blushed the roseate dawn.

"This ne'er distressed them, but the fear alone
Some ruthless monster might their dreams molest,
The foamy boar, or lion, from their caves
Drive them aghast beneath the midnight shade,
And seize their leaf-wrought couches for themselves.

"Yet then scarce more of mortal race than now
Left the sweet lustre of the liquid day.
Some doubtless, oft the prowling monsters gaunt
Grasped in their jaws, abrupt; whence, through the groves,
The woods, the mountains, they vociferous groaned,
Destined thus living to a living tomb.

"Yet when, at length, rude huts they first devised,
And fires, and garments; and, in union sweet,
Man wedded woman, the pure joys indulged
Of chaste connubial love, and children rose,
The rough barbarians softened. The warm hearth
Their frames so melted they no more could bear,
As erst, th' uncovered skies; the nuptial bed
Broke their wild vigor, and the fond caress
Of prattling children from the bosom chased
Their stern ferocious manners." *

This is a picture of many phases in the life of primitive man:
his powerful frame, his ignorance of agriculture, his dependence
on the fruits and animal products of the earth, his discovery of
fire and of clothing, his chase of wild beasts with clubs and
missile stones, his repair to caverns, his contests with the lion

* Lucretius, On the Nature of Things, metrical version by J. M. Good. Bohn's
Classical Library, London, 1800.

GREEK CONCEPTIONS OF MAN'S ORIGIN 3

and the boar, his invention of rude huts and dwellings, the soft-
ening of his nature through the sweet influence of family life and
of children, all these are veritable stages in our prehistoric devel-
opment. The influence of Greek thought is also reflected in the
Satires of Horace,* and the Greek conception of the natural
history of man, voiced by ^Eschylusf as early as the fifth cen-
tury B. C., prevailed widely before the Christian era, when it
gradually gave way to the Mosaic conception of special creation,
which spread all over western Europe.

Rise of Modern Anthropology

As the idea of the natural history of man again arose, during
the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, it came not so much
from previous sources as from the dawning science of compara-
tive anatomy. From the year 1597, when a Portuguese sailor's
account of an animal resembling the chimpanzee was embodied
in Filippo Pigafetta's Description of the Kingdom of the Congo, the
many points of likeness between the anthropoid apes and man
were treated both in satire and caricature and in serious anatom-
ical comparison as evidence of kinship. *

The first French evolutionist, Buff on, J observed in 1749:
"The first truth that makes itself apparent on serious study of
nature is one that man may perhaps find humiliating; it is
this — that he, too, must take his place in the ranks of animals,
being, as he is, an animal in every material point." Buffon's
convictions were held in check by clerical and official influences,
yet from his study of the orang in 1766 we can entertain no doubt
of his belief that men and apes are descended from common
ancestors.

The second French evolutionist, Lamarck, || in 1809 boldly

* Horace was born 65 B. C, and his Satires are attributed to the years 35-29 B. C.
See Appendix, Note II.

f^Eschylus was born 525 B. C. See Appendix, Note III.

% Georges Louis Leclerc Buff on (b. 1707, d. 1788). For reviews of Buffon's opinions
and theories see Osborn, 1 894.1, pp. 130-9; also Butler, 1911.1, pp. 74~i72-

[| Jean Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet, known as the Chevalier de Lamarck (b.
1744, d. 1829). For a summary of the views of Lamarck see Osborn, 1 894.1, pp. 152-
181; also Butler, 1911.1, pp. 235-314, an excellent presentation of Lamarck's opinions.

4 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

proclaimed the descent of man from the anthropoid apes, point-
ing out their close anatomical resemblances combined with in-
feriority both in bodily and mental capacity. In the evolution
of man Lamarck perceived the great importance of the erect
position, which is only occasionally assumed by the apes; also
that children pass gradually from the quadrumanous to the
upright position, and thus repeat the history of their ancestors.
Man's origin is traced as follows: A race of quadrumanous apes
gradually acquires the upright position in walking, with a corre-
sponding modification of the limbs, and of the relation of the
head and face to the back-bone. Such a race, having mastered
all the other animals, spreads out over the world. It checks the
increase of the races nearest itself and, spreading in all directions,
begins to lead a social life, develops the power of speech and the
communication of ideas. It develops also new requirements,
one after another, which lead to industrial pursuits and to the
gradual perfection of its powers. Eventually this pre-eminent
race, having acquired absolute supremacy, comes to be widely
different from even the most perfect of the lower animals.

The period following the latest publication of Lamarck's1*
remarkable speculations in the year 1822, was distinguished by
the earliest discoveries of the industry of the caveman in southern
France in 1828, and in Belgium, near Liege, in 1833; discoveries
which afforded the first scientific proof of the geologic antiquity
of man and laid the foundations of the science of archaeology. •

The earliest recognition of an entirely extinct race of men was
that which was called the ' Neanderthal,' found, in 1856, near
Diisseldorf, and immediately recognized by Schaaffhausen2 as a
primitive race of low cerebral development and of uncommon
bodily strength.

Darwin in the Origin of Species? which appeared in 1858,
did not discuss the question of human descent, but indicated

* References arc indicated by numbers only throughout the iv\\. At the close of
each chapter is a list giving the author, date, and reference Dumber for every citation.
A full list of all the works cited, including those from which illustrations have been
taken, together with complete references, will be found in the bibliography at the end
of the book.

RISE OF ANTHROPOLOGY 5

the belief that light would be thrown by his theory on the origin
of man and his history.

It appears that .Lamarck's doctrine in the Philosophic Zoolo-
gique (1809) 4 made a profound impression on the mind of Lyell,
who was the first to treat the descent of man in a broad way
from the standpoint of comparative anatomy and of geologic
age. In his great work of 1863, The Geological Evidences of the
Antiquity of Man, Lyell cited Huxley's estimate of the Neander-
thal skull as more primitive than that of the Australian but of
surprisingly large cranial capacity. He concludes with the no-
table statement: "The direct bearing of the ape-like character
of the Neanderthal skull on Lamarck's doctrine of progressive
development and transmutation . . . consists in this, that the
newly observed deviation from a normal standard of human
structure is not in a casual or random direction, but just what
might have been anticipated if the laws of variation were such as
the transmutationists require. For if we conceive the cranium
to be very ancient, it exemplifies a less advanced stage of pro-
gressive development and improvement."5

Lyell followed this by an exhaustive review of all the then
existing evidence in favor of the great geological age of man,
considering the ' river-drift,' the 'loess,' and the loam deposits,
and the relations of man to the divisions of the Glacial Epoch.
Referring to what is now known as the Lower Palaeolithic of
St. Acheul and the Upper Palaeolithic of Aurignac, he says that
they were doubtless separated by a vast interval of time, when
we consider that the flint implements of St. Acheul belong either
to the Post-Pliocene or early Pleistocene time, or the 'older
drift.'

It is singular that in the Descent of Man, published in 1871,6
eight years after the appearance of Lyell' s great work, Charles
Darwin made only passing mention of the Neanderthal race, as
follows : "Nevertheless, it must be admitted that some skulls of
very high antiquity, such as the famous one at Neanderthal, are
well-developed and capacious." It was the relatively large brain
capacity which turned Darwin's attention away from a type

6 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

which has furnished most powerful support to his theory of
human descent. In the two hundred pages which Darwin de-
votes to the descent of man, he treats especially the evidences
presented in comparative anatomy and comparative psychology,
as well as the evidence afforded by the comparison of the lower
and higher races of man. As regards the " birthplace and an-
tiquity of man,"7 he observes:

" . . . In each great region of the world the living mammals
are closely related to the extinct species of the same region. It
is therefore probable that Africa was formerly inhabited by ex-
tinct apes closely allied to the gorilla and chimpanzee ; and as
these two species are now man's nearest allies, it is somewhat
more probable that our early progenitors lived on the African
continent than elsewhere. But it is useless to speculate on this
subject; for two or three anthropomorphous apes, one the
Dryopithecus of Lartet, nearly as large as a man, and closely
allied to Hylohates, existed in Europe during the Miocene Age;
and since so remote a period the earth has certainly undergone
many great revolutions, and there has been ample time for
migration on the largest scale.

"At the period and place, whenever and wherever it was,
when man first lost his hairy covering, he probably inhabited a
hot country; a circumstance favorable for the frugivorous diet
on which, judging from analogy, he subsisted. We are far from
knowing how long ago. it was when man first diverged from the
catarrhine stock ; but it may have occurred at an epoch as re-
mote as the Eocene Period ; for that the higher apes had diverged
from the lower apes as early as the Upper Miocene Period is
shown by the existence of the Dryopithecus ."

With this speculation of Darwin the reader should compare
the state of our knowledge to-day regarding the descent of man,
as presented in the first and last chapters of this volume.

The most telling argument against the Lamarck-Lyell-
Darwin theory was the absence of those missing links which,
theoretically, should be found connecting man with the anthro-
poid apes, for at that time the Neanderthal race was not recog-

I

RISE OF ANTHROPOLOGY 7

nized as such. Between 1848 and 1914 successive discoveries
have been made of a series of human fossils belonging to inter-
mediate races: some of these are now recognized as missing
links between the existing human species, Homo sapiens, and the
anthropoid apes; and others as the earliest known forms of
Homo sapiens :

Year

Locality

Character of Remains

Race

1848

Gibraltar.

Well-preserved skull.

Neanderthal.

1856

Neanderthal, near Diissel-

Skullcap, etc.

Type of Neanderthal

dorf.

race.

1866

La Naulette, Belgium.

Fragment of lower jaw.

Neanderthal race.

1867

Furfooz, Belgium.

Two skulls.

Type of Furfooz race.

1868

Cro-Magnon, Dordogne.

Three skeletons and frag-

Type of Cro-Ma-

ments of two others.

gnon race.

1887

Spy, Belgium.

Two crania and skeletons.

Spy type of Nean-
derthal race.

1891

Trinil River, Java.

Skullcap and femur.

Type of Pithecan-
thropus race.

1899

Krapina, Austria-Hungary.

Fragments of at least ten

Krapina type of Ne-

individuals.

anderthal race.

1901

Grimaldi grotto, Mentone.

Two skeletons.

Type of Grimaldi

1907

Heidelberg.

Lower jaw with teeth.

race.
Type of Homo heidel-
bergensis.

1908

La Chapelle, Correze.

Skeleton.

Mousterian type of
Neanderthal race.

1908

Le Moustier, Dordogne.

Almost complete skeleton,
greater part of which was
in bad state of preservation.

Neanderthal.

1909

La Ferrassie I, Dordogne.

Fragments of skeleton.

Neanderthal.

1910

La Ferrassie II, Dordogne.

Fragments of skeleton, fe-
male.

Neanderthal.

1911

La Quina II, Charente.

Fragments of skeleton, sup-
posed female.

Neanderthal.

1911

Piltdown, Sussex.

Portions of skull and jaw.

Type of Eoanlhropus,
the 'dawn man.'

1914

Obercassel, near Bonn, Ger-

Two skeletons, male and fe-

Cro-Magnon.

many.

male.

In his classic lecture of 1844, On the Form of the Head in Dif-
ferent Peoples, Anders Retzius laid the foundation of the mod-
ern study of the skull.8 Referring to his original publication,
he says : "In the system of classification which I devised, I have
distinguished just two forms, namely, the short (round or four-
cornered) which I named br achy cephalic, and the long, oval, or
dolichocephalic. In the former there is little or no difference

8

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

between the length and breadth of the skull ; in the latter there
is a notable difference." The expression of this primary distinc-
tion between races is called the cephalic index, and it is deter-
mined as follows :

Breadth of skull X ioo -*■ length of skull.

In this sense the primitive men of the Old Stone Age were
mostly ' dolichocephalic/ that is, the breadth of the skull was

in general less than 75 per

#.?-■

teg&.£.K*pA

%

-"7£e'^lT

cent of the length, as in the
existing Australians, Kaffirs,
Zulus, Eskimos, and Fijians.
But some of the Palaeolithic
races were ' mesaticephalic' ;
that is, the breadth was be-
tween 75 per cent and 80 per
cent of the length, as in the
existing Chinese and Polyne-
sians. The third or 'brach-
ycephalic' type is the excep-
tion among Palaeolithic skulls,
in which the breadth is over 80
per cent of the length, as in the
Malays, Burmese, American
Indians, and Andamanese.

The cephalic index, how-
ever, tells us little of the po-
sition of the skull as a brain-case in the ascending or descending
scale, and following the elaborate systems of skull measurements
which were built up by Retzius9 and Broca,10 and based chiefly
on the outside characters of the skull, came the modern system of
Schwalbe, which has been devised especially to measure the
skull with reference to the all-important criterion of the size
of the different portions of the brain, and of approximately
estimating the cubic capacity of the brain from the more or
less complete measurements of the skull.

Fig. 1. Outline of a modern brachycephalic
skull (fine dots), superposed upon a doli-
chocephalic skull (dashes) , superposed upon
a chimpanzee skull (line).
g. glabella or median prominence between

the eyebrows.
i. inion — external occipital protuberance.
g-i. glabella-inion line.
Vertical line from g-i to top of skull in-
dicates the height of the brain-case.
Modified after Schwalbe.

RISE OF ANTHROPOLOGY

Among these measurements are the slope of the forehead,
the height of the median portion of the skullcap, and the ratio
between the upper portion of the cranial chamber and the lower
portion. In brief, the seven principal measures which Schwalbe
now employs are chiefly expressions of diameters which corre-
spond with the number of cubic centimetres occupied by the
brain as a whole.

In this manner Schwalbe11 confirms Boule's estimates of the
variations in the cubic capacity of the brain in different members
of the Neanderthal race as follows :

Neanderthal race — La Chapelle. . 1620 c.cm.
" — Neanderthal.. 140S "

" — LaQuina 1367 "

" —Gibraltar 1296 "

Thus the variations between the
largest known brain in one mem-
ber of the Neanderthal race, the
male skull of La Chapelle, and
the smallest brain of the same
race, the supposed female skull
of Gibraltar, is 324 c.cm., a
range similar to that which we
find in the existing species of
man {Homo sapiens).

As another test for the classification of primitive skulls, we
may select the well-known frontal angle of Broca, as modified by
Schwalbe, for measuring the retreating forehead. The angle is
measured by drawing a line along the forehead upward from the
bony ridge between the eyebrows, with a horizontal line carried
from the glabella to the inion at the back of the skull. The
various primitive races are arranged as follows :

PER CENT

Homo sapiens, with an average forehead frontal angle 90

Homo sapiens, with extreme retreating forehead 72.3

Homo neanderthalensis, with the least retreating forehead . " 70

Homo neanderthalensis, with the most retreating forehead. " 57.5

Pithecanthropus erectus (Trinil race) " 52 . 5

Highest anthropoid apes " " 56

Fig. 2. The skull and brain-case, showing
the low, retreating forehead, prominent
supraorbital ridges, and small brain
capacity, of Pithecanthropus, the Java
ape-man, as restored by J. H. McGregor.

10 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

For instance, this illustrates the fact that in the Trinil race
the forehead is actually lower than in some of the highest an-
thropoid apes; that in the Neanderthal race the forehead is
more retreating than in any of the existing human races of
Homo sapiens.

Archaeology of the Old Stone Age *

The proofs of the prehistory of man arose afresh, and from
an entirely new source, in the beginning of the eighteenth cen-
tury through discoveries in Germany, by which the Greek an-
ticipations of a stone age were verified. For a century and a
half the great animal life of the diluvial world had aroused the
wonder and speculation of the early naturalists. In 1750
Eccardus17 of Braunschweig advanced the first steps toward
prehistoric chronology, in expressing the opinion that the human
race first lived in a period in which stone served as the only
weapon and tool, and that this was followed by a bronze and
then by an iron period of human culture. As early as 1700 a
human skull was discovered at Cannstatt and was believed to
be of a period as ancient as the mammoth and the cave-bear, f

France, favored beyond all other countries by the men of
the Old Stone Age, was destined to become the classic centre
of prehistoric archaeology. As early as 1740 Mahudel18 pub-
lished a treatise upon stone implements and laid the founda-
tions both of Neolithic and Palaeolithic research. By the begin-
ning of the nineteenth century the problem of fossil man had
awakened wide-spread interest and research. In Buckland's19
Reliquice diluviance, published in 1824, the great mammals of the
Old Stone Age are treated as relics of the flood. In 1825 Mac-
Enery explored the cavern of Kent's Hole, near Torquay, finding
human bones and flint flakes associated with the remains of the

* The best reference works on the history of French and German Palaeolithic Archae-
ology arc: Cartailhac,1'- La France Prihistorique ; D6chelette,13 Manuel d'Archiologie,
T. I; Rcinach,14 Catalogue du Musie de St.-Germain: Alluvions et Cavernes; Schmidt,15
Die diluviale Vorzeit Deutschlands ; Avcbury,"1 Prehistoric Times.

f The Cannstatt skull and Cannstatt race are now regarded as Neolithic, and there-
fore not contemporary with the mammoth or the cave-bear.

RISE OF ARCHEOLOGY

11

cave-bear and cave-hyaena, but the notes of this discovery were
not published until 1840, when Godwin- Austen20 gave the first
description of Kent's Hole. In 1828 Tournal and Chris tol 21
announced the first discoveries in France (Languedoc) of the
association of human bones with the remains of extinct animals.
In 1833-4 Schmerling22 described his explorations in the cav-

Fig. 3. Three great types of flint implements.

A . An eolith of accidental shape.

B. A palseolith of Chellean type, partly fashioned.

C. A Neolithic axe head, partly polished.

After MacCurdy.

erns near Liege, in Belgium, in which he found human bones
and rude flint implements intermingled with the remains of the
mammoth, the woolly rhinoceros, the cave-hyaena, and the cave-
bear. This is the first published evidence of the life of the
Cave Period of Europe, and was soon followed by the recogni-
tion of similar cavern deposits along the south coast of Great
Britain, in France, Belgium and Italy.

The work of the caveman, gradually revealed between 1828
and 1840, is now known to belong to the closing period of the
Old Stone Age, and it is very remarkable that the next discovery
related to the very dawn of the Old Stone Age, namely, to the
life of the i river-drift ' man of the Lower Palaeolithic.

12 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

This discovery of what is now known as Chellean and Acheu-
lean industry came through the explorations of Boucher de
Perthes, between 1839 ar|d 1846, in the valley of the River Sorame,
which flows through Amiens and Abbeville and empties into the
English Channel half-way between Dieppe and Boulogne. In
1 841 this founder of modern archaeology unearthed near Abbe-
ville a single flint, rudely fashioned into a cutting instrument,
buried in river sand and associated with mammalian re-
mains. This was followed by the collection of many other
ancient weapons and implements, and in the year 1846 Boucher
de Perthes published his first work, entitled De V Industrie pri-
mitive, ou des Arts a leur Origine,23 in which he announced that
he had found human implements in beds unmistakably belong-
ing to the age of the 'river-drift.' This work and the succeed-
ing (1857), Antiquites celtiques et antediluviennes ,24 were received
with great scepticism until confirmed in 1853 by Rigollot's2"'
discovery of the now famous ' river-drift ' beds of St. Acheul,
near Amiens. In the succeeding years the epoch-making work
of Boucher de Perthes was welcomed and confirmed by leading
British geologists and archaeologists, Falconer, Prestwich, Evans,
and others who visited the Somme. Lubbock's26 article of
1862, on the Evidence of the Antiquity of Man A forded by the
Physical Structure of the Somme Valley, pointing out the great
geologic age of the river sands and gravels and of the mammals
which they contained, was followed by the discovery of similar
flints in the l river-drifts ' of Suffolk and Kent, England, in the
valley of the Thames near Dartford. Thus came the first posi-
tive proofs that certain types of stone implements were wide-
spread geographically, and thus was afforded the means of com-
paring the age of one deposit with another. .

This led Sir John Lubbock27 to divide the prehistoric period
into four great epochs, in descending order as follows :

The Iron Age, in which iron had superseded bronze for arms, axes,
knives, etc., while bronze remained in common use for ornaments.

The Bronze Age, in which bronze was used for arms and cut-
ting instruments of all kinds.

RISE OF ARCHEOLOGY 13

The later or polished Stone Age, termed by Lubbock the
Veolithic Period, characterized by weapons and instruments made
of flint and other kinds of stone, with no knowledge of any
metal excepting gold.

Age of the Drift, termed by Lubbock the Palceolithic Period,
characterized by chipped or flaked implements of flint and
other kinds of stone, and by the presence of the mammoth, the
cave-bear, the woolly rhinoceros, and other extinct animals.

Edouard Lartet, in i860, began exploring the caverns of the
Pyrenees and of Perigord, first examining the remarkable cavern
of Aurignac with its burial vault, its hearths, its reindeer and
mammoth fauna, its spear points of bone and engravings on
bone mingled with a new and distinctive flint culture. This dis-
covery, published in 1861,28 led to the full revelation of the
hitherto unknown Reindeer and Art Period of the Old Stone
Age, now known as the Upper Palaeolithic. As a palaeontologist,
it was natural for Lartet to propose a fourfold classification of the
' Reindeer Period,' based upon the supposed succession of the
dominant forms of mammalian life, namely :

(d) Age of the Aurochs or Bison.

(c) Age of the Woolly Mammoth and Rhinoceros.

(b) Age of the Reindeer.

(a) Age of the Cave-Bear.

Lartet, in association with the British archaeologist, Christy,
explored the now famous rock shelters and caverns of Dordogne
— Laugerie, La Madeleine, Les Eyzies, and Le Moustier — which
one by one yielded a variety of flint and bone implements, en-
gravings and sculpture on bone and ivory, and a rich extinct
fauna, in which the reindeer and mammoth predominated.
The results of this decade of exploration are recorded in their
classic work, Reliquice Aquitanicce.29 Lartet, observes Breuil,30
clearly perceived the level of Aurignac, where the fauna of the
great cave-bear and of the mammoth appears to yield to that of
the reindeer. Above he perceived the stone culture of the Solu-

14 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

trean type in Laugerie Haute, and of the Magdalenian type in
Laugerie Basse. Lartet also distinguished between the archae-
ological period of St. Acheul (= Lower Palaeolithic) and that of
Aurignac (= Upper Palaeolithic).

It remained, however, for Gabriel de Mortillet, the first
French archaeologist to survey and systematize the development
of the flint industry throughout the entire Palaeolithic Period, to
recognize that the Magdalenian followed the Solutrean, and that
during the latter stage industry in stone reached its height,
while during the Magdalenian the industry in bone and in wood
developed in a marvelous manner. Mortillet failed to recognize
the position of the Aurignacian and omitted it from his archae-
ological chronology, which was first published in 1869, Essai de
classification des cavernes et des stations sous ahri, fondee sur les
produits de V Industrie humaine:31

(5) Magdalenien* characterized by a number and variety of
bone implements;

(4) Solutreen, leaf-like lance-heads beautifully worked;

(3) Mousterien, flints worked mostly on one side only;

(2) Acheuleen, the 'langues de chat' hand-axes of St.
Acheul;

(1) Chelleen, bold, primitive, partly worked hand-axes.

Shortly after the Franco-Prussian War, Edouard Piette
(b. 1827, d. 1906), who had held the office of magistrate in vari-
ous towns in the departments of Ardennes and Aisne, France,
and who was already distinguished for his general scientific
attainments, began to devote himself especially to the evolution
of art in Upper Palaeolithic times, and assembled the great col-
lections which are described and illustrated in his classic work,
L Art pendant V Age du Renne (1907).32 He first established
several phases of artistic evolution in the Magdalenian stage, and
only recognized in his later years the station of Brassempouy, not

* Note that lists and tables of races, cultural stages, faunae, etc., in this volume are
given not in chronological but in strati graphic order, beginning with the most recent at
the top and ending with the oldest at the bottom.

RISE OF ARCHAEOLOGY

15

comprehending that the Aurignacian art which he found there
underlay the Solutrean culture and was separated by a long in-
terval of time from the most ancient Magdalenian. His dis-
tinct contribution to Palaeolithic history is his discovery of the

Solvit y

luri0n<zcia,n

Axili

Ckelle

Early Acheuleat

Late Acheuledn,

Mowsteria-n

Fig. 4. Evolution of the lance-point, spear, or dart head. Note the increasing sym-
metry arid skill in the flaking and retouch as the types pass in ascending order
through the Chellean, Acheulean, Mousterian, and Aurignacian, into the perfected,
symmetrical, double-pointed 'laurel-leaf of the Solutrean; and into the subsequent
decline in the flint industry of the Magdalenian and Azilian stages. After de Mor-
tillet, Obermaier, and Hoernes.

Etage azilien overlying the Magdalenian in the cavern of Mas
d'Azil.

Henri Breuil, a pupil of Piette and of Cartailhac, exploring
during the decade, 1902-12, chiefly under the influence of Car-
tailhac, formed a clear conception of the whole Upper Palae-
olithic and its subdivisions, and placed the Aurignacian definitely
at the base of the series.

Thus step by step the culture stages of archaeological evolu-
tion have been established and may be summarized with the
type stations as follows :

16

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

ETAGE

Tardenoisien,

Azilien,

Magdalenien,

Solutreen,

Aurignacien,

Mousterien,

Acheuleen,

Chelleen,

Pre-Chelleen

(= Mesvinien, Rutot).

STATION

Fere-en-Tardenois, Aisne.

Mas d'Azil, Ariege.

La Madeleine, pres Tursac, Dordogne.

Solutre pres Macon, Saone-et-Loire.

Aurignac, Haute-Garonne.

Le Moustier, commune de Peyzac, Dordogne.

St. Acheul, pres Amiens, Somme.

Chelles-sur-Marne, Seine-et-Marne.

Mesvin, Mons, Belgique.

These stages, at first regarded as single, have each been
subdivided into three or more substages, as a result of the more
refined appreciation of the subtle advances in Palaeolithic inven-
tion and technique.

Fig. 5. The type stations of the successive stages of Palaeolithic culture from the
Chellean to the Azilian-Tardenoisian.

A new impulse to the study of Palaeolithic culture was given
in 1895, when E. Riviere discovered examples of Palaeolithic

RISE OF ARCHEOLOGY 17

mural art in the cavern of La Mouthe,33 thus confirming the
original discovery, in 1880, by Marcelino de Sautuola of the
wonderful ceiling frescoes of the cave of Altamira, northern
Spain.34 This created the opportunity for the establishment
by the Prince of Monaco of the Institut de Paleontologie humaine
in 1 9 10, supporting the combined researches of the Upper
Palaeolithic culture and art of France and Spain, by Cartailhac,
Capitan, Riviere, Boule, Breuil, and Obermaier, and marking a
new epoch in the brilliant history of the archaeology of France.

It remained for the prehistory of the borders of the Danube,
Rhine, and Neckar to be brought into harmony with that of
France, and this has been accomplished with extraordinary pre-
cision and fulness through the labors of R. R. Schmidt, begun in
1906, and brought together in his invaluable work, Die diluviale
Vorzeit Deutschlands.35

To an earlier and longer epoch belongs the Prepalaeolithic
or Eolithic stage. Beginning in 1867 with the supposed dis-
covery by l'Abbe Bourgeois36 of a primordial or Prepalaeolithic
stone culture, much observation and speculation has been de-
voted to the Eolithic37 era and the Eolithic industry, culmi-
nating in the complete chronological system of Rutot, as follows :

LOWER QUATERNARY, OR PLEISTOCENE

Strepyan ( = Pre-Chellean, in part) .

Mesvinian, culture of Mesvin, near Mons, Belgium (= Pre-Chellean).

Mafflean, culture of Maffle, near Ath, Hennegau.

Reutelian, culture of Reutel, Ypres, West Flanders.

TERTIARY

Prestian, culture of St. Prest, Eure-et-Loire, Upper Pliocene.

Kentian, culture of the plateau of Kent, Middle Pliocene.

Cantalian, culture of Aurillac, Cantal, Upper Miocene or Lower

Pliocene.
Fagnian, culture of Boncelles, Ardennes, Middle Oligocene.

Only the Mesvinian stage is generally accepted by archae-
ologists, and this embraces the prototypes of the Lower Pake-

18

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

olithic culture, which among most French authors are termed
Pre-Chellean or Proto-Chellean. The Eolithic problem has
aroused the most animated controversy, in which opinion is
divided. A critical consideration of this era, however, falls
without the province of the present work.

SUCCESSION OF HUMAN INDUSTRIES AND CULTURES*

v.

LATER IRON AGE

(La Tene Culture)

Europe

500 B. C to Roman Times.

IV.

EARLIER IRON AGE

Europe

1000-500 B. C

(Hallstatt Culture)

Orient

1 800- 1 000

ni.

BRONZE AGE

Europe about 2000-1000

Orient

" 4000-1800

ii.

NEW STONE AGE, NEOLITHIC

3. LATE NEOLITHIC and COPPER

AGE (Transition Period)

Europe

" 3000-2000.

2. TYPICAL NEOLITHIC AGE (Roben

-

hausian, Swiss Lake -Dwellers) . . .

Europe

" 7000.

i. EARLY NEOLITHIC STAGES

(Campignian Culture)

Europe

I.

OLD STONE AGE, PALEOLITHIC

UPPER PALEOLITHIC

. Europe

8. Azilian-Tardenoisian.

pT •

" 12,000.

7. Magdalentan. (Close of Post-

H O

" 16,000.

glacial time.)

6. SOLUTREAN.

5. Aurignacian. (Beginning of Post-

« >
w <
w u

§ Q

& <

glacial time.)

LOWER PALEOLITHIC

4. Mousterian. (Fourth Glacial

" 40,000.

time.) — j

3. Acheulean. (Transition to

River-
Drift and
Terrace
Period.

shelters.)

2. Chellean.

" 100,000.

1. Pre-Chellean (Mesvinian.)

EOLITHIC.

* This table is a modification of that of Obermaier in his Mensch der Vorzeit.zi To each period
of the chronologic reckoning should be added the 1900 years of our era.

Geologic History of Man

Man emerges from the vast geologic history of the earth in
the period known as the Pleistocene, or Glacial, and Postglacial,
the 'Diluvium' of the older geologists. The men of the Old
Stone Age in western Europe are now known through the latter

GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF MAN 19

half of Glacial times to the very end of Postglacial times, when
the Old Stone Age, with its wonderful environment of mammalian
and human life, comes to a gradual close, and the New Stone
Age begins with the climate and natural beauties of the forests,
meadows, and Alps of Europe as they were before the destroying
hand of economic civilization fell upon them.

It is our difficult but fascinating task to project in our imag-
ination the extraordinary series of prehistoric natural events
which were witnessed by the successive races of Palaeolithic men
in Europe ; such a combination and sequence never occurred be-
fore in the world's history and will never occur again. They
centred around three distinct and yet closely related groups of
causes. First, the formation of the two great ice-fields centring
over the Scandinavian peninsula and over the Alps ; second, the
arrival or assemblage in western Europe of mammals from five
entirely different life-zones or natural habitats; third, the ar-
rival in Europe of seven or eight successive races of men by
migration, chiefly from the great Eurasiatic continent of the
East.

Throughout this long epoch western Europe is to be viewed
as a peninsula, surrounded on all sides by the sea and stretching
westward from the great land mass of eastern Europe and of
Asia, which was the chief theatre of evolution both of animal
and human life. It was the 'far west' of all migrations of
animals and men. Nor may we disregard the vast African land
mass, the northern coasts of which afforded a great southern
migration route from Asia, and may have supplied Europe with
certain of its human races such as the 'Grimaldi.'

These three principal phenomena of the ice-fields, the mam-
mals, and the human life and industry, together establish the chro-
nology of the Age of Man. In other words, there are four ways
of keeping prehistoric time: that of geology, that of palaeontology,
that of anatomy, and that of human industry. Geologic events
mark the grander" divisions of time ; palaeontologic and anatomic
events mark the lesser divisions ; while the successive phases of
human industry mark the least divisions. The geologic chro-

20 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

nology deals with such immense periods of time that its ratio to
the animal and to the human chronology is like that of years to
hours and to minutes of our own solar time.

The Glacial Epoch when first revealed by Charpentier39 and
Agassiz,40 between 1837 and 1840, was supposed to correspond to
a single great advance and retreat of the ice-fields from various
centres. The vague problem of the antiquity of Pliocene man
and Diluvial man soon merged into the far more definite chro-
nology of glacial and inter glacial man. As early as 1854, Morlot
discovered near Diirnten, on the borders of the lake of Zurich,
a bed of fossil plants indicating a period of south temperate cli-
mate intervening between two great deposits of glacial origin.
This led to the new conception of cold glacial stages and warm
interglacial stages, and Morlot41 himself advanced the theory
that there had been three glacial stages separated by two inter-
glacial stages. Other discoveries followed both of fossil plants
and mammals adapted to warmer periods intervening between
the colder periods. Moreover, successive glacial moraines and
' drifts/ and successive river 'terraces' were found to confirm
the theory of multiple glacial stages. The British geologist,
James Geikie (1871-94) marshalled all the evidence for the
extreme hypothesis of a succession of six glacial and five inter-
glacial stages, each with its corresponding cold and warm climates.
Strong confirmation of a theory of four great glaciations came
through the American geologists, Chamberlin,42 Salisbury,43 and
others, in the discovery of evidence of four chief glacial and three
interglacial stages in northern portions of our own continent.
Finally, a firm foundation of the quadruple glacial theory in
Europe was laid by the classic researches of Penck and Bruckner44
in the Alps, which were published in 1909. Thus the exhaustive
research of Geikie, of Chamberlin and Salisbury, of Penck and
Bruckner, and finally of Leverett45 has firmly established eight
subdivisions or stages of Pleistocene time, namely, four glacial,
three interglacial, and one postglacial. These not only mark the
great eras of European time but also make possible the synchrony
of America with Europe.

GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF MAN

21

Since most of the skeletal and cultural remains of man can
now be. definitely attributed to certain glacial, interglacial, or

Major Divisions

Periods and Epochs

Advances in Life

Dominant Life

Quaternary.

HOLOCENE.

PLEISTOCENE,

or

ICE AGE.

Recent alluvial.

Postglacial
stage.

Glacial stages.

Rise of world civiliza-
tion.

Industry in iron, cop-
per, and polished
stone.

Extinction of great
mammals.

Dawn of mind, art,
and industry.

Age of Man.

Iron, Bronze,

and New
Stone Ages.

Men

of the

Old Stone Age.

Tertiary.

PLIOCENE.

Late Tertiary.

Transformation of
man-ape into man.

Age of
Mammals

and

Modern

Plant Life.

MIOCENE.

Culmination of mam-
mals.

OLIGOCENE.

Early Tertiary.

Beginnings of anthro-
poid ape life.

EOCENE.

Appearance of higher
types of mammals,
and vanishing of
archaic forms.

PALJEOCENE.

Rise of archaic mam-
mals.

Late
Mesozoic.

Cretaceous.

Extinction of great
reptiles.

Age

OF

Reptiles.

Extreme specializa-
tion of reptiles.

Comanchian.

Rise of flowering
plants.

Early
Mesozoic.

Jurassic.

Rise of birds and fly-
ing reptiles.

Triassic.

Rise of dinosaurs.

PLACE OF THE OLD STONE AGE IN THE EARTH'S HISTORY

(Indicated in heavy -face letter.)
Compare Schuchert's Table, 19 14.

postglacial stages, vast interest attaches to the very difficult
problem of the duration of the whole Ice Age and the relative
duration of its various glacial and interglacial stages. The fol-

22 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

lowing figures set forth the wide variations in opinion on this
subject and the two opposite tendencies of speculation which
lead to greatly expanded or greatly abbreviated estimates of
Pleistocene time :

DURATION OF THE ICE AGE

1863.

Charles Lyell,46 Principles of Geology

. 800,000

years.

1874.

James D. Dana,47 Manual of Geology

.720,000

1893.

Charles D. Walcott,48 Geologic Time as Indicated by

the Sedimentary Rocks of North America

.400,000

a

1893.

W. Upham,49 Estimates of Geologic Times, Amer.

Jour. Sci., vol. XLV

. 100,000

it

1894.

A. Heim,50 Ueber das absolute Alter der Eiszeit. . . .

. 100,000

a

1900.

W. J. Sollas,51 Evolutional Geology

. 400,000

cc

1909.

Albrecht Penck,52 Die Alpen im Eiszeitalter

.520,000-

-840,000

1914.

James Geikie,53 The Antiquity of Man in Europe. .

. 620,000

(min.)

We may adopt for the present work the more conservative
estimate of Penck, that since the first great ice-fields developed
in Scandinavia, in the Alps, and in North America west of Hud-
son Bay a period of time of not less than 520,000 years has
elapsed. The relative duration of the subdivisions of the
Glacial Epoch is also studied by Penck in his Chronologie des
Eiszeitalters in den Alpen}2 These stages are not in any degree
rhythmic, or of equal length either in western Europe or in
North America.

The unit of glacial measurement chosen by Penck is the time
which has elapsed since the close of the fourth and last great
glaciation ; this is known as the Wiirm in the Alpine region and
as the Wisconsin in America. While more limited than the ice-
caps of the second glaciation, those of the fourth glaciation were
still of vast extent in Europe and in this country, so that an esti-
mate of 20,000 to 34,000 years for the unit of the entire Postglacial
stage is not extreme. Estimating this unit at 25,000 years and
accepting Reeds's54 estimate of the relative length of time occu-
pied by each of the preceding glacial and interglacial stages, we
reach the following results (compare Fig. 14, p, 41) :

GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF MAN

Relative
Duration

Grand
Totals

Descent
of Alpine
Snow-Line

Postglacial Time.

(Period of Upper Palaeolithic culture, Cro-
Magnon and Briinn races)

IV. Glacial Stage (=Wurm, Wisconsin).

(Close of Lower Palaeolithic culture, Neanderthal

race)

3d. Interglacial Stage.

(Opening period of Lower Palaeolithic culture,
Piltdown and pre-Neanderthaloid races)

III. Glacial Stage (=Riss, Illinoian)

2d. Interglacial Stage ( = Mindel-Riss, Yarmouth) . .
(Period of Heidelberg race.)

II. Glacial Stage ( = Mindel, Kansan)

1 st. Interglacial Stage ( = Gunz-Mindel, Af tonian) .
(Period of Pithecanthropus or Trinil race.)

I. Glacial Stage ( = Giinz, Nebraskan)

Units

Years
25,000

25,000

25,000
200,000

25,000
75,000

25,000

Years
25,000

50,000

150,000

175,000
37S,ooo

400,000
475,000

500,000

Meters

1,200

1,250

1,300

The Postglacial time divisions are dated by three successive
advances of the ice-caps, which broadly correspond with Geikie's
fifth and sixth glaciations ; they are known in the Alpine region
as the Buhl, Gschnitz, and Daun. These three waves of cold and
humid climate, each accompanied by glacial advances, finally
terminated with the retreat of the snow and ice in the Alpine
region, the same conditions prevailing as with the present cli-
mate. The minimum time estimates of these Postglacial stages
and the corresponding periods of human culture, as calculated by
Heim,50 Nuesch,55 Penck,52 and many others, are summarized in
the Upper Palaeolithic (p. 281).

Geologic and Human Chronology

There are four ways in which the lesser divisions and sequence
of human chronology may be dated through geologic or earth-
forming events. First, through the age of the culture stations
or human remains, as indicated by the ' river-drifts ' and 'river
terraces ' in or upon which they occur ; second, through the age
of the open ' loess' stations which are found both on the ' older
terraces' and on the plateaus between the river valleys; third,

24 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

through the age of the shelters and caverns in which skeletal and
cultural remains occur ; fourth, through the age of the ' loam '
deposits, which have drifted down on the 'terraces' from the
surrounding meadows and hills. The men of the Old Stone Age
were attracted to these natural camps and dwelling-places both
by the abundance of the raw flint materials from which the palae-
oliths were fashioned and by the presence of game.

In more than ninety years of exploration only three skeletal
relics of man have been found in the ancient ' river-drifts ' ; these
are the 'Trinil,' the 'Heidelberg/ and the 'Piltdown'; in each
instance the human remains were buried accidentally with those
of extinct animals, after drifting for some distance in the river
or stream beds. It is only in late Acheulean times that human
burial rites or interments begin and that skeletal remains are
found. Owing to the less perishable nature of flint, relics of the
quarries and stations are infinitely more common; they are found
both in the river sands and gravels, in the 'river terraces/ and
in the 'loess' stations of the plateaus and uplands. Thus pre-
historic chronology is based on observations of the geologist, who
in turn is greatly aided by the archaeologist, because the evolution
stages of each type of implement are practically the same all over
western Europe, with the exception of unimportant local inven-
tions and variations. In brief, the large divisions of time are
determined by the amount of work done by geologic agencies;
the comparative age of the various camp sites is determined by
their geologic succession, by the mammals and plants which oc-
cur in them, and finally by the cultural type of any industrial
remains that may be found.

Times of the 'High' and 'Low' River 'Terraces'

The so-called 'terrace' chronology is to be used by the pre-
historian with caution, for it is obvious that the 'terraces' in
the different river-valleys of western Europe were not all formed
at the same time ; thus the testimony of the ' terraces ' is always
to be checked off by other evidence.

GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF MAN

25

As to the origin of the sands and gravels which compose the
'terraces' we know that the glacial stages were periods of the
wearing away of vast materials from the summits and sides of
the mountains, which were transported by the rivers to the
valleys and plains. These vast deposits of glacial times spread
out over the very broad surfaces of the pristine river-bottoms,
which in many valleys it is important to note were from ioo to
1 50 feet above the present levels. The diminished and contracted

N.W.

a!

.500 m

-400

0 ! 2 4 a 6 5 ro"" f2km.

Fig. 6. Terraces on either side of the valley of the River Inn, Scharding, Austria,

formed by sand and gravel deposits partly covered with loess. After Bruckner.

lb. Very broad river deposits of First Glaciation, on the first erosion level, covered
with the 'Upper Loess' of the Second Interglacial Stage.

lib. Somewhat narrower river deposits of Second Glaciation on the second erosion
level.

II lb. Still, narrower river terraces of the Third Glaciation on the third erosion
level, covered with the 'Lower Loess' of the Third Interglacial Stage.

IVb. Fourth or lowest terrace of the Fourth Glaciation on the fourth erosion level.

Va. Erosion terraces, Achen.

Via. Post-Buhl erosion.

Loess', 'Upper Loess' of Second Interglacial. Loess", 'Lower Loess' of Third In-
terglacial.

streams of interglacial times cut into these ancient river beds,
forming narrower channels into which they transported their
own materials. Thus, as the successive ' river terraces' were
formed, a descending series of steps was created along the sides
of the valleys. In many valleys there are four of these ' terraces,'
which may correspond with several glacial stages ; in other val-
leys there are only three; in others, again, like the valley of
the River Inn which flows past Innsbruck in the Tyrol (Fig. 6),
there are five ' terraces,' while in the valley of the Rhine above
Basle there are six, corresponding, it is believed, with the mate-
rials brought down by the four great glaciations and with the
river levels of Postglacial times. In general, therefore, the 'high
terraces' are the oldest ones, that is, they are composed of

26

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

materials brought down during the pluvial periods of the First,
Second, and Third Glacial Stages, while the 'lower terraces'
and the 'lowest terraces' in the alpine regions are composed
of materials borne by the great rivers of the Fourth Glacial and
Postglacial Stages. In the region around the Alps the 'higher
terraces' are products chiefly of the third glaciation; in the

Rheinfdder HUL

Upper Schworstadt

-400 m

-350

km

Fig. 7. Cross-section through the terraced Pleistocene formations of the Rhine valley
above Basle, Switzerland. After Penck.
lb. Outwash of the First Glaciation — Giinz — Deposits on the first erosion level.
lib. Outwash of the Second Glaciation — Mindel — Deposits on the second erosion level.
Illb. Outwash of the Third Glaciation — Riss — Deposits on the third erosion level.
IVb. Outwash of the Fourth Glaciation — Wiirm— Deposits on the fourth erosion level.
Va. Erosion terrace, Achen oscillation — fifth erosion level.

Trrr* > Post-Buhl erosion — sixth and seventh erosion levels.
Vila. J

IIIc. Moraine of the Third Glaciation — Riss.

The section of the Rheinfelder Hill lies 3 km. west from the Moliner Field.

valley of the Rhine they are visible near Basle. On the upper
Rhine the 'low terraces' are products of the fourth glaciation;
they cover vast surfaces and contain remains of the woolly mam-
moth (E. primi genius) , an animal distinctive of Fourth Glacial
and Postglacial times.

More remote from the glacial regions, but equally subject to
the inundations of glacial times are the ' high terraces ' along the
River Seine, which are ninety feet above the present level of
the river and contain the remains of mammals characteristic
of the First Interglacial Stage, such as the southern elephant (E.
meridionalis) , while the 'low terraces' along the Seine are only
fifteen feet above the present level of the river and contain
mammals belonging to the Third Interglacial Stage. Similarly,

GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF MAN 27

the 'high terraces' of the River Eure contain mammals of First
Interglacial times, such as the southern elephant (E. meridionalis)
and Steno's horse (E. stenonis) ; these fossils occur in coarse river
sands and gravels which were deposited by a broad stream that
flowed at least ninety feet above the present waters of the
Eure.

The human interest which attaches to these dry facts of
geology appears especially in the valleys of the Somme and the
Marne in northern France; here again we find 'high terraces/
'middle terraces/ and 'low terraces'; the latter are still sub-
ject to flooding. In the deep gravels upon each of these terraces
we find the first proofs of human residence, for here occur the
earliest Pre-Chellean and Chellean implements associated with
the remains of the hippopotamus, of Merck's rhinoceros, and of
the straight- tusked elephant (E. antiquus), together with mam-
mals which are characteristic both of Second and Third Inter-
glacial times.

This raises a very important distinction, which is often mis-
understood; namely, between the materials composing the orig-
inal terraces and those subsequently deposited upon the terraces.
It appears to be in the latter that human artifacts are chiefly, if
not exclusively, found.

Times of the Loam Stations

The 'loam' which washes down over the original sand and
gravel 'terraces' from the surrounding hills and meadows is of
much later date than the 'terraces' themselves, and the archae-
ologist in the valley of the Somme as well as in that of the Thames
may well be deceived unless he clearly distinguishes between the
newer deposits of gravels and of loams and the far older gravels
and river sands which compose the original 'terraces.' This is
well illustrated by the observations of Commont on the section
of St. Acheul.56 The loams and brick-earth are of much more
recent age than the original gravels and sands of the 'terraces'
which they overlap and conceal; the lowest and oldest 'loam'

28

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

{limon fendille) contains Acheulean flints, while the overlying
'loam' contains Mousterian flints. Although occurring on the
'higher terraces,' these flints are of somewhat later date than
the primitive Chellean flints which occur in the coarse gravels
and sands that have collected upon the very lowest levels (Fig. 59).
A similar prehistoric inversion doubtless occurs in the 'ter-
races' of the Thames, for materials on the 'highest terrace'
(Fig. 8) contain Acheulean flints, while materials on the 'lowest
terrace' belong to a much more recent age.

1
!

South §
r Feet

North

Eocene
Beds

100

Sea Level

CretaceousX m
ChalM \ m

•f miles

Fig. 8. Section — Four terraces indicated in the valley of the Thames at Galley
Hill, near London. Site of the discovery of the 'Galley Hill Man' in deposits
overlying one of the high terraces. Site also of Gray's Thurrock, a deposit of
Third Interglacial times containing mammals and flints of Chellean age. A
typical camping station of 'river-drift man.' Drawn by Dr. C. A. Reeds.

We have no record of a single Palaeolithic station found in the
true original sands and gravels of the 'higher terraces' in any
part of Europe ; only eoliths are found on the ' high terrace '
levels, as at St. Prest.

The earliest palaeoliths occur in the gravels on both the ' mid-
dle ' and ' upper terraces ' of the Somme and the Marne, proving
that the gravels were deposited long subsequent to the cutting
of the original terraces. Geikie,57 moreover, is of the opinion
that the valley of the Somme has remained as it is since early
Pleistocene times, and that even the 'lowest terrace' here was
completed at that period ; this is contrary to the view of Commont,
who considers that this 'lowest terrace' belongs to Third Inter-
glacial times ; a restudy of the stations along the Thames may
throw light upon this very important difference of opinion.

GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF MAN

29

Times of the 'Loess' Stations

The glacial stages were generally times of relatively great
humidity, of heavy rain and snow fall, of full rivers charged with
gravels and sands, and with loam the finest product of the ero-

Fig. 9. Magdalenian loess station of Aggsbach, in Lower Austria. A quarry-
camping station of the open-plains type. This typical Postglacial loess de-
posit contains flints of early Magdalenian age. After Obermaier.

sive action of ice upon the rocks. This loam on the barren
wastes left bare by the glaciers or on the river borders and over-
flow basins was retransported by the winds and laid down afresh
in layers of varying thickness known as 'loess.' There was no
' loess ' formation either in Europe or America during the humid
climate of First Interglacial times, but during the latter part of
the Second Interglacial Stage, again toward the close of the
Third Interglacial Stage, and finally during Postglacial times
there were periods of arid climate when the 'loess' was lifted
and transported by the prevailing winds over the ' terraces ' and

30 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

plateaus and even to great heights among the mountain valleys.
As observed by Huntington58 in his interesting book The Pulse
of Asia, even at the present time there are districts where we
find 'loess' dust filling the entire atmosphere either during the
heated months of summer or during the cold months of winter.
In Pleistocene Europe there were at least three warm or cold
arid periods, accompanied in some phases by prevailing westerly
winds,59 in which * loess' was widely distributed over northern
Germany, covering the 'river terraces,' plateaus, and uplands
bordering the Rhine and the Neckar. These 'loess' periods
can be dated by the fossil remains of mammals which they con-
tain, also by the stations of the flint quarries in different culture
stages. Thus we find late Acheulean implements in drifts of
'loess' at Villejuif, south of Paris. Among the most famous
stations of late Acheulean times is that of Achenheim, west of
Strasburg, and not far distant is the 'loess' station of Mom-
menheim, of Mousterian times ; both belong to the period of the
fourth glaciation. An Aurignacian 'loess' station is that of
Willendorf, Austria.

Times of the Limestone Shelters and Caverns

Beginning in the late or cold Acheulean period, the Palae-
olithic hunters commenced to seek the warm or sheltered side of
deepened river- valleys, also the shelter afforded by overhanging
cliffs and the entrances of caverns. It is quite probable that
during the warm season of the year they still repaired to their
open flint quarries along the rivers and on the uplands ; in fact,
the river Somme was a favorite resort through Acheulean into
Mousterian times.

In general, however, the open rivers and plateaus were aban-
doned, and all the regions of limestone rock favorable to the
formal ion of shelter cliffs, grottos, and caverns were sought out
by the early Palaeolithic men from Mousterian times on ; and thus
from the beginning of the Mousterian to the close of the Upper
Palaeolithic their lines of migration and of residence followed the

GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF MAN

31

exposures of the limestones which had been laid down by the
sea in bygone geologic ages from Carboniferous to Cretaceous
times. The upper valleys of the Rhine and Danube traversed
the white Jurassic limestones which are again exposed in a broad
band along the foot-hills of the Pyrenees, extending far west to
the Cantabrian Alps of modern Spain. In Dordogne the great
horizontal plateau of Cretaceous limestone had been dissected
by branching rivers, such as the Vezere, to a depth of two hun-

Fig. 10. Ideal section of the bluff overlying the Diissel River, near Diisseldorf , showing
the mode of formation of the famous Neanderthal Cave, where the original type of
the Neanderthal race was discovered in 1856. A typical resort of the 'cave man.'
After Lyell.

c. Entrance of percolating waters from above.
/. Exit from the grotto.
a-b. Interior of the cavern.

dred feet. Under overhanging cliffs long rock shelters were
formed, such as that of the Magdalenian station at La Madeleine.

Many caverns were formed, some of them in early Pleistocene
times, by water percolating from above and (Fig. 1 1) resulting in
subterranean streams which issued at the entrance ; this formed
the expanded grotto, sometimes a chamber of vast dimensions,
such as the Grotte de Gargas. Outside of this, again, may be an
abri or shelter of overhanging rock. In other cases the rock
shelter is found quite independent of any cave.

Where the glaciers or ice-caps passed over the summits of the
hills the subglacial streams penetrated the limestone of the
mountain and formed vast caverns, such as that of Niaux, near
the river Ariege. Here a nearly horizontal cavern was formed,
extending half a mile into the heart of the mountain. The ma-

32

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

terial with which the floors of the caverns are covered is either a
fine cave loam or the insoluble remainder of the limestone form-
ing a brown or gray clayey substance. The Magdalenian artists
produced drawings on these soft clays and, in rare instances, used
them for modelling purposes, as in the Tuc d'Audoubert. The
sands and gravels were also swept in from the streams above and
carried by strong currents along the wall surfaces, smoothing and

polishing the limestone
in preparation for the
higher forms of Upper
Palaeolithic draughts-
manship and painting.

It would appear that
the majority of the cav-
erns were formed in plu-
vial periods of early
glacial times ; the for-
mation had been com-
pleted, the subterranean
streams had ceased to
flow, and the interiors
were relatively dry and
free from moisture in
Fourth Glacial and Post-
glacial times, when man first entered them. There is no
evidence, however, that the cavern depths were generally in-
habited, for the obvious reason that there was no exit for
the smoke ; the old hearths are invariably found close to or
outside of the entrance, the only exception being in the en-
trance to the great cavern of Gargas, where there is a natural
chimney for the exit of smoke. There was no cave life, strictly
speaking — it was grotto life; the deep caves and caverns were
probably penetrated only by artists and possibly also by magi-
cians or priests. It is in the abris or shelters in front of the grottos
and in the floors of the caverns that remarkable prehistoric
records arc found from late Acheulean times to the very close of

Fig

Formation of the typical limestone cav-
ern. After Gaudry.
V. Vertical section of limestone cliff showing
(S) waters percolating from above; (A-0) inte-
rior of the cavern; and (G) grotto entrance, orig-
inal exit of the cavern waters. H. Horizontal
section of the same cavern showing the (G)
grotto entrance and (A, G, 0, B) the ramifica-
tions of the cavern.

GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF MAN

33

the Palaeolithic, as in the wonderful grotto in front of the cave
at Castillo, near Santander. Thus, as Obermaier60 observes : " In
Chellean times primitive man was a care-free hunter wandering
as he chose in the mild and pleasant weather, and even the colder
climate of the arid 'loess' period of the late Acheulean was not
sufficient to overcome his love of the open; he still made his
camp on the plains at the edge of the forest, or in the shelter of
some overhanging cliff." Only in rare instances, as at Castillo,
were the Acheulean hearths brought within the entrance line of
the grotto.

Geologic Time

Penck, igio
Geikie, 1914

.Wiegers, 1913

Boule, Breuil,
Obermaier, 191 2
Schmidt, 1912

Postglacial.

Magdalenian.

Bronze.

Neolithic.

Azilian.

Magdalenian.

Solutrean.

Aurignacian.

IV. Glacial.

Solutrean.

Magdalenian.
Solutrean.
Aurignacian.
Mousterian.

Mousterian.

Third Inter glacial.

Mousterian.

Mousterian.

Early Mousterian.
Cold Acheulean.
Warm "
Chellean.
Pre-Chellean.

III. Glacial.

Mousterian.

Cold Acheu-
lean.

Second Inter glacial.

Acheulean.
Chellean.

Warm Acheu-
lean.
Chellean.

II. Glacial.

Pre-Chellean

First Interglacial.

DIFFERENCES OF OPINION AS TO THE GEOLOGIC AGE OF THE

PALEOLITHIC CULTURE STAGES

The right-hand column represents the theory adopted in this volume.

Interpretation of these four kinds of evidence as to the an-
tiquity of human culture in western Europe still leads to widely
diverse opinions. On the one hand, we have the high authority
of Penck61 and Geikie62 that the Chellean and Acheulean cul-
tures are as ancient as the second long warm interglacial period.

84 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

An extreme exponent of the same theory is Wiegers,63 who would
carry the Pre-Chellean back even into First Interglacial times.
On the other side, Boule,64 Schuchardt,65 Obermaier,66 Schmidt,67
and the majority of the French archaeologists place the begin-
ning of the Pre-Chellean culture in Third Interglacial times.

In favor of the latter theory is the strikingly close succession
of the Lower Palaeolithic cultures in the valley of the Somme, fol-
lowed by an equally close succession from Acheulean to Mag-
dalenian times, as, for example, in the station of Castillo. It
does not appear possible that a vast interval of time, such as that
of the third glaciation, separated the Chellean from the Mous-
terian culture.

On the other hand, in favor of the greater antiquity of the
Pre-Chellean and Chellean cultures may be urged their alleged
association in several localities with very primitive mammals of
early Pleistocene type, namely, the Etruscan rhinoceros, Steno's
horse, and the saber-tooth tiger, as witnessed in Spain and in
the deposits of the Champs de Mars, at Abbeville.

It is true, moreover, that at points distant from the great
ice-fields, like the valley of the Somme and that of the Marne,
we have no other means of separating glacial from interglacial
times than that afforded by the deposition and erosion of the
' terraces ' ; in fact, the interpretation of the age of the cultures
may be similar to that applied to the age of the mammalian
fauna. There are no proofs of periods of severe cold in western
Europe in any country remote from the glaciers until the very
cold steppe-tundra climate immediately preceding the fourth
glaciation swept the entire land and drove out the last of the
African-Asiatic mammals.

Geographic Changes

The migrations of mammals and of races of men into western
Europe from the Eurasiatic continent on the east and from
Africa on the south were favored or interrupted by the periods
of elevation or of subsidence of the coastal borders of the ^Egean,
Mediterranean, and North Seas, and also of the Iberian and

GEOGRAPHIC CHANGES

35

British coast-lines. The maximum period of elevation of the
coastal borders, as represented in the accompanying map (Fig.
12), never occurred in all portions of the continent of Europe at
the same time, because there were oscillations both on the nOrth-

15 20 15 10 W. 0 E

20 30 »0 SO M

as 10 <i5 100 10s

Fig. 12. Europe in the period of maximum continental elevation, in which the coast-
lines are widely extended, connecting Africa and Europe— including Great Britain
and Ireland — in a single vast peninsula, and affording free migration routes for
animal and human races north and south, as well as east and west. The ocean
boundaries are more remote and the interior seas are greatly reduced in area. After
Obermaier.

ern and southern coasts of Europe and Africa. The early Pleis-
tocene, especially the period of the First Interglacial Stage, was
one of elevation remarkable for the broad land bridges which
brought the animal life of Europe, Africa, and Asia together.
The Mediterranean coast rose 300 feet. Land bridges from Africa
were formed at Gibraltar and over to the island of Sicily, so that
for the time there was a free migration of mammalian life north
and south. It is to this that western Europe owes the majestic

36 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

mammals of Asiatic and African life which dominated the native
fauna.

In general, the elevation of the continent took place during
interglacial, the subsidence during glacial times, but Great
Britain appears to have been almost continuously elevated and
a part of the continent, and was certainly so during the Third
Interglacial, Fourth Glacial, and Postglacial Stages, because there
was a free migration of animal life and of human culture. The
Lower Palaeolithic peoples of Pre-Chelban and Chellean times
wandered at will from the valley of the Somme to the not far
distant valley of the Thames, interchanging their weapons and
inventions. The close proximity of these stations is well illus-
trated in the admirable map (Fig. 56) prepared under the direc-
tion of Lord Avebury (Sir John Lubbock) . The relation which
elevation and subsidence respectively bear to the glacial and inter-
glacial stages is believed to be as follows :

Elevation, emergence of the coast-lines from the sea, broad
land connections facilitating migration, retreat of the glaciers,
deepening of the river-valleys, and cutting of terraces. Arid
continental climate and deposition of 'loess.'

Subsidence, submergence of the coast-lines and advance of
the sea, interruption of land connections and of migration routes,
advance of the glaciers, filling of the river-valleys with the prod-
ucts of glacial erosion, the sand and gravel materials of which
the ' terraces ' are composed, and subglacial erosion of the loam,
from which in arid periods the 'loess' is derived.

Subsidence was the great feature of closing glacial times both
in Europe and America. During the Fourth Glacial and Post-
glacial Stages the Black and Caspian Seas and the eastern por-
tion of the Mediterranean were deeply depressed, while the
British Isles were still connected with France, but by a nar-
rower isthmus than that of early interglacial times. The scat-
tered stations of Upper Palaeolithic culture found in the British
[sles include one Aurignacian, one Solutrean, two Magdalenian,
and two Azilian; this shows that travel communication with
the continent continued throughout that period, in all proba-

CLIMATIC CHANGES 37

bility by means of a land connection. In late Neolithic times
the English Channel was formed, Great Britain became isolated
from Europe, and Ireland lost its land connection first with
Wales and then with Scotland.

Changes of Climate

Penck68 estimates the intensity of the cold and of the humid-
ity which prevailed during the glacial stages by the descent of
the snow-line in the Alps, which in the two periods of greatest

Sierra de Gredos Alps Mts.

Atlas Mts. I Pyrenees Mts.

is.ooo, i I France » Germany Scandinavian Plateau

woo'- , ^^-hrz-£tlT- -^----A---L j\-UN£ I Den"!ark 1 | North Cape

d. ■§! Sjf] §'!| \A^J<- — ^CrOesENT sea *\zl>~\ i .Tu ~ ~-^^Ip^£--^ -_^l" J^? "3

5M0'\ I jjf LliL" PROBABLE IsEA LEVEL AT THE }t!ME oAmAXIMUM EL EVATION, 1 __ \ SECOND CLACIATION. MINOEL ~$£~' -~^=T\XJ='

Strait of Gibraltar Garonne Phone North Skager

Valley Valley Sea Rak

SNOW LINES OF THE FOUR PRINCIPAL GLACIAL EPOCHS OF THE PLEISTOCENE PERIOD

A~B Profile across Europe along the line A-B of map

5 Presenr snow line

4 Snow line of the Fourth ONurm) Glacial Epoch
3 « « « ,. Third fffiss) » »

2 n n n » Second CMindel) »» >»

; « »» f » First (Gi/nz) « »

Fig. 13. An ideal earth section from the North Cape across the Scandinavian
plateau, through the North Sea, Swiss Alps, Pyrenees, and Straits of Gibraltar, to
the Atlas Mountains in northern Africa, along the line indicated on the map (Fig. 25,
p. 65) , illustrating the sea-level at' the time of the greatest elevation of the conti-
nent during the Second Glacial Stage, as compared with the present sea-level;
also the successive lines of descent of the region of perpetual snow during the four
great glacial advances, as compared with the present snow-line. From studies
by Dr. C. A. Reeds.

glaciation reached from 1,200 m. (3,937 ft.) to 1,500 m. (4, 921 ft.)
below the present snow-level, with the consequent formation of
vast ice-caps hung with glaciers which flowed great distances
down the valleys of the Rhone and of the Rhine and left their
moraines at very distant points. The moraines and drifts of the
lesser glaciations, such as the first and fourth, stand considerably
within the boundaries of these outer moraines and drift fields.
On the contrary, the warmer climates of interglacial times are
indicated by the sun-loving plants found at Hotting, along the
valley of the Inn, in the Tyrol, which are proofs of a tempera-
ture higher than the present and of the ascent of the snow-line
300 m. (984 ft.) above the existing snow-level of the Alps.

38 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

The alternation of the cold climates of the glacial stages with
the warm temperate climates of the interglacial stages formed
great oscillations of temperature (Figs. 13, 14). The fossil
plant life indicates that during the periods of the First, Second,
and Third Interglacial Stages the climate of western Europe
was cooler than it had been during the preceding Pliocene
Epoch and somewhat warmer than it is at the present time in
the same localities. During the First, Second, and Third Glacial
Stages there was certainly a marked lowering of temperature in
the regions bordering the great glacial fields. This is indicated
by the arrival in the northern glacial border regions of animals
and plants adapted to arctic and subarctic climates.

It has been generally believed that the whole of western
Europe was extremely cold during these glacial stages, and that
the heat-loving animals, the southern elephants, rhinoceroses,
and hippopotami, were driven to the south, to return only with
the renewed warmth of the next interglacial stage.

There is, however, no proof of the departure of these suppos-
edly less hardy mammals nor of the spread over Europe of the
more hardy arctic and steppe types until the advent of the
Fourth Glacial Stage. Then, for the first time, all western Europe
north of the Pyrenees experienced a general fall of temperature,
and conditions of climate prevailed such as are now found in the
arctic tundra regions of the north and in the high steppes of
central Asia, which are swept by dry and cold winter winds.
Fluctuations of temperature, of moisture, and of aridity in Pleis-
tocene time, are evidenced not only by the rise and fall of the
snow-line and the advance and retreat of the ice-caps but also by
the appearance of plant and animal life in the periods of the 'loess'
deposition, indicating the following cycles of climatic change as
witnessed from beginning to end of the Third Interglacial Stage :

IV. Glacial maximum, cold and moist climate, arctic and cold

steppe fauna and flora.

Cool and dry steppe climate, wide-spread deposition of

' loess.'

CLIMATIC CHANGES 39

Interglacial maximum, a long period of warm temperate

forest and meadow conditions.
Glacial retreat, cool and moist climate bordering the gla-
cial regions.
III. Glacial maximum, cold and humid climate bordering the
glaciers, favorable to arctic and subarctic plant and
animal life.

That great fields of ice and advancing glaciers alone do not
constitute proof of very low temperatures is shown at the present
time in southeastern Alaska, where very heavy snowfall or pre-
cipitation causes the accumulation of vast glaciers, although the
mean annual temperature is only io° Fahr. (5.560 C.) lower than
that of southern Germany. Neumayr69 estimated that during
the Ice Age there was a general lowering of temperature in Eu-
rope of not more than 6° C. (10.80 Fahr.), and held that even
during the glacial advances a comparatively mild climate pre-
vailed in Great Britain. Martins70 estimated that a lowering of
the temperature to the extent of 40 C. (7.20 Fahr.) would bring
the glaciers of Chamonix down to the level of the plain of Geneva.
Penck estimates that, all the atmospheric conditions remaining
the same as at present, a fall of temperature to the extent of 40
to 50 C. would be sufficient to bring back the Glacial Epoch in
Europe. These moderate estimates entirely agree with our
theory that animals of African and Asiatic habit nourished in
western Europe to the very close of the Third Interglacial
Stage, and that then for the first time the warm fauna, or
faune chaude, gradually disappeared.

Similarly the hypothesis of extremely warm or subtropical
conditions prevailing in interglacial times as far north as Britain,
which originated with the discovery of the northerly distribution
of the hippopotami and rhinoceroses, animals which we now
associate with the torrid climate of Africa, is not supported by
the study either of the plant life of interglacial stages or by the
history of the animals themselves. It is quite probable that
both the hippopotami and the rhinoceroses of the 'warm fauna'

40 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

were protected by hairy covering, although not by the thick
undercoating of wool which protected the woolly rhinoceros and
woolly mammoth, animals favoring the borders of glaciers and
flourishing during the last very cold glacial and Postglacial
periods.

The combined evidence from all these great events in western
Europe leads us to conclusions somewhat different from those
reached by Penck as to the chronology of human culture. In
the chart (Fig. 14) on the opposite page, prepared by Dr.
C. A. Reeds in collaboration with the author, a new correlation
of geologic, climatic, human, industrial, and faunal events is
presented. The great waves of glacial advance and retreat
(oblique shading) are based upon Penck' s estimates of the rise
and fall of the snow-line (vertical dotted lines) in the Swiss Alps.
(Compare Fig. 13.) The length of these waves corresponds
with the relative duration of the glacial and interglacial stages
as estimated by the varying amounts of erosion and deposition
of materials. The entire Palaeolithic or Old Stone Age is thus
seen to occupy not more than 125,000 years, or only the last
quarter of the Glacial Epoch, which is estimated as extending
over a period of 525,000 years. The present opinion of the
leading archaeologists of France and Germany, which is shared
by the author, is that the Pre-Chellean industry is not older
than the Third Interglacial Stage. As the Piltdown man was
found in deposits containing Pre-Chellean implements, he prob-
ably lived in the last quarter of the Glacial Epoch, and not in
early Pleistocene times as estimated by some British geologists.
This causes us to regard the Piltdown remains as more recent
than the jaw of Heidelberg, which all authorities agree is prob-
ably of Second Interglacial Age. According to our estimates the
Heidelberg man is nearly twice as ancient as the Piltdown man,
while Pithecanthropus (Trinil Race) is four times as ancient.
Yet the Piltdown man must still be regarded as of very great
antiquity, for he is four limes as ancient as the final type of Ne-
anderthal man belonging to the Mousterian industrial stage.
The various arcrueologic and pakeontologic evidences for this

Fig. 14. Great events of the Glacial Epoch. To the left the relation of glacial and in-
terglacial stages in Europe and North America, with the author's theory regarding the
divisions of time, the beginning of the Old Stone Age, and the successive appearance
in Europe of different branches of the human race. To the right the prolonged
warm temperate period in Europe in the non-glaciated regions, followed by the
relatively brief cold period during the past 70,000 years. Prepared by Dr. C. A.

« Reeds, in co-operation with the author.

41

42 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

general correlation theory of the Glacial Epoch are fully dis-
cussed in the succeeding chapters of this volume.

Mammals of Five Distinct Geographic Regions
(Compare Color Map, PL II, and Fig. 15)

As we have already observed, during the whole history of
mammalian life in various parts of the world never did there
prevail conditions so unusual and so complex as those which
surrounded the men of the Old Stone Age in Europe. The suc-
cessive races of Palaeolithic men in Europe were all flesh eaters,
depending upon the chase. The mammals, first pursued only
for food, utensils, and clothing, finally became subjects of artis-
tic appreciation and endeavor which resulted in a remarkable
aesthetic development.

From the beginning to the end of Palaeolithic times the vari-
ous races of man witnessed the assemblage in Europe of animals
indigenous to every continent on the globe except South America
and Australia and adapted to every climatic life-zone, from the
warm and dry plains of southern Asia and northern Africa to
the temperate forests and meadows of Eurasia; from the heights
of the Alps, Himalayas, Pyrenees, and Altai Mountains to the
high, arid, dry steppes of central Asia with their alternating heat
of summer and cold of winter ; from the tundras or barren grounds
of Scandinavia, northern Europe, and Siberia to the mild forests
and plains of southern Europe.71 Members of all these highly
varied groups of animals had been evolving in various parts of
the northern hemisphere from the Eocene Epoch onward. In
Pliocene times they had become thoroughly adapted to their
various habitats. Throughout early Pleistocene times, with the
increasing cold extending southward from the arctic circle,
such mammals as the elephant, rhinoceros, musk-ox, and rein-
deer had become thoroughly adapted to the climate of the ex-
treme north. There is every reason to believe that when these
tundra quadrupeds first arrived in Europe, during early mid-
glacial stages, they had already acquired the heavy coat of hair

MIGRATIONS OF MAMMALS

43

Recent
Prehistoric.

Return of the Alpine Mammals to the Mountains.

Wide dispersal of Forest and Meadow Mammals
over the Northern Hemisphere.

Postglacial.
Severe climate.

IV. Glacial.
Cold Steppe cli-
mate.

3d Interglacial.
Warm climate.

III. Glacial.

Reindeer and
Woolly Mam-
moth in North
Germany and
the Alps.

2d Interglacial.

II. Glacial.

Reindeer and
Woolly Mam-
moth in North-
ern Germany.

est Interglacial.

I. Glacial.

Musk-ox in Sus-
sex, England.

Also the stag, giant deer, bison, wild

• cattle, forest horse, boar, wolf, fox,

lynx, wildcat, several species of bear.

Survival of many Pliocene African-
Asiatic Mammals, mingled with Pliocene
and recent Eurasiatic Forest and Mead-
ow Mammals.

Retreat of the Tundra and Steppe Mammals to the
North and East.

Mingling in the lowlands of France and Germany
of the Reindeer-Mammoth fauna, the Alpine
fauna, the Steppe Mammals, and the hardy Eur-
asiatic Forest and Meadow Mammals.

Arrival of tbe Tundra Mammals from the North.

Arrival of the Steppe Mammals from Western Asia.

Southward migration and extinction of all the
African-Asiatic Mammals except the lions and
hyaenas.

Mingled African-Asiatic and Eurasiatic Mammals
in different parts of the non-glaciated regions,
the hippopotamus, southern mammoth, straight-

tusked elephant, Merck's broad-nosed

rhinoceros, lion, hyaena, jackal, sabre-
tooth tiger.

Period of
Recent
Animals

Reindeer

Period

in

Western

Europe.

Period

OF THE

Hd?popotamus,
Rhinoceros,

AND

Elephant.

Also

of the

Stag

AND

Bison
in

Western
Europe.

Geologic
and

Climatic
Stages.

Early Migrations
of Scandinavian
and North Sibe-
rian Mammals
near the Ice-
fields.

'Warm' African- More hardy Eur-

Asiatic Mammals. asiatic Mammals.

Temperate and shel- Cool temperate for-
tered parts of ests and mead-
Western Europe. ows.

Regions near More Sheltered Non-Glaciated Re-

the ice-feelds gions remote from the glacial

and Glacial Borders and Ice-fields.
Borders.

Three

Chief

Life

Periods.

MIGRATIONS AND EXTINCTIONS OF MAMMALIAN LIFE DURING THE
FOUR GLACIAL, THREE INTERGLACIAL, AND POSTGLACIAL STAGES

44 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

and undercoating of wool, such as now characterizes the musk
ox, one of the living representatives of this northern fauna.

The five great sources of mammalian migration into western
Europe in Pleistocene times were accordingly as follows:

i. Warm plains of northern Africa and of southern Asia. "African-
Asiatic" fauna — hippopotamus, rhinoceros, elephant.

2. Temperate meadows and forests of Europe and Asia. "Eura-
siatic" fauna — deer, bison, horse.

3. High, cool mountain ranges — Alps, Pyrenees, Caucasus, Urals.
Fauna — chamois, ibex, ptarmigan. (See Fig. 185.)

4. Steppes and deserts. Dry, elevated plateaus and steppes of east-
ern Europe and central Asia. Fauna — desert ass and horse, saiga ante-
lope, jerboa. (See Fig. 186.)

5. Tundras and barren grounds within or near the arctic circle.
Fauna — reindeer, musk-ox, arctic fox. (See Figs. 95 and 96.)

(Compare Figs. 14 and 15.)

In the warm plains, forests, and rivers of southern Asia and
northern Africa there developed the elephants, rhinoceroses,
hippopotami, lions, hyaenas, and jackals, which, taken together,
may be known as the African- A sialic fauna. It contains alto-
gether fourteen species of mammals. The great geographic area
from the far east to the far west over which ranged similar or
identical species of these pachyderms and carnivores is indicated
by the oblique lines in the geographic chart (Fig. 15).

The north temperate belt of Asia and Europe, with its hardy
forests and genial meadows, was the home of the even more
highly varied Eur astatic Forest and Meadow fauna. This includes
twenty-six or more species. Of these the red deer, or stag, was
most characteristic of the forests and the bison and wild cattle* of
the meadows. Even at the very beginning of Pleistocene times
there appear the stag, the wild boar, and the roe-deer with their
natural pursuers, the wolf and the brown bear. From the northern
woods came the moose and the wolverene. Most of these mam-
mals were so similar to existing forms that the older naturalists

* Bison and wild cattle arc grass eaters, and their natural habitats are the open plain
and meadow regions. They also range into open forest lands where grasses can be found.
The prehistorii 'urns' and 'wisent' of Europe were both found in forests, but this may
not have been their natural habitat in Palaeolithic times. See Appendix, Note IV.

MIGRATIONS OF MAMMALS

45

placed them in existing species, but the tendency now is to sepa-
rate them or place them in distinct subspecies. Mingled with
these forest and meadow mammals were a few others which have

Fig. 15. Zoogeographic map. Range of the large mammals of Africa and southern
Asia in Pliocens and Pleistocene times until nearly the close of the Lower Palaeo-
lithic (oblique lines). Range of the forest and meadow fauna of Europe and
Asia from early Pleistocene to prehistoric times; stag and bison fauna (horizontal
lines). Present range of the tundra or barren-ground mammals (dots) which wan-
dered south during the fourth glaciation, expelling the large Asiatic mammals.
Present range of mammals of the deserts and steppes of eastern Europe and
southern Asia, which also invaded western Europe during the glacial and Post-
glacial stages (vertical lines). The alpine mammals dwelt in the high mountain
regions and invaded the plains and lowlands during Fourth Glacial and Post-
glacial times.

since become extinct, such as the giant deer (Megaceros), the
giant beaver (Trogontherium), and the primitive forest and
meadow horses. From this region also there developed the cave-
bear (Ursus spelceus). Certainly it is astonishing to find the re-
mains of these mammals mingled with those from southern Asia
and Africa, as is frequently the case. In early glacial times the

46 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

bison and wild cattle mingled freely with the hippopotami and
rhinoceroses, but in late glacial and Postglacial times they oc-
curred as companions of the mammoth and the woolly rhinoceros.
In prehistoric times they survived with the mammals brought
from the Orient by the Neolithic agriculturists.

During a great glaciation, but especially during the severe
climate of late Pleistocene times, the Alpine mammals were
driven down from the heights into the plains and among the
lower mountains and foot-hills. Thus the ibex, chamois, and
argali sheep from the Altai Mountains are represented both in
drawing and in sculpture by the men of the Reindeer Period.

Still more remarkable is the arrival in Europe of the Steppe
Fauna of Russia and of western Siberia, mammals which now
survive in the vast Kirghiz steppes, east of the Caspian Sea
and the Ural Mountains, where the climate is one of hot, dry
summers and prolonged cold winters, with sweeping dust and
snow storms. These animals are very hardy, alert, and swift of
foot, such as the jerboa, the saiga antelope, the wild asses, and-
the wild horses, including the Przewalski type, which still sur-
vives in the desert of Gobi. From this region also came the
Elasmo there (E. sibiricum) , with its single giant horn above the
eyes. Very distinctive of the fauna frequenting the caverns are
the small rodents, including the dwarf pikas, the steppe hamsters,
and the lemmings. These animals were attracted into Europe
during the 'steppe' and 'loess' periods of cold, dry climate.

The advance of the great Scandinavian glaciers from the
north crowded to the south the Tundra or Barren Ground fauna
of the arctic circle. The herald of this fauna during the First
Glacial Stage was the musk-ox, which appears in Sussex, and then
came the reindeer of the existing Scandinavian type. These
animals are followed by the woolly mammoth (£. primigenius)
and the woolly rhinoceros (D. antiquitatis) with their panoply of
hair and wool which had long been developing in the north.
Finally in the Fourth Glacial Stage arrived the lemming of the
river Obi, also the more northern banded lemming, the arctic
fox, the wolverene, and the ermine, as well as the arctic hare.

MIGRATIONS OF MAMMALS

47

These tundra mammals for a short period mingled in places with
survivors of the African-Asiatic fauna, such as Merck's rhinoc-
eros and the straight- tusked elephant (E. antiquus). In general,
they swept southward as far as the Pyrenees over country which
had long been enjoyed by the African-Asiatic mammals, while
the hippopotami and the southern elephants retreated still far-
ther south and became extinct.

The only survivors of the great African- Asiatic fauna in
Fourth Glacial and Postglacial times were the hyaenas (H.
crocuta spelcea) and the lions (Felis leo spelcea). The lion fre-
quently appears in the drawings of the cavemen.

The various species belonging to these five great faunae ap-
parently succeed each other, and wherever their remains are
mingled with the palaeoliths, as along the rivers Somme, Marne,
and Thames, or in the hearths of the shelters and caverns, they
become of extreme interest both in their bearing on the chronology
of man and on the development of human culture, art, and in-
dustry. They also tell the story of the sequence of climatic
conditions both in the regions bordering the glaciers and in the
more temperate regions remote from the ice-caps. Thus they
guide the anthropologist over the difficult gaps where the geologic
record is limited or undecipherable. The general succession of
these great faunae is illustrated in Fig. 14 and also in the above
table.

(1) Lamarck, 1815.1.

(2) Schaaffhausen, 1 858.1.

(3) Darwin, C, 1909.2.

(4) Lamarck, 1 809.1.

(5) Lyell, 1863. 1, pp. 84-89.

(6) Darwin, C, 1871.1, p. 146.

(7) Darwin, C, 1909. 1, p. 158.

(8) Retzius, A., 1864.1, p. 27.

(9) Op. cit., p. 166.

(10) Broca, 1875. 1.

(11) Schwalbe, G., 1914.1, p. 592.

(12) Cartailhac 1 903.1.

(13) Dechelette, 1908.1, vol.. I.

(14) Reinach, S„ 1889. 1.

(15) Schmidt, 1912.1.

(16) Avebury, 1913.1.

(17) Eccardus, 17 50.1.

(18) Mahudel, 1 740.1.

(19) Buckland, 1824. 1.

(20) Godwin- Austen, 1 840.1.

(21) Christol, 1829. 1.

(22) Schmerling, 1833. 1.

(23) Boucher de Perthes, 1846.1.

(24) Op. cit.

(25) Rigollot, 1854.1.

(26) Lubbock, 1862. 1.

(27) Avebury, 1913-1, PP- 2, 3.

(28) Lartet, 1861.1.

(29) Lartet, 1875. 1.

(30) Breuil, 1912.7, p. 165.

(31) de Mortillet, 1869. 1.

(32) Piette, E., 1907. 1.

48

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

(33) Riviere 1897. 1.

(34) de Sautuola, 1 880.1.

(35) Schmidt, 1912.1.

(36) Bourgeois, 1867. 1.

(37) Schmidt, op. cit., p. 5.

(38) Obermaier, 1912.1, pp. 170-174;

316-320; 332, 545.

(39) Charpentier, 1841.1.

(40) Agassiz, 1837. 1 ; 1840. 1; 1840.2.

(41) Morlot, 1854. 1.

(42) Chamberlin, 1895. 1; 1905. 1, vol.

Ill, chap. XIX, pp. 327-516.

(43) Salisbury, 1905. 1.

(44) Penck, 1909. 1.

(45) Leverett, 1910.1.

(46) Lyell, 1867. 1, vol. I, pp. 293-

301; 1877. 1, vol. I, p. 287.

(47) Dana, 1875. 1, p. 591.

(48) Walcott, 1 893. 1.

(49) Upham, 1893. 1, p. 217.

(50) Heim, 1894. 1.

(51) Sollas, 1900.1.

(52) Penck, 1909.1, vol. Ill, pp. 1153-

1176.

(53) Geikie, 1914.1, P- 302.

(54) Reeds, 191 5.1.

(55) Niiesch, 1902. 1.

(56) Geikie, op. cit., pp. 111-114.

(57) Op. cit., p. 108.

(58) Huntington, 1907. 1.

(59) Leverett, 1910.1.

(60) Obermaier, 1912.1, p. 132.

(61) Penck, 1908. 1 ; 1909. 1.

(62) Geikie, 1914.1, p. 312.

(63) Wiegers, 191 3.1.

(64) Boule, 1888. 1.

(65) Schuchardt, 1913.1, p. 144.

(66) Obermaier, 1909.2; 191 2.1.

(67) Schmidt, 1912.1, p. 266.

(68} Penck, 1909. 1, vol. Ill, p. 1168,
Fig. 136.

(69) Neumayr, 1 890.1, vol. II, p. 621.

(70) Martins, 1847. 1, pp. 941, 942.

(71) Osborn, 1910.1, pp. 386-427.

CHAPTER I

ANCESTRY OF THE ANTHROPOID APES — PLIOCENE CLIMATE, FORESTS,
AND LIFE OF WESTERN EUROPE — TRANSITION TO THE PLEISTO-
CENE, OR AGE OF MAN — THE FIRST GLACIATION, ITS EFFECTS ON
CLIMATE, FORESTS, AND ANIMAL LIFE — THE PREHUMAN TRINIL
RACE OF JAVA — THE EOLITHS OR PRIMITIVE FLINTS — THE SEC-
OND GLACIATION — THE HEIDELBERG, EARLIEST KNOWN HUMAN
RACE — THE THIRD GLACIATION

The partly known ancestors of the anthropoid apes and the
unknown ancestors of man probably originated among the for-
ests and flood-plains of southern Asia and early began to migrate
westward into northern Africa and western Europe.

As early as Oligocene times a forerunner of the great apes
(Propliopithecus), most nearly resembling the gibbons, appears
in the desert bordering the Fayum in northern Egypt. Early in
Miocene times true tree-living gibbons found their way into
Europe and continued throughout the Pliocene in the forms
known as Pliopithecus and Pliohylobates, the latter being a true
gibbon in its proportions ; it ranged northward into the present
region of Germany. Another ape which early reached Europe
is the Dryopithecus; it is found in Miocene times in southern
France ; the grinding- teeth suggest those of the orang, the jaw
is deep and in some ways resembles that of the Piltdown man.
A third ape {Neopithecus) occurs in the Lower Pliocene near
Eppelsheim, in Germany, and is known only from a single lower
molar tooth, which recalls the dentition of Dryopithecus and more
remotely that of Homo. In the Pliocene of the Siwalik hills of
Asia is found Palceopithecus, a generalized form which is believed
to be related to the chimpanzee, the gorilla, and the gibbon ; the
upper premolars resemble those of man.

None of these fossil anthropoids either of Europe or of Asia
can be regarded as ancestral to man, although both Neopithecus

49

50

MEN OF THE OLD STOXE AGE

and Dryopithecus have been placed in or near the line of human
ancestry by such high authorities as Branco and Gaudry. When
Dryopithecus was first discovered by Lartet, Gaudry1 considered
it to be by far the most manlike of all the apes, even attributing
to it sufficient intelligence for the working of flints, but fuller

Fig. 16. The gibbon is primitive in its skull and dentition, but extremely special-
ized in the adaptation of its limbs to arboreal life. Photograph
from the New Vork Zoological Park.

knowledge of this animal has shown that some of the living
anthropoids are more manlike than Dryopithecus. This animal
is closely related to the ancestral stock of the chimpanzee,
gorilla, and orang. The jaw, it is true, resembles that of the
Piltdown man (Eoanthropus), but the grinding-teeth are much
more primitive and there is little «eason to think that it is an-
tral to any human type.*

* A recent article by A. Smith Woodward describes the fourth known specimen of
Dryopithecus, lately discovered in northern Spain (sec Woodward, 1914.2).

ANCESTRY OF THE ANTHROPOID APES 51

Among these fossil anthropoids, as well as among the four
living forms, we discover no evidence of direct relationship to
man but very strong evidence of descent from the same ances-
tral stock. These proofs of common ancestry, which have already
been observed in the existing races of man, become far more
conspicuous in the ancient Palaeolithic races ; in fact, we cannot
interpret the anatomy of the men of the Old Stone Age without

Fig. 17. The orang has a high rounded skull and long face. Photograph
from the New York Zoological Park.

a survey of the principal characters of the existing anthropoid
apes, the gibbon, the orang, the chimpanzee, and the gorilla.

The gibbon is the most primitive of living apes in its skull
and dentition, but the most specialized in the length of its arms
and its other extreme adaptations to arboreal life. As in the
other anthropoids, the face is abbreviated, the narial region is
narrow, i. e., catarrhine, and the brain-case is widened, but the
top of the skull is smooth, and the forehead lacks the promi-
nent ridges above the orbits; thus the profile of the skull of

52

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

the gibbon (Fig. 16) is more human than that of the other an-
thropoid apes. When on the ground the gibbon walks erect and
is thus afforded the free use of its arms and independent move-
ments of its fingers. In the brain there is a striking develop-
ment of the centres of sight, touch, and hearing. It is these
characteristics of the modern gibbon which preserve with rela-

Fig. 18. The chimpanzee. This figure illustrates the walking powers of the

chimpanzee, the great length of the arms, and the abbreviation of the

legs. Photograph from the Xew York Zoological Park.

tively slight changes the type of the original ancestor of man,
as noted by Elliot Smith.2

The limbs of the orang are less elongated and less extremely
specialized for arboreal life than those of the gibbon but more
so than those of the chimpanzee and the gorilla. The skull is
rounded and of great vertical height, with broad, bony ridges
above the orbits and a great median crest on top of the skull in
old males. The lower jaw of the orang is stout and deep, and,
although used as a fighting weapon, the canine tusks are much

ANCESTRY OF THE ANTHROPOID APES

53

less prominent than in either the gibbon, chimpanzee, or
gorilla.

In the chimpanzee we observe the very prominent bony ridges
above the eyes, like those in the Trinil and Neanderthal races
of men. Of all the anthropoid apes the lower jaw of the chim-

Fig. 19. The chimpanzee. This figure shows certain facial characteristics
which are preserved in the Neanderthal race of men. Note also the
shortening of the thumb and the enlargement of the big toe. Photograph
from the New York Zoological Park.

panzee most nearly resembles that of- the Piltdown man. The
prognathous or protruding tooth rows and receding chin sug-
gest those in the Heidelberg, Piltdown, and Neanderthal races.
When the chimpanzee is walking (Fig. 18) the arms reach down
below the level of the knees, whereas in the higher races of man
they reach only half-way down the thighs.

54

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

Thus, the fore limb, although much shorter than that of the gib-
bon, is relatively longer than that of any human race, recent or
ancient. We observe also in the walking chimpanzee (Fig. 18)

Existing
Apes and
Man.

Gibi

As

JON.

la.

Man

(Homo sapiens).

Asia, Europe.

Chimpanzee. Gorilla.

Africa. Africa.

/
f

Orang.
Asia.

Cro-Magnon and
other races.

i
i
i

/

/
/

/

/
/

/

/

/
Macaque
of Eu-
rope.

i
j

Glacial or
Pleistocene
Age.

More primitive spe-
cies, human and
prehuman.

Neanderthal race.

Piltdown race.

|

/
/

/
/ /

Heidelberg race.

1

i

! 1

!

Pliocene
Age.

Primitiv
bon c
rope

{Pliohyl

; Gib-
>f Eu-

obates) .

Trinil race
(Pithecanthropus) .

Unknown Pliocene
ancestors of man.

: / /
Ancestral a'nthro- /
poids of Asia /

!/ /

i / /

Macaques
of Asia
and
Europe.

j

i

Miocene
Age.

i

Earliest 'Gibbons

of Europe
(Pliopithecus).

!
i
|

Primitive anthropoids

of Asia and Europe. /

J J /

/
/

Oligocene.

Ancestral anthro-
poids of Egypt
(Propliopithecus) .

Small monkeys
of Egypt.

V

--~ ,,- —

-^

Unknown ancestral stock
of the Old World pri-
mates, including man.

ANCESTRAL TREE OF THE ANTHROPOID APES AND OF MAX

From the unknown and ancestral stock of the anthropoid apes and man the gibbon was the first
to bran< h off in Oligocene times; the oramc; then branched off in a widely different direction.
The Bt hi of the chimpanzee and of the gorilla branched off at a more recent date and is
more nearly allied to that of man. Five early human races have been found in Europe in
Gla< i.il or Pleistocene times, but no traces of other primates except the macaques, which are
related to the lower division of the baboons, have been found in Europe in Pleistocene times.
Modified after Gregory. (For latest discovery see Appendix, Note VII.)

ANCESTRY OF THE ANTHROPOID APES

55

that the upper part of the leg, the thigh-bone, or -femur, is rela-
tively long, while the lower part, the shin-bone, or tibia, is rela-
tively short. Indeed, both in the arm and in the leg the upper
bones are relatively long and the lower bones are relatively short.
These proportions, which are inheritances of arboreal life, are
in very marked contrast to those observed in the arms and

Fig. 20. The Gorilla. An immature female, about three years of age,
showing none of the adult male characteristics. Photo-
graph from the New York Zoological Park.

legs of the Neanderthal race of men, in which the limbs are of
the terrestrial or walking type.

We observe also in the chimpanzee a contrast between the
grasping power of the big toe, which is a kind of thumb, and the
lack of that power in the hand, in which the thumb is nearly
useless ; in all apes this function is characteristic of the foot, in
man of the hand alone. The opposable thumb, with its power of
bringing the thumb against each of the fingers, is the one char-
acter which is lacking in every one of the anthropoid apes and
which was early developed among the ancestors of man.

The skull of the chimpanzee is longer than that of the orang,
the most prominent feature in the top view being the extreme
protuberance of the orbits, which are surrounded by a supra-

oG

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

orbital and circumorbital bony ridge, which is also strongly de-
veloped in the Neanderthal skull as well as in the Pithecanthropus
or Trinil skull but, so far as we know, is entirely lacking in that
of Piltdown. As in the orang and the gorilla, a crest develops
along the middle of the top of the skull for the insertion of the
powerful muscles of the jaws, a crest which is wholly wanting
in the gibbon and probably wanting in all the true ancestors
of man.

The gorilla illustrates in the extreme the specializations which
are begun in the chimpanzee, and which are attributable to a

Fig. 21. Contrast of the projecting face (prognathism), retreating forehead, and
small brain-case of a young gorilla, as compared with the vertical face, promi-
nent nose, high forehead, and large brain-case of a high race of man. After
Klaatsch.

life partly arboreal, partly terrestrial, with the skull and jaws used
as powerful fighting organs. The head is lengthened by the for-
ward growth of the muzzle into an extreme prognathism. The
limbs and body of the gorilla show a departure from the primitive,
slender-limbed, arboreal type of apes and are partly adapted to
a bipedal, ground-dwelling habit.

As regards psychic evolution,3 Elliot Smith observes that the
arboreal mode of life of the early ancestors of man developed
quick, alert, and agile movements which stimulated the progress-
ive- development of the posterior and lateral portions of the
brain. The sense of smell had been well developed in a previous
terrestrial life, but once these creatures left the earth and took

ANCESTRY OF THE ANTHROPOID APES

57

to the trees, guidance by the olfactory sense was less essential,
for life amidst the branches of the trees is most favorable to the
high development of the senses of vision, touch, and hearing.
Moreover, it demands an agility and quickness of movement
that necessitate efficient motor centres in the brain to co-ordinate
and control such actions as tree life calls for. The specialization
of sight awakens curiosity to examine objects with greater mi-

Mascufa^

SELF CONTROL/
ATTENTION
CONDUCT

'ditory

Fig. 22. Side view of a human brain of high type, showing the chief areas of
muscular control and of the sensory impressions of sight and hearing, also the
prefrontal area in which the higher mental faculties are centred. Modified after
M. Allen Starr.

nuteness and guides the hands to more precise and skilled move-
ments.

The anatomy of man is full of remote reminders of this orig-
inal arboreal existence, which also explains the very large and
early development of the posterior portions of the brain, in which
the various senses of sight, touch, and hearing are located.

The first advance from arboreal to terrestrial life is marked
by the power of walking more or less erect on the hind limbs and
thus releasing the arms ; this power is developed to a greater or
less degree in all the anthropoid apes ; with practice they become

58 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

expert walkers. The additional freedom which the erect atti-
tude gives to the arms and to the movements of the hands and
the separate movements of the ringers is especially noticeable in
the gibbon. The cultivation of the powers of the hand reacts
upon the further growth and specialization of the brain; thus
the brain and the erect attitude react upon each other. In

Fig. 23. The evolution of the brain. Outlines (side view) of typical human
and prehuman brains, showing the early development of the posterior por-
tions of the brain and the relatively late development of the anterior portions,
the seat of the higher mental faculties.

the gibbon there is a marked increase in the size of those por-
tions of tbe brain which supply the centres of touch, vision, and
hearing.

Discussion as to how the ancestors of man were fashioned has
chiefly dealt with the rival claims of four lines of structural evo-
lution : first, the assumption of the erect altitude; second, the
development of the opposable thumb; third, the growth of the
brain; and fourth, the acquisition of the power of speech. The
argument for the erect attitude suggested by Lamarck, and ably
put by Munro4 in 1893, indicates that the cultivation of skill

ANCESTRY OF THE ANTHROPOID APES 59

with the hahds and fingers lies at the root of man's mental su-
premacy. Elliot Smith's argument that the steady growth and
specialization of the brain itself has been the chief factor in lead-
ing the ancestors of man step by step upward indicates that

Fig. 24. The evolution of the brain. Outlines (top view) of typical human
and prehuman brains, showing the narrow forebrain of the primitive type
and the successive expansion^ the seat of the higher mental faculties in
the successive races.
v

such an advance as the erect attitude was brought about be-
cause the brain had made possible the skilled movements of
the hands.

The true conception of prehuman evolution, which occurred
during Miocene and Pliocene times, is rather that of the coin-
cident development of these four distinctively human powers.
It appears from the limb proportions in the Neanderthal race

60 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

that the partly erect attitude and walking gait were assumed
much earlier in geologic time than we formerly imagined. The
intimate relation between the use of the opposable thumb and
the development of the higher mental faculties of man is sus-
tained to-day by the discovery that one of the best methods of
developing the mind of the child is to insist upon the constant
use of the hands, for the action and reaction between hand and
brain is found to develop the mind. A similar action and reac-
tion between foot and brain developed the erect gait which re-
leased the hand from its locomotive and limb-grasping function,
and by the resultant perfecting of the motion of thumbs and fin-
gers turned the hand into an organ ready for the increasing
specialization demanded by the manufacture of flint imple-
ments.

This is the stage reached, we believe, in late Pliocene times
in which the human ancestor emerges from the age of mammals
and enters the age of man, the period when the prehistory of
man properly begins. The attitude is erect, the hand has a well-
developed opposable thumb, the centres of the brain relating to
the higher senses and to the control of all the motions of the
limbs, hands, and fingers are well developed. The power of
speech may still be rudimentary. The anterior centres of the
brain for the storing of experience and the development of ideas
are certainly very rudimentary.

Change of Environment in Europe

Considering that the origin and development of any creature
are best furthered by a struggle for existence sufficiently severe
to demand the full and frecjuenL exercise of its powers of mind
and body, it is interesting to trace the sequence of natural events
which prepared western Europe for the entrance of the earliest
branches of the human race. The forests and plants portray
even more vividly than the animals the changing conditions of
the environment and temperature which marked the approach
and various vicissitudes of the great Ice Age.

PLIOCENE CLIMATE, FORESTS, AND LIFE 61

The forests of central France in Pliocene times, as well as
those of the valley of the Arno in northern Italy, were very similar
to the forests of the middle United States at the present time,
comprising such trees as the sassafras, the locust, the honey-
locust, the sumach, the bald cypress, and the tulip. Thus the
regions which harbored the rich forest and meadow fauna of
northern Italy in Upper Pliocene times abounded in trees fa-
miliar to-day in North and South Carolina, including even such
distinctively American forms as the sweet gum (Liquidambar
styraciflua) , the sour gum (Nyssa sylvatica), and the bay, beside
those above mentioned. To the south, along the Mediterranean,
there also flourished trees incident to a more tropical climate, the
bamboo, the sabal palm, and the dwarf fan-palm ; most interest-
ing is the presence of the sabal, which now flourishes in the sub-
tropical rain forests of central Florida. The sequoia also was
abundant. Toward the close of the Pliocene the first indications
of the coming Glacial Epoch were a lowering of the temperature,
and, in the higher mountainous areas perhaps, a beginning of the
glacial stages.

The ancestors of the modern forests of Europe predominated
in central France : the oak, the beech, the poplar, the willow, and
the larch. It is these forests, which survived the vicissitudes of
glacial times, that gave descent to the forests of Postglacial
Europe, while all the purely American types disappeared from
Europe and are now found only in the temperate regions of the
United States.5

We have seen that few anthropoid apes have been discovered
either in the Middle or Upper Pliocene of Europe ; the gibbon-
ape line disappears with the Pliohylobates of the Upper Pliocene.
These animals are, however, rarely found in fossil form, owing
to their retreat to the trees in times of flood and danger, so that
we need not necessarily assume that the anthropoids had actually
become extinct in France. The primates which are found in the
Upper Pliocene belong to the lower types of the Old World
monkeys, related to the living langur of India and to the macaque
and baboon. The evidence, as far as it goes, indicates that the

62 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

ancestors of man were at this time evolving in Asia and not in
Europe. This evidence, nevertheless, would be completely off-
set if it could be proven that the eoliths, or primitive flints, found
in various parts of Europe from Oligocene to Pleistocene times
are really artifacts of human or prehuman origin.

The mammals of Europe in Pliocene times were derived by
very remote migrations from North America and, more directly,
from southern Asia. The Oriental element is very strong, in-
cluding types of rhinoceroses now peculiar to Sumatra and south-
ern Asia, numerous mastodons very similar to the south Asiatic
types of the times, gazelles and antelopes, including types re-
lated to the existing elands, and primitive types of horses and of
tapirs. Among the carnivores in Europe similar to south Asiatic
species were the hyaenas, the dog bears (Hycenarctos) , the civets,
and the pandas (Ailurus) ; there were also the sabre- tooth tigers
and numerous other felines. In the trees were found the south
Asiatic and north African monkeys ; and in the forests the axis
deer, now restricted to Asia. But the most distinctive African-
Asiatic animal of this period was found in the rivers ; namely, the
hippopotamus, which arrived in Italy in the early Pliocene and
ranged south by way of the Sicilian land bridge into northern
Africa and east along the southern shores of the Black Sea to
the Siwalik hills of India. Thus, many of the ancestors of what
we have termed the African- Asiatic mammal group of Pleistocene
times had already found their way into Europe early in Pliocene
times. In middle and late Pliocene times there arrived three
very important types of mammals which played a great role in
the early Pleistocene. These are :

The true horses (Equus stenonis) of remote North American
origin.

The first true cattle (Leptobos elatus), originating in southern

Asia.

The true elephants, hrst Elcphas planifrons and later E. mcridi-
onalis, better known as the southern mammoth, both orig-
inating in Asia.

TRANSITION TO THE PLEISTOCENE 63

The forests and river borders of the valley of the Arno, near
Florence, contained all these African-Asiatic animals in Upper
Pliocene times. Here they received their names which remind
us of this region of Italy as it is to-day, such as the Etruscan
rhinoceros (Dicer orhinus etruscus), the Florentine macaque (Ma-
cacus florentinus) , Steno's horse (Equus stenonis), the Etruscan
cattle (Leptobos etruscus), which was the earliest ox to reach
Europe.

In Italy and France these African-Asiatic mammals were
mingled with ancestors of the more hardy Eurasiatic forest and
meadow group. Of these the most graceful were a variety of
deer with very elaborate or many-branched antlers, hence known
as the 'polycladine' deer. In the forests roamed the wild boars
of Auvergne (Sus arvemensis), also the bears of Auvergne (Ursus
arvernensis) , lynxes, foxes, and wildcats. In the rivers swam the
otter and the beaver, closely allied to existing forms. Among the
rocks of the high hills were the pikas or tailless hares (Lagomys),
also hamsters, moles, and shrews.

Many of the most characteristic animals of the dry modern
plateaus of Africa had disappeared from Europe before the close
of Pliocene times, namely, species of gazelles, antelopes, and the
hipparion horses, all of which were adapted to the dry uplands
or deserts of Africa. In the remaining faune Pliocene recente of
French authors we find evidence that the Pliocene in all of western
Europe closed with a moist, warm, temperate climate, with wide-
spread forests and rivers interspersed with meadows favorable
to the life of a great variety of browsing deer as well as of grazing
elephants, horses and cattle. The flora of the Middle Pliocene
as found at Meximieux indicates a mean annual temperature of
620 to 630 Fahr.

One of the proofs of the gradual lowering of temperature
toward the close of Pliocene times in Europe is the southward
retreat and disappearance of the apes and monkeys ; the Upper
Miocene gibbon is found as far north as Eppelsheim, near
Worms, Germany; in Lower Pliocene times the monkeys and apes
are found only in the forests of the south of France; in Upper

64 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

Pliocene times they are recorded only in the forests of northern
Italy ; the evidence, so far as it goes, indicates a gradual retreat
toward the south.

Finally, at the end of the Pliocene there existed very close
geographic relations eastward with the mammalian life of India
by way of what was then the isthmus of the Dardanelles and
southward with the mammalian life of Africa by way of the
Sicilian land bridge. This would indicate that the long lines of
eastward and westward migration were open and favorable to the
arrival in western Europe of new migrants from the far east,
including perhaps the most primitive races of man. There is not
the least evidence that Pliocene man or ancestors of man existed in
Europe, excepting such as may be afforded by the problematic
eoliths, or most primitive flints.

The First Glaciation '

In Upper Pliocene times cold marine currents6 from the north
began to flow along the southeastern coast of England, with in-
dications of a gradually lowering temperature culminating at a
time when the sea abounded in the arctic mollusks, which have
been preserved in the 'Weybourn Crags,' a geologic formation
along the coast of Norfolk. This arctic current was the herald
of the First Glacial Stage.

It does not appear that a glacial cap of any considerable
extent was formed in Great Britain at this stage, but about this
time the first great ice-cap was formed in British North America
west of Hudson Bay, which sent its ice-sheets as far south as
Iowa and Nebraska. In the latter State forests of spruce and
other coniferous species indicate the appearance of a cool tem-
perate flora in advance of the glaciation. In the Swiss Alps the
snow descended 1,200 meters below the present snow-line, and
in Scandinavia and northern Germany the first great ice-sheets
were formed from which flowed the glaciers and rivers convey-
ing the 'Old Diluvium,' or the * oldest drift.' Accompanying the
cold .wave along the eastern coast of England we note, in the
famous fossil deposits known as the 'Forest Bed of Cromer,'

THE FIRST GLACIATION

65

which overlie the Weybourn Crags, the arrival from the north
of the fir-tree (Abies). This is most significant, because it had
hitherto been known only in the arctic region of Grinnell Land,
and this was its first appearance in central Europe. Another

Fig. 25. The First (Gtinz) Glacial Stage was far less extensive than that in the above map,
which shows Europe in the Second Glacial Stage, during the greatest extension of the
ice-fields and glaciers (dots), a period of continental depression in which the Mediter-
ranean, Black, and Caspian Seas were connected. The line from Scandinavia to the
Atlas Mountains corresponds with the section shown in Fig. 13, p. 37. Drawn by
C. A. Reeds, after James Geikie and Penck.

herald of northern conditions was the first occurrence of the
musk-ox in England, which is attributed7 to the 'Forest Bed'
deposits.

While Great Britain was less affected at this time than other
regions, there is no doubt as to the vast extent of the First Glacial
Stage in British America, in Scandinavia, and in the Alps ; in the
latter region it has been termed 'the Gunz stage' by Penck and
Bruckner. The 'drift' deposits have a general thickness of 98^

66 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

feet (30 m.), but they are largely covered and buried by those
of the far more extensive Second Glacial Stage. The Scandi-
navian ice-sheet8 not only occupied the basin of the Baltic but
overflowed Scania — the southern part of Sweden — and extended
as far south as Hamburg and Berlin. In the Alps the glaciers

Fig. 26. The musk-ox, belonging to the tundra region of the arctic circle, which is

reported to have migrated as far south as the southern coast of

England during the First (Giinz) Glacial Stage.

passed down all the great mountain valleys to the low grounds of
the foreland, implying a depression of the snow-line to 4,000 feet
below its present level.

The First Interglacial Stage. Eoliths

Proofs that a prolonged cool wave passed over Britain dur-
ing the first glaciation are seen in its after effects, namely, in the
modernization of the forests and in the disappearance both in
Britain and France of a very considerable number of animals
which were abundant in Upper Pliocene times. Yet by far the
greater part of the Pliocene mammal life survived, a fact which
tends to show that, while very cold conditions of climate and
great precipitation of moisture may have characterized the regions
immediately surrounding the ice-fields, the remainder of western
Europe at most passed through a prolonged cool period during

THE FIRST INTERGLACIAL STAGE 67

the climax of the First Glacial Stage. This was followed during
the First Interglacial by the return of a period somewhat warmer
than the present.

This First Interglacial Stage is known as the Norfolkian, from
the fact that it was first recognized in Europe in the deposits
known as the 'Forest Bed of Cromer/ Norfolk, which contain
rich records not only of the forests of the period, but of the noble
forms of mammals which roamed over Great Britain and France
in Norfolkian times. The forests of Norfolk, in latitude 5 2° 40' N.
mainly abounded in trees still indigenous to this region, such as
the maple, elm, birch, willow, alder, oak, beech, pine, and spruce,
a forest flora closely corresponding to that of the Norfolk and
Suffolk coasts of England at the present time, although we find
in this fossil flora several exotic species which give it a slightly
different character.9 From this tree flora Reid concludes that
the climate of southeastern England was nearly the same as at
present but slightly warmer.

We note especially that a very great change had taken place
in the entire disappearance in these forests of the trees which in
Pliocene times were common to Europe and America, as described
above ; in other words, the flora of Europe was greatly impover-
ished during the first cold wave.

In southern France, as at the present time, the interglacial
climatic conditions were milder, for we find numerous species
of plants, which are now represented in the Caucasus, Persia,
southern Italy, Portugal, and Japan. Thus the First Intergla-
cial Stage, which was a relatively short one, enjoyed a tempera-
ture now belonging about 40 of latitude farther south.

This First Interglacial Stage is also known as the St.-Prestien,
because among the many localities in France and Italy which
preserve the plant and mammal life of the times that of St. Prest,
in the Paris basin, is the most famous. Here in 1863 Desnoyers10
first reported the discovery of a number of mammal bones with
incision lines upon them, which he considered to be the work of
man. These deposits were regarded at the time as of Pliocene
age, and this gave rise immediately to a wide-spread theory

OS MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

of the appearance of man as early as the Pliocene. The human
origin of the incisions discovered by Desnoyers has long been a
matter of dispute and is now regarded as very improbable. Sim-
ilar lines may be of animal origin, namely, marks left by claws

Fig. 27. The giant deer (Megaceros), which first appears in western Europe during the
First Interglacial Stage, probably as a migrant from the forested regions of Eurasia.
After a painting by Charles R. Knight, in the American Museum of Natural History,

or teeth, or due to accidental pressure of sharp cutting surfaces.
However, we do not pretend to express an opinion of any value
as to the cause of these incisions. Supposed confirmation of the
evidence of Desnoyers of the existence of Pliocene man was the
alleged finding by Abbott of several worked flints, two in situ, in
the 'Forest Bed of Cromer,' Norfolk. Many years later in sim-
ilar deposits at St. Prest were discovered the supposed 'eoliths'
which have been referred to the Etage Prestien by Rutot. The
age of the Si. Prest deposits is, therefore, a matter of the very
highest interest and importance.

EARLY PLEISTOCENE FAUNA 60

St. Prest is not Pliocene; it is rather the most ancient Pleis-
tocene deposit in the basin of Paris,11 and these incised mammal
bones probably date from the First Interglacial Stage. The bed
which has yielded the incised bones and the rich series of fossils
consists of coarse river sands and gravels, forming part of a ' high
terrace/ o8>< feet (30 m.) above the present level of the river
Eure. This, like other 'high terraces,' contains a characteristic
First Interglacial fauna, including the southern mammoth {E.
meridionalis) , and Steno's horse {E. stenonis). We also find here
other very characteristic early Pleistocene mammals, such as the
Etruscan rhinoceros {D. etruscus), the giant hippopotamus of
early Pleistocene times {H. major), the giant beaver of the early
Pleistocene {Trogontherium) , three forms of the common beaver
{Castor) , and one of the bison {Bison antiquus) . This mammalian
life of St. Prest is very similar to that of Norfolk, England ; to
that of Malbattu in central France, Puy-de-D6me ; of Peyrolles,
near the mouth of the Rhone, in southern France ; of Solilhac
near Puy ; of Durfort, Gard ; of Cajarc, Lot-et- Garonne ; and
finally to that of the valley of the Arno, in northern Italy.

One reason why certain authors, such as Boule and Deperet,
have placed this stage in the Upper Pliocene is that the mam-
mals include so many surviving Pliocene forms, such as the
sabre-tooth tigers {Machcerodus), the ' polycladine ' deer with the
elaborate antlers (C. sedgwicki), the Etruscan rhinoceros, and
the primitive Steno's horse. But we have recently discovered
that, with the exception of the 'polycladine' deer, these mam-
mals certainly survived in Europe as late as the Second Inter-
glacial Stage, and there is said to be evidence that some even
persisted into the Third Interglacial Stage.

It is, therefore, the extinction or disappearance from Europe
of many of the animals very abundant even in late Pliocene
times which marks this fauna as early Pleistocene. Anthropoid
apes are no longer found; indeed, there is no evidence of the
survival of any of the primates, except macaques, which survive
in the Pyrenees to late Pleistocene times; the tapir has entirely
disappeared from the forests of Europe ; but the most signifi-

70

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

cant departure is that of the mastodon, which is believed to
have lingered in north Africa and which certainly survived in
America into very late Pleistocene times. The animal life of
western Europe, like the plant life, has lost one part of its
Pliocene aspect while retaining another part, both in its mamma-
lian fauna and in its forest flora.

The living environment as a whole, moreover, takes on a
novel aspect through the arrival, chiefly from the north, of the

7 v SmmI

Fig. 28. The sabre-tooth tiger (Machcsrodus), which survives from the Upper Pliocene
and is widely distributed over western Europe until the Middle Pleistocene. After
a painting by Charles R. Knight, in the American Museum of Natural History.

more hardy animals and plants which had been evolving for a
very long period of time in the temperate forests and meadows
of Eurasia to the northeast and northwest. From this Eurasiatic
region came the stag, or red deer (Cervus elaphus), also the giant
deer (Megaceros), and from the northerly swamps the broad-
headed moose (Alces latifrons). The presence of members of the
deer family (Cervidae) in great numbers and representing many
different lines of descent is one of the most distinctive features
of First Interglacial times. Beside the new northerly forms
mentioned above, there was the roe-deer (Capreolus), which still
survives in Europe, but there is no longer any record of the

EARLY PLEISTOCENE FAUNA 71

beautiful axis deer (Axis), which has now retreated to southern
Asia. The ■ polycladine ' deer, first observed in the valley of the
Arno, is represented in First Interglacial times by Sedgwick's
deer (C. sedgwicki), in Norfolk, and by the species C. dicranius
of northern Italy, where there also occurs the 'deer of the Car-
nutes' (C. carnutorum).

We observe that browsing, forest-living, and river-living types
predominate. Among the forest-frequenting carnivores were the
wolverene, the otter, two kinds of bear, the wolf, the fox, and
the marten; another forest dweller was a wild boar, related to
the existing Sus scrofa of Europe.

Thus in the very beginning of Pleistocene times the forests of
Europe were full of a wild life very similar to that of prehistoric
times, mingled with which was the Oriental element, the great
elephants, rhinoceroses, ancl hippopotami connecting Europe with
the far east. Among these eastern migrants in the early Pleis-
tocene were two new arrivals, the primitive wild cattle (Bos
primigenius) , and the first of the bison (Bison prisons) .

The theoretical map of western Europe during First Inter-
glacial times (Fig. 12, also Fig. 56) enables us to understand
these migrations from the northeast and from the Orient. As in-
dicated by the sunken river channels discovered on the old con-
tinental shelf, the coast-line extended far to the west to the bor-
ders of the continental plateau which is now sunk deep beneath
the ocean; the British Isles were separated from France not by
the sea but by a broad valley, while the Rhine, with the Thames
as a western tributary flowed northward over an extensive flood-
plain, which is the present floor of the North Sea basin.12 It is
not improbable that the rich mammalian life deposits in the
'Forest Bed of Cromer,' Norfolk, were washed down by tribu-
taries of this ancient Rhine River.

In all the great rivers of this enlarged western Europe occurred
the hippopotami, and along the river borders and in the forests
browsed the Etruscan rhinoceros. Among the grazing and
meadow-living forms of the Norfolk country of Britain were
species of wild cattle (Bos, Leptobos), together with two species

72 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

of horses, including a lighter form resembling Steno's horse (E.
stenonis cocchi) of the Val d'Arno &nd a heavier type probably
belonging to the forests. The giant elephant of this period is the
southern mammoth (£. meridionalis trogontherii), a somewhat
specialized descendant of the Pliocene southern mammoth of the
valley of the Arno ; this animal is best known from a superb
specimen discovered at Durfort (Fig. 42) and preserved in the
Paris Museum. It is said to have attained a height of over 12
feet as compared with 11 feet 3 inches, the height of the largest
existing African elephants. It is probable that all these south
Asiastic migrants into Europe were partially or wholly covered
with hair, in adaptation to the warm, temperate climate of the
summers and the cool winters. To the south, in the still milder
climate of Italy, the arrival of another great species, known as
the 'ancient' or ' straight- tusked elephant' (E. antiquus), is re-
corded. This animal had not yet reached France or Britain.

Preying upon the defenseless members of this heterogeneous
fauna were the great machaerodonts, or sabre-tooth tigers, which
ranged over Europe and northern Africa and into Asia. It
does not appear that the true lions (Felis leo) had as yet entered
Europe.

An intercommunication of life over a vast area extending
6,000 miles from the Thames valley on the west to India on the
southeast is indicated by the presence of six or more similar or
related species of elephants and rhinoceroses. Twenty-five hun-
dred miles southeast of the foot-hills of the Himalayas similar
herds of mammals, but in an earlier stage of evolution, roamed
over the island of Java, which was then a part of the Asiatic
mainland.

The Trinil Race of Java

The human interest in this great life throng lies in the fact
that the migration routes opened by these great races of animals
may also have afforded a pathway for the earliest races of men.
Thus the discovery of the Trinil race in central Java, amidst a

THE TRINIL RACE 73

fauna closely related to that of the foot-hills of the Himalayas
and more remotely related to that of southern Europe, has
a more direct bearing upfm our subject than would at first
appear.

On the Bengawan River in central Java, a Dutch army sur-
geon, Eugen Dubois, had been excavating for fossils in the hope
of finding prehuman remains. In the year 1891 he found near
Trinil a deposit of numerous mammal bones, including a single
upper molar tooth which he regarded as that of a new species of

Fig. 29. Restoration of Pithecanthropus, the Java ape-man, modelled

by the Belgian artist Mascre. under the direction of

Professor A. Rutot, of Brussels, Belgium.

ape. On carefully clearing away the rock the top of a skull ap-
peared at about a meter's distance from the tooth. Further ex-
cavation at the close of the rainy season brought to light a second
molar tooth, and a left thigh-bone about 15 meters from the spot
where the skull was found, imbedded and fossilized in the same
manner. These scattered parts were described by Dubois13 in
1894 as the type of Pithecanthropus erectus* a term signifying the

* There is a vast Pithecanthropus literature. That chiefly utilized in the present de-
scription includes Dubois,13 Fischer,14 Schwalbc,15 Buchner.16

74 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

upright-standing ape-man. The specific term erectus refers to
the thigh-bone, of which the author observes : " We must there-
fore conclude that the femur of Pithecanthropus was designed for
the same mechanical functions as that of man. The two articu-
lations and the mechanical axis correspond so exactly to the same
parts in man that the law of perfect harmony between the form
and function of a bone will necessitate the conclusion that this

Fig. 30. The Solo or Bengawan River in central Java. Scene of the discovery of the

type specimen of Pithecanthropus erectus in 1894. After Selenka and

Blanckenhorn. Compare map (Fig. 32, p. 75).

fossil creature had the same upright posture as man and likewise
walked on two legs. . . . From this it necessarily follows that
the creature had the free use of the upper extremities — now su-
perfluous for walking — and that these last were no doubt already
far advanced in that line of differentiation which developed them
in mankind into tools and organs of touch. . . . From a study
of the femur and skull it follows with certainty that this fossil
cannot be classified as simian. . . . And, as with the skull, so
also with the femur, the differences that separate Pithecanthropus
from man are less than those distinguishing it from the highest
anthropoid. . . . Although far advanced in the course of differ-
entiation, this Pleistocene form had not yet attained to the human

THE TRINIL RACE

75

Volcano

La woe 3Z5+ M
i

type. Pithecanthropus erectus is the transition form between
man and the anthropoids which the laws of evolution teach us
must have existed. He is the ancestor of man."

Thus the author placed Pithecanthropus in a new family, of
the order Primates, which he named the Pithecanthropidae.

The geologic age
of the bones referred
to is a matter of first
importance. The re-
mains of Pithecan-
thropus lay in a de-
posit about one meter
in thickness, consist-
ing of loose, coarse,
tufaceous sandstones,
gray clay, and under

SS\I

1000 M
500M

V /" * ujfz\ and Recent /^/^£

y^> ^ ~ -^ Yy - /\ Mluvium .,
/ > *> ^M-r, ? \ Neogene

''?> ''All35 t\ trinil 1

0 10 20 30 tf SO to 70 30 Kilometers

Fig. 31. Geological section of the volcano of Lawoe
in the Solo River basin. Drawn by C. A. Reeds.

below this a stratum of hard, blue-
that marine breccia. Above the Pith-
ecanthropus layer were the 'Kendeng' strata, a many-layered
tufaceous sandstone, about 15 meters in thickness. This geo-
logic series was considered by Dubois and others to be of late

Tertiary or Plio-
cene age ; Pithe-
canthropus ac-
cordingly became
known as the long-
awaited 'Pliocene
ape-man.' Subse-
quent researches
by expert geolo-
gists have tended
to refer the age to
the early Pleisto-
cene.17 According
to Elbert18 the
Kendeng strata
overlying the Pithecanthropus layer correspond to an early plu-
vial period of low temperature and, in point of time, to the

zsmile

Fig. 32. Map of the Solo River, showing the Pithecan-
thropus discovery site, also two excavations (Pit No. i,
Pit No. 2) in the ancient gravel of the river-bottom, made
by the Selenka-Blanckenhorn expedition of 1907. After
Selenka and Blanckenhorn.

76 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

Ice Age of Europe. For even in Java one can distinguish
three divisions of the Pleistocene period, including the first
period of low temperature to which the Pithecanthropus layer is
referred.

The fossil mammals contained in the Pithecanthropus layer
have also been thoroughly studied,19 and they tend to confirm
the original reference to the uppermost Pliocene. They yield a
very rich fauna similar to that of the Siwalik hills of India, in-
cluding the porcupine, pangolin, several felines, the hyaena, and

River Solo

I Pithecanthropus r <jo m

High watermark of River So/o 7

80 M

75 M

L 70M

65 M above
'0 500 1000 feet Sea level

Section corresponding to line A-B in Fig. 32, showing the river-drift gravels
and sands at the point where the skull-top of Pithecanthropus
was found. Drawn by C. A. Reeds.

Recent 7 River wash, blue-black clay.

( 6 Light-colored sandstone, like tuff.

I 5 Gray tuff with balls of clay, fresh-water shells.

4 White streaked sandstone resembling tufa.

3 Blue-black clay with plant remains.

2 Bone-bearing stratum. Pithecanthropus.

1 Lahar conglomerate.

Pleistocene

the otter. Among the primates beside Pithecanthropus there is a
macaque. Among the larger ungulates are two species of rhi-
noceros related to existing Indian forms, the tapir, the boar, the
hippopotamus, the axis and rusa deer, the Indian buffalo, and
wild cattle. It is noteworthy that three species of late Pliocene
elephants, all known as Stegodon, and especially the species
Stcgodon ganeza, occur, as well as Elcphas hysudricus, a species
related to E. antiquus, or the straight-tusked elephant, which
entered Europe in early Pleistocene times. Fossils of the same
animals are found in the foot-hills of the Himalayas of India,
about 2,500 miles distant to the northwest. The India deposits
are considered of uppermost Pliocene age,20 for this is the closing
lift" period of the upper Siwaliks of India.

THE TRINIL RACE

77

Certainly Java was then a part of the Asiatic continent, and
similar herds of great mammals roamed freely over the plains
from the foot-hills of the Himalaya Mountains to the borders of
the ancient Trinil River, while similar apes inhabited the for-
ests. At this time the orang may have entered the forests of
Borneo, which are at present its home ; it is the only ape thus far
found in the uppermost
Pliocene of India. We may,
therefore, anticipate the dis-
covery, at any time, in
India of a race similar to
Pithecanthropus.

The geologic age of the
Trinil race is, therefore, to
be considered as late Plio-
cene or early Pleistocene.

This great discovery of
Dubois aroused wide-spread
and heated discussion, in
which the foremost anato-
mists and palaeontologists
of the world took part.
Some regarded the skull as
that of a giant gibbon,
others as prehuman, and
still others as a transition
form. We may form our
own opinion, however, from

a fuller understanding of the specimens themselves, always keep-
ing in mind that it is a question whether the femur and the skull
belong to the same individual or even to the same race. First,
we are struck by the marked resemblance which the top of the
skull bears, both on viewing it from the side and from above, to
that of the Neanderthal race. This fully justifies the opinion of
the anatomist Schwalbe21 that the skull of Pithecanthropus is
nearer to that of Neanderthal man than to that of even the

Fig. 34. The top (1) and side (ia) views of
the skull-top of Pithecanthropus erectus.
After Dubois. One-third life size.

78 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

highest of the anthropoid apes. As measured by Schwalbe, the
index of the height of the cranium (Jtylottenhdheindex) may be
compared with others as follows :

Lowest human race 52 per cent.

Neanderthal man 4°-4 per cent.

Pithecanthropus , or Trinil race 34.2 per cent.

This accords with the estimate of the brain capacity* of 855
c.cm. (Dubois) as compared with 1,230 c.cm., the smallest brain

Fig. 35. Head of chimpanzee — front and side views — exhibiting a head of somewhat sim-
ilar shape to that of Pithecanthropus, with prominent eyebrow ridges, but much
smaller brain capacity. Photograph from the New York Zoological Park.

capacity found in a member of the Neanderthal race. Second,
as seen from above, we are struck with the great length of the
calvarium as compared with its breadth, the cephalic index or
ratio of breadth to length being 73.4 per cent (Schwalbe) as
compared with 73.9 per cent in the Neanderthal type skull ; this
dolichocephaly accords with the fact that all of the earliest human
races thus far found are long-headed, although according to
Schwalbe22 all anthropoids are broad-headed. This is a very
important distinction. The third feature is the prominence and
width of the bony eyebrow ridges above the orbits, which are
almost as great as in the chimpanzee and greatly exceed those

In the Trinil skull as restored by McGregor (Fig. 36) the cranial capacity is
900 c.cm.

THE TRINIL RACE 79

of the Neanderthal race and of the modern Australian. The
profile of the Trinil head restored by McGregor (Fig. $&) ex-
hibits this prominent bony ridge and the low, retreating fore-
head. In the latest opinion of Schwalbe23 Pithecanthropus may
be regarded as one of the direct ancestors of Neanderthal man
and even of the highest human species, Homo sapiens. He also
considers that when the lower jaw of the Trinil race becomes

Fig. 2>6> Profile of the skull of Pithecanthropus, as restored by
J.-H. McGregor. 19 14. One-third life size.

known, it will be found to be very similar to that of the Heidel-
berg man, the final conclusion being that Pithecanthropus and
the nearly allied Heidelberg man may be regarded as the common
ancestors of the Neanderthal race, on the one hand, and of the
higher races on the other. There are, however, reasons for ex-
cluding Pithecanthropus from the direct ancestral line of the higher
races of man.

This prehuman stage has, none the less, a very great signifi-
cance in the developmental history of man. In our opinion it is
the very stage which, theoretically, we should anticipate finding
in the dawn of the Pleistocene. A similar view is taken by
Buchner,24 who presents in an admirable diagram (Fig. 117) the

80

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

result of his comparison of twelve different characters in the
skulls of Pithecanthropus, the Neanderthals, the Australians, and
the Tasmanians. One of the main objects of Buchner's research
was a very detailed comparison of the Trinil skull with that
of the lowly and now extinct Tasmanian race, which, we observe

Fig. 37. Three views of the skull of Pithecanthropus, as restored by

J. H. McGregor, showing the original (shaded) and restored

(black lines) portions. About one-quarter life size.

in the diagram, occupies a position only a little higher than that
of the Spy-Neanderthal race.

If the femur belongs with the skull, the Trinils were a tall race,
reaching a height of 5 feet 7 inches as compared with 5 feet 3
inches in the Neanderthals. The thigh-bone (Fig. 122) has a very
slight curvature as compared with that of any of the apes or
lemurs, and in this respect is more human ; it is remarkably
elongate (455 mm.), surpassing that of the Neanderthals; the

THE TRINIL RACE

81

shin-bone (tibia) was probably correspondingly short. The two
upper grinding-teeth preserved are much more human than those
of the gibbon, but they do not resemble those of man closely
enough to positively confirm the prehuman theory. Dubois ob-
serves :25 "That the tooth belongs to some hominid form needs no

Fig. 38. Profile view of the head of Pithecanthropus, the Java ape-man,
after a model by J. H. McGregor. One-quarter life size.

further demonstration. Aside from its size and the greater
roughness of the grinding surface, it differs from the human
grinder in that the less developed cusp of Pithecanthropus is the
posterior cusp next the cheek, while in man it is generally the
posterior cusp next the tongue. The simplification of the crown
and the root of the Trinil grinder is quite as extensive as it usually
is in man."

Various efforts have been made to supplement the scattered
and scanty materials collected by Dubois. The Selenka expedi-
tion of 1907-8 brought back a human left lower molar as the
only result of an express search for more Pithecanthropus remains.

82

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

Dubois is also said to possess the fragment of a primitive-looking
lower jaw from the range known as the Kendeng Hills, at the
southern base of which lies the village of Trinil.

It remains for us to consider the stage of psychic evolution
attained by the Trinil race, and this naturally turns upon the

i'*

I

Fig. 39. Front view of the head of Pithecanthropus, the Java ape-man,
after a model by J. H. McGregor. One-quarter life size.

erect attitude and what little is known of the size and proportions
of the brain.

The assumption of the erect attitude is not merely a question
of learning to balance the body on the hinder extremities.26 It
involves changes in the interior of the body, the loss of the tail,
the freeing of the arms, and the establishment of the diaphragm
as the chief muscle of respiration. The thigh-bone of Pithecan-
thropus is so much like that of man as to support the theory that
the erect position may have been assumed by the ancestors of
man as early as Oligocene times. It would appear that Pithe-
canthropus had free use of the arms and it is possible that the

THE TRINIL RACE

83

control of the thumb and fingers had been cultivated, perhaps
in the fashioning of primitive implements of wood and stone.
The discovery of the use of wood as an implement and weapon
probably preceded that of the use of stone.

Elliot Smith describes this stage of development as follows :'27
". . . The emancipation of the hands from progression threw
the whole responsibility upon the legs, which became more effi-
cient for their pur-
pose as supports once
they lost their pre-
hensile powers and
became elongated
and specialized for
rapid progression.
Thus the erect atti-
tude became stereo-
typed and fixed and
the limbs specialized,
and these upright
simians emerged from
their ancestral forests
in societies, armed
with sticks and stones and with the rudiments of all the powers
that eventually enabled them to conquer the world. The greater
exposure to danger which these more adventurous spirits en-
countered once they emerged in the open, and the constant
struggles these first semihuman creatures must have had in
encounters with definite enemies, no less than with the forces of
Nature, provided the factors which rapidly weeded out those
unfitted for the new conditions and by natural selection made
real men of the survivors."

The undeveloped forehead of Pithecanthropus and the dimin-
utive frontal area of the brain indicate that the Trinil race had a
limited faculty of profiting by experience and accumulated tra-
dition, for in this prefrontal area of the brain are located the
powers of attention and of control of the activities of all other

Fig. 40. Side view of brain of high type, illustrating
the contrast between the motor, sensory, and idea-
tional centres in a high type of modern brain; and
Elliot Smith's characterization of the probable cen-
tres in the Pithecanthropus type of brain. Modified
after M. Allen Starr.

84

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

parts of the brain. In the brain of the ape the sensory areas of
touch, taste, and vision predominate, and these are well devel-
oped in Pithecanthro-
pus. The central area
of the brain, which is
the storehouse of the
memories of actions and
of the feelings associ-
ated with them, is also
well developed, but the
prefrontal area, which
is the seat of the faculty
of profiting by experi-
ence or of recalling the
consequences of previ-
ous responses to experi-
ence, is developed to a
very limited degree.28
Thus, while the brain
of Pithecanthropus is
estimated at 855-900
c.cm., as compared with
600 c.cm. of the largest
simian brain, and 930
c.cm. of the smallest
brain recorded in the
lower members of the

FlG. 41. Diagram showing the side (lower figure) , . . ,,

and top (upper figure) views of the outline of the nUman race, it indicates

Pithecanthropus brain as compared with that of ^ verv low Stage of in-
thc chimpanzee and the higher human types of «•

the Piltdown, Neanderthal, and modern races. telllgence.

Absence of Pal^eoliths and Presence or Eoliths in Western

Europe

Returning to First Interglacial conditions in Europe, we ob-
serve that the river courses flowed through the same valleys as
at present but that in early glacial times the channels were far

EOLITHS, OR PRIMITIVE FLINTS 85

broader and were elevated from ioo to 150 feet above the present
relatively narrow river levels. The vast floods of the succeeding
glaciation filled these valleys, but some of the 'high terraces'
were already formed. It is extremely important to note that
Pre-Chellean flints or true palaeoliths have never been found in
the sands or gravels of these 'high terraces.'

Eoliths found on this ' high- terrace ' level at St. Prest belong
to the Prestien culture of Rutot,29 who regards this station as of
Upper Pliocene age. These, like other supposed Eolithic flints,
are very rough, but, rude as they are, they generally exhibit one
part shaped as if to be grasped by the hand, while the other part
is edged or pointed as for cutting. It is generally admitted that
these flints are mostly of accidental shapes, and there has been
little or no proof of their being fashioned by human hands. On
this point Boule30 observes : "As to the eoliths, I have combated
the theory not only because it seems to me improbable but because
a long geological experience has shown me that it is often impos-
sible to distinguish stones split, cut, or retouched by purely physi-
cal agents from certain products of rudimentary workmanship."

On the other side, it is interesting at this point to quote the
words of MacCurdy :31 "My opinion, based on personal experi-
ence, ... is that the existence of a primitive industry, antedat-
ing what is commonly accepted as Palaeolithic, has been estab-
lished. This industry occurs as far back as the Upper Miocene
and continues on through the Upper Tertiary into and including
the Lower Quaternary. The distinguishing characters of the in-
dustry remain but little changed throughout the entire period,
the subdivision of the period into epochs being based on stratig-
raphy [geologic stages] and not on industrial characters. The
requirements in the way of tools being very simple and the
supply of material in the way of natural flakes and fragments of
flint being very plentiful, the inventive powers of the population
remained dormant for ages. Hammer and knife were the orig-
inal tools. Both were picked up ready-made. A sharp-edged,
natural flake served for one, and a nodule or fragment served for
the other. When the edge of the flake became dulled by use, the

86 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

piece was either thrown away or the edge was retouched for
further use. If hammer or flake did not admit of being held com-
fortably in the hand, the troublesome points or edges were re-
moved or reduced by chipping. The stock of tools increased
slowly with the slowly growing needs. As these multiplied and
the natural supply of raw material diminished, the latter was
supplemented by the manufacture of artificial flakes. When the
lesson of associating definite forms of implements with definite
uses was learned, special types arose, notably the amygdaloid
implement and the poniard. Then came the transition from the
Eolithic to the Palaeolithic, a stage that has been so thoroughly
investigated by Rutot."

It is not improbable that the Trinil race was in a stage of
Eolithic culture ; it is highly probable that the prehuman races
of this very remote geologic age used more than one weapon of
wood and stone.

The Great Second Glaciation

(Fig. 25, p. 65)

In early Pleistocene times a general elevation of southern Eu-
rope united the islands of the Mediterranean with Europe on the
north and with Africa on the south, forming broad land connec-
tions between the two continents which afforded both northward
and southward migration routes. At this time certain character-
istically African mammals, such as the straight-tusked elephant
and the lion, were probably finding their way north; Sicily at
this time gained its large fauna of elephants and hippopotami,
and the island of Malta was connected with the mainland, as
well as the easterly islands of Cyprus and Crete. It appears
probable that the connection between the Italian mainland and
Malta was renewed more than once.

The approach of the second glaciation is indicated along the
southeast coast of Great Britain by the subsidence of the land and
the rise of the sea, accompanied by a fresh arctic current, bring-
ing with it an invasion of arctic mollusks which were deposited
in a layer of marine beds directly over those which contain the

Pl. III. Pithecanthropus erectus, the ape-man of Java. Antiquity estimated at
500,00c years. After the restoration modelled by J. H. McGregor. It is not im-
probable that the prehuman races of this remote geologic age used more than one
natural weapon of wood or stone, the latter of the accidental 'Eolithic' type.

THE SECOND GLACIATION 89

rich warm fauna and flora of the 'Forest Bed of Cromer/ Nor-
folk.32 It also appears probable that a cold northern current
swept along the western coasts of Europe, and Geikie estimates
that a lowering of temperature occurred of not less than 200
Fahr., a change as great as is now experienced in passing from
the south of England to the North Cape.

The second glaciation was by far the greatest both in Europe
and America. In the region of the Pyrenees, which at the very
much later period of the Third Interglacial Stage became a favor-
ite country with Palaeolithic man, there were glaciers of vast
extent. This is realized by comparison with present conditions.
The largest of the present glaciers of the Pyrenees is only 2 miles
in length and terminates at a height of 7,200 feet above the sea.
During the greatest glaciation the snow appears to have de-
scended 4,265 feet below its present level. From the Pyrenees
through the Gallego valley into Spain there flowed a glacier 38
miles in length, while to the north the glacier in the valley of the
Garonne flowed for a distance of 45 miles to a point near Montre-
jeau. Even in its lower reaches this glacier was over half a mile
in thickness. To the east was a glacier 38 miles in length, filling
the valley of the Ariege and covering the sites of such great Pa-
laeolithic caverns as that of Niaux ; it is probable that at this time
the formation of this cavern began. That these glaciers were all
prior to the period of the Lower Palaeolithic Acheulean culture is
proven by the fact that Acheulean implements are frequently
met with lying on the surface of the moraines laid down by these
ancient ice-floes.33

To the north was the vast Scandinavian ice-field, which swept
over Great Britain and beyond the valleys of the Rhine, Elbe,
and Vistula, reaching nearly to the Carpathians. Even the lesser
mountain chains were capped with glaciers, including the Atlas
Mountains in northern Africa.

In North America from the great centre west of Hudson Bay
the ice-cap extended its drift southward into Missouri, Iowa,
Kansas, and Nebraska, beyond the limits of earlier and sub-
sequent glaciations.

90 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

The materials of the chief 'high terraces' of the great river-
valleys of western Europe were deposited at this time.

Life or the Warm Second Interglacial Stage

The long warm period which followed the great glaciation is
remarkable in presenting the first proofs of the presence of man
in western Europe. It is the period of the Heidelberg race of
man {Homo heidelbergensis), known only from a single jaw dis-
covered by Schoetensack in the Mauer sands near Heidelberg,
in 1907. No other proofs of the existence of man have been
found in any of the deposits which took place during this vast
interval of geologic time, unless we accept the theory of Penck
and of Geikie that the Pre-Chellean and Chellean quarries of
the River Somme belong in the Second Interglacial Stage.

The vast duration of this interglacial time is evidenced both
in Europe and America by the deep cutting and wearing away
of the 'drifts' brought down by the second glaciation. Penck
believes that this 'long warm stage' represents a greater period
of time than the entire interval between the third glaciation and
the present time. The climate immediately following the re-
treat of the glaciers was cool and moist in the glaciated regions,
but this was followed by such a prolonged period of heat and
dryness that the glaciers on the Alps withdrew to a point far
above their present limits.

In one of the old 'high terraces' of the River Inn, in the
north Tyrol, is a deposit containing the prevailing forest flora of
the period, from which Penck concludes that the climate of Inns-
bruck was 20 C. higher than it is at the present time. Correspond-
ing with this the snow-line stood 1,000 feet above its present level,
'and the Alps, save for the higher peaks, were almost completely
denuded of ice and snow. A characteristic plant is the Pontic
alpine rose {Rhododendron poniicum), which nourishes now in an
annual temperature of 57°-65° Fahr.,34 indicating that the cli-
mate of Innsbruck was as genial as that of the Italian slopes of
the Alps to-day. This rhododendron is now found in the Cau-
casus. Other southern species of the time were a buckthorn,

THE SECOND INTERGLACIAL STAGE 91

related to a species now living in the Canary Islands, and the
box. There were also more hardy plants, including the fir {Pinus
sylvestris), spruce, maple, willow, yew, elm, beech, and moun-
tain-ash. The forests of the same period in Provence were, for
the most part, similar to those now found in that region ; out
of thirty-seven species twenty-nine still occur in this part of
southern France. On the whole, the aspect of southern France
at this time was surprisingly modern. The forests included oaks,
elms, poplars, willows, lindens, maples, sumachs, dogwood, and
hawthorn. Among the climbing plants were the vine and the
clematis. Here also were some forms which have since retreated
to the south, such as species of the sweet bay and laurel which
are now confined to the Canary Islands. The great humidity
of the time is indicated by the presence of certain species of con-
ifers which require considerable moisture. As in First Intergla-
cial times, the presence of the fig indicates mild winters.

It is difficult to imagine forests of this modern character,
which farther northward included a number of still more tem-
perate and hardy species, as the setting of the great African and
Asiatic life that roamed all over western Europe at this time. It
was the presence of hippopotami, elephants, and rhinoceroses
which gave to Lyell, Evans, and other early observers the im-
pression that a tropical temperature and vegetation were char-
acteristic of this long life period. These animals were formerly
regarded as proofs of an almost tropical climate, but the more
trustworthy evidence of the forests, strengthened by that of the
presence of very numerous hardy types of forest and meadow
animals, has set aside all the early theories as to extremely warm
temperatures during. Second Interglacial times.

The remains of what is still conveniently known as the ' faune
chaude, ' or warm fauna, are chiefly found in the sands and gravels
of the ancient beds of the Neckar, Garonne, and Thames, and
other rivers of the north and south, also in Essex, England. The
most surprising fact is that the mammal life of western Europe
remained entirely unchanged by the vast second glaciation just
described ; the few extinctions which occurred as well as a num-

92

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

ber of new arrivals may be attributed to new geographical con-
nections with Africa on the south and to the steady progress of
migration from the far east.

Fig. 42. The hippopotamus {H. major) and the southern mammoth (E. meridional is
trogontherii), a pair of mammals which enjoyed a similar range over western Europe
from the close of the Pliocene until the middle of Third Interglacial times, when their
remains are found associated with flints of Pre-Chellean, Chellean, and early Acheulean
age. One-sixtieth life size. Drawn by Erwin S. Christman.

There were four very important and distinctive new arrivals
from the African-Asiatic world, namely, the straight-tusked or
ancient elephant (E. antiquus), the broad-nosed rhinoceros (D.
rnerckii), the African lion (Felis leo), and the African hyaena (H.
striata), which bespeak close geographical connections with

THE SECOND INTERGLACIAL STAGE 93

northern Africa. Of these the ancient elephant and the broad-
nosed rhinoceros were close companions; they enjoyed the same
regions and the same temperatures, their remains are very fre-
quently found together, and they survived to the very end of the
great life stage of western Europe, which closed with the advent
of the fourth glaciation. They are in contrast to the other pair

Fig 43. The other and hardier pair of large African- Asiatic mammals, namely, the
broad-nosed or Merck's rhinoceros (R. merckii) and the straight-tusked or ancient
elephant (E. antiquus), which entered western Europe in Second Interglacial times and
survived until Third Interglacial times, when their remains are found intermingled
with flints of the Acheulean and early Mousterian cultures. These mammals were
doubtless hunted by men of the early Neanderthal races. One-sixtieth life size.
Drawn by Erwin S. Christman.

of great mammals which was already present in Europe in Plio-
cene and First Interglacial times, namely, the southern mam-
moth, at this stage known as Elephas trogontherii, which had a
preference for the companionship of the hippopotamus (77. major) ;
it would seem that these animals were less hardy because both

in

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

disappeared from Europe a little earlier than the ancient elephant
and Merck's rhinoceros.

The African lion would appear to have been a competitor of
the sabre-tooth tiger, for the latter animal now becomes less
abundant, although there is reason to believe that it survived
until the Third Interglacial Stage. With the ancient Pliocene

Fig. 44. Map showing the wide geographic distribution (horizontal lines) of Merck's
rhinoceros and the straight- tusked elephant, which first entered western Europe dur-
ing the First Interglacial Stage and survived until nearly the close of the Third Inter-
glacial Stage. The hippopotamus, which entered Europe in Pliocene times, survived
until after the middle of the Third Interglacial Stage and had a more limited dis-
tribution. After Boule.

type of the sabre-tooth were also found the Etruscan rhinoceros,
the primitive bear of Auvergne (Ursus arvernensis), and the giant
beaver (Trogontherium cuvieri).

The northern forests of the time were frequented by the broad-
faced moose, the giant deer, and the roe-deer, as well as by noble
specimens of the stag (Cervus elaphus). In the open forests and
meadows the wild cattle (Bos primigenius) began to be more

THE HEIDELBERG RACE 95

numerous and the bison (Bison prisms) also occurred. Among
the meadow or forest frequenting forms were horses of larger size,
such as the horses of Mosbach and of Siissenborn. In this assem-
blage of northern and southern types it is noteworthy that the
Eurasiatic forest and meadow types of mammals greatly predomi-
nate in numbers and in variety over the African- Asiatic types;
this, together with the flora, is an indication that the climate was
of a temperate character ; it is probable, therefore, that all the
mammals were well protected with a hairy covering and adapted
to a temperate climate. The fact that the fauna as a whole re-
mained practically unchanged throughout the second glaciation
is a proof not that it migrated to the south and then returned
but that the non-glaciated regions of western Europe were tem-
perate rather than cold.

The Heidelberg Race

To us by far the most interesting mammalian life is that found

south of the mouth of the Neckar along the ancient stream Elsenz,

Heidelberg man. where were deposited the lower ' sands of

Ancient elephant. Mauer/ containing the lower jaw of the Hei-

Etruscan rhinoceros, delberg man and the remains of many ani-
Mosbach horse. , r , -. . ■, m, ,. r ,-,.

w-ld , mals of the period. The enumeration of this

Broad-faced moose. entire fauna is very important, as indicating

Red deer, or stag. the temperate climatic conditions which sur-

Roe-deer. rounded the first true species of man which

Primitive bison , , .. , , , . i • -r- ^u

fwisent) has thus far been discovered m Europe. I he

Primitive ox discoverer, Schoetensack,35 referred these

(Aurochs, urus). mammals and the Heidelberg man to the

Auvergne bear. -p-rgt Tnterglacial Stage, and a similar opinion

Denmger s bear. _ , . . . ~ ., . ' rm

Lion has recently been expressed by Geikie. Ine

Wildcat. presence of the Etruscan rhinoceros would ap-

w°lf- pear to point to such great antiquity, but the

Beaven evidence afforded by this primitive animal is

overborne by that of three mammals which are highly character-
istic of Second Interglacial times ; these are the straight-tusked or

96

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

ancient elephant (E. antiquus), the lion, and the Mosbach horse.
Excepting only the Etruscan rhinoceros, all these species fre-
quenting the ancient stream Elsenz and deposited with the
1 sands of Mauer ' occurred also in the forests and meadows of the
region now known as Baden, where the fossil mammal deposits
of Mosbach near the Neckar are found. A similar mammalian
life of a somewhat more recent time occurs in the river gravels of
Sussenborn, near Weimar. The horses of Mauer, of Mosbach,

SO "
Sea Level

Z000

[Mo

Middle Triassic \Mm

\Mu

Loner Trias sic

(So

Upper MuschelkalH
Middle

Lower ••

Upper Buntsandsrem
Middle

'3000 4-000 meters

Recent, marl, ham, sand
Redeposited loess of the slopes
younger loess

•i loam
Older

} Reetni

J Pleis-
tocene

Fig. 45. Section of the valley of the stream Elsenz, near Heidelberg, showing the location

of the Mauer sand-pit in which the Heidelberg jaw was discovered. An

ancient layer of river-drift. Drawn by C. A. Reeds.

and of Sussenborn* were of much larger size and of more
specialized character than Steno's horse of First Interglacial
times.

Thus the Heidelbergs, the first human race recorded in west-
ern Europe, appear in southern Germany early in Second Inter-
glacial times, in the midst of a most imposing mammalian fauna
of northern aspect and containing many forest-living species,
such as bear, deer, and moose ; in the meadows and forests
browsed the giant, straight- tusked elephant {E. antiquus), which
from the simple structure of its grinding-teeth is regarded as
similar in habit to the African elephant now inhabiting the
forests of central Africa ; the presence of this animal indicates a
relatively moist climate and well-forested country. The Etrus-

* These horses ure now identified respectively as E. mauerensis, E. mosbachensis, ana
E. sussenbornemis.

THE HEIDELBERG RACE

97

can rhinoceros differed from the larger Merck's form in the pos-
session of relatively short-crowned grinding-teeth, adapted to

Fig. 46. Sand-pit at Mauer, near Heidelberg, discovery site of the jaw of Heidel-
berg man. After Schoetensack.

a-b. 'Newer loess,' either of Third Interglacial or of Postglacial times.
b-c. 'Older loess' (sandy loess) of the close of Second Interglacial times.
c-f. The 'sands of Mauer.'
d-e. An intermediate layer of clay.

The white cross (X) indicates the spot at the base of the 'sands of Mauer' at
which the jaw of Heidelberg was discovered.

browsing habits and a forested country ; on the head were borne
two horns ; it was a long-limbed, rapidly moving type ; the herds

98 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

of bison and of wild cattle (urus) which roamed over the plains
were now subject to the attack of the lion.

The discovery in 1907 of a human lower jaw in the base of
the 'Mauer sands' is one of the most important in the whole
history of anthropology. The find was made at a depth of 79
feet (24.10 m.) from the upper surface of a high bluff (Fig. 46),
in ancient river sands which had long been known to yield the
very old mammalian fauna described above. For years the

Fig. 47. The Heidelberg jaw, type of Homo heidelbergensis. About
two- thirds life size. After Schoetensack.

workmen had been instructed to keep a sharp lookout for human
remains. The jaw had evidently drifted down with the river
sands and had become separated from the skull, but it remained
in perfect preservation. The author's description may first be
quoted.36 The mandible shows a combination of features never
before found in any fossil or recent man. The protrusion of the
lower jaw just below the front teeth which gives shape to the
human chin is entirely lacking. Had the teeth been absent it
would have been impossible to diagnose it as human. From a
fragment of the symphysis of the jaw it might well have been
classed as some gorilla-like anthropoid, while the ascending ramus
resembles that of some large variety of gibbon. The absolute
certainty that these remains are human is based on the form of
the teeth — molars, premolars, canines, and incisors are all essen-

i

THE HEIDELBERG RACE 99

tially human and, although somewhat primitive in form, show
no trace of being intermediate between man and the anthropoid
apes but rather of being derived from some older common an-
cestor. The teeth, however, are somewhat small for the jaw ;
the size of the border would allow for the development of much
larger teeth ; we can only conclude that no great strain was put
on the teeth, and therefore the powerful development of the bones
of the jaw was not designed for their benefit. The conclusion is

Fig. 48. Side view of Heidelberg jaw (centre) compared with that of a chimpanzee (right)
and of an Eskimo (left) ; the latter an individual of exceptionally large proportions.

that the jaw, regarded as unquestionably human from the nature
of the teeth, ranks not far from the point of separation between
man and the anthropoid apes. In comparison with the jaws of
Neanderthal races, as found at Spy, in Belgium, and at Krapina,
in Croatia, we may consider the Heidelberg jaw as pre-Neander-
thaloid; it is, in fact, a generalized type.

In a conservative spirit, Schoetensack named the type rep-
resented by this jaw Homo heidelbergensis. Other authors have
regarded it as of distinct generic rank ; thus it has been termed
Paleoanthropus heidelbergensis by Bonarelli.37 The jaw itself is
extremely massive; the canine teeth, unlike those of the an-
thropoid apes and of the Piltdown race, do not project beyond the
line of the other teeth and were therefore not used as weapons
of offense and defense as in the anthropoids, in which these teeth

100

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

are prominently developed as tusks. As noted by Schoetensack,
the teeth are not very massive in proportion to the jaw itself,

which is the most powerful
human jaw known, even ex-
ceeding the largest Eskimo
jaw and indicating a skull of
very massive and primitive
character. It resembles that
of the ape in the recession of
the chin, hence it has been
termed amentalis. There is
a large development of the
coronoid process of the man-
dible for the attachment of
the temporal muscle. This
jaw may well have been used
as a tool in the last stages
of the preparation of hides, as
is the practice of the Eskimo
races. We observe that the
powerful bony branches of
the jaw, when regarded from
above, close in upon the
space left for the tongue ; in
fact, the bone closes in to
such an extent as to inter-
fere seriously with the free
use of the tongue in articu-
late speech.

It would seem that in the

jaw, and probably in all

Fig. 49. The jaws shown in Fig. 48 seen
from above. A massive Eskimo jaw (above),
the Heidelberg jaw (centre), the jaw of a
chimpanzee (below). other characters of the skullj

as they become known, the Heidelberg race will be found to be
a Neanderthal in the making, that is, a primitive, more powerful,
and more ape-like ancestral form. In the matter of the retreat-
ing chin, the true Neanderthals of Spy, Malarnaud, Krapina,

THE HEIDELBERG RACE

101

and La Chapelle rank exactly half-way between the most in-
ferior races of recent man and the anthropoid apes.

Not only among the Eskimos, but generally throughout the
savage races of Australia and of other countries, the jaws are used
as tools ; among the Australians the teeth are very much worn

Fig. 50. Restoration of the Man of Heidelberg by the Belgian artist Mascre,
under the direction of Professor A. Rutot, of Brussels. This restoration pre-
sents an advance upon the Pithecanthropus type. In our opinion the Heidel-
berg man was more human and less ape-like in appearance.

down but are in admirable preservation. When seen from above,
we observe that the ' Heidelberg' grinding- teeth form a perfect
arch, or horseshoe-shaped arrangement, whereas in all the apes
the two lines of grinding-teeth are almost parallel with each other.
Thus, while there may be wide differences of opinion as regards the
relationships of the Heidelberg man, all agree that Schoetensack's
discovery affords us one of the great missing links or types in the
chain of human development.

The typical mammalian life of Second Interglacial times as
found at Mosbach and Siissenborn belongs perhaps to a some-
what more recent stage of Second Interglacial times than that of
the 'Mauer sands,' for in these localities the Etruscan rhinoceros

102 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

is wanting and the more specialized broad-nosed rhinoceros is
abundant ; this animal differs from the Etruscan form in the pos-
session of relatively long-crowned grinding-teeth, which were bet-
ter adapted to grazing habits. On the head were borne two horns.
A variety of the southern mammoth (E. trogontherii) is so highly
characteristic of Second Interglacial times that Pohlig refers to
this life period as the E. trogontherii stage. From the structure of
its grinding-teeth it is regarded as similar in habit to the Asiatic
elephant, which now inhabits the forests of India, but it has the
peculiar concave forehead distinctive of the mammoth and quite
unlike the convex forehead of the Indian elephant. The bears of
this period belong to the primitive species U. deningeri and U.
arvernensis, for so far there is no certain record of the presence of
the true brown bear of Europe (17. arctos). The sabre- tooth
tiger of this time is preserved in the caverns of the Pyrenees near
Montmaurin, associated with the remains of the striped hyaena
(H. striata), a species which was widely distributed over western
Europe in early Pleistocene times. This species was contempo-
rary with, and later replaced by, the spotted hyaena (H. crocuta),
from which the very hardy cave-hyaena (H. crocuta speloza) of the
1 Reindeer Period,' descended. We observe that the 'polycla-
dine' deer of Upper Pliocene and First Glacial times has disap-
peared from western Europe ; nor are there any traces of the
axis deer. The hippopotamus is still represented by the giant
species, H. major.

Early Northern Migrations of the Reindeer

The animals that we have described belong in the warmer
and more temperate regions of Europe. In the regions near the
glaciers the reindeer was already to be found; in fact, this char-
acteristically northern animal is recorded in the gravels of Stis-
senborn, near Weimar.

There is evidence of a succession of climatic changes in the
region of Heidelberg. The Heidelberg jaw with its temperate
mammalian fauna occurred at the very base of the Mauer bluff,

MIGRATIONS OF THE REINDEER 103

but higher up the bluff (Fig. 46) on a corresponding level are
found the remains of mammals which indicate a marked lowering
of temperature and which are referred by some authorities to the
period of chilling climate that characterized northern Europe
toward the close of Second Interglacial times. The reindeer also
occurs in the 'high terrace' gravels of the River Murr, near
Steinheim ; thus, at Mauer, at Siissenborn, and at Steinheim, we
find proof that the reindeer had begun to spread over the colder
regions of Europe, and there is some ground for belief that it
found its way even as far south as the Pyrenees.

The evidence of the first cold, arid period which for the time
greatly affected the climate of western Europe is also found in
the layer of so-called ' ancient loess .' which lies in the bluff above
the ' sands of Mauer.' This loess covers the warm mammalian
deposits of the 'sands of Mosbach' as well as the 'high terraces'
of many of the ancient river- valleys. Both in Europe and Amer-
ica the climatic sequence of the Second Interglacial Stage from
moist to dry appears to have been the same.

Thus, after the recession of the ice-fields of the second glacia-
tion, the climate was at first cold and moist ; then followed a long
warm stage, favorable to the spread of forests ; this was finally
succeeded by a period of aridity in which the most ancient
'loess' deposits occurred. In Russia, also, the third glaciation
was preceded by an arid and steppe-like climate with high winds
favorable to the transportation of 'loess.'

No palaeoliths or other proofs of human occupation have been
found in this cold, dry period, for there is no evidence in any
part of Europe of camping stations in this 'ancient loess' such
as we find in the 'loess' which was deposited during the similar
arid period toward the close of Third Interglacial and again dur-
ing Postglacial times. Nor have we any record of the mammalian
life in this 'ancient loess' of Europe.

104 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

The Third Glaciation *

This arid period in northern Europe and in North America
was followed by the moist, cool climate of the third glaciation.
It is estimated by Penck that the advance of these new ice-fields
began 120,000 years ago and that the period of advance and re-
treat of the glaciers was not less than 20,000 years. In the Alps
the snow-line descended 1,250 metres below the present level;
consequently this glaciation was more severe than the first but
somewhat less severe than the second. In northern Europe the
Scandinavian ice-field did not cover so wide an area as during the
second glaciation, although Britain and Scandinavia were again
deeply buried by ice; the glacial cap and glaciers flowed in a
westerly and southwesterly direction across Denmark and the
southern portion of the basin of the Baltic into Holland and
northern Germany. In the Alps the third glaciation sent vast
ice-floes along the valley of the Rhine, into eastern France, and
into the valley of the Po, where this glaciation was even more
extensive than the second. But the greatest glacier of this time
was that of the Isar, a southern tributary of the Danube, which
rises in the Bavarian Alps.38

During the Third Glacial Stage certain of the 'middle terraces'
along the Rhine and other rivers flowing from the Alps were
formed. In Britain,39 whereas during the second glaciation the
ice-fields extended as far south as the Thames, during the third
glaciation they did not extend beyond the midlands ; yet an
arctic climate prevailed over southern England, with tundra con-
ditions and temperature, as indicated by the plant deposits at
Hoxne40 in Suffolk. Even before the third glaciation began in
Europe a great ice-cap had formed over Labrador, on the eastern
coast of North America, and the ice-sheets flowing to the south
and southwest extended as far as Illinois, depositing the great
Illinoian 'drifts.'

* This tfhu iation as it occurs in northern Europe has been termed Polandian by Geikie ;
in the Alps Penck has termed it the Riss ; in America it is known as the Illinoian from
the great drifts it deposited over the State of Illinois.

THE THIRD GLACIATION

105

Along the borders of these great ice-fields in both countries
a cold and moist climate prevailed, for a prime condition of glacia-
tion is the heavy precipitation of snow. In northern Europe, be-
tween the great Alpine and Scandinavian ice-fields of the third
glaciation a cold climate undoubtedly prevailed; in the region

EUROPE DURING THE THIRD GLACIAL EPOCH. (RISS)
A- 8 Line of Profile

(AFTER JAMES GEIK1E)

Fig. 51. The ice-fields and glaciers of the Third Glacial Stage are seen to be much less
extensive than those of the Second Glacial Stage, shown in Fig. 25, p. 65. The conti-
nental depression and invasion of the sea is also believed to have been less extensive.
At this stage there are broad areas free from ice between the Scandinavian, the Alpine,
and the Pyrenean ice-caps. Drawn by C. A. Reeds, after James Geikie. (Compare
Fig. 13.)

of the Neckar River, near Cannstatt, is found a deposit known as
1 mammoth loam,' which Koken believed to be contemporaneous
with the period of the third glaciation, although the evidence is
certainly not convincing.41 Here are found fossil remains of the
Scandinavian reindeer, also of two very important new arrivals
in Europe from the tundra regions of the far northeast, animals

106

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

which had wandered along the southern borders of the Scandi-
navian ice-sheet from the tundras of northern Russia and Siberia.
This is the first appearance in western Europe of the woolly mam-
moth (E. primigenius) and the woolly rhinoceros (D. antiquitatis) .
In this /mammoth loam' there also occur two species of horse,
the giant deer (Megaceros), the stag, the wisent, and the Aurochs.
If the woolly mammoth and the woolly rhinoceros actually en-
tered eastern Germany at this time, they certainly retreated to
the north with the approach of the warm temperate climate of the
Third Interglacial Stage, because no trace of these animals has
been found again in Europe until the advent of the fourth gla-
ciation.

(i

(2

(3
(4
(5
(6

(7

(8

(9

(io

(ii

(12

(13
(14
(15
(16
(i7
(i*
(19

(20

Gaudry, 1890. 1.

Smith, G. E., 1912.1, p. 582.

Op. cit.

Munro, 1893. 1.

Osborn, 1910.1, pp. 306, 307.

Geikie, J., 1894. 1, pp. 329~336;

1914.1, p. 227.
Dawkins, 1 883.1, pp. 576-579.
Geikie, J., 1914.1, p. 248.
Reid, C, 1908. 1.
Desnoyers, 1 863.1.
Haug, 1911.1, p. 1807.
Geikie, J., 1894. 1, p. 682; 1914.1,

p. 250.
Dubois, 1894. 1.
Fischer, 1913.1.
Schwalbe, 1899. 1; 1914.1.
Buchner, 1914.1.
Yolz, 1 907. 1.
Elbert, 1908. 1.
Selenka, 191 1.1.
Pilgrim, 1913.1.

(21) Schwalbe, 1899. 1, pp. 227, 228.

(22) Op. cit., p. 223.

(23) Schwalbe, 1914.1, pp. 601-606.

(24) Buchner, 1914.1, p. 129.

(25) Dubois, 1894,1, p. 14.

(26) Keith, 1912.1.

(27) Smith, G. E., 1912.1, p. 595.

(28) Op. cit.

(29) Rutot, 1907. 1.

(30) Boule, 1913.1, pp. 266, 267.

(31) MacCurdy, 1905. 1, pp. 468, 469.

(32) Geikie, J., 1914.1, p. 251.

(33) Op. cit., p. 255.

(34) Op. cit., p. 238.

(35) Schoetensack, 1908. 1.

(36) Op. cit., pp. 25-43.

(37) Bonarelli, 1909. 1.

(38) Penck, 1909. 1.

(39) Geikie, J., 1914.1, p. 258.

(40) Op. cit., pp. 257-262.

(41) Schmidt, 1912.1, p. 181

CHAPTER II

ARRIVAL OF THE PRE-CHELLEAN FLINT WORKERS DURING THE THIRD
INTERGLACIAL — GEOGRAPHY, CLIMATE, AND THE RIVER DRIFTS
— PRE-CHELLEAN FLINT INDUSTRY — THE PILTDOWN RACE —
MAMMALIAN LIFE — CHELLEAN AND ACHEULEAN INDUSTRIES —
THE USE OF FIRE — THE SECOND PERIOD OF ARID CLIMATE — THE
NEANDERTHAL RACE OF KRAPINA, CROATIA

The geologic epoch of the arrival of the Pre-Chellean flint
workers in western Europe is by far the most important and in-
teresting one before the prehistorian. Upon it depends the ques-
tion of the duration of the Old Stone Age, the date of appearance
of the Piltdown and of the Neanderthal races, and the whole
sequence of climatic and geographic changes surrounding the
early history of man. After weighing all the evidence very care-
fully, the balance of opinion seems to sustain the view that this
epoch should be placed after the close of the third glaciation and
before the advent of the fourth, that is, during the Third Inter-
glacial Stage.

Penck estimated that the third warm interglacial stage*
opened about 100,000 years ago and lasted between 50,000 and
60,000 years. According to the theory that we have adopted in
this work, the Third Interglacial and Fourth Glacial embraced
the entire period of Lower Palaeolithic time, a period of from
70,000 to 100,000 years, much longer than that of Upper Palaeo-
lithic time, which is estimated at 16,000 to 25,000 years.

Geologic Antiquity of the Beginning of the Stone Age

Attention should first be called to the fact that, preceding the
epoch we have now entered, the glacial and interglacial forces

*This stage is known as the Helvetian or Diimtenian of Geikie; it is the Riss-Wiim:
of Penck's terminology and the Sangamon of the American glaciologists.

107

108

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

operating over the great peninsula of western Europe had left
their impress chiefly on the glaciated areas and only to a minor
degree on the free, non-glaciated areas. Until toward the close
of Third Interglacial times no traces of northern much less of
arctic forests and animals are discovered anywhere, except along
the borders of the ice-fields. It would appear as if the animal
and plant life of Europe were, in the main, but slightly affected

^POSTGLACIAL ^A(/A^

^ "Newer Loess'

Glacial Epoch Culture Stages Human Types

Fig. 52. Human types and culture stages of the last third of the Glacial Epoch. Theo-
retic estimates of the geologic and time divisions and introduction of human races during
the Third Interglacial, Fourth Glacial, and Postglacial Stages (see Fig. 14, p. 41).
Prepared by the author with the aid of C. A. Reeds.

by the first three glaciations. We cannot entertain for a moment
the belief that in glacial times all the warm flora and fauna mi-
grated southward and then returned, because there is not a
shred of evidence for this theory. It is far more in accord with
the known facts to believe that all the southern and eastern forms
of life had become very hardy, for we know how readily animals
now living in the warm earth belts are acclimatized to northern
conditions.

If, on the other hand, we depend solely on the testimony of
the life conditions, we might conclude that the Pre-Chellean flint
workers reached western Europe either in Second Interglacial

DATE OF THE PRE-CHELLEAN INDUSTRY

109

times, or during the third glaciation, or again during Third In-
terglacial times. Let us consider this evidence of the fossil
mammals more closely.

In favor of the theory that the Pre-Chellean culture is as an-
cient as Second Interglacial times; we should consider the fact

Fig. 53. Distribution of the principal Pre-Chellean and Chellean industrial stations

in western Europe.

that in several localities palaeoliths of Pre-Chellean if not of
Chellean type have been recorded in association with the re-
mains of a number of the more primitive mammals which we have
described above as characteristic of Second Interglacial times.
For example, at Torralba, Province of Soria, Spain, there has
been discovered1 an old typical Chellean camp site, containing
abundant remains of the broad-nosed rhinoceros and of the south-
ern mammoth, mingled with the remains of other mammals of
very ancient type, identified as the Etruscan rhinoceros and as

Ill)

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

Steno's horse. Again, along the River Somme. near Abbeville, in
the gisemerU du Champ dc Marsr it is said that Pre-Chellean and
Chellean implements have been found in association with the
Etruscan rhinoceros, Steno's horse, and very numerous specimens
of the sabre-tooth tiger and of the striped hyaena. Moreover, in

Fig. 54. Western Europe during the extension of the ice-fields and glaciers (dots) of the
Third Glacial Stage — a period of continental depression believed to have been less
extensive than that of the Second Glacial Stage (see Fig. 25, p. 65). The line from
Scandinavia to northern Africa corresponds to the section shown in Fig. 13, p.
Drawn by C. A. Reeds, after Geikie and Penck. (Compare Fig. 13.)

Piltdown, Sussex, Pre-Chellean flints and the Piltdown skull are
said to have occurred in a layer containing a rhinoceros which
may be identified with the Etruscan. If these very ancient
species of animals are rightly recognized and determined, and if
they are truly found as reported in close association in the same
layers with Pre-Chellean and Chellean flints, the evidence may

DATE OF THE PRE-CHELLEAN INDUSTRY 111

be considered as quite strong that the beginning of Chellean cul-
ture dates from Second Interglacial times; unless, indeed, it should
prove that these primitive species of mammals survived into
Third Interglacial times in certain favored districts. We should
also consider the possibility that these more ancient animals, the
sabre-tooth tiger, Steno's horse, the Etruscan rhinoceros, and the
giant beaver, did not really belong in the same layer with these

Fig. 55. Excavation at Chelles-sur-Marne, the Palaeolithic station where Chellean flint
implements were first discovered. We observe the very close, regular, and unbroken
succession of the geological layers containing the Chellean, Acheulean, and Mousterian
flints.

old palaeoliths but were accidentally washed into this layer from
other more ancient deposits. As a rule, it is the most recent
animals which establish a prehistoric date, because we know that
a palaeolith cannot be older than the most recent mammal with
which it occurs.

The record of the three early glaciations is not fully written
in the animal and plant life, but it appears to be found in the
river channels. Both in England and France these channels at-
test flooded conditions during the earlier glaciations, in which large

112 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

quantities of gravels and sands were transported, and it is of these
materials that the 'high terraces' were built up. It is chiefly
the geologic evidence which establishes the Pre-Chellean date.

Geologic and climatic lines of evidence in France indicate
that the Pre-Chellean culture is first witnessed during the begin-
ning of Third Interglacial times. This is the opinion of Boule,
Haug, Obermaier, Breuil, Schmidt, and many other geologists
and archaeologists. That the first Palaeolithic flint workers found
their way into western Europe during the early part of Third
Interglacial times is consistent with our observations on the se-
quence of climate, on the formation of the 'low river terraces,'
where palaeoliths of the earliest type occur, as well as with the
general succession of mammalian life throughout the climatic
changes of this interglacial period. It would appear, in explana-
tion of the facts cited above regarding the fossil mammals, that
when the Pre-Chellean flint workers established their camps along
the valley of the River Somme in northern France a very genial
climate prevailed in this region, favorable even, as we shall see,
to the survival of some of the Pliocene types of mammals, such
as the sabre- tooth tiger and the Etruscan rhinoceros.

During the early part of the Third Interglacial Stage the cli-
mate, so far as we can judge by the unchanged aspect of the
animal life, remained of the same warm temperate character.
Two only of the surviving Pliocene forms, namely, the sabre-
tooth tigers and the Etruscan rhinoceroses, became rare or extinct.
From evidence afforded in Kent's Hole, Devonshire, Dawkins is
led to believe that the sabre- tooth tiger survived in Britain until
Postglacial times. All the rest of the animal world, both the
African- Asiatic and the Eurasiatic mammals, continued to nourish
throughout western Europe.

Not until the latter part of Acheulean times do we discover
proofs of a decided change of climate ; in the approach of arid
conditions similar to those of the steppes of western Asia there
was a renewal of the great dust-storms and depositions of 'loess,'
such as had previously occurred toward the close of Second Inter-
glacial times ; this was followed by the still colder climate of the

i

DATE OF THE PRE-CHELLEAN INDUSTRY 113

fourth glaciation, which corresponds with the closing period of
Lower Palaeolithic culture.

The evolution of the Pre-Chellean into the Chellean and
finally into the Lower Acheulean palaeoliths certainly occupied a
very long period of time if we assign it merely the 50,000 or 60,000
years allotted to the Third Interglacial; but even this allotment
seems far too long when we observe the relatively limited depth
of the river deposits in which these flint cultures succeed each
other. For we cannot fail to be impressed by the regular and
very close and unbroken succession of the geologic layers contain-
ing the Chellean and Acheulean artifacts. (See Fig. 55.)

None the less it follows that a long lapse of time must be
allowed for each culture period, and for the advance in technique.3
It is this wide distribution that has enabled the de Mortillets
(father and son), Capitan, Riviere, Reboux, Daleau, Peyrony,
Obermaier, Commont, Schmidt, and others to establish in vari-
ous parts of Europe the main stages of the industrial evolution
of the Old Stone Age, or Lower Palaeolithic.

Subdivisions of the Lower Palaeolithic Cultures4*

Mousterian. Late industry of the Neanderthal races. Extensive use of

the 'flake.'
Late Mousterian. La Quina scrapers, small ' coups de poing,' and bone

anvils, closing with the Abri Audit culture.
Middle Mousterian. Culmination of the Mousterian ' point ' finely flaked

and chipped on one side, the best examples approaching the Solutrean

perfection of technique.
Early Mousterian. Heart-shaped ' coups de poing ' and Mousterian flake

'points' and flake scrapers.

Acheulean. Early industry of the Neanderthal races. Extensive use of

the nodular core.
Late A cheulean. Miniature ' lance points ' of La Micoque type, triangular

'coups de poing,' and flint flakes of Levallois type.
Middle Acheulean. Pointed oval 'coups de poing,' much lighter than the

Chellean types, and small implements similar to the Chellean but

much improved in workmanship.
Early Acheulean. Broad oval 'coups de poing' much more symmetrical

than the Chellean but still rather heavy. Small types.
* Modified after Schmidt.

114 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

Chellean.

Late Chellean. Long pointed 'coups de poing,' in most cases flaked on
both sides, with little of the crust of the nodule adhering and the edges
still unsymmetrical. First appearance of the oval 'coups de poing.'
Early Chellean. First appearance of 'coups de poing' of almond shape.
Small implements, including scrapers, planes, and borers. All imple-
ments unsymmetrical and with uneven edges.

Pre-Chellean. Probable industry of the Piltdown and of the (Pre-
Neanderthaloid) Heidelberg races. Use of chance and accidental
forms. Forms partly accidental; retouch limited to the few strokes
necessary to give a point or edge to the tool, or to allow a firm grasp
(protective retouch). Prototypes of 'coup de poing' formed of flint
nodules with crust only partially removed.

If we suppose that the Pre-Chellean flint workers arrived
in Europe not earlier than Third Interglacial times, we can ex-
plain all the gradations in the evolution of their implements in
connection with the changes of climate and of animal life which
the geologic and fossil deposits reveal, especially in the valleys of
the Somme and of the Thames.

If, on the other hand, the Pre-Chellean is dated in Second In-
terglacial times,* it carries this culture back another hundred
thousand years and involves our prehistory in great difficulties.
First, there is no proof whatever that the Pre-Chellean and Chel-
lean flint workers lived during the period of the formation of the
'high river terraces' of the third glaciation, for no Palaeolithic
flints have ever been found buried in the sands or gravels of the
'high terraces.' The occurrence of archaic flints on the 'high
terraces' of the Somme and of the Seine is in superficial gravel
beds which were deposited long after these 'terraces' had been
cut by river action ; this is best seen in the Somme, where archaic
flints occur alike in the gravels deposited upon the 'low,' 'mid-
dle,' and 'high terraces.' Second, there is no proof that the
Pre-Chellean and Chellean flint workers passed through the cold
climatic period of the third glaciation ; nowhere in Europe have

* The weakness of Penck's argument for placing the Chellean in the Second Inter-
glacial was exposed by precise observations of Boule5 and Obermaier6 in the Alps, the
Jura, and the Pyrenees.

DATE OF THE PRE-CHELLEAN INDUSTRY 115

any records been found of their camps or stations in association
with the cold fauna or flora of Third Glacial times. Third, the
geographical evidence is equally at variance with the theory that
the Pre-Chellean flint workers entered Europe during the Second
Interglacial Stage, for we know positively that in many of the
great river-valleys of Europe, especially those surrounding the
Alps, the rivers were at much higher levels than at present and
that they were transporting the materials out of which the 'high
terraces ' were being formed or cutting these * terraces ' down by
erosion.

In other words, the geography of Europe in First and Second
Interglacial times was very different from what it is at present;
most of the river- valleys were broader and less deep ; some of
them had been eroded to a point below their present levels and
had begun to silt up in alluvial deposits. In Third Interglacial
times the river geography of Europe was substantially as it is
to-day, although the coast-lines were still very different.

When Pre-Chellean man appeared, we shall see that the
river-valleys of the Somme and Marne, in northern France, as
well as of the Thames, in southeastern England, were closely
similar to what they are at present in respect to their water-
levels ; in other words, the inland geography of Europe in the
north in Chellean times and in central and southern France in
the immediately succeeding Acheulean times was very much like
it is at present. The superficial characters of the valleys were
different ; the streams in Chellean times flowed through gravels
and sands, partaking of a glacial aspect; one or more of the
' river terraces' composed of sands and gravels were still sharply
defined, for the soft covering of 'loam' and alluvial soil from
the surrounding uplands and hills had not yet washed down to
soften the outlines of the 'terraces.' Neither were the 'terraces'
covered with the newer deposits of 'loess.'

Fig. 56. Restoration of the geography of western Europe during the Third Interglacial
Stage, showing the ancient land areas (dots) and the ancient river channels now
submerged by the sea. Modified after Avebury's Prehistoric Times by permission of
Henry Holt & Co. The six white crosses (X) indicate the location of the principal Pre-
Chellean stations of Filtdown on the Onse, and Cray's Thurrock on the Thames,
in England; of Abbeville, on the north bank, and St. Achcul, on the south bank of the
Somme, and Chclles on the Marne, in France; and of Helin in Belgium. It will be
observed that the English stations are separated from the others only by the ancient
broad valley corresponding with the present English Channel.

GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE 117

Secular Changes or Climate in Lower Paleolithic Times

We find evidences of four climatic and life phases during the
long period of Lower Palaeolithic evolution, as follows :

4. Cold Moist Climate. — Advent of the fourth glaciation. Arrival of the
'full Mousterian' culture and of the Neanderthal race in Belgium and
France. Repair of men to the warmer shelters, grottos, and entrances to
the caverns. Final disappearance of the hardy Merck's rhinoceros and the
straight-tusked elephant. Arrival of the tundra fauna, the reindeer, the
woolly mammoth, and the woolly rhinoceros. Refrigeration of western
Europe as far south as northern Spain and Italy. Wide distribution of
cold alpine, tundra, and steppe mammals all over Germany and France, and
into northern Spain. Cold tundra flora in the Thames valley, and at Hoxne,
in Suffolk. Migration of the tundra mammals, the reindeer, mammoth,
and rhinoceros all over southern Britain, Belgium, France, Germany, and
Austria.

3. Arid Climate in Western Europe. — Period of the close of the Acheulean
culture ; some of the flint workers seeking the shelter of cliffs and approach-
ing the entrances to the grottos during the cold season of the year. A dry
steppe climate, prevailing westerly winds, and deposits of 'loess' all over
northern France and Germany. Appearance of the first Neanderthaloid
men in Krapina, Croatia. Cool forest flora in the region of La Celle-sous-
Moret near Paris, followed by depositions of 'loess' and increasingly cool
and arid climate. Early Mousterian industry. Disappearance first of the
more sensitive pair of Asiatic mammals, the hippopotamus and the southern
mammoth (E. trogontherii) ; persistence of the more hardy, straight-tusked
elephant (E. antiquus) and the broad-nosed rhinoceros (D. merckii).

2. Continued Warm Temperate Period. — Time of the Chellean culture
found at Chelles, St. Acheul, Gray's Thurrock, Ilford, Essex, and southward
in Torralba, Spain. Abundance of hippopotami, rhinoceroses, southern
mammoths, and straight-tusked elephants in northern Germany at Taubach,
Weimar, Ehringsdorf, and Achenheim. Rare appearance of sabre-tooth
tigers. Temperate forest and alpine flora of Durnten and Utznach, Switzer-
land. Early Acheulean culture widely distributed over all of western
Europe.

1. Early Warm Temperate Period. — The warm climate of the Pre-Chel-
lean culture period, as seen in the valleys of the Somme, of the Thames, and
of the Seine near Paris, favorable to the southern mammoth and the hip-
popotamus. Apparent survival of the sabre-tooth tiger and the Etruscan
rhinoceros in favored regions. A warm temperate forest flora in La Celle-

118 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

sous-Moret near Paris and in Lorraine. Arrival of the Pre-Chellean flint
workers and of the Piltdown race in southern England.

It is believed that the climate of Third Interglacial times when
it reached its maximum warmth was again somewhat milder than
the present climate in the same region. In the Alps the glaciers
and the snow-line retreated once more to their present levels.
The period opened with humid continental conditions. The
areas left bare by the ice were gradually reforested. A picture
of the climate in this warm period is presented in the region near
Paris in the so-called tuf de La Celle-sous-Moret (Seine-et-Marne) .
This tufa, which is a hot-springs deposit, overlies river-gravels of
Pleistocene age.7 The lower levels of the tufa contain the syca-
more-maple {Acer pseudoplatanus) , willows, and the Austrian pine,
indicating a temperate climate. Higher up in the same deposits
we find evidences of increasingly mild temperatures in the pres-
ence of the box (Buxus) and not infrequently of the fig-tree ; the
Canary laurel (Laurus nobilis) is somewhat rarer and both it
and the fig indicate that the winters were mild, because these
plants have the peculiarity of flowering during the winter season ;
we infer, therefore, that the climate was somewhat milder and
more damp than it is in the same region at the present time.
The mollusks also indicate greater equability of climate. These
deposits are believed to correspond with the period of Chellean
and early Acheulean industry.

The plants in the highest levels of the same tufa, however,
indicate the advent of a colder climate and also connect this
with the Acheulean culture stage through the presence of Acheu-
lean flints. The deposit of tufa is covered by a sheet of 'loess'
corresponding with the return of an arid period in late Acheulean
times, in the very heart of northern France. Thus we have a
record in the region near the present city of Paris of three cli-
matic phases, which are also more or less completely indicated
in deposits to the north along the River Somme and in the valley
of the ancient Thames.

In western France we again interpret the fossil flora of Lor-
raine as belonging to the cooler closing period of Third Intergla-

GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE 119

cial times and to the advent of the fourth glaciation, for here
the most northern varieties of the larch (Larix) and of the moun-
tain-pine (Pinus lambertiana) predominate.

The clearest view of the contemporary alpine forests is found
near Zurich in the lignitic deposits of Diirnten and of Utznach,
which are so characteristic of the temperate period of the Third
Interglacial Stage that Geikie has proposed to call this stage the
Durntenian* It was, we recall, at Diirnten that Morlot9 found
the first proofs of a warm or temperate interglacial flora, between
the deposits of a retreating glacier and those of an advancing
glacier ; for Diirnten is well within the region which was covered
by the vast ice-fields both of the third and fourth glaciations.
The forests which nourished there in Third Interglacial times
were similar to those now found in the same region, consisting of
the spruce, fir, mountain-pine, larch, beech, yew, and sycamore,
with undergrowth of hazel. With this hardy flora are associated
the remains of the straight- tusked elephant, of Merck's rhi-
noceros, of wild cattle, and of the stag ; another evidence for our
opinion that all these Asiatic mammals had become habituated
to the cool temperate climate of the north.

Life on the River Somme from Pre-Chellean to
Neolithic Times

The borders of the River Somme at St. Acheul give us a vista
of the whole story of the succession of geologic events; the great
changes of climate, the procession of animal life, the sequence of
human races and cultures. Here Commont10 has found the key
to the history of this entire country and enabled us to parallel
events here with those occurring far away in Taubach, on the
borders of the Thuringian forest, and at Krems in Lower Austria,
as studied by Obermaier. This is because the ' older ' and ' newer '
loess periods, the succession of climates and of mammals, and
the development of human cultures were all not local but con-
tinental events. The purely local events are found in the kinds
of gravels and soils which washed down over the terraces.

120

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

It is very important first to clearly picture in our minds and
understand the geography of the Somme at the time of the arrival
of the Pre-Chellean flint workers. It appears certain that all
three of the old river terraces composed of limestone had been
cut long before and that the river had already reached the bottom
level of the underlying chalk rock.11 The higher terrace, then as
now, was ioo feet above the Somme, the middle terrace about
70 feet, and the lowest terrace extended from a height of about
40 feet down underneath the present river level (see Fig. 59).

r

irn^M

P<w.

^yftiS

— -^SUt^jijiffi jjr

<

j^^M^

.•

Wj^^^-

•-*.-■'

~ ~ :-::-:

3SHBHG

Fig. 57. Three ancient river terraces (I, II, III), on the west bank of the Connecticut
River in Vermont, believed to be of Postglacial age. The terraces are respectively
140, 60, and 20 feet above the river, and thus show a profile similar to that of the ter-
races on the Somme in Pre-Chellean times previous to the accumulation of the deposits
bearing Palaeolithic flints. Photograph by H. H. H. Langill.

Since the most primitive Pre-Chellean flints occur in the coarse
gravels which lie on the floors of these terraces immediately above
the chalk, they prove that the entire excavation of the valley had
been completed when the Pre-Chellean workers arrived there.
Commont believes that this was the actual topography of the
valley during the Third Interglacial Stage. The occurrence of
Chellean flints in the white sands overlying the coarse gravels of
the middle and upper terraces does not indicate that the flint
workers were encamped here while these terraces were being
cut out by the River Somme but rather that they sought these
convenient bluffs for their quarries during the time that these
sands and gravels were washing down from the sides of the valleys
and from the plateaus above.

Fig. 58. Four typical forms of the Chellean coup de poing, or ' hand-stone/ from the
ancient quarries of St. Acheul. About one-half actual size.

a. Disc-shaped — upper left. c. Poniard-shaped — lower left.

b. Oval — upper right. d. Almond-shaped — lower right.

In the collection of the American Museum of Natural History.

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THE RIVER-DRIFT STATIONS

123

Prehistory of St. Acheul

NEOLITHIC.

Campignian, recent earth and
loam.

UPPER PALEOLITHIC.

Solutrean.

Upper Aurignacian, loam.
Middle Aurignacian, 'newer
loess' and gravel.

and

of

The history of the climatic changes in the ancient valley of
the Somme is most clearly written in these successive deposits,

15 feet in thickness, above the
'lower gravels' at St. Acheul.
Along with the Pre-Chellean and
Chellean flints in the 'old gravels'
and 'white sands' we find rec-
ords of the moist warm temperate
climate which then prevailed in
northern France and which un-
doubtedly was most favorable to
the hippopotami, rhinoceroses,
and elephants of those times. The
river mollusks found with the
late Chellean flints are another
indication of the temperate forest
climate which continued through
early Acheulean times.

In the middle Acheulean are
found the earliest deposits of
'older loess' which indicate a cli-
mate still temperate but arid, be-
longing to the middle of the Third
Interglacial Stage. In Mouste-
rian times we find heavy deposits
of gravels corresponding to the
moist cold climate of the Fourth Glacial Stage, followed in middle
Aurignacian times by fresh layers of 'newer loess,' indicating the
return of a dry climate. Finally, the layers of loam which were
washed down over the sides of the valley, and in which the re-
mains of Solutrean and Aurignacian camps are found, indicate
the renewal of moist and probably forested conditions.

Thus, two dry loess periods are indicated in this valley, the
first or 'older loess' belonging to Third Interglacial times, and
the second or ' newer loess ' to Postglacial times ; and we clearly
perceive that in the culture layers here there is no evidence what-

LOWER PALAEOLITHIC.

Late Mousterian, gravel

'newer loess.'
Early Mousterian, base

'newer loess' {Verger on).
Middle Acheulean, 'older loess'

and drift.
Early Acheulean, gravels below

'older loess' {E. antiquus).
Late Chellean, fluviatile sands

and mollusk fauna.
Early Chellean, first coups de

poing; old 'white sands' (E.

antiquus).
Pre-Chellean, prototypes of

coup de poing; old 'lower

gravels' (E. antiquus).

124 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

ever of more than one glacial stage preceded by a dry climatic
period and deposits of loess. If the Pre-Chellean flint workers
had arrived in this river-valley as early as Second Interglacial
times, we should find proofs of three periods of arid climate and
loess deposition and of two glaciations.

Beginning with middle Acheulean times the flints are found
in deposits of gravels, loams, brick-earths, and ' older loess/
which all belong to a succeeding geologic stage and are of more
recent date than the lower gravels and sands on the terraces
which they overlap and conceal. Deposits of this kind have also
been drifted down from the highest levels toward the bottom of
the valley, and Commont distinguishes three different depositions
or layers of 'loess loam,' the lowest or oldest of which contain
Acheulean flints, while the middle loams contain Mousterian im-
plements.

Even toward the close of the Third Interglacial Stage there
were periods of warmth, perhaps during the height of the hot
summer season, when animals of the warm fauna migrated from
the south. Thus Commont has recently discovered in the valley
of the Somme a station of Mousterian flint workers, whose in-
dustry is associated with remains of the three animals typical of
the warmer climatic phase; namely, the straight- tusked elephant,
the broad-nosed rhinoceros, and the hippopotamus. He has re-
affirmed his belief that the greater part of this chapter of human
prehistory, both as to the surface topography of the Somme
valley and the evolution of the flint cultures from Pre-Chellean
to Mousterian times, occurred during the Third Interglacial
Stage.

The Early Warm Temperate Period of the Pre-
Chellean Culture*

We have observed that from Torralba in the Province of
Soria, Spain, to Abbeville, near the mouth of the Somme, in the
north of France, three types of animals which entered Europe as

1 [he writer is indebted to M. Marcelin Boule and to M. l'Abbe Henri Breuil for
their observations on this fauna and culture period.

THE RIVER-DRIFT STATIONS 125

early as Upper Pliocene times, namely, the Etruscan rhinoceros,
the horse of Steno, and the sabre-tooth tiger, are said to occur in
connection with early Chellean artifacts. The two former
species may possibly be confused with early forms of Merck's
rhinoceros and the true forest horses of Europe, but there can be
no question as to the identification of the sabre- tooth tiger, num-
bers of which were found by M. d'Ault du Mesnil, at Abbeville,
on the Somme, with early Chellean flints.

The mammalian life of the Somme at this time, as found in
the gisement du Champ de Mars near Abbeville, is very rich.

Among the larger forms there is cer-

Pre-Chellean Fauna tainly the great southern mammoth {E.
Southern mammoth. meridionalis trogontherii), and possibly

Etruscan rhinoceros. aiso the straight-tusked elephant (E.

fSTZ^e antiquus). There are unquestionably

(Equus stenonis) ? two species of rhinoceros, the smaller

Sabre-tooth tiger. of which is recognized by Boule as the

Broad-nosed rhinoceros. Etruscan, and the larger as Merck's

Straight-tusked elephant. , . 0 , , .

Giant beaver rhinoceros. Steno s horse is said to oc-

(Trogontherium cuvieri). cur here, and there are abundant re-
Short-faced hyaena. mains of the great hippopotamus (H.

Typical Eurasiatic forest >} ^ sabre_tooth ti were

and meadow fauna, in- °

eluding deer, bison, and very numerous as attested by the dis-
wild cattle. covery of the lower jaws of thirty or

more individuals. The short-faced
hysena (H. brevirostris) is also found, and there are several species
of deer and wild cattle.

This remarkably rich collection of mammals is associated
with flints of primitive Chellean or, possibly, of Pre- Chellean
type.12 In Torralba, Spain, the same very ancient animals occur,
and it appears possible that this was the prevailing mammalian
life of Pre-Chellean times.

We may conclude, therefore, that there is considerable evi-
dence, although not as yet quite convincing, that the early Chel-
lean flint workers arrived in western Europe before the disap-
pearance of the Etruscan rhinoceros and the sabre-tooth tiger.

126 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

The Pre-Chellean Stations

(See Figs. 53 and 56.)

The dawn of the Palaeolithic Age is indicated in various river-
drift stations by the appearance of crude flint weapons as well
as tools or implements, in addition to the supposed tools of
Eolithic times. There is an unmistakable effort to fashion the
flint into a definite shape to serve a definite purpose : there can
no longer be any question of human handiwork. Thus there
gradually arise various types of flints, each of which undergoes
its own evolution into a more perfect form. Naturally, the
workers at some stations were more adept and inventive than at
others. Nevertheless, the primitive stages of invention and of
technique were carried from station to station; and thus for
the first time we are enabled to establish the archaeological age
of various stations in western Europe.

Only a few stations have been discovered where the Palaeo-
lithic men were first fashioning their flints into prototypes of the
Chellean and Acheulean forms. With relation to the theory
that these primitive flint workers may have entered Europe by
way of the northern coast of Africa, we observe that these stations
are confined to Spain, southern and northern France, Belgium,
and Great Britain. Neither Pre-Chellean nor Chellean stations
of unquestioned authenticity have been found in Germany or
central Europe, and, so far as present evidence goes, it would
appear that the Pre-Chellean culture did not enter Europe directly
from the east, or even along the northern coast of the Mediter-
ranean, but rather along the northern coast of Africa,* where
Chellean culture is recorded in association with mammalian re-
mains belonging to the middle Pleistocene Epoch.

The southernmost stations of Chellean culture at present
known in Europe are those of Torralba and San Isidro, in central
Spain. Tn the Department of the Gironde is the Chellean station
of Marignac, and it is not unlikely that other stations will be dis-

* Industry similar to the Chellean, but not necessarily of the same age, is distributed
all over eastern Africa from Egypt to the Cape.

PRE-CHELLEAN FLINT INDUSTRY

127

covered in the same region, because the Palaeolithic races strongly
favored the valleys of the Dordogne and Garonne, but thus far
this is the only station known in southern France which represents
this period of the dawn of human culture.

The chief Pre-Chellean and Chellean stations'' were clustered
along the valleys of the Somme and Seine. /Of those rare sites

Fig. 60. Very primitive palaeoliths from Piltdown, Sussex, consisting chiefly of tools and
points of triangular and oval form, fashioned out of flint nodules split in two and flaked
on one side only, with very coarse marginal retouch. After Dawson. Nos. i and 2 are
nearly one-half actual size; No. 3 nearly one-quarter actual size.

presenting a typical Pre-Chellean culture, we may note the neigh-
boring stations of St. Acheul and Montieres, both in the suburbs
of Amiens on the Somme, and the station of Helin, near Spiennes,
in Belgium, explored by Rutot. A very primitive and possibly
Pre-Chellean culture was found on the site of the Champ de Mars,
at Abbeville. This culture also extended westward across the
broad plain which is now the Strait of Dover to the valley of the
Thames, on whose northern bank is the important station of

128

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

Gray's Thurrock, while farther to the south is the recently dis-
covered site of Piltdown, in the valley of the Ouse, Sussex.

The r!int tools (Fig. 60) found in the layer immediately over-
lying the Piltdown skull are excessively primitive and indicate
that the Piltdown flint workers had not attained the stage of
craftsmanship described by Commont as 'Pre-Chellean' at St.
Acheul. "Among the flints/' observes Dawson, "we found sev-
eral undoubted flint implements besides numerous 'eoliths.'

The workmanship of the former is
similar to that of the Chellean or
Pre-Chellean stage; but in the ma-
jority of the Piltdown specimens the
work appears chiefly on one face of
the implements."

In the Helin quarry near Spien-
nes13 occur rude prototypes of the
Palaeolithic coup de poing associated
with numerous flakes which do not
greatly differ from those in the lowest
river-gravels of St. Acheul; there is a
close correspondence in the workman-
ship of the two sites, so that we may regard the Mesvinian of
Rutot* as a culture stage equivalent to the Pre-Chellean. The
river-gravels and sands of Helin which contain the implements
also resemble those of St. Acheul in their order of stratification.
Of special interest is the fact that a primitive flint from this
Helin quarry, known as the ' borer,' is strikingly similar to the
'Eolithic' borer found in the same layer with the Piltdown skull
in Sussex. By such indications as this, when strengthened by
further evidence of the same kind, we may be able eventually to
establish the date both of this Pre-Chellean or Mesvinian culture
and of the Piltdown race.

In considering the Pre-Chellean implements found at St.
Acheul in 1906, we note14 that at this dawning stage of human

* Schmidt, regards the Strepyan implements, which are considered by Rutot and others
to be transitional, between the Mesvinian and the Chellean, as closely similar to the
Pre-Chellean of France and probably of the same age.

Fig. 61. Primitive coups de poing or
'hand-stones' of Pre-Chellean
type, found in the lower gravels
of the middle and high terraces
at St. Acheul. After Commont.
One-quarter actual size.

PRE-CHELLEAN FLINT INDUSTRY

129

invention the flint workers were not deliberately designing the
form of their implements but were dealing rather with the
chance shapes of shattered blocks of flint, seeking with a few well-
directed blows to produce a sharp point or a good cutting edge.
This was the beginning of the art of 'retouch,' which was done
by means of light blows with a second stone instead of the ham-
mer-stone with which the rough flakes were first knocked off.
The retouch served a double purpose: Its first and most im-
portant object was further to sharpen the point or edge of the

Fig. 62. Primitive gratloir, or planing tool (side and edge views), of Pre-

Chellean type, found in the lowest gravels of the terraces at

St. Acheul. After Commont. One-quarter actual size.

tool. This was done by chipping off small flakes from the upper
side, so as to give the flint a saw-like edge. Its second object
was to protect the hand of the user by blunting any sharp edges
or points which might prevent a firm grip of the implement.
Often the smooth, rounded end of the flint nodule, with crust
intact, is carefully preserved for this purpose (Fig. 61). It is
this grasping of the primitive tool by the hand to which the terms
'coup de poing,' 'Faustkeil,' and 'hand-axe' refer. 'Hand-
stone' is, perhaps, the most fitting designation in our language,
but it appears best to retain the original French designation,
coup de poing.

As the shape of the flint is purely due to chance, these Pre-
Chellean implements are interpreted by archaeologists chiefly
according to the manner of retouch they have received. Already

130 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

they are adapted to quite a variety of purposes, both as weapons
of the chase and for trimming and shaping wooden implements
and dressing hides. Thus Obermaier observes that the concave,
serrated edges characteristic of some of these implements may
well have been used for scraping the bark from branches and
smoothing them down into poles; that the rough coups de poing
would be well adapted to dividing flesh and dressing hides; that
the sharp-pointed fragments could be used as borers, and others
that are clumsier and heavier as planes (see Fig. 62).

The inventory of these ancestral Pre-Chellean forms of im-
plements, used in industrial and domestic life, in the chase, and

in war, is as follows :
Grattoir, planing tool. R indudes fi possibly six

Racloir, scraper. _. ^ ,

Percoir, drill, borer. chief tyPeS- The true coup de

Couteau, knife. poing, a combination tool of

Percuteur, hammer-stone. Chellean times, is not yet devel-

Pierre de jet? throwing stone ? , . ,, -p, ~, ,, , , ,

p , . J r oped in the Pre-Chellean, and the

coup de poing, hand-stone. other implements, although sim-

ilar in form, are more primitive.
They are all in an experimental stage of development.

Indications that this primitive industry spread over south-
eastern England as well, and that a succession of Pre-Chellean
into Chellean culture may be demonstrated, occur in connection
with the recent discovery of the very ancient Piltdown race.

The Piltdown Race 15

The 'dawn man' is the most ancient human type in which
the form of the head and size of the brain are known. Its
anatomy, as well as its geologic antiquity, is therefore of pro-
found interest and worthy of very full consideration. We may
first review the authors' narrative of this remarkable discovery
and the history of opinion concerning it.

Piltdown, Sussex, lies between two branches of the Ouse,
about 35 miles south and slightly to the east of Gray's Thurrock,
the Chellean station of the Thames. To the east is the plateau
of Kent, in which many flints of Eolithic type have been found.

THE PILTDOWN RACE

131

The gravel layer in which the Piltdown skull occurred is situ-
ated on a well-defined plateau of large area and lies about 80
feet above the level of the main stream of the Ouse. Remnants
of the flint-bearing gravels and drifts occur upon the plateau and

Fig. 63. Discovery site of the famous Piltdown skull near Piltdown, Sussex. After
Dawson. A shallow pit of dark-brown gravel, at the bottom of which were found the
fragments of the skull and a single primitive implement of worked flint (see Fig. 65).

the slopes down which they trail toward the river and streams.
This region was undoubtedly favorable to the flint workers of
Pre-Chellean and Chellean times. Kennard16 believes that the
gravels are of the same age as those of the 'high terrace' of the
lower valley of the Thames ; the height above the stream level
is practically the same, namely, about 80 feet. Another geologist,
Clement Reid,17 holds that the plateau, composed of Wealden
chalk, through which flowed the stream bearing the Piltdown
gravels, belongs to a period later than that of the maximum de-

132 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

pression of Great Britain ; that the deposits are of Pre- Glacial or
early Pleistocene age ; that they belong to the epoch after the
cold period of the first glaciation had passed but occur at the very
base of the succession of implement-bearing deposits in the south-
east of England.

On the other hand, Dawson,18 the discoverer of the Piltdown
skull, in his first description states : "From these facts it appears
probable that the skull and mandible cannot safely be described
as being of earlier date than the first half of the Pleistocene Epoch.
The individual probably lived during the warm cycle in that age."

The section of the gravel bed (Fig. 64) indicates that the re-
mains of the Piltdown man were washed down with other fossils
by a shallow stream charged with dark-brown gravel and un-
worked flints; some of these fossils were of Pliocene times from
strata of the upper parts of the stream. In this channel were
found the remains of a number of animals of the same age as the
Piltdown man, a few flints resembling eoliths, and one very primi-
tive worked flint of Pre-Chellean type, which may also have been
washed down from deposits of earlier age. These precious geo-
logic and archaeologic records furnish the only means we have of
determining the age of Eoanthropus, the 'dawn man,' one of
the most important and significant discoveries in the whole his-
tory of anthropology. We are indebted to the geologist Charles
Dawson and the palaeontologist Arthur Smith Woodward for
preserving these ancient records and describing them with great
fulness and accuracy as follows (pp. 132 to 139):

Several years ago Dawson discovered a small portion of an
unusually thick human parietal bone, taken from a gravel bed
which was being dug for road-making purposes on a farm close
to Piltdown Common. In the autumn of 191 1 he picked up
among the rain-washed spoil-heaps of the same gravel-pit another
and larger piece of bone belonging to the forehead region of the
same skull and including a portion of the ridge extending over
the left eyebrow. Immediately impressed with the importance
of this discovery, Dawson enlisted the co-operation of Smith
Woodward, and a systematic search was made in these spoil-

THE PILTDOWN RACE

133

heaps and gravels, beginning in the spring of 191 2 ; all the material
was looked over and carefully sifted. It appears that the whole
or greater part of the human skull had been scattered by the
workmen, who had thrown away the pieces unnoticed. Thor-

feJlysfe^

43*

<3>

<&>

d>

: £»•

<3 \

c&.

: : % ':<&j' . * \ ;

t£> ' .

<3Z7

<^>

<a. ?-• &

1. Surface soil, with flints. Thick*
ness =• 1 foot.

Pale-yellow sandy loam with
gravel and flints. One Palaeo-
lithic worked flint was found
in the middle of this bed.
Thickness = 2 feet, 6 inches.

Dark-brown gravel, with flints,
Pliocene rolled fossils and
Eoanthropus skull, beaver
tooth, ' eoliths ' and one
worked flint. Thickness=i8
inches.

4. Pale-yellow clay and sand.
Thickness = 8 inches.

Undisturbed strata of Wealden
age.

Fig. 64. Geologic section of the Piltdown gravel bed, showing in restored outlines at the

bottom of layer 3 the position in which the fragments of the skull

and jaw were found. After Dawson.

ough search in the bottom of the gravel bed itself revealed the
right half of a jaw, which was found in a depression of undis-
turbed, finely stratified gravel, so far as could be judged on the
spot identical with that from which the first portions of the
cranium were exhumed. A yard from the jaw an important
piece of the occipital bone of the skull was found. Search was
renewed in 1913 by Father P. Teilhard, of Chardin, a French
anthropologist, who fortunately recovered a single canine tooth,
and later a pair of nasal bones were found, all of which frag-

134

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

merits are of very great significance in the restoration of the
skull.

The jaw appears to have been broken at the symphysis, and
somewhat abraded, perhaps after being caught in the gravel
before it was completely covered with sand. The fragments of
the cranium show little or no signs of stream rolling or other
abrasion save an incision caused by the workman's pick.

Analysis of the bones showed that the skull was in a condi-
tion of fossilization, no gelatine or organic matter remained, and

Fig. 65. The single worked flint of very primitive type found in the same layer (3) with
the fragments of the Piltdown skull. After Dawson. One-half actual size.

mingled with a large proportion of the phosphates, originally
present, was a considerable proportion of iron.*

The dark gravel bed (Fig. 64, layer 3), 18 inches in thickness,
at the bottom of which the skull and jaw were found, contained
a number of fossils which manifestly were not of the same age as
the skull but were certainly from Pliocene deposits up-stream;
these included the water-vole and remains of the mastodon, the
southern mammoth, the hippopotamus, and a fragment of the
grinding-tooth of a primitive elephant, resembling Stegodon. In
the spoil-heaps, from which it is believed the skull of the Pilt-
down man was taken, were found an upper tooth of a rhinoceros,
either of the Etruscan or of Merck's type ; the tooth of a beaver
and of a hippopotamus, and the leg-bone of a deer, which may
have been cut or incised by man. Much more distinctive was a

* The original paper describing this remarkable discovery was read before the Geo-
logical Society of London, December, 191 2, and published as a separate pamphlet in
Man h, [913. A discussion as to the geologic age by Kennard, Clement Reid, and others
was held at the time of the reading of the original paper.

THE PILTDOWN RACE

135

single flint (Fig. 65), worked only on one side, of the very primi-
tive or Pre-Chellean type. Implements of this stage, as the au-
thor observes, are difficult to classify with certainty, owing to the
rudeness of their workmanship ; they resemble certain rude im-
plements occasionally found on the surface of the chalk downs
near Piltdown. The majority of the flints found in the gravel
were worked only on one face ; their
form is thick, and the flaking is
broad and sparing; the original sur-
face of the flint is left in a smooth,
natural condition at the point
grasped by the hand; the whole
implement thus has a very rude
and massive form. These flints ap-
pear to be of even more primitive
form than those at St. Acheul
described as Pre-Chellean by Com-
mont.

The eoliths found in the gravel-
pit and in the adjacent fields are
of the ' borer' and 'hollow-scraper'
forms; also, some are of the
6 crescent-shaped-scraper' type, mostly rolled and water-worn, as
if transported from a distance. This is a stream or river bed,
not a Palaeolithic quarry.

There can be little doubt, however, that the Piltdown man
belonged to a period when the flint industry was in a very primi-
tive stage, antecedent to the true Chellean. It has subsequently
been observed that the gravel strata (3) containing the Pilt-
down man were deeper than the higher stratum containing flints
nearer the Chellean type.

The discovery of this skull aroused interest as great as or
even greater than that attending the discovery of the two other
' river-drift ' races, the Trinil and the Heidelberg. In this dis-
cussion the most distinguished anatomists of Great Britain,
Arthur Smith Woodward, Elliot Smith, and Arthur Keith, took

Fig. 66. Eoliths found in or near the
Piltdown gravel-pit. After Dawson.
One-half actual size.

a. Borer (above).

b. Curved scraper (below).

136

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

part, and finally the original pieces were re-examined by three
anatomists of this country.*

It is important to present in full the original opinions of
Smith Woodward, who devoted most careful study to the first

reconstruction of the skull (Fig.
67), a model which was subse-
quently modified by the actual
discovery of one of the canine
teeth. In his original descrip-
tion it is observed that the
pieces of the skull preserved
are noteworthy for the great
thickness of the bone, it being
n to 12 mm. as compared with
5 to 6 mm., the average thick-
ness in the modern European
skull, or 6 to 8 mm., the thick-
ness in the skull of the Neander-
thal races and in that of the
modern Australian; the cepha-
lic index is estimated at 78 or
79, that is, the skull is believed
to have been proportionately
low and wide, almost brachy-
cephalic ; there was apparently
no prominent or thickened ridge
above the orbits, a feature
which immediately distin-
guishes this skull from that of
the Neanderthal races ; the sev-
eral bones of the brain-case are typically human and not in the
least like those of the anthropoid apes ; the brain capacity was
originally estimated at 1070 c.cm., not equalling that of some of
the lowest brain types in the existing Australian races and de-

* By the author of this work, and also by Professor J. Howard McGregor of Columbia
University and Doctor William K. Gregory of Columbia University and of the American
Museum of Natural History.

MHV-

Fig. 67. Skull of South /\frican Bushman
(upper) exhibiting the contrast in the
structure of the jaw and forehead. One-
quarter life size. Original restoration
of the Piltdown skull (lower) made by
Smith Woodward in 19 13. One-quarter
life size.

THE PILTDOWN RACE

137

cidedly below that of the Neanderthal man of Spy and La
Chapelle-aux-Saints ; the nasal bones are typically human but
relatively small and broad, so that the nose was flattened, re-
sembling that in some of the existing Malay and African races.

Fig. 68. Three views of the Piltdown skull as reconstructed by J. H. McGregor,
19 14. This restoration includes the nasal bones and canine tooth, which were
not known at the time of Smith Woodward's reconstruction of 1913. One-
quarter life size.

The jaw presents profoundly different characters ; the whole
of the bone preserved closely resembles that of a young chim-
panzee ; thus the slope of the bony chin as restored is between
that of an adult ape and that of the Heidelberg man, with an
extremely receding chin ; the ascending portion of the jaw for
the attachment of the temporal muscles is broad and thickened

138 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

anteriorly. Associated with the jaw were two elongated molar
teeth, worn down by use to such an extent that the individual
could not have been less than thirty years of age and was prob-
ably older. These teeth are relatively longer and narrower than
those in the modern human jaw. The canine tooth, identified
by Smith Woodward as belonging in the lower jaw, strength-
ened by the evidence afforded by the jaw itself, proves that the
face was elongate or prognathous and that the canine teeth were
very prominent like those of the anthropoid apes; it affords
definite proof that the front teeth of the Piltdown man resembled
those of the ape.

The author's conclusion is that while the skull is essentially
human, it approaches the lower races of man in certain char-
acters of the brain, in the attachment of the muscles of the
neck, in the large extent of the temporal muscles attached to
the jaw, and in the probably large size of the face. The man-
dible, on the other hand, appears precisely like that of the ape,
with nothing human except the molar teeth, and even these ap-
proach the dentition of the apes in their elongate shape and well-
developed fifth or posterior intermediate cusp. This type of man,
distinguished by the smooth forehead and supraorbital borders
and ape-like jaw, represents a new genus called Eoanthropus, or
'dawn man,' while the species has been named dawsoni in honor
of the discoverer, Charles Dawson. This very ancient type of
man is defined by the ape-like chin and junction of the two halves
of the jaw, by a series of parallel grinding-teeth, with narrow lower
molar teeth, which do not diminish in size backward, and by the
steep forehead and slight development of the brow ridges. The
jaw manifestly differs from that of the Heidelberg man in its
comparative slenderness and relative deepening toward the
symphysis.

The discussion of this very important paper by Smith Wood-
ward and Dawson centred about two points. First, whether the
ape-like jaw really belonged with the human skull rather than
with that of some anthropoid ape which happened to be drifted
down in the same stratum; and second, whether the extremely

THE PILTDOWN RACE 139

low original estimate of the brain capacity of 1070 c.cm., was not
due to incorrect adjustment or reconstruction of the separate
pieces of the skull.

Keith,19 the leader in the criticism of Woodward's reconstruc-
tion, maintained that when the two sides of the skull were properly
restored and made approximately symmetrical, the brain capacity
would be found to equal 1500 c.cm. ; the brain cast of the skull
even as originally reconstructed was found to be close to 1200 c.cm.
This author agreed that skull, jaw, and canine tooth belonged to
Eoanthropus but that they could not well belong to the same
individual.

In defense of Woodward's reconstruction came the powerful
support of Elliot Smith.20 He maintained that the evidence af-
forded by the re-examination of the bones corroborated in the
main Smith Woodward's identification of the median plane of
the skull ; further, that the original reconstruction of the prog-
nathous face was confirmed by the discovery of the canine tooth,
also that there remained no doubt that the association of the
skull, the jaw, and the canine tooth was a correct one. The back
portion of the skull is decidedly asymmetrical, a condition found
both in the lower and higher races of man. A slight rearrange-
ment and widening of the bones along the median upper line of
the skull raise the estimate of the brain capacity to 1100 c.cm.
as the probable maximum.

Elliot Smith continued that he considered the brain to be of
a more primitive kind than any human brain that he had ever
seen, yet that it could be called human and that it already showed
a considerable development of those parts which in modern man
we associate with the power of speech ; thus, there was no doubt
of the unique importance of this skull as representing an entirely
new type of "man in the making." As regards the form of the
lower jaw, it was observed that in the dawn of human existence
teeth suitable for weapons of offense and defense were retained
long after the brain had attained its human status. Thus the
ape-like form of the chin does not signify inability to speak, for
speech must have come when the jaws were still ape-like in char-

140

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

acter, and the bony changes that produced the recession of the
tooth line and the form of the chin were mainly due to sexual

selection, to the reduction in
the size of the grinding- teeth,
and, in a minor degree, to the
growth and specialization of
the muscles of the jaw and
tongue employed in speech.

At first sight the brain-case
resembles that of the Ne-
anderthal skull found at Gib-
raltar, which is supposed to be
that of a woman; it is rela-
tively long, narrow, and es-
pecially flat, but it is smaller
and presents more primitive
features than those of any
known human brain. Taking
all these features into consideration, we must regard this as
being the most primitive and most ape-like human brain so far

^ ^ ~ *" ~)Ao d em (Hom^ ^ ^
,ovon

Fig. 69. The Piltdown skull with the right
half removed to display the extreme thick-
ness of the bones and the shape of the
brain. As restored by J. H. McGregor.
One-quarter life size.

Fig. 70. Outline of the left side of the Piltdown brain, compared with similar brain out-
lines ol a chimpanzee and of a high type of modem man. One-half life size.

THE PILTDOWN RACE 141

recorded; one such as might reasonably be associated with a
jaw which presented such distinctive ape characters. The brain,
however, is far more human than the jaw, from which we may
infer that the evolution of the brain preceded that of the man-
dible, as well as the development of beauty of the face and the
human development of the bodily characters in general.

The latest opinion of Smith Woodward* is that the brain,
while the most primitive which has been discovered, had a bulk
of nearly 1300 c.cm., equalling that of the smaller human brains
of to-day and surpassing that of the Australians, which rarely
exceeds 1250 c.cm.

The original views of Smith Woodward and of Elliot Smith
regarding the relation of the Piltdown race to the Heidelberg and
Neanderthal races are also of very great interest and may be
cited. First, the fact that the Piltdown and Heidelberg races
are almost of the same geologic age proves that at the end of the
Pliocene Epoch the representatives of man in western Europe had
already branched into widely divergent groups: the one (Heidel-
berg-Neanderthal) characterized by a very low projecting fore-
head, with a subhuman head of Neanderthaloid contour; the
other with a flattened forehead and with an ape-like jaw of the
Piltdown contour. We should not forget that in the Piltdown
skull the absence of prominent ridges above the eyes may possi-
bly be due in some degree to the fact that the type skull may
belong to a female, as suggested by certain characters of the jaw ;
but among all existing apes the skull in early life has the rounded
shape of the Piltdown skull, with a high forehead and scarcely
any brow ridges. It seems reasonable, therefore, to interpret the
Piltdown skull as exhibiting a closer resemblance to the skulls of
our human ancestors in mid-Tertiary times than any fossil skull
hitherto found. If this view be accepted, we may suppose that
the Piltdown type became gradually modified into the Neander-
thal type by a series of changes similar to those passed through
by the early apes as they evolved into typical modern apes, with
their low brows and prominent ridges above the eyes. This

* Guide to the Fossil Remains of Man, 191 5.1.

142

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

would tend to support the theory that the Neanderthal men were
degenerate offshoots of the Tertiary race, of which the Piltdown
skull provides the first discovered evidence — a race with a simple,
flattened forehead and developed eye ridges.

Elliot Smith concluded that members of the Piltdown race
might well have been the direct ancestors of the existing species

Fig. 71. Restoration of the head of Piltdown man, in profile, based upon the

reconstruction shown in Fig. 68, p. 137. After model by

J. H. McGregor. One-quarter life size.

of man {Homo sapiens), thus affording a direct link with undis-
covered Tertiary apes; whereas, the more recent fossil men of
the Neanderthal type, with prominent brow ridges resembling
those of the existing apes, may have belonged to a degenerate
race which later became extinct. According to this view, Eoan-
thropus represents a persistent and very slightly modified de-
scendant of the type of Tertiary man which was the common

THE PILTDOWN RACE

143

ancestor of a branch giving rise to Homo sapiens, on the one
hand, and of another branch giving rise to Homo neandertha-
lensis, on the other.

Another theory as to the relationships of Eoanthropus is that
of Marcelin Boule,21 who is inclined to regard the jaws of the
Piltdown and Heidelberg races as of similar geologic age, but of

r\

Fig. 72. Restoration of the head of Piltdown man, full front, after model by
J. H. McGregor. One-quarter life size. (Compare Figs. 68 and 71.)

dissimilar racial type. He continues: "If the skull and jaw of
Piltdown belong to the same individual, and if the mandibles of
the Heidelberg and Piltdown men are of the same type, this dis-
covery is most valuable in establishing the cranial structure of
the Heidelberg race. But it appears rather that we have here
two types of man which lived in Chellean times, both distinguished
by very low cranial characters. Of these the Piltdown race seems

144 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

to us the probable ancestor in the direct line of the recent species
of man, Homo sapiens; while the Heidelberg race may be con-
sidered, until we have further knowledge, as a possible precursor
of Homo neanderthalensis."

The latest opinion of the German anatomist Schwalbe22 is
that the proper restoration of the region of the chin in the Pilt-
down man might make it possible to refer this jaw to Homo
sapiens, but this would merely prove that Homo sapiens already
existed in early Pleistocene times. The skull of the Piltdown man,
continues Schwalbe, corresponds with that of a well-developed,
good-sized skull of Homo sapiens ; the only unusual feature is the
remarkable thickness of the bone.*

Finally, our own opinion is that the Piltdown race is not an-
cestral to either the Heidelbergs or the Neanderthals. Very re-
cently f the jaw of the Piltdown man has been restudied and
referred by more than one expert to a fully adult chimpanzee.
This leaves us still in doubt as to the exact geologic age and
relationships of the Piltdown man (see Appendix, Note IX),
whom we are still inclined to regard as a side branch of the
human family as shown in the family tree on p. 491.

Mammalian Life of Chellean and Acheulean Times23

The mammalian life which we find with the more advanced
implements of Chellean times apparently does not include the
old Pliocene mammals, such as the Etruscan rhinoceros and the
sab re- tooth tiger. With this exception it is so similar to that
of Second Interglacial times that it may serve to prove again
that the third glaciation was a local episode and not a wide-spread
climatic influence. This life is everywhere the same, from the

* The reconstruction (Fig. 68) of the Piltdown skull made by Professor J. H. Mc-
Gregor has a cranial capacity of about 1300 c.cm. The brain (Fig. 70) is seen to be very
narrow and low in the prefrontal area, the seat of the higher mental faculties. In the re-
construction the cranial region is in the main very like the second restoration by Doctor
Smith Woodward, but the jaws differ in some respects. The tooth hitherto regarded as
a right lower canine is now placed as the left upper canine, in accord with the con-
clusions of the author of this work and of Doctors Matthew and Gregory of the Ameri-
can Museum of Natural History.

f See Appendix, Note IX, p. 512.

Pl. IV. The Piltdown man of Sussex, England. Antiquity variously estimated at
100,000 to 300,000 years. The ape-like structure of the jaw does not prevent the
expression of a considerable degree of intelligence in the face. After the restora-
tion modelled by J. H. McGregor.

MAMMALIAN LIFE 147

valley of the Thames, as witnessed in the low river-gravels of
Gray's Thurrock and Ilford, to the region of the present Thu-

ringian forests near Weimar, where it
Southern mammoth. is found m the deposits 0f Taubach,

Kfc-Sd elephant. Ehringsdorf , and Achenheim, in which
Broad-nosed rhinoceros. the mammals belong to the more recent
Spotted hyaena. date of early Acheulean culture. The

^!on" . „ . Hfe of this great region during Chellean

Bison and wild ox. ° .

Red deer. ano- early Acheulean times was a min-

Roe-deer. ghng of the characteristic forest and

Giant deer. meadow fauna of western Europe with

xJ°iTn ear* the descendants of the African- Asia tic

Wolf.

Badger. invaders of late Pliocene and early

Marten. Pleistocene times.

Otter. The forests were full of the red deer

Hamster (Cervus elaphus), of the roe-deer (C cap-

Water-vole. reolus) , and of the giant deer (Megaceros) ,

also of a primitive species of wild boar
(Sus scrofa ferus) and of wild horses probably representing more
than one variety. The brown bear (Ursus arctos) of Europe is
now for the first time identified ; there was also a primitive species
of wolf (Cards suessi).

The small carnivora of the forests and of the streams are all
considered as closely related to existing species, namely, the
badger (Meles taxus), the marten (Mustela martes), the otter
(Lutra vulgaris) , and the water-vole (Arvicola amphibius). The
prehistoric beaver of Europe (Castor fiber) now replaces the giant
beaver (Trogontherium) of Second Interglacial times.

Among the large carnivora, the lion (Felis leo andqua) and the
spotted hyaena (H. crocuta) have replaced the sabre-tooth tiger
and the striped hyaena of early Pleistocene times. Four great
Asiatic mammals, including two species of elephants, one species
of rhinoceros, and the hippopotamus, roamed through the forests
and meadows of this warm temperate region. The horse of this
period is considered24 to belong to the Forest or Nordic type,
from which our modern draught-horses have descended. The

148 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

lions and hyaenas which abounded in Chellean and early Acheulean
times are in part ancestors of the cave types which appear in the
succeeding Reindeer or Cavern Period. In general, this mam-
malian life of Chellean and early xAcheulean times in Europe fre-
quented the river shores and the neighboring forests and meadows
favored by a warm temperate climate with mild winters, such as
is indicated by the presence of the fig-tree and of the Canary
laurel in the region of north central France near Paris.

Undoubtedly the Chellean and Acheulean hunters had begun
the chase both of the bison, or wisent {B. prisons) , and of the wild
cattle, or aurochs.*

This warm temperate mammalian life spread very widely
over northern Europe, as shown especially in the distribution
(Fig. 44) of the hippopotamus, the straight-tusked elephant, and
Merck's rhinoceros. The latter pair were constant companions
and are seen to have a closely similar and somewhat more north-
erly range than the hippopotamus, which is rather the climatic
companion of the southern mammoth and ranges farther south.
These animals in the gravel and sand layers along the river slopes
and 'terraces' mingled their remains with the artifacts of the
flint workers. For example, in the gravel 'terraces' of the
Somme we find the bones of the straight-tusked elephant and
Merck's rhinoceros in the same sand layers with the Chellean
flints. Thus the men of Chellean times may well have pursued
this giant elephant (£. antiquus) and rhinoceros (D. merckii) as
their tribal successors in the same valley hunted the woolly mam-
moth and woolly rhinoceros.

Distribution of the Chellean Implements

All over the world may be found traces of a Stone Age, ancient
or modern, primitive implements of stone and flint analogous to

* The early Teutonic designation of these animals was as follows: bison, 'wisent,'
wild ox, 'auerochs,' 'urochs' (the 'urus' of Caesar). The urus survived in Germany as
late as the seventeenth century, while a few of the bison or ' wisent' survive to the present
time. The bison was distinctively a short-headed animal, while its contemporary, the
urus, was long-headed and less agile. At Diirnten. near Zurich, remains of the urus are
found associated with those of the hardy, straight-tusked elephant and of Merck's rhinoc-
eros. (See Appendix, Note IV.)

CHELLEAN INDUSTRY

149

those of the true Chellean period of western Europe but not
really identical when very closely compared. These represent
the early attempts of the human hand, directed by the primitive
mind, to fashion hard materials into forms adapted to the pur-
poses of war, the chase, and domestic life. The result is a series

Fig. 73. Distribution of the principal Pre-Chellean and Chellean industrial stations in

western Europe.

of parallels in form which come under the evolution principle of
convergence. Thus, in all the continents except Australia — in
Europe, in Asia, and even in North and South America — primi-
tive races have passed through an industrial stage similar to the
typical Chellean of western Europe. This we should rather at-
tribute to a similarity in human invention and in human needs
than to the theory that the Chellean industry originated at some
particular centre and travelled in a slowly enlarging wave over
the entire world.

150

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

In western Europe the Chellean culture certainly had a de-
velopment all its own, adapted to a race of bold hunters who
lived in the open and whose entire industry developed around the
products of the chase. For them flint and quartzite took the
place of bronze, iron, or steel. This culture marked a distinct
and probably a very long epoch of time in which inventions and
multiplications of form were gradually spread from tribe to tribe,

Old Frevtlle Quarry
1883-1907

Old TelUer Quarry

prd

Chauss'ee Perta
45-

Upper Palceohthic
~ — and Neolithic

^Mousierian ?

Early Mousterian ?
ate Acheulean*
Early AcUeulean and Late Ache ulean

Chellean
KPrechellean and Chellean

Fig. 74. Section of the middle and high terraces at St. Acheul, from southwest to north-
east. After Commont, 1908, 1909, modified and redrawn. The Pre-Chellean workers
first established themselves here at the time when the Somme was visited by the straight-
tusked elephant and other primitive mammals of the warm African-Asiatic fauna.
(Compare Fig. 59, p. 122.)

exactly as modern inventions, usually originating at a single point
and often in the mind of one ingenious individual, gradually spread
over the world.

The clearest examples of the evolution of the seven or eight
implements of the Chellean culture from the five or six rudimen-
tary types of the Pre-Chellean have been found at St. Acheul
by Commont. The abundance and variety of flint at this great
station on the Somme made it a centre of industry from the dawn
of the Old Stone Age to its very close. It was probably a region
favorable to all kinds of large and small game. The researches
of Commont show that with the exception of Castillo in northern
Spain no other station in all Europe was so continuously occupiedc

CHELLEAN INDUSTRY

151

From Pre-Chellean to Neolithic times the men of every culture
stage except the Magdalenian and Azilian-Tardenoisian found
their way here, and thus the site of St. Acheul presents an epit-
ome of the entire prehistoric industry. Even during the colder
periods of climate this region continued to be visited — possibly
during the warm weather of the summer seasons. At Montieres,
along the Somme, we find deposits of Mousterian culture which

Fig. 75. Excavation on the 'high terrace' at St. Acheul, known as the ancicnnc carricre
Dupont and more recently as the carriere Bultel, showing eight geologic layers from the
Upper Palaeolithic deposits of brick-earth at the top (9) down to the sub-Chellean
yellow gravels (2) overlying the chalk terrace at the bottom.

is generally characteristic of the cold climatic period but is here
associated with a temperate fauna, including the hippopotamus,
Merck's rhinoceros, and the straight-tusked elephant. Great
geographic and climatic changes took place in the valley of the
Somme during this long period of human evolution. The Pre-
Chellean workers first established their industry on the middle
and high ' terraces' at the time when the Somme was visited
by the straight-tusked elephant and other much more primitive
mammals of the warm Asiatic fauna. The early Acheulean
camps on the same terraces were pitched in the gravels be-
low layers of 'loess' which betoken an entire climatic change.
The fourth glaciation passed by, and the Upper Palaeolithic flint

152 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

workers again returned and left the debris of their industry in
the layers of loam which swept down the slopes of the valley
from the surrounding hills. This succession will be studied more
in detail in connection with the industry.

As contrasted with the four or more Pre-Chellean stations
already known, namely, St. Acheul, Montieres, Helin, Gray's
Thurrock, and possibly Abbeville and Piltdown, there are at
least sixteen stations in western Europe which are characteristi-
cally Chellean. In addition to the sites named above, all of
which show deposits of typical Chellean implements above the
Pre-Chellean, we may note the important Chellean stations of
San Isidro and Torralba in central Spain ; Tilloux and Marignac
in southwestern France ; Creteil, Colombes, Bois Colombes, and
Billancourt on the Seine, in the immediate vicinity of Paris;
Cergy on the Oise ; the type station of Chelles on the Marne ;
Abbeville on the northern bank of the Somme ; and the famous
station of Kent's Hole, Devon, on the southwestern coast of Eng-
land. Thus far no typical Chellean station has been discovered
in Portugal, Italy, Germany, or Austria, nor, indeed, in any part
of central Europe. This leaves the original habitat of the tribes
that brought the Chellean culture to western Europe still a mys-
tery ; but, as already observed, the location of the stations favors
the theory of a migration through northern Africa rather than
through eastern Europe.

Compared with the Pre-Chellean flint workers the Chellean
artisans advanced both by the improvement of the older types of
implements and by the invention of new ones.25 As observed by
Obermaier, the flint worker is still dependent on the chance shape
of the shattered fragments of flint which he has not yet learned
to shape symmetrically. In the experimental search after the
most useful form of flint which could be grasped by the hand, the
very characteristic Chellean coup de poing was evolved out of its
Pre-Chellean prototype. This implement was made of an elon-
gate nodule, either of quartzite or, preferably, of flint, and flaked
by the hammer on both sides to a more or less almond shape ;
as a rule, the point and its adjacent edges are sharpened; the

Fig. 76. Principal forms of small, late Chellean scraping, planing, and boring tools of
flint, after Commont and Obermaier. One-half actual size. 1. Combination tool — small
flake with a sharp point (a), cutting edge (b), and curved-in scraper (c). 2. Cutting tool
with protective retouch for the index finger on the upper edge (a), and a sharp cutting
edge (b). 3. Primitive knife. 4. 'Point.' 5. Combination tool — small flake with
scraper edge (b), and two curved-in scraper edges (a and ai). 6. Borer. 7. Pointed
scraper. 8. Knife with coarse boring point at one end. 9. Thick scraper or planing
tool. 10. Curved scraper.

154 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

other end being rounded and blunted. Like most, if not all,
of the Chellean implements, it was designed to be grasped by
the bare hand and not furnished with a wooden haft or handle.
It is not impossible that some of the pointed forms may have
been wedged into a wooden handle, but there is no proof of it.
In size the coup de poing varies from 4 to 8 inches in length, and
examples have been found as large as g}4 inches. That it served
a variety of purposes is indicated by the existence of four well-
defined, different forms : first, a primitive, almond-shaped form ;
second, an ovaloid form; third, a disk form; and fourth, a pointed
form resembling a lance-head. De Mortillet26 speaks of it as the
only tool of the Chellean tribes, but in its various forms it served
all the purposes of axe, saw, chisel, and awl, and was in truth a
combination tool. Capitan27 also holds that the coup de poing
is not a single tool but is designed to meet many various needs.
The primitive almond and ovaloid forms were designed for use
along the edges, either for heavy hacking or for sawing ; the disk
forms may have been used as axes or as sling-stones ; the more
rounded forms would serve as knives and scrapers; while the
pointed, lance-shaped forms might be used as daggers, both in
war and in the chase.

The Chellean flint workers also developed especially a num-
ber of small, pointed forms from the accidentally shaped frag-
ments of flint, showing both short and long points carefully flaked
and chipped. Thus, out of the small types of the Pre- Chellean
there evolved a great variety of tools adapted to domestic pur-
poses, to war, and to the chase.

Chellean Geography in England and France

The type station of the Chellean culture is somewhat east of
the present town of Chelles. Here in Chellean times the broad
floods of the ancient River Marne were transporting great quanti-
ties of sand and debris, products of the early pluvial periods of
Third Interglacial times; and here, on the right bank, embedded in
sands and gravels 24 feet thick, are found the typical Chellean

CHELLEAN GEOGRAPHY 155

implements mingled with remains of the hippopotamus, straight-
tusked elephant, Merck's rhinoceros, giant beaver, hyaena, and
many members of the Asiatic forest and meadow fauna.

The flint-working stations at St. Acheul were on bluffs from
40 to 80 feet above the present level of the Somme. The Chel-
lean and the following Acheulean industry was carried on here on
a very extensive scale. In one year Rigollot collected as many as
800 coups de poing from the ancient quarries ; near by are other
quarries equally rich in material, and we may imagine that the
products of the flint industry in this favorable locality were car-
ried far and wide into other parts of the country.

In the vicinity of Paris, and again at Arcy, in the valley of the
Bievre, the workers of Chellean, Acheulean, and Mousterian flints
sought in succession the old river-gravels belonging to the lower
levels; these 'low terraces' are only 15 feet above the present
height of the river and are still occasionally flooded by the high
waters of the Seine, indicating that the Seine borders have not
altered their levels. The animal life here was identical with that
of the Somme and of the Thames and included the hippopotamus,
Merck's rhinoceros, and the straight- tusked elephant.

Thus it would appear that, in regard to the river courses and
the hills through which they flowed, the topography and land-
scape of northern France and of southern Britain were everywhere
the same as at the present time. The forests which clothed the
hills were not greatly different from the present, except for the
presence of a few trees of a warmer clime, nor was there anything
strange or unfamiliar in the majority of the animals that roamed
through forest and meadow. The three chief archaic elements
consisted in the presence of two very ancient races of men and
their rude stage of culture, in the great forms of Asiatic and
African life which mingled with the more familiar native types,
and in the broad, continuous land surfaces which swept off un-
broken to the west and southwest.

For in those days Europe, though even then little more than
a great peninsula, extended far beyond its present limits. Eng-
land and Ireland were still part of the mainland, and great rivers

156 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

flowed through the broad valleys that are now the Irish Sea, the
North Sea, and the English Channel — rivers that counted the
Seine, the Thames, the Garonne, and even the Rhine, as mere
tributaries. The Strait of Gibraltar was then the Isthmus of
Gibraltar — a narrow land bridge connecting Europe with Africa.
The Mediterranean was then an inland lake, or rather two inland
lakes, for Italy and Sicily stretched out in a broad, irregular mass
to join the northern coast of Africa, while Corsica and Sardinia
formed a long peninsula extending from the Italian mainland and
almost, if not quite, reaching to the African coast.

The Thames Valley in Chellean Times

The interpretation of the features of stratification in the
valley of the Somme is especially interesting because it gives us
a key to the understanding of a similar sequence of prehistoric
events in the valley of the Thames.

The station of Gray's Thurrock in this valley is barely 120
miles distant from the Chellean station of Abbeville, in the val-
ley of the Somme, and it is apparent that the old flint workers
were freely passing across the broad intervening country and in-
terchanging their ideas and inventions. Thus it happened that
Chellean implements identical with, or closely related to, the
types of the Somme valley were being fashioned all over southern
Britain from the Thames to the Ouse. The ancient River Thames
(Lyell,28 Geikie29) was then flowing over a bed of boulder-clays
which had been deposited during the preceding glaciations. Its
broad, swift stream was bringing down great deposits of ochreous
gravels and of sands interstratified with loams and clays. It is
these old true river-gravels which display their greatest thickness
on the lowest levels of the Thames and which are largely made up
of well-bedded and distinctly water-worn materials. On these
low levels the flint workers sought their materials, and here they
left behind them the archaic Chellean implements which are now
found embedded in these older river-gravels, just as they occur in
the gravels washed down over the three terraces of the Somme and
the Marne. In the Thames this old gravel wash seems to have

CHELLEAN GEOGRAPHY 157

been down-stream, whereas on the middle and upper terraces of
the Somme the gravel wash came directly down the sides of the
valley, except, perhaps, in very high floods. These deep beds of
gravel, sand, and loam lie for the most part above the present
overflow plain of the Thames, although in some places they de-
scend below it; which proves that the main landscape of the
Thames also, except for the changes of the flora and of animal
life, was the same in Pre-Chellean and Chellean times as it is at
present. Thus the Somme, the Thames, and the Seine had all
worn their channels to the present or even to lower levels when
the Pre-Chellean hunters appeared. Since Chellean times all
three rivers have silted up their channels.

The changes along the Thames which have since occurred are
in the superficial layers brought down from the sides of the valley
which have softened the contours of the old terraces and have
also entombed the later phases of the valley's prehistory.

Sections on the south bank at Ilford, Kent, and on the north
bank at Gray's Thurrock, Essex, confirm this view. At the
latter station, in low-lying strata of brick-earth, loam, and gravel,
such as would be formed by the silting up of the bottom of an
old river channel, are found the remains of the straight-tusked
elephant, broad-nosed rhinoceros, and hippopotamus. All the
discoveries of recent years lead to the conclusion that the old flu-
viatile gravels which contain these ancient mammals and flints
are restricted to the lower levels of the Thames valley, while the
high level gravels and loams are of later date. Old Chellean flints
also occur occasionally on the higher levels, but here it would seem
that they have been washed down from the old land surfaces
above, because they are found mingled with flints of the late
Acheulean and early Mousterian industry.

England in Early Paleolithic Times

It is on the higher levels of the Thames, as of the Somme, and
in the superficial deposits covering the sides of the valley that we
read the story of the subsequent Palaeolithic cultures and of an
early warm temperate climate being followed by a cold climate

158 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

with frozen subsoil belonging to the fourth glaciation and the
contemporary Mousterian flint industry. The Palaeolithic his-
tory of the Thames30 has not yet been fully interpreted, but it
would appear that the relics of the old stations of Kent and Nor-
folk will yield all the forms of Chellean and Acheulean imple-
ments, and probably also those of the Mousterian which have
been discovered in the valley of the Somme, thus proving that
the Lower Palaeolithic races of this region pursued the same cul-
ture development as the neighboring tribes of France and Bel-
gium, as well as those of Spain, up to the close of middle Acheulean
times.

A similar sequence of events appears to be indicated at Hoxne,
Suffolk, where archaic palaeoliths were discovered as far back as
1797. This discovery was neglected for upward of sixty years,
until in 1859 these flints were re-examined by Prestwich and
Evans after their visit to the stations of the Somme (Geikie,31
Avebury32). This site was in the hollow of a surface of boulder-
clay, overlain by the deposit of a fresh- water stream ; in the bed
of its narrow channel, besides flint implements of early Acheulean
type, abundant plant remains were found which give us an inter-
esting vision of the flora of the time.

These plants are decidedly characteristic of a temperate cli-
mate, including such trees as the oak, yew, and fir, and mostly of
species which are still found in the forests of the same region.
This life gave place, as indicated in plant deposits of a higher
level, to an arctic flora, probably corresponding with the tundra
climate of Mousterian times, the period of the fourth glaciation.
Above these are found again layers of plants and of mollusks
which point to the return of a temperate climate.

Spread of the Acheulean Industry

It is noteworthy that not a single ' river-drift,' Pre-Chellean
or Chellean, station has been found in Germany or Switzerland,
or, in fact, in all central Europe in the region lying between the
Alpine and Scandinavian glaciers. Either this region was un-

PALAEOLITHIC STATIONS OF GERMANY 159

favorable to human habitation or the remains of the stations
have been buried or washed away.

It is significant that the earliest proof of human migration into
this region, whether from the east or from the west we do not
certainly know, is coincident with the dry climate of Acheulean
times. The ' loess' conditions of climate seem to be coincident
with the earliest Acheulean stations in Germany, such as Sablon.
'Loess' deposition is by no means a proof of a cold climate but
rather of an arid one, especially in regions where areas of finely
eroded soil were liable to be raised by the wind ; such areas were
found over the whole recently glaciated country north of the Alps
and south of the Scandinavian peninsula.

The Palaeolithic discovery sites of Germany are principally
grouped in three regions33 as follows :

To the south, along the headwaters of the Rhine and the
Danube, among the limestones of Swabia and the Jura were
formed the caverns sought by early Mousterian man. To the
west of these were many older stations in the 'loess' deposits of
the upper Rhine, between the mountain ridges of the Vosges and
the Black Forest, and still nearer the sources of the Rhine, ex-
tending over the border into Switzerland, are a number of famous
cave sites in the valleys cut by the Rhine and its tributaries
through the white Jurassic limestone. To the west is the group
of the middle Rhine and of Westphalia, which includes the open
Acheulean camps in the 'loess' deposits above the river and a
number of cavern stations. To the north is the scattered group
of stations, both of Acheulean and Mousterian times, of north
Germany. Here the sites are few and far between. The open-
country camps were established chiefly in the valley of the Ilm
and near the caves of the Harz Mountains, in the neighborhood
of Gera. No discoveries of certain date or unquestioned authen-
ticity are reported from eastern Germany.

Along the upper Rhine the flint workers of Acheulean times
established their ancient camps mostly in the open on the broad
sheets of the 'lower loess,' which, constantly drifted by the
wind, covered and preserved the stations. These stations are

• PALAEOLITHIC STATIONS

O CITIES OF MODERN GERMANY

Fig. 77. Flint working stations of the Men of the Old Stone Age along the waters of the
Ilm, the Rhine, and the Danube, from Acheulean to Azilian times. After R. R. Schmidt,
modified and redrawn. These Palaeolithic sites of Germany lie between the terminal
moraines of the successive glacial advances of the Second, Third, and Fourth (II, III, IV)
Glacial Stages, extending from the borders of the Scandinavian ice-fields on the north
to those of the Alpine ice-fields on the south. The dotted surface represents the area
covered by the drift of the Fourth Glacial Stage.

ACHEULEAN INDUSTRY 161

widely scattered, but they were frequented from earliest Acheu-
lean times, and the region was revisited to the very close of the
Upper Palaeolithic.

Early in Acheulean times the important 'loess' station of
Achenheim was established. This is a most famous locality and
is of especial importance because it is the only station in Ger-
many which was continuously frequented from late Acheulean
times throughout the Lower Palaeolithic and into the beginning of
the Upper Palaeolithic ; here the ' older loess ' of the Third Inter-
glacial Stage yields a typical Acheulean industry.

Thus far the region of the middle Rhine and of Westphalia
has not shown any evidence of Acheulean culture. The north
German stations, however, were entered in Acheulean times, and
the principal open stations of this region lie along the valley of
the Ilm. Here, at Taubach, Ehringsdorf, and Weimar, we find
implements of typical Acheulean form belonging to the early
warm temperate Acheulean period. The stations of the Ilm val-
ley southwest of Leipsic are also of great importance because of
the rich record which they contain of the warm temperate animal
life of early Acheulean times ; the flint culture is typically Acheu-
lean, and the climatic conditions are read both in the travertines
and in the subsequent deposits of the 'lower loess/ which be-
long to the cold dry period of late Acheulean times. Here lin-
gered the straight-tusked elephant and Merck's rhinoceros, con-
temporary with the workers of the Acheulean flints.

It will be observed that in Germany the early Acheulean was
a warm period which in certain regions was also arid and subject
to great dust-storms. At this time the camps were for the most
part in the open country. In the late period, also arid and sub-
ject to high winds but with a cooler climate, the flint workers
continued to frequent the open Acheulean stations in the 'loess.'
If there were shelter and cavern stations in this region, they have
not as yet been discovered. This would appear to indicate that
the climate had not yet become severe.

Similar testimony is found in the great scarcity of cavern and
shelter stations in Acheulean times in every part of western Eu-

162 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

rope ; yet occasionally the tribes repaired to the vicinity of shel-
tering cliffs, as along the Vezere. In some scattered localities
they sought the caverns, as at Krapina, in Croatia, at Spy, on
the Meuse in Belgium, and at Castillo, in northern Spain. These
rare exceptions to the open camps would tend to prove that the
caverns were sought rather for protection from enemies and as
rain shelters than as retreats from a bitter-cold climate.

In the valley of the Beune, a small tributary of the Vezere,
in Dordogne, we find a true Acheulean station quite close to the
river shore. This proves that in Acheulean times this valley
was already deepened to the same degree as it is to-day. In the
valley of the Somme the Acheulean culture stretches from the
' highest terrace' down below the present level of the river,
which has made for itself a new high channel. The fact that two
Acheulean stations are found on the upper Garonne, high above
the present water-level, is of little significance, as at that time
the water-level was also high.

In general the Acheulean flint workers preferred the open
stations throughout all Acheulean times, and their camps are
found on the open plateaus between the rivers or on the various
'terrace' levels, as on the higher, middle, and lower ' terraces'
of the Somme at St. Acheul, or again close along the borders of
the rivers and streams, as in the Dordogne region.

Even during the early Acheulean stage a dry climate had
begun to prevail in certain parts of Germany. Near Metz is
the ' older loess' station of Sablon, which was occupied in early
Acheulean times, indicating a warm period of arid climate fa-
vorable to the transportation of the wind-blown ' loess ' ; doubt-
less, this fine dust at times filled the entire atmosphere and ob-
scured the sun, as is the case to-day on the high steppes and
deserts of eastern Asia.

An exception to the open-country life preferred by the Acheu-
lean flint workers is found in the great grotto* of Castillo, near
Puente Viesgo, in the Province of Santander, northern Spain.

* The author was guided through this .station by Doctor Hugo Obermaier in the
summer of 1912.

ACHEULEAN INDUSTRY

163

The deposits which filled this grotto to a thickness of 45 feet
from the floor to the roof were explored by Obermaier, who found
them divided into thirteen layers, covering eleven periods of
industry and presenting the most wonderful epitome of the pre-

Fig. 78. Entrance (white cross) to the great grctto of Castillo in northern Spain. This
grotto was frequented by the Men of the Old Stone Age from Acheulean to Azilian times,
an archaeologic sequence surpassed only by that of the open camps along the terraces of
the Somme. Photograph from Obermaier.

history of western Europe from Acheulean times to the Age of
Bronze, in Spain (Fig. 79).

As early as 1908, Breuil34 discovered in the interior of the
cave back of the grotto some quartzites worked into Acheulean
types, proving that the cavern was entered in Acheulean times.
Obermaier,35 in the course of three years' work, has found that
the floor of the grotto was possibly used as a flint-making station
in Acheulean and, possibly, in Chellean times. The culture sec-
tion which he has revealed here under the direction of the In-
stitut de Paleontologie humaine can be compared only with that
which Commont has found on the ' terraces' of the Somme at
St. Acheul. The difference is that in the shelter of the Castillo

164

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

— -s£gg)~ -^o~^r

grotto the climate is recorded only through
the changing forms of animal life which
are mingled around the fire-hearths and
with the flints in the ascending levels.

(13) Eneolithic Age. Small, triangular dagger

in copper.
(12) Azilian. Flint industry — Age of the Stag.
(11) Upper Magdalenian. Artistic engravings

on stag-horn.
(10) Lower Magdalenian. Flints and fine en-
gravings on bone. Reindeer baton.

(9) Archaic Solutrean. Feuilles de laurier, re-
touched on one side only.

(8, 7, 6) Upper Aurignacian in three layers.
Remains of the reindeer and burins.

(5) Lower Aurignacian. Implements of stone
and bone. Remains of an infant.

(4) Upper Mousterian. Rich in small imple-
ments and large tools of quartzite.
Merck's rhinoceros very abundant.

(3) Typical Mousterian flints and quartzites.
Merck's rhinoceros.

(2) Early Mousterian industry. Bones of
cave-bear and Merck's rhinoceros.

(1) Acheulean flints.

The entrance to this grotto is on the
side of a high hill overlooking the valley
and might easily have been barricaded
against attack. In early Acheulean times,
when the flint workers were on the very
floor of the grotto, the lower entrance of
the cavern was still open, leading far into
the heart of the mountain. The succes-
sive accumulations of debris, cave loam,
fire-stones, bones, and innumerable flints,
together with great blocks falling over the
entrance of the cavern, reached a height
of 45 feet, so that during the Upper Palaeolithic only the upper
entrance to the cavern was used by the artists of Magdalenian

ff??TT7TTTTffiff^^

Fig. 70. Stratigraphic sec-
tion showing the archaeo-
logic layers of the Kreat-
grotto of Castillo. After
Obermaier.

THE USE OF FIRE 165

times. The subsequent Azilian and Eneolithic cultures were
crowded under the very roof of the grotto at the sides.

This station, repaired to and then abandoned by tribe after
tribe over a period estimated at present as not less than 50,000
years, is a monumental volume of prehistory, read and interpreted
by the archaeologist almost as clearly as if the whole record were
in writing.

The first positive evidences of the use of fire are the layers
of charred wood and bones frequently found in the industrial
deposits of early Acheulean times.

Geographic and Climatic Changes

During the early period of development of the Acheulean
industry, the geography, the climate, and the plant and animal
life continued to present exactly the same aspect as during Chel-
lean times. The mammals which we find in Thuringia in the
lower travertines of the valley of the Ilm, at Taubach, near Wei-
mar, and at Ehringsdorf, mingled with flints of early Acheulean
industry, are of the same species as those found in the valley of
the Somme mingled with the implements of the Chellean indus-
try. The southern mammoth occurs at Taubach, and we find
the straight- tusked elephant (E. antiquus), Merck's rhinoceros,
the hippopotamus, the lion, and the hyaena representing the an-
cient African-Asiatic migrants, while the north European and
Asiatic life is represented by the giant deer, roe-deer, wild goat,
brown bear, wolf, badger, marten, otter, beaver, meadow ham-
ster, and shrew. Grazing in the meadows were the aurochs, or
wild ox, and the wisent, or bison. There was one variety of horse,
probably of the forest type. Thus, the fauna as a whole contains
six Asiatic types, or eight if we include the bison and wild cattle.
Of the forest life there are nine species, including the wild boar
(Sus scrofa ferus) not mentioned above.

The layers of travertine are indicative of very important
geographical changes which were occurring in central and southern
Europe in the middle period of Third Interglacial times. The

166 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

travertines of the Ilm and of other parts of central Germany were
due to wide-spread volcanic disturbances and eruptions, accom-
panied by the deposition of travertines, gypsums, and tufas.
To this volcanic disturbance in central France is attributed the
deposition of the tuf de La Celle-sous-Moret, near Paris, which
records the warm temperate climate of early Acheulean times, as
well as the somewhat cooler succeeding climate of late Acheulean
times. This uplift in the centre of Germany and France appar-
ently left the region between France and Great Britain undis-
turbed, because there is evidence of continued free migration of
the tribes and of the Acheulean cultures ; but there appears to
have been a wide-spread subsidence of the coasts of southern
Europe by which the islands of the Mediterranean became iso-
lated from the mainland, and the migrating routes between
Europe and Africa across the central Mediterranean region were
cut off. Thus, Italy, Sicily, and Sardinia were separated from the
mainland after having received a large contingent of mammalian
life from the continents both to the north and to the south.
While descendants of the African and Asiatic mammals, as well
as of the northerly European forest and meadow types, survive
on these islands, there is, thus far, no indication that they were
invaded by hunters carrying the implements of the Acheulean
culture, although these Acheulean flint workers ranged over all
parts of the Italian peninsula (Fig. 80), as indicated by the dis-
covery of nine stations.

Distribution or Acheulean Stations

The Acheulean stations are widely distributed along the
Seine, Marne, and Somme in northern France, where flint is
abundant and well adapted for fine workmanship. In central
and southern France, where large flints are scarce, the Acheulean
tribes were forced to use quartz, which fashions into clumsier
forms. In the north the Acheulean workers continued on the
old Chellean sites at Chelles, St. Acheul, Abbeville, and Helin.
In late Acheulean times were established the new stations of

ACHEULEAN INDUSTRY

167

Wolvercote on the Thames, near Oxford, and of Levallois on the
Seine, near Paris, both famous for their 'Levallois' flint knives
or blades. Near Levallois is the late Acheulean station of Ville-
juif, south of Paris, where the flints are buried in drifts of loess.
In Normandy are the important stations of Frileuse, Bleville,

Fig. 80. Distribution of the principal Acheulean industrial stations in western Europe.

and La Mare-aux-Clercs, which give the whole Acheulean devel-
opment, both early and late. On a small tributary valley of the
Vezere, in Dordogne, in late Acheulean times there was estab-
lished the station of La Micoque, which gives its name to a num-=
ber of miniature flints of distinctive form which were first found
there and are known as the Hype of La Micoque.' Other sta-
tions, such as Combe-Capelle, also show examples of this 'minia-
ture' Acheulean workmanship.

Altogether, over thirty Acheulean stations have been found in
France, two — Castillo and San Isidro — in northern and central

168

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

Spain, the single station of Furninha in Portugal, over eight in
Germany, three in Austria, and three in Russian Poland. Espe-
cially remarkable is the wide distribution of this culture all over
Italy, where explorations by no means exhaustive have resulted
in the discovery of at least nine or ten very prolific stations ex-
tending from Goccianello in the north to Capri in the south, but
not into Sicily as far as is at present known. Thus all of western

Fig. 81. Late Acheulean station ofLaMicoque, in Dordogne, where miniature flints of
distinctive late Acheulean form are found. Photograph by N. C. Nelson.

Europe, excepting the area covered by the Scandinavian ice-
fields on the north and by the Alpine ice-fields on the south, was
penetrated by the workers of Acheulean flints, probably members,
for the most part, of the Neanderthal race.

The general uniformity of Acheulean workmanship in all parts
of western Europe is an indication that these Neanderthaloid
tribes were more or less migratory and that the inventions of new
and useful implements, such as the lance-pointed coup de poing
of La Micoque and the flint-flakes of Levallois, which probably

ACHEULEAN INDUSTRY

169

originated at an especial centre, or perhaps even in the inventive
mind of a single workman, became widely distributed and highly
distinctive of certain periods. The development of the imple-
ments in different regions is so uniform as to prove that the evo-
lution of the early Palaeolithic cultures extended all over western
Europe and that the various types or stages were essentially
contemporary.

Forms of Acheulean Implements

There is a close sequence between the coup de poing of the
Chellean workers and its development into the finer and more

P'lG.

\2. Illustrating the method of 'flaking' flint implements by direct or
indirect blow with a hammer-stone.

symmetrical forms of the Acheulean. The latter, according to
Obermaier,36 is distinguished by the flaking of the entire surface,
by the far more skilful fashioning, and by the really symmetrical
almond form which is attained by retouching both the surface
and the edges. This more refined retouch becomes the means
of producing symmetrical instruments, with straight, convex, or
concave cutting edges, as well as finer and lighter tools.

The early Acheulean industry belonged to a warm temperate
climatic period and directly succeeds the Chellean, as shown in

170

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

a most perfect manner in the quarries of the type station of St.
Acheul on the Somme. In these earlier strata the prevailing
forms of coup de poing are the 'pointed oval' and the 'lance-
pointed,' the latter showing very simple chipping, a broad point,
and a. thick base. The oval coups de poing are smaller than the
Chellean tools of the same kind, carefully fashioned on all sides
and round the base, and very symmetrical ; there are four dis-
tinct varieties of these : the almond type, oval almond-shaped,
elongate oval, and sub triangular — the latter evolving into the

Fig. 83. Illustrating the method of 'chipping' flint implements by pressure

with a bone or wooden implement, to produce the finer

retouch of the surfaces and edges.

finely modelled type of late Acheul ean times. It may have
been from these oval types that the disc form was finally
evolved.

There is wide difference of opinion regarding the use of these
thin ovaloid, triangular, and disc forms. Obermaier considers
that they may have been clamped in wood, or furnished with a
shaft, thus forming a spear head. Another suggestion is that
they were used with a leather guard to protect the hand; and
there is no doubt that in either case they would have served as
effective weapons in chase or war. Another view is that of Com-
mont,37 who believes that not a single implement down to the
very end of Acheulean times can be regarded as a weapon of war ;
this author maintains that many of these implements, including
those dressed on both edges, were still in various ways grasped

ACHEULEAN INDUSTRY

171

by the hand, although they do not present the firm, blunted grip
of the ancient coups de poing.

We also note the development of a type of coup de poing, with
cutting blade fashioned straight across the end: this primitive

Core

Point of percussion
Bulb of percussion
Scar
Concentric waves

Flakes

Fig. 84. Method of producing the long flake and the central core of flint by-
sharp blows at the indicated point of percussion. After R. R. Schmidt.
In this case a series of flakes have been cut off the entire periphery of the
core. The primitive use of the flake begins in the Pre-Chellean.

chisel or adze-shaped tool may have been used as a chopper, or
as an axe, in fashioning wooden tools.

In the lance-pointed coup de poing of narrow, elongate shape,
the flaking is very simple and the edges are continued into the
short base, generally very thick, and often showing part of the
original crust of the flint nodule, which is well adapted for the grip
of the hand. This implement, which serves the original idea of
the coup de poing, develops into the round-pointed and lance-
pointed forms. There is no question that, whether in industrial

172

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

use, in war, or in the chase, these implements were held only by
the hand.

The small implements of the early Acheulean included a great
variety of designs developing out of the far more primitive tools

of Chellean and Pre-Chellean
Industrial. times, namely, the planing tool,

the scraper, the borer, and the
knife. Each of these types de-
velops its own variety, often
fashioned with great care, prim-
itive blades, straight-edged cut-
ting tools, with the back rounded
or blunted for the grip of the
fingers, scrapers with straight
or curved edges, and percoirs or
borers. The scraping and plan-
ing tools, doubtless used for the
dressing of hides, are now more
carefully fashioned. We also
observe the racloir and the
scraper finished to a point
which is the precursor of the
graving tool of the Upper Palae-
olithic.38

Characteristic of this stage

is the systematic use of large

' flakes' or outlying pieces of

flint struck off from the core, which were used as scrapers or

planes, or developed into small 'haches,' or coups de poing.

The core or centre of the flint nodule still constitutes the ma-
terial out of which the large typical implements are fashioned ;
but the flake begins to lend itself to a great variety of forms,
as witnessed in the evolution of the Levallois knives of the
Upper Acheulean and the highly varied flake implements of the
Mousterian and Aurignacian industries.

The 'pointe,' or point, is a special implement chipped out

Coup de poing.

Ovaloid.

Double-edged.

Subtriangular.

Straight cutting blade across

the end.

Disc-shaped.

Triangular —

very thin and flat.

Hachette,

chopper.

Grattoir,

planing tool.

Racloir,

scraper.

Percoir,

drill, borer.

Couteau,

knife.

1 Pointe' (Levallois blade).

'Pointe,'

point — oval and

chisel-shaped.

War and Chase

.

Coup de poing.

Of pointed

and lance-pointed

types.

Pierre de jet,

throwing stone.

Couteau,

knife.

'Pointe,'

dart and spear

heads.

ACHEULEAN INDUSTRY

173

of a short, sharply convex flake, taking the form of a blunt dart
or spear head, pointed at one end and oval or flat at the other.

Fig.

Large, typical Acheulean implements, chiefly described as coups de

after

de Mortillet. One-quarter actual size. One of these (41) shows at one end a part of the
crust of the flint nodule left intact to afford a smooth, firm grip to the hand.
Another (43) shows a part of the crust remaining along the left side, for the same
purpose. Two of the coups de poing (47 and 48) show, the one a double-curved,
the other a straight, lateral edge. Another coup de poing (49), from a submarine
deposit near the shore at Havre, is partly covered by acorn shells.

Late Acheulean Climate

The Acheulean industry continued over a very long period,
and by the time the late Acheulean culture stage had been reached
a decided change of climate ensued in western Europe. Along the
borders of the Danube and of the Rhine, in the valley of the
Somme, and even in central and southern France there are indi-
cations of a cool dry continental climate, similar to that which

174 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

is now found on the southern steppes of Russia, in the Ural
Mountains, and in the vicinity of the Caspian Sea. Indications
of this climate have been mentioned above, as seen in the plant
life in the tuf de La Celle-sous-Moret, near Paris, where there are
evidences that trees of a cool temperate climate took the place
of the warm temperate forests of early Acheulean times.

That the climate should be considered as cool and arid rather
than comparable with the bitter-cold climate of the ' upper loess'
period, when a true steppe fauna entered Europe for the first
time, is further indicated by the fact that late Acheulean imple-
ments are more frequently found in the centre and north of
France than in the south.

To the far north, before the close of Acheulean times, the
Scandinavian ice-fields had again begun to advance southward ;
the region bordering the glaciers was cold and moist and favored
the migration from the tundra regions of the woolly mammoth
and woolly rhinoceros to the locality still frequented by the
Acheulean flint workers, for it is said 39 that Acheulean flints are
occasionally associated even with the remains of these tundra
mammals. At the very same time the Acheulean flint workers
along the Somme may have enjoyed a more genial climate.

It is only through this interpretation of the various climatic
and life zones in western Europe that we can explain the survival
on the River Somme, or return to this river from the south, of
a warm temperate fauna, hippopotami, rhinoceroses, and ele-
phants, in the Mousterian period, which is even subsequent to
the close of Acheulean times.

The valleys of the two great river-systems of southwestern
France, the Dordogne draining the central plateau, and the
Garonne draining the eastern Pyrenees, were now sought by the
Acheulean flint workers. The valley of the Vezere, a northern
tributary of the Dordogne, cuts through a broad plateau of lime-
stone in which the streams have hollowed out deep beds with
vertical sides. Here the landscape of late Acheulean times bore
the same general aspect as at present.40 Evidences of a change
of climate are observed even in the sheltered valleys where the

THE SECOND PERIOD OF ARID CLIMATE

175

flint workers were seeking the warmer and sunnier river-slopes.
The river channels were the same as they are to-day, and the
quarries of the early Acheulean flint workers are found quite
close to the streams; but as the period progressed they moved up
nearer to the cliffs and shelters. Here, too, there is evidence
that a dry continental climate prevailed. On the upper levels of

«*cf

Hauteur 3400?

Fig. 86.

Valleys of the two great river-systems of southwestern France, the Dordogne
draining the central plateau and the Garonne draining the eastern
Pyrenees." After Harle.

the old plateaus of Dordogne we still find the Quercus ilex occur-
ring quite frequently, a tree which belongs to relatively dry regions
and which in southern Russia is reckoned with the flora of the
steppes. Yet the greater aridity toward the close of the Acheu-
lean stage was probably not such as to prevent the growth of
forests along the borders of the streams. Thus, in the mammalian
life of the period there was, perhaps, a division between the more
hardy forms which frequented the dry plateaus above and the
forest-loving and less hardy forms which frequented the river-
valleys.

The most convincing proof of an arid climate in the north of
France with prevailing high westerly winds is found in the layers

i

176

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

of ' loess ' which occur on the ' terraces ' of the Somme, the Seine,
the Rhine, and the Danube. These 'lower loess' layers of Third
Interglacial times frequently contain implements of the late
Acheulean industry. Thus, at Villejuif, south of Paris, late

ifc.

\

M&5? 'V*

Fig. 87. "The valley of the Vezere, a northern tributary of the Dordogne, cuts through
a broad plateau of limestone in which the streams have hollowed out deep beds with
vertical sides," favorable to the formation of caverns, grottos, and shelters. "Here the
landscape of late Acheulean times bore the same general aspect as at present." Photo-
graph by N. C. Nelson.

Acheulean implements are found embedded in drifts of 'loess.'
In the valley of the Somme, flints of the middle Acheulean stage
are also found in the loess ancien and 'river-drift.' In the ////
de La Celle-sous-Moret the layer of 'loess' immediately over-
lies the tufa layer containing late Acheulean implements and
proofs of a cooler climate.

Among the most famous of the ' loess ' stations of late Acheu-
lean times is that of Achenheim on the upper Rhine, west of Stras-
burg. Here the ' older loess ' contains a typical Acheulean culture.

'

LATE ACHEULEAN IMPLEMENTS 177

With this prolonged epoch of cooler temperature the hippo-
potamus and the southern mammoth retreated to the warmer
portions of southern Europe, and their remains are no longer
found associated with the late Acheulean flints. The more hardy
straight- tusked elephant and Merck's rhinoceros still continued
in the north, apparently well adapted to sustain a very consider-
able fall in temperature.

Forms of Late Acheulean Implements

The coups de poing of the late Acheulean exhibit a great ad-
vance upon the Chellean, being fashioned into dagger or lance
forms, with all the edges carefully chipped. The ovaloid imple-
ments of late Acheulean times are often worked into fine and
sharp blades, which may have been used like butcher-knives for
dismembering the carcasses of game and for cutting up the pelts,
while the fine almond and disc shapes may have been used as
scrapers to cut off the tissues of the inner surfaces of the hides,
which were finally dressed by the grattoir, or flint planing tool.
In brief, the coup de poing reaches its acme of development in late
Acheulean times, both in the fineness of flaking and retouching
and in its symmetry of form. The use of large flakes of flint and
the retouching both of the borders and of the extremities of these
flakes shows a constantly improving technique. It is in the thin,
flat, triangular blades and in the lance-pointed forms that the
coup de poing reaches its culmination ; but we still observe
the development of the oval or almond-shaped forms and of the
flattened discs. The implements of this time reach their greatest
perfection in the north of France, where flint is so abundant.

The late Acheulean is further distinguished by an advance in
all the finer and smaller implements and tools. The knives are
now very fine and perfect, although they retain the broad, thick
form of the original flint fragment and seldom attain the sym-
metrical shape which characterizes the blades of the Upper Palae-
olithic.41 The ' points' are also of finer technique, with their edges
converging from a broad base to a well-formed point. It is

178

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

generally assumed that these were held m the bare hand, but
it is quite as probable that they were attached to wooden shafts
and used as dart or spear heads. By far the most numerous
as well as the most varied of the smaller tools were the racloirs,

Fig. 88. Varied shapes of the Acheulean flints described as coups de poing, including
some 'miniature' forms, after de Mortillet. The oval, the pointed, the almond, the
triangular, the disc-shaped. The late Acheulean is distinguished by an advance in
all the finer and smaller implements, tools, and weapons; yet the finest work of
Acheulean times appears thick and clumsy when contrasted with the best Solutrean
work of the Upper Palaeolithic. One-quarter actual size.

or scrapers, which were developed, doubtless, by the increasing
use of skins for clothing as a protection against the somewhat
more rigorous climate of late Acheulean times. Probably the
women of the tribe were employed in dressing hides by means
of these scrapers, which were either flat and broad with crescent-
shaped edges, flat and narrow, or double-edged with rounded

LATE ACHEULEAN IMPLEMENTS

179

ends. The development of other fine tools— borers, small discs,
triangular and ovaloid shapes, miniature coups de poing, and
many varied forms besides — is best witnessed in the station of
La Micoque, close to the junction of the Vezere with the Dor-
dogne. These miniature implements may well have been used
in the final dressing of skins for clothing, in the chase of smaller
kinds of game, or at feasts for splitting marrow-bones.

No bone implements whatever have been found even with

Fig. 89. The chef-d'oeuvre of the Acheulean industry is the Levallois flake,

which may have evolved from the large flakes of Chellean

times. After Worthington Smith.

these late Acheulean flints, but it is important to observe that the
majority of these stations are open and exposed to the weather
and that bone implements would not be preserved here as they
would in the sheltered grottos and caverns to which the flint
workers repaired in the Mousterian and succeeding times.

As regards the finish of these flint implements, it is important
to note that it is fine only by comparison with the crude work of
the early Acheulean or the still coarser types of Chellean times
and that the very finest work of Acheulean times appears thick
and clumsy when contrasted with the finer work of the Upper
Palaeolithic.

The chef-d'oeuvre of the late Acheulean industry is the Levallois
flake, first found at Levallois-Perret, near Paris, which de Mor-
tillet believed to be fashioned out of a divided coup de poing

180 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

with a fiat under-side, but which may have been evolved from
the very large primitive flakes of Pre-Chellean date. These
flakes date back earlier than the Chellean coup de poing but con-
tinued in use after its invention and may have been greatly
perfected into the Levallois type. This type of 'couteau' is a
large, wide, thin flake of fairly symmetrical shape, with a flat
back formed by the original smooth surface of the flake. These
implements are pointed, oval, or sharply rectangular in form and
present the most characteristic tool of the closing stage of the
Acheulean industry.

It is most interesting at this point to observe the two modes
of evolution which seem to pervade all nature : first, the gradual
perfection and modification in size and proportion of a certain
older form ; second, the sudden change or mutation into a new
form, which in turn enters the stage of gradual improvement.

The late Acheulean is seen to present the climax of a gradual
and unbroken development from the early Chellean industries
and ideas; and to our mind this is strongly suggestive of a corre-
sponding evolution of manual skill and mental development in
the workmen themselves, who may have been partly of Pre-
Xeanderthaloid race.

The next industrial stage, namely, the Mousterian, which cer-
tainly presents the closing workmanship of the Neanderthal race,
*>^ shows a marked retrogression of technique in contrast to the
steady progression which we have observed up to this time. We
have, in fact, witnessed a number of successive stages of progres-
sion, which are to be followed in the Mousterian by a stage of
retrogression. Such a retrogression in industrial development
may for certain known or unknown reasons occur in the same
race. It is a noteworthy parallel that in the Upper Palaeolithic,
where the Solutrean culture represents the climax and perfection
of flint working, the succeeding Magdalenian shows marked
retrogression in the technique of flint retouch.

THE NEANDERTHAL RACE OF KRAPINA 181

The Krapina Neanderthaloids

In northern Croatia, near the small town of Krapina, in the
valley of the Krapinica River, is the now famous cavern of Kra-
pina, where in 1899 was made the fourth discovery of the remains
of men of the Neanderthaloid race in western Europe, twelve

Fig. 90. The grotto of Krapina, overlooking the valley of the Krapinica River, near
Krapina, Croatia, in Austria-Hungary. After Kraemer.

years after the discovery of the men of Spy, in Belgium, and
forty-three years after the discovery of the man of Neanderthal.
Even now opinion is divided as to the age of the human remains
found in this cavern. The discoverer, Professor Gorjanovic-
Kramberger of Agram considered that the stone implements and
chips were of Mousterian age, and Breuil still refers them to the
early, or so-called warm, Mousterian period; this opinion is
shared by Dechelette. Schmidt, however, regards Krapina as a
true Acheulean station, lacking in some of the typical implements,
and of the same age as the 'loess' station of Ehringsdorf.

182

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

The mammals found in the cavern certainly belong to the
very late Acheulean period and include Merck's rhinoceros, the
cave-bear, the urus, a species of horse, the giant deer (Megaceros),
the beaver, and the marmot (Arctomys marmotta).

The cavern was originally washed out by the river, but now
it is 82 feet above the present water-level. When found it was
completely filled with sand and gravel deposits, weathered frag-
ments from the roof and walls, and loose stones and boulders.42
Enclosed in this mass, in separate strata which are perfectly

Fig. 91. Cross-section of the valley traversed by the Krapinica River showing the loca-
tion of the grotto known as the Krapina recess on the bank to
the left. Drawn by C. A. Reeds.

distinguishable, there lay, variously distributed through the
different layers, thousands of animal bones, mingled with hun-
dreds of human bones, and hundreds of stone implements and
chips.

During the years 1 899-1 905 Gorjanovic-Kramberger made a
thorough exploration of the contents of this cavern, and published
a complete account of his researches in 1906.43 There were about
three hundred pieces of human bones, among them many small
fragments, also many sizable pieces of skull and several entire
limb bones perfectly preserved. The bones are of a strongly
characterized type, and the lower jaws, face bones, bones of the
thigh and arm, the teeth, and the bones of many children establish
the Krapina race as belonging unquestionably in the same group
with that of Neanderthal and of Spy.

THE NEANDERTHAL RACE OF KRAPINA

183

The skull of the Krapina man (Fig. 93) is somewhat broader
or more brachycephalic than that of any other members of the
Neanderthal race. In general, the race is somewhat dwarfed, of
broader head form and with less prominent supraorbital processes.
The species is unquestionably Homo neanderthalensis., of which

\9 Uinsus spelaeus

forrjwlw&ofTiy^bed^

1
1

1
1

Fig. 92. Detail showing the interior contents of the Krapina grotto be-
fore its excavation in the years 1899 to 1905. After
Gorjanovic-Kramberger.

the Krapina men constitute a local race. Schwalbe and Boule
observe that the greater breadth of the Krapina skull is partly
due to the manner in which the bones have been put together,44
and they do not consider that the Krapina man represents a
different subrace {Homo neanderthalensis krapinensis) as held by
the discoverer. The cephalic index of one Krapina skull is re-
corded as 83.7 per cent (?) as compared with 73.9 per cent, the
cephalic index of the true H. neanderthalensis, a difference which,
as above noted, may be partly due to the restoration. The bones
are in such a fragmentary condition that it is impossible to form
a proper estimate of the brain capacity in either the males or
females of this race ; nor is it possible to estimate the stature.
The space between the eyes is the same as in the Neanderthal

184 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

race ; the angle of the retreat of the forehead (520) is nearly the
same as in the Gibraltar female Neanderthal skull (500), this
high forehead being due to the lesser development of the supra-
orbital ridges. That the brain was of a low, flat-headed Nean-
derthal type is shown by the close similarity of the index of the
height of skull (42.2) to that of one of the men of Spy (44.3), as
compared with the lowest index among the existing races of men
(48.9); yet the Krapina man presents a considerable advance

Fig. 93. Profile view, right side, of one of the skulls from Krapina. This skull

is much broader than that of the typical Neanderthaloid. After

Gorjanovic-Kramberger. One-quarter life size.

over Pithecanthropus, in which the index of the height of skull is
only 34.2.

The jaw is more slender than that of the Heidelberg man
but is still thick and massive ; the chin is receding, a character-
istic of all the Neanderthal races.

The broken condition of all the human bones in this cavern,
and che abundant indications of fire, have led to the charge that
the Neanderthals of Krapina were cannibals, and that these
mingled remains are the bones of animals and men collected here
during cannibalistic feasts. Against this supposition Breuil ob-
serves that none of the human bones are split lengthwise, as is
the usual practice when extracting the marrow, but they are
broken crosswise. This is the only evidence of such practice that
has been found during all Palaeolithic times, and we should hesi-
tate to accept it unless corroborated by other localities.

The various layers indicate that the cavern was successively
occupied by man ; in or near the hearths are found stone imple-

THE NEANDERTHAL RACE OF KRAPINA

185

ments, broken and incinerated bones, and pieces of charcoal,
which may indicate that this grotto was visited only at intervals,
perhaps during the colder seasons of the year.

(i

(2

(3
(4
(5
(6
(7

(8
(9

(10

(ii

(12

(i3
(14
(IS

(16;

(i7
(i*

(19

(20

(21
(22

Harle, 1910.1.

d'Ault du Mesnil, 1 896.1, pp.

284-296.
Obermaier, 1912.1, p. 146.
Schmidt, 1912.1, pp. 118-126.
Boule, 1888. 1.

Obermaier, 191 2.1, pp. 327-329.
Haug, 1907. 1, vol. II, pp. 327-

329.
Geikie, 1914.1, p. 262.
Morlot, 1854.1.
Commont, 1906. 1.
Geikie, 1914.1, pp. 107-111.
d'Ault du Mesnil, op. tit.
Schmidt, 1912.1, pp. 124, 125.
Obermaier, 1912.1, p. 118.
Dawson, 1913.1; 1913.2; 1913.3.
Kennard, 1913.1.
Reid, 1913.1.
Dawson, 1913.1, p. 123; 1914.1,

pp. 82-86.
Keith, A., 1913.1; 1913-2; IQI3-3-
Smith, G. E., 1913.1; 1913.2;

1913.3; 1913-4-
Boule, 1913.1, pp. 245, 246.
Schwalbe, 1014.1, p. 603.

(23) Osborn, 1910.1, pp. 404-409.

(24) Ewart, 1904. 1 ; 1907. 1; 1909. 1.

(25) Obermaier, 191 2.1, p. 120.

(26) de Mortillet, 1869. 1.

(27) Obermaier, op. cit., p. 116.

(28) Lyell, 1 863. 1, p. 164.

(29) Geikie, 1914.1, pp. 119, 263, 264.

(30) Schmidt, 1912.1, pp. 125, 126.

(31) Geikie, op. tit., p. 228.

(32) Avebury, 1913.1, p. 342, Fig.

236.

(33) Schmidt, op. cit., pp. 17-105.

(34) Breuil, 1912.5, p. 14.

(35) Obermaier, 191 2.1, p. 164.

(36) Obermaier, op. cit., pp. 124, 125,

127, 130.

(37) Commont, 1908. 1.

(38) Dechelette, 1908. 1, vol. I, pp.

80-90.

(39) Geikie, 1914.1, p. 255.

(40) Hnzheimer, 1913.1, p. 145.

(41) Obermaier, 1912.1, p. 127.

(42) Fischer, 1913.1.

(43) Gorjanovic-Kramberger, 1901.1;

1903. 1 ; 1906. 1.

(44) Schwalbe, 1914.1, p. 597.

CHAPTER in

CLOSE OF THE THIRD INTERGLACIAL. TEMPERATE, AND ARID CLI-
MATE, ACHEULEAN INDUSTRY — ADVENT OF THE FOURTH GLA-
CIATION, PROFOUND CHANGES IN ANIMAL AND PLANT LIFE —
THE ARCTIC TUNDRA PERIOD OF MAMMALIAN AND PLANT LIFE
— CHARACTERS OF THE NEANDERTHAL RACE, OF THEIR MOUS-
TERIAN FLINT INDUSTRY — SUPPOSED CAUSES OF EXTINCTION OR
DISPERSAL

We now reach a prolonged and important stage in the pre-
history of Europe, namely, the period of the fourth glaciation,
of the final development of the Neanderthal race of man, of the
Mousterian industry, of the beginnings of cave life, of the chase
of the reindeer, and its use for food and clothing.

In all Europe the Acheulean industry appears to have come to
a close during a period of arid climate, warm in some parts of
western Europe and cool or even cold in others. The seasonal va-
riations may well have been extreme, as on the steppes of south-
ern Russia, where exceedingly hot summers may be followed by
intensely cold winters, with high winds and snow-storms destruc-
tive of life.

It is this seasonal alternation, as well as the recurrence, either
seasonal or secular, of milder climate, which explains the survival
or return of the Asiatic fauna even after the close of the Acheulean
industry and when the Mousterian industry was well advanced.

From deposits found at Grimaldi, in the Grotte des Enfants and
in the Grotte du Prince, it has long been said that men of early
Mousterian times lived contemporary with the hippopotamus,
the straight-tusked elephant, and Merck's rhinoceros in the genial
climate of the Mediterranean Riviera. More recently the same
animals have been found as far north as the Somme valley in the
'river-drifts' of Montieres-les-Amiens.1 Here, again, we find re-

186

CLOSE OF THE THIRD INTERGLACIAL 187

mains of the hippopotamus, the stright-tusked elephant, and its
companion, Merck's rhinoceros, in Mousterian deposits, a surpris-
ing discovery, because it had always been supposed that a cold
climatic period had set in all over western Europe even before
the close of the Acheulean culture. But there is also evidence of
a temperate climate still prevailing in the Thames valley in the
period of the Mousterian ' floors.' 2 Again, along the Vezere
valley, Dordogne, we find that at the station of La Micoque,
where the industry marks the transition between late Acheulean
and early Mousterian times, Merck's rhinoceros is found in the
lowest layers associated with remains of the moose (Alces).

There is evidence that Merck's rhinoceros and the straight-
tusked elephant lingered in western Europe during the whole
period of the early development of the Mousterian industry.
As observed above, these animals were hardier than the southern
mammoth, which was the first of the Asiatic mammals to disap-
pear, soon to be followed by its companion, the hippopotamus.
Even after the advent of the closely associated tundra pair, the
woolly mammoth and the woolly rhinoceros, Merck's rhinoceros
persists, as, for example, in the deposits of Rixdorf, near Berlin,
where this ancient type occurs in the same deposits with the
woolly mammoth, the woolly rhinoceros, the reindeer, and the
musk-ox, as well as with the forest forms, the moose, stag, wolf,
and forest horse. The extreme northern latitude of this deposit
explains the absence of the straight-tusked elephant, which may
at the time have been living farther to the south. The same
mingling of south and north Asiatic mammals is found at Stein-
heim, in the valley of the Murr, some degrees to the west and
south of Rixdorf, not far from Gottingen, where we find Merck's
rhinoceros3 and the straight-tusked elephant in association with
the woolly mammoth, the woolly rhinoceros, the giant deer, and
the reindeer.

Thus the Neanderthal races were entering the Mousterian
stage of culture during the close of the Third Interglacial Stage
and during the early period of the advance of the ice-fields from
the great centres in Scandinavia and the Alps. As these ice-

188 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

fields slowly approached each other from the north and from the
south a very great period of time must have elapsed during which
all the south Asiatic mammals " abandoned western Europe or
became extinct, with the exception of the lions and hyaenas,
which became well fitted to the very severe climate that pre-
vailed over Europe during the fourth glaciation, and even during
the long Postglacial Stage which ensued. The large carnivora
readily become thoroughly adapted to cold climates, as they sub-
sist on animal life wherever it may be found; tigers of the same
stock as those of India have been found as far north as the river
Lena, in latitude 5 2° 25', where the climate is colder than that of
Petrograd or of Stockholm, while the lion throve in the cold
atmosphere of the upper Atlas range. Thus the cave-lion (Felis
leo spelcea) and the cave-hyaena (H. crocuta spelcea) doubtless
evolved an undercoating of fur as well as an overcoating of long
hair, like the tundra mammals. In size the lion of this period in
France often equalled and sometimes surpassed its existing rela-
tives, the African and west Asiatic lion ; it frequently figures in
the art of the Upper Palaeolithic artists and survived in western
Europe to the very close of Upper Palaeolithic times.

The Fourth Glaciation

Penck4 has estimated that the first maximum of the fourth
glaciation in the Alps was reached 40,000 years ago, and that
after the recession period the second maximum ended not less
than 20,000 years ago. This would extend the Mousterian in-
dustry over a very long period of time, for there can be no doubt
that the Mousterian culture was practically contemporaneous
with the fourth glaciation, even if a briefer period of time should
be allotted to this great natural event.

The fourth glaciation, like the first, is believed to have been
contemporaneous in Europe and North America,5 a fact which
is of especial importance to American anthropologists in connec-
tion with the question of the date of arrival of primitive man
in America. In both countries the glaciation reached an early

THE FOURTH GLACIAL STAGE

189

maximum, which was followed by a period of recession of the
ice-fields, a time during which a somewhat more temperate cli-
mate prevailed, but this in turn gave way to a second advance of
as great severity as the first.*

Fig. 94. Europe during the extension of the ice-fields and glaciers of the Fourth Glacial
Stage. This is also supposed to have been a period of land depression and of extension
of the inland seas of southern Europe. Britain was probably connected with France.
The ice-covered areas in western Europe and Britain were far more limited than during
the Third Glacial Stage, yet the climate appears to have been more severe than at any
previous period. For the snow-level compare Fig. 13. Drawn by C. A. Reeds after
Geikie and De Geer.

In the north, Scandinavia and Finland were again enshrouded
in ice, and a great mer de glace occupied the basin of the Baltic
Sea, sending its terminal moraines into Denmark and Schleswig-

*The entire fourth glaciation has been termed Mecklenburgian by Geikie;6 the recession
may correspond with his Fourth Interglacial Stage, the Lower Forestian. It is the
Wiirm of Penck in the Alpine region, with a first and second maximum separated by the re-
cession known as the Laufenschwankung. In America it is the early Wisconsin with the
Peorian recession interval, followed by the late Wisconsin, which is the final great glaci-
ation of America.

190

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

Holstein and over the northern provinces of Germany, but this
great ice-field did not again become confluent with that of Great
Britain.7 At the commencement of the fourth glaciation large

Ftg. 95. The two large tundra mammals, the woolly rhinoceros (upper), drawn from the
work of Upper Palaeolithic artists and from the specimen discovered at Starunia, in
Galicia, Austria; and the woolly mammoth (lower). These hardy animals gradually
replaced the African- Asiatic pair, Merck's rhinoceros and the straight-tusked elephant.
Drawn by Erwin S. Christman. One-sixtieth life size.

glaciers descended over the Scottish mountain valleys and filled
many of them even to the sea; the coast subsided at least 13c
feet in this region. In southern Britain along the valley of the
Thames there spread an arctic flora, with the polar willow (Salix
polaris) and the dwarf birch (Betula glandulosa) ; an arctic plant

ARCTIC TUNDRA LIFE 191

bed has also been discovered in the valley of the Lea. Thus the
tundra climate extended from the Scottish lowlands to the south
of England, the land being bleak and almost treeless.8 This, we
believe, was also the period of the arctic flora at Hoxne, Suffolk,
and of the arctic plant bed in the valley of the Thames. At this
time the valley was frequented by the reindeer, the woolly rhi-
noceros, and the mammoth, whose remains are entombed in the
low-level alluvia swept down from the sides of the valley, so that
the remains of this arctic fauna may in places actually overlie
those of the more deeply buried and far more ancient warm
Asiatic fauna of Chellean times. Like the Somme, the Thames9
was then from 10 to 25 feet below its present level, the bottom
having since silted up with alluvial soil.

This was the period of the deposition of the ( upper drift'
over the north German lowlands, the Alps, and northern England,
also of the early and late Wisconsin, or ' upper drift,' which
spreads very widely over the Eastern States, from Wisconsin
southward and eastward to the latitude of New York. The
gravels and sands of some of the ' lowest terraces' were also
deposited.

Mammalian Life of Mousterian Times

The three successive phases of climate and environment sur-
rounding the Neanderthal men during the period of the develop-
ment of the Mousterian industry, were in descending order as
follows :

3. Extreme Cold Climate of the Last Great Glacial Advance. Period of the
late Mousterian industry of La Quina. Spread of all the arctic and tundra
mammals over western Europe, including the musk-ox; migrations of the
obi and banded lemming of the extreme north. Life and industry of
the Neanderthal races, chiefly in the shelters, grottos, and entrances to the
caverns.

2. Cold Moist Climate. Period of the middle or ' full Mousterian' industry
of the Neanderthal races. Appearance of the tundra life, including well-
protected mammals and birds from the arctic region, also descent of the
Alpine types to the foot-hills and river borders. First forerunners of the
steppe life; the full Eurasiatic forest and field life widely spread over

192 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

Europe. Life and industry chiefly in the shelters, grottos, and entrances
to the caverns. Reindeer very abundant.

i. Warm or Cool Arid Climate. Transition from the Acheulean to the
early Mousterian culture, as observed in the stations of La Micoque and of
Combe-Capelle. The so-called 'warm Mousterian' fauna, including the
surviving hippopotamus, Merck's rhinoceros, and the straight-tusked ele-
phant in northern and southern France; herds of bison, cattle, and wild
horses in southwestern France. Tribal life, with the industry partly in
open stations, partly under sheltering cliffs.

This is the beginning of the ' Reindeer Period/ for this mi-
grant from Scandinavia, with its companions of the northeastern
tundras, the woolly mammoth and the rhinoceros, wandered
slowly southward before the advancing Scandinavian ice-fields,
which were greatly augmented by the increasingly cold and
moist climate. Thus these animals are found in the north with
flints of the Mousterian culture before they appear in the more
genial region of Dordogne. In the somewhat older Acheulean-
Mousterian station .of La Micoque, along the Vezere, the fire-
hearths contain almost exclusively the remains of horses and
relatively few remains of bison and wild cattle, but no reindeer.
A fireplace near the station of Combe-Capelle yields numerous
remains of the bison, only a few of the horse, and the first of the
reindeer. Before the appearance of the reindeer in the valley of
the Vezere we may picture the meadow-lands as covered with
bison and wild horses, the latter of the type which is now charac-
teristic of the high plateaus of central Asia, while the bison of
the period appears to be more similar to the American buffalo
than to the surviving European form.

Gradually the tundra animals spread toward the south with
the cold climate which for the first time swept all over western
Europe. The whole aspect of the country slowly changed with
the approach of the reindeer, and the northern flora of the spruce,
the fir, and the arctic willow clad the more sheltered river- valleys
and hillsides, while the plateaus and fields were partly or wholly
deforested.

Thus the country became adapted chiefly to the tundra types
of mammals; and in the middle Mousterian strata these herds,

Fig. 96. Typical tundra fauna. "Gradually the tundra animals pressed toward the
south with the cold climate which for the first time swept all over western Europe."
The wolverene, Gulo luscus borealis ; the barren-ground reindeer, Rangifer tarandus
(drawn from the living type); the arctic fox, Canis la go pus ; the musk-ox, Ovibos mos-
chatus ; and the banded lemming, Myodes torquatus. One-twenty-fifth life size. The
lemming (A) is also shown one-seventh life size. Drawn by Erwin S. Christman.

194 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

newly migrated from the far north and from the northeastern
steppes bordering the Obi River, largely outnumber the steppe
forms, which are limited to two or three species. Of these the
principal types are the steppe horse, related to the Przewalski
horse now living in the desert of Gobi, the steppe suslik (Spermo-
philus rufescens), and the steppe grouse, or moor-hen. The more
characteristic forms of steppe life, such as the saiga antelope, the
jerboa, and the kiang, were all later arrivals and did not appear
until after the close of the Mousterian industry and the disap-
pearance of the Neanderthal race.

This was due to the fact that the climate surrounding the
Neanderthal race in Mousterian times was cold and moist, with
heavy rainfalls in summer and snow-storms in winter, a climate
thoroughly suited to the arctic tundra mammals with their heavy
covering of hair acting as a rain shed and the undercoating of
wool protecting them in the most severe weather.

The mammal lif e during the fourth glaciation, as it spread into
the middle Rhine and Westphalian region, is fully recorded in the
' loess' deposits of Achenheim and in the famous grotto of Sir-
genstein, on the upper Danube, lying northwest of Munich,
where, together with traces of the most primitive Mousterian in-
dustry, are found remains of the mammoth, the bison, the rein-
deer, a species of wild horse, and the cave-bear. Following these
mammals there is a record in the same deposit of the arrival of
the Obi lemming, from northern Russia.

The fact that only seven Mousterian stations are known in
all Germany, or eight if we include the site of the Neanderthal
burial, may be accounted for by the relatively close proximity of
the great Scandinavian glacier on the north, which was only 350
miles distant from the great Alpine glacier on the south. To
the east were the plains of Bohemia and the vast lowland region
stretching northeastward to the tundras and eastward to the
steppes, through which came the great migrations of tundra and
steppe life.

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Fig. 97. The seven Mousterian stations of Germany lay between the Scandinavian glacier
(IV) on the north and the Alpine glacier (IV) on the south (dotted areas) . They include
the grottos of Sirgenslein, Irpfelhohle, and Rauberhohle, along the valley of the Danube ;
Kartstein and Buchenloch, near the middle Rhine, and Banmannshohle, south of Han-
over; also the open loess station of Mommenheim. The Mousterian grotto of Wild-
kirchli, in Switzerland, lay within the limits of the Alpine ice-fields; and the burial at
Neanderthal, near Dusseldorf, was probably of Mousterian age. After R. R. Schmidt,
modified and redrawn.

190 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

Geographic and Climatic Environment of the Neander-
thal Race

Let us first glance at Dordogne. Among the stations of the
early Mousterian industry we have seen that the Neanderthals
in the valley of the Vezere, at La Micoque, were in the midst of
a fauna chiefly composed of the bison and of the wild horse, the
remains found in the hearths being almost exclusively of the latter
animal.* In the primitive Mousterian station of Combe-
Capelle near by the fire-hearths yield remains of the bison but
only a few of the horse.

Among the earliest caves inhabited by man10 was that of Le
Moustier, situated on the right bank of the Vezere, and about 90
feet above it. This shelter and cave were examined as early as
1860-3 by Lartet11 and Christy and subsequently by de Vibraye,12
Massenat,13 and others. Besides the deposits in the floor of the
grotto there, a deep Mousterian culture layer has been found
under the cliff in front, and this has been selected for our repre-
sentation of the life of the men of Mousterian times, and of the
flora of the Vezere in this early period (see frontispiece) . Peyrony
observes that, here as elsewhere, the older and lower industrial
camps were farther away from the shelters; indeed, in this very
region there are evidences that the Chellean and Acheulean flint
workers occasionally visited the plateaus above ; but as time
passed and the weather became more severe the Neanderthals
began to work nearer to the overhanging cliffs, and finally directly
beneath them. At this classic station of Le Moustier, one of the
most complete skeletons of Neanderthal man was unearthed by
Hauser, in 1908. There was a continuous residence here in mid-
dle and upper Mousterian times, extending into the lower Aurig-
nacian of the Upper Pakeolithic. The contemporary fauna in
these deposits included the mammoth, the reindeer, the giant deer
(Megaceros)j the horse, the bison, the woolly rhinoceros, and the

* Obermaier, Breuil, and Schmidt assign La Micoque to the transition between late
Acheulean and early Mousterian times.

ENVIRONMENT OF THE NEANDERTHAL RACE 197

cave-bear. During the habitation of this typical station by man
the climate was very cold and damp.

In this region is found the complete record of the course of
Mousterian evolution, both in the implements and in the advent
of new forms of life; the number of reindeer gradually increases
in the ascending layers with the development of the Mousterian
industry. There is a constant gradation from the Acheulean into
the Mousterian industrial types; according to Cartailhac, this

Fig. 98. The type station of Le Moustier, on the right bank of the Vezere, Dordogne.
The culture layer is on the middle terrace, overlooking the hamlet of Le Moustier.
(Compare frontispiece, PL i.) Photograph by Belves.

industry is all the work of the same people, with no sharp lines
of division.

Thus at Combe-Capelle, where the debut of the true Mous-
terian culture took place, we find a number of large coups de
poing, pointing back to the early Acheulean implements. The
gradations which are exhibited here in these successive layers are
quite in contrast to the advance of the industry at the close of
Mousterian times in the very same locality, where there is an
abrupt cultural transition toward the Aurignacian.

Southern Britain tells of a similar sequence, which we may
interpret as follows. Belonging either to the temperate climate

198

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

of early Mousterian times, or to the period of the recession of the
fourth glaciation, known in the Alps as the Lanfenschwankung,
are the Mousterian stations along the Lea and near the mouth
of the Thames at Crayford (Worthington Smith/4 Geikie15).
These Palaeolithic ' floors' of Mousterian times are buried be-

FlG. 99. Excavations of the Mousterian culture layer under the cliff of Le Moustier.
Photograph by N. C. Nelson.

neath 4 to 5 feet of sand and loam and rest upon the surface of
older river-gravels. Among the later river deposits several old
land surfaces have been discovered ; they consist of a few inches
of angular gravel, crowded in places with unabraded implements
and flakes which obviously occur just where they were left by
Palaeolithic workmen. At one point there is evidence that the
flint maker squatted over his work, with his knees slightly apart,
for the chips are thrown to the right and left in small piles.
Here and there, mixed with these Mousterian implements, are
more archaic forms which may have been drifted down from the
older land surfaces above.

ENVIRONMENT OF THE NEANDERTHAL RACE 199

One such floor has been traced by Worthington Smith16
through Middlesex and on both sides of the Thames. Plant
remains occur plentifully on this old land surface, including im-
pressions of portions of leaves, stems of grass, rushes, and
sedges. The birch, alder, pine, yew, elm, and hazel have been
recognized. The common male fern is of frequent occurrence,
while the royal fern (Osmunda regalis) is found in profusion.
Upon the whole, this assemblage of plants indicates a temperate
climate. The flints described and figured by Worthington Smith
are either of the late Acheulean 'Levallois flake' type or else of
early Mousterian age. This writer17 notes the great number of
instruments known as trimmed flakes, which are found on the
Palaeolithic ' floor' ; these are flakes of large size, trimmed to an
implement-like form on one side, while the other side is left per-
fectly plain ; the examples are remarkably constant to one form.
The type of implement here described resembles the flakes of
Levallois or Combe- Capelle, or even the typical ' point' from
Le Moustier. Such flakes, shaped into the Mousterian forms of
racloir, or scraper, are very common in the gravels of the Lea
and of the Thames.

While the remains of the woolly mammoth are found here,
there are also indications of the presence of a well-marked tem-
perate flora. These high-level ' river-drifts ' along the Thames18
were certainly deposited when the climatic conditions were tem-
perate, but they are succeeded by deposits indicating a renewed
cold period, which may represent the cold 'full Mousterian'
times of the Lower Palaeolithic habitation of the Thames. Here
we find the remarkable sheets of contorted 'drift' attributable
to the movements of the frozen soil and subsoil when exposed to
the heat of the summer sun. At the same time there may have
been deposited along the Thames the alluvial loams and gravels,
occasionally containing stones and rocks, which were brought down
by ice-rafts ; these low-level gravels are not to be confused with
the underlying 'old river-gravels' which contain the warm tem-
perate hippopotamus fauna, for they were accumulated under very
cold conditions ; they yield remains of the woolly rhinoceros and

200

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

of the mammoth. Thus, on the high levels of the Thames as
well as on the low levels we find evidences of the human culture
and of the extinct fauna of the period of the fourth great gla-
ciation.

The upper waters of the Rhine and Danube were also fre-
quented by late Acheulean and early Mousterian flint workers.
At a point far distant from southern England there is the cavern
of Wildkirchli on the Santis Mountains, near Appenzell, in Swit-
zerland ; in Mousterian times this was in the very heart of the

»***> ■■ ' —

Jf* •* ''^'fJ^Mu

j00*f*m

/ im^'^l

raK*^l

jtu y \a ><i t ■

■»jJku^ \lA £ t

Mt^x* Jifc

1M A "' **' & Ik*

Fig. ioo. Mousterian cavern of Wildkirchli. After Bachler. Entrances indicated at
i, 2, and 3, in the side of the limestone cliff. Here, at a height of 4,500 feet above sea-
level, Bachler discovered proofs of occupation by Mousterian man in the very heart of
the Alpine ice-fields of the Fourth Glacial Stage.

north Alpine ice-field. The animal life here may indicate that
this cavern was open during the period of recession between the
two great advances of the fourth glaciation. Here, at a height of
4,500 feet, Bachler19 between 1903-6, discovered proofs of oc-
cupation by Neanderthal man during Mousterian times ; the
flints are not well formed ; the presence of crude bone implements
may point to late Mousterian times ; but the flints are considered
by Bachler to be of the same stage as those of Le Moustier. It
is asserted that when the Neanderthals followed the chase here

ENVIRONMENT OF THE NEANDERTHAL RACE 201

the climate was more genial, because the animals found include
the stag, Alpine wolf (Cyon alpinus Jossilis) , cave-bear, cave-lion,
cave-leopard (Felis pardus spelcea), badger, marten, and otter,
together with the typical Alpine forms, the ibex, chamois, and

R^CBNi." *> **BWMi

^><

it^lfll

• ^' '">.«' . '

- -/

'*

*** " , \

■ :

ft'

<z Hi

8*Sjfe/ .;*-*%"

IP

AS

% j

Jm

^SjiP

■ ,^^

rjj

4 "■ ' -

■^Svi,;-?* '_-

S3

- ^.r-v^i-.

Fig. ioi. Entrance to the grotto of Sirgenstein. After R. R. Schmidt. "Of all the
stations along the Danube by far the most important is that of Sirgenstein . . . which
was first occupied by the Neanderthals in early Mousterian times and continued to be
visited by the Lower and Upper Palaeolithic men until the very close of the Upper
Palaeolithic."

marmot. But this fauna alone can hardly be taken as proof of
a temperate climate, for at this Alpine height we should not ex-
pect to discover the tundra life of the period; in fact, it is entirely
absent.

Of all the stations along the Danube, by far the most important
is that of Sirgenstein, lying between the modern cities of Nurem-
berg and Augsburg, which was first occupied by the Neander-
thals in early Mousterian times and continued to be visited by
the Lower and Upper Palaeolithic men until the very close of the

202 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

Upper Palaeolithic. The continuous section of animal life and of
human culture which this remarkable cavern yields afforded
Schmidt,20 who began his researches here in the spring of 1906, a
key to the prehistory of all the eighteen caverns in the region of
the upper Danube and upper Rhine. In Sirgenstein the primi-
tive Mousterian culture of the early Neanderthals was found, to-
gether with remains of the mammoth, bison, reindeer, a species
of wild horse, and the cave-bear ; this Mousterian industry closed
with a record of the arrival in this region of the Obi lemming
from northern Russia. Later on the Cro-Magnon race of Aurig-
nacian times left on the floor of the cavern remains of their flint
industry and of their feasts, including the bones of the woolly
rhinoceros, mammoth, stag, and reindeer. During Upper Pa-
laeolithic Solutrean times the cavern was not occupied ; but early
in Magdalenian times it was again inhabited by man, and coin-
cident with his return is the arrival of a great migration of the
banded lemming (Myodes torquatus) from the arctic tundras
of the north. Finally, toward the end of the Upper Palaeolithic,
in late Magdalenian times, another climatic transition is indi-
cated by the appearance of the pika, or tailless hare (Lagomys
pusillus). During the Bronze Age this favorite grotto was again
entered, and it was also inhabited during a portion of the Iron
Age. The debris of these various cultures, hearths, and deposits
of cave loam reach a total thickness of S}4 feet and mark Sirgen-
stein as first in rank among the Palaeolithic stations of Germany.

Types and Migrations or the Mammals Hunted by the

Neanderthals

This is the life of the period of the fourth glaciation, when a
very cold and moist climate prevailed all over western Europe
as far south as northern Spain and northern Italy. While the
glacial fields were not so extensive as during the third or the
second glaciation, the climate was very severe, as indicated by
the southward migration not only of the arctic flora but of the
mammals and birds of the tundra region bordering the southern
shores of the Arctic Ocean. Two or three forms from the cold

Pl. V. The Neanderthal man of La Chapelle-aux-Saints, inhabiting the Dordogne
region of central France in Mousterian times. Antiquity estimated as between
40,000 and 25,000 years. After the restoration modelled by J. H. McGregor. For
the bodily proportions of this hunting race compare the frontispiece, PI. I.

MAMMALS HUNTED BY THE NEANDERTHALS 205

steppes of northern Russia also found their way into western
Europe, but this was distinctly not a steppe period because of
the prevailing moisture of the climate ; in place of the westerly
winds and great dust clouds of closing Acheulean times, cold
mists and, clouds heavy with moisture swept over the country,
which during the winters was at times buried in snow, and subject
to rapid changes of temperature. These climatic* conditions
appear to be demonstrated by the predominance of the arctic
tundra life, mammals which were adapted only to severe weather
and attracted by the northern flora.

The summers were undoubtedly warm, like the present Arctic
summers, but very much longer in these southerly latitudes. It
is not improbable that there were seasonal migrations, north-
ward and southward, of the mammoths, rhinoceroses, and rein-
deer, and also that the northern flint quarries along the Somme
and the Marne may have been visited chiefly during the warm
summer season. The Asiatic mammals had entirely disappeared
from the regions of France and Germany during the first max-
imum of the fourth glaciation, but there are some who maintain
that during the amelioration of climate that followed, an interval
in the Alpine region termed the Laufenschwankung by Penck,
the straight- tusked elephant and Merck's rhinoceros again mi-
grated into northern France. It is true that occasionally we
find the bones of these animals in close association with those of
the woolly mammoth and the woolly rhinoceros. It is possible
to explain such intermingling either as having occurred during
the advance of the fourth glaciation, or as due to the northward
and southward migration of the respective herds of mammals in
the summer and winter seasons. As the period of the fourth
glaciation continued it is certain that these . Asiatic mammals
entirely disappeared.

At the same time the Neanderthals had passed through the
first stage of development of the Mousterian industry and had
reached what is known as the ' full ' or * high ' Mousterian, which,

* The climate of the tundras is extreme, the winter temperature falling on an average
to 270 F. below zero, while in summer the temperature is about 500 F. In the subarctic
steppes the average January temperature hardly exceeds 300 F., while that of July is 700 F.

206

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

with few exceptions, was carried on under the shelter of the
overhanging cliffs or within the grottos.

The mammalian life of these 'full' Mousterian times, as
found along the headwaters of the Danube, the Rhine, and the
branches of the Dordogne and Vezere, is divided among the
various f aunal groups as follows :

It would appear that the reindeer,
the woolly mammoth, and the woolly
rhinoceros were already widely dis-
tributed over western Europe, ac-
companied by the arctic fox (Canis
lagopus), the arctic hare (Lepus vari-
abilis), and the banded lemming
(My odes torquatus). There is no
proof that the musk-ox had at this
time reached its extreme southerly
distribution, and it would appear
that the arrival of the second type of
northern lemming from the region of
the river Obi (Myodes obensis) did
not occur until the close of Mous-
terian times,21 because the great mi-
gration of these animals is recorded
by their abundant remains in the
so-called 'lower rodent layer' of all
the stations along the Rhine and
Danube, such as. Sirgenstein, Wild-
scheuer, and Ofnet, after the final
stage of Mousterian industry. In
fact, this remarkable little rodent ap-
pears to mark the second maximum
or close of the fourth glaciation by
its migration all over western Eu-
rope, and wherever its remains are
found in the grotto deposits they furnish one of the most im-
portant and positive of prehistoric dates, namely, that of the

Life of Middle Mousterian

Times

Tundra Life.

Woolly mammoth.
Woolly rhinoceros.
Scandinavian reindeer.
Arctic fox.
Arctic hare.
Banded lemming.
Arctic ptarmigan.

Alpine Life.
Alpine marmot.
Ibex.
Alpine ptarmigan.

Steppe Life.
Steppe horse.
Steppe suslik.
Moor-hen.

Asiatic Life.
Cave-lion.
Cave-hyaena.
Cave-leopard.

Forest Life.

Stag, lynx, wolf, fox, water-
vole, brown bear, giant
deer.

Cave-bear.

Meadow Life.

Bison.
Wild cattle.

MAMMALS HUNTED BY THE NEANDERTHALS 207

' lower rodent layer.' The lemmings surpass all other mammals
in the great distances covered by their migrations, and it would
appear that this northern species swept all over western Europe
at the same time, leaving its remains not only in the caverns
along the Danube but in those of Belgium and of Thiede, near
Braunschweig. The latter station, Thiede, was not far from the
southern border of the Scandinavian glacier ; it was subjected to
a very severe arctic climate, as the only associates of the Obi
lemming were the banded lemming, the arctic fox, the arctic
hare, the reindeer, the mammoth, and the musk-ox.

The woolly mammoth now reaches the height of its evolution
and specialization ; as preserved in the frozen tundras of northern

Siberia, and as represented in very

Life of Late Mousterian numerous drawings and engravings

TlMES by the Upper Palaeolithic artists, it

Second Maximum of Fourth is the most completely known of all

Glaaatton iossft mammaiia.22 Its proportions,

Tundra, Steppe, Alpine, Asi- as shown m the accompanying figure,

atic and Meadow life, as n . , . . .

above which represents the information

Obi lemming. gathered from all sources, are en-
Musk-ox. tirely different from those of either
Ermine. . ^ jn(jjan or African elephant.
Arctic ptarmigan. , . .
Eversmann's weasel Tne nead 1S veiT mgh and suy~
(Steppe weasel). mounted by a great mass of hair

and wool; behind this a sharp de-
pression separates the back of the head from the great hump on
the back ; the hinder portion of the back falls away very rapidly
and the tail is short ; the overcoat of long hair nearly reaches the
ground, and beneath this is a warm undercoating of wool. It is
not improbable that the humps on the head and the back were
fat reservoirs. The color of the hair was a yellowish brown,
varying from light brown to pure brown ; woolly hair, from an
inch to an inch and a half in length, covered the whole body;
interspersed with the shorter hairs was a large number of longer
and thicker hairs, which formed mane-like patches on the cheeks,
chin, shoulders, flanks, and abdomen. A broad fringe of this

208

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

long hair extended along the sides of the body, as depicted in the
work of the Upper Palaeolithic artists in the Combarelles Cave.
Especially interesting to us is the food found in the stomach and
mouth of the frozen Siberian mammoths, which consists chiefly
of a meadow flora such as flourishes during the summer in north-
ern Siberia at the present day, including grasses and sedges, wild

Fig. 102. The woolly mammoth (Elephas primi genius) and the contemporary Neander-
thal hunters {Homo neanderthalensis) , after the drawings of Upper Palaeolithic artists
and the frozen mammoths found in northern Siberia. By Charles R. Knight, 1915.

thyme, beans of the wild oxytropis, also the arctic variety of the
upright crowfoot (Ranunculus accr) . This was the summer food.
The winter food undoubtedly included the leaves and stems of
the willow, the juniper, and other winter plants.

The woolly rhinoceros was the invariable companion of the
mammoth, even as Merck's rhinoceros always associated itself
with the straight-tusked elephant. This remarkable animal is
related to the northern African group of white rhinoceroses, from
which it branched off at a very remote period. The profile of its
very long, narrow head, of its enormous anterior and lesser pos-
terior horn, and its humped back resembles that of the existing

MAMMALS HUNTED BY THE NEANDERTHALS 209

African form, but its protection against the arctic climate gave
it a wholly different outward appearance ; the hair of the face,
of a golden-brown color, with an undercovering of wool, is pre-
served in the Museum of Petrograd. Through a discovery at
Starunia, in eastern Galicia, in 191 1, this animal is now completely
known to us, except the tail ; its remains were found here at a
depth of 30 feet, and included the head, left fore leg, and the skin
of the left side of the body. The Starunia specimen has a broad,
truncated upper lip adapted to grazing habits, small oblique eyes,
long, narrow, and pointed ears, a long anterior horn with oval
base, and a shorter posterior horn, a short neck, on the back of
which is a small, fleshy hump, quite independent of the skeleton ;
the legs are comparatively short. It differs from the living
African form in the somewhat narrower muzzle, in its small,
pointed ears, and in the presence of a thick coating of hair. Like
the white rhinoceros, the woolly form was a plains dweller, living
on grass and small herbs.23 This rhinoceros kept more closely to
the borders of the great ice-sheets than did the mammoth, arrest-
ing its migration in Germany and France ; that is, it did not
migrate so far to the south as the mammoth, which wandered
down into Italy as far as Rome.

The reindeer was the herald or forerunner of all the arctic
tundra fauna ; it reached the valley of the Vezere at the begin-
ning of the period of the true Mousterian culture and already had
penetrated much farther south during the Third Glacial Stage,
probably migrating along the borders of the ice-fields ; in fact, it
is found in northern Europe even during the second glaciation.
It is the true Scandinavian or barren-ground species, which is
now typified by two forms of the Old World reindeer (R. tarandus,
R. spitzbergensis), and by the existing American barren-ground
forms. The antlers are round, slender, and long in proportion
to the relatively small size of the animal; the brow tines are
palmated. There is little proof that the Neanderthals made
- much use of the bones of the reindeer, but there is every reason
to suppose that they used the pelts, for the preparation of which
the Mousterian scrapers and planers were especially well fitted.

210

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

In the Iberian peninsula the tundra fauna did not penetrate
as far south as Portugal, although the Norwegian lemming
(Myodes lemmus) reached the vicinity of Lisbon. The woolly
mammoth, accompanied by the woolly rhinoceros, has been dis-
covered in two localities on the extreme northern coast of Spain,
in the province of Santander, bordering the Bay of Biscay. The

Fig. 103. The woolly rhinoceros {Rhinoceros antiquitatis) , after the drawings of Palaeo-
lithic artists and the specimen from Starunia preserved in the museum of Lemberg,
Galicia. By Charles R. Knight, 1915.

reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) is found in the cavern of Serina,
south of the Pyrenees ; as early as Acheulean times it reached the
region of Altamira, near Santander. Thus Harle24 concludes it
is certain that the tundra fauna spread from France westward
into Catalonia, along the northern coast of Spain, flanking the
Pyrenees. It is generally believed that the cave-bear (Ursus
spelceus) occupied many of the caverns before their possession by
man, and developed certain peculiarities of structure in these
haunts. Thus the phalanges bearing the claws are feebly de-

CAVE LIFE 211

veloped, indicating that the claws had partly lost their prehen-
sile function ; the anterior grinding-teeth are very much reduced;
and the cusps of the posterior grinders are blunted in a way
which is indicative of an omnivorous diet; yet the front paws
were of tremendous size, the body was thick-set and of heavier
proportions than that of the larger recent bears (Ursus arctos)
of Europe. Hence, it would appear that the Neanderthals drove
out from the caves a type of bear less formidable than the exist-
ing species but nevertheless a serious opponent to men armed
with the small weapons of the Mousterian period.

Customs of the Chase and oe Cave Life

We have only indirect means of knowing the courage and ac-
tivity of the Neanderthals in the chase, through the bones of
animals hunted for food which are found intermingled with the
flints around their ancient hearths. These include in the early
Mousterian hearths, as we have seen, bones of the bison, the wild
cattle, and the horse, which are followed at Combe-Capelle by
the first appearance of the bones of the reindeer. The bones of
the bison and of the wild horse are both utilized in the bone
anvils of the closing Mousterian culture at La Quina. What we
believe to be the period of the great mammalian life of the region
of the upper Danube is found in the Mousterian levels of the
grotto of Sirgenstein, from which it would appear that the Nean-
derthals hunted the mammoth, the rhinoceros, the wild horse,
bison, and cattle, and the giant deer as well as the reindeer. We
should keep in mind, however, that when these caves were for a
time deserted, the beasts of prey returned, and so it often happens
that the succeeding layers afford proofs of alternate occupation
by man and by beasts of prey of sufficient size to bring in the
larger kinds of game, while owls may be responsible for the
deposits of the lemming, as in the 'lower rodent layer.'

Obermaier23 has given careful study to the vicissitudes of
cave life in Mousterian times. Long before these caves were in-
habited by man, they served as lairs or refuges for the cave-bear

212 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

and cave-hyaena, as well as for many birds of prey. For example,
the cave of Echenoz-la-Moline, on the upper waters of the Saone,
contained the remains of over eight hundred skeletons of the
cave-bear, and no doubt it cost the Neanderthals many a hard-
fought battle before the beasts were driven out and man possessed
himself of the grotto. Fire may have been the means employed.
It has been questioned whether the caves were not unhealthy
dwelling-places, but it must be remembered that, except in cer-
tain caverns which had natural openings through the roof for the
exit of smoke, there was no true cave life, but rather a grotto
life, which centred around the entrance of the cave. The small-
est cave, this author observes, was considerably larger and better
ventilated than the small, smoky cabins of some of the European
peasants, or the snow huts of the Eskimo. The most serious
obstacle was the prevailing dampness, which varied periodically
in the caverns, so that dry seasons were succeeded by abundant
moisture seeping through the limestone roof and down the side
walls. At such times the caverns were probably uninhabitable,
and in the bones of both men and beasts many instances have
been observed of diseased swellings and of inflammation of the
vertebrae, such as are caused by extreme dampness. The com-
pensating advantages were the shelter offered from the rain and
cold, a constant temperature at moderate distances from the en-
trance, and also the fact that the caves were very easily defensible,
because the entrance was generally small and the approach often
steep and difficult; a high stone wall across the opening would
have made the defense still easier, and a flaming firebrand would
have prevented the approach of bears and other beasts of prey.
On account of this shelter from the weather and wild beasts the
grottos and the larger openings of the caverns were certainly
crowded with the Mousterian flint workers during the inclement
seasons of the year.

Yet the greater part of the life of the Neanderthals was un-
doubtedly passed in the open and in the chase. Throughout
Mousterian times the commonest game consisted of the wild
horse, wild ox, and reindeer. Both flesh and pelts were utilized,

CAVE LIFE 213

and the marrow was sought by splitting all the larger bones.
Thus, frequently we find in the hearths the remains of the mam-
moth, the woolly rhinoceros, the giant deer, the cave-bear, and
the brown bear. From these beasts of prey the Neanderthal
hunters obtained pelts and perhaps also fat for torches used to
light the caverns ; there is no proof of the invention of the lamp
at this period.

The work of the women undoubtedly consisted of preparing
the meals and making the pelts into covers and clothing. When-
ever possible this would be done in the daylight outside of the
grottos, but in chilly, rainy weather, or the bitter cold of winter,
the whole tribe would seek refuge in the grotto, gathering around
the fire-hearths fed with wood ; odd corners would serve as store-
houses for fuel or dried meat, preserved against the days when
extreme cold and blinding snow forbade the hunters to venture
forth.

It appears that the game was dismembered where it fell
and the best parts removed. The skull was split open for the
brain; the long bones were preserved for the marrow; thus the
bones of the flank and shoulder of game occur frequently in cave
deposits, while the ribs and vertebrae are rare.

The pitfall may have been part of the hunting craft known
to the Neanderthals. The chase was pursued with spears or
darts fitted with flint points, also by means of 'throwing stones/
which are found in great numbers in the upper Mousterian levels
of La Quina, in the Wolf Cave of Yonne, Les Cottes, and various
places in Spain. If one imagines, as is quite possible, that the
throwing stone was placed in a leather sling or in the cleft end of
a stick, or fastened to a long leather thong, one can readily see
it would prove a very effective weapon.

The methods of chase by the Neanderthals are, nevertheless,
somewhat of a mystery. There was a very decided disparity
between the size and effectiveness of their weapons and the
strength and resistance of the animals which they pursued.
None of the very heavy implements of Acheulean times was pre-
served ; the dart and spear heads are not greatly improved, cer-

214

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

tainly they could not penetrate the thick hides of the larger arctic
tundra mammals, heavily protected with hair and wool ; the
chase even of the horses, wild cattle, and reindeer was apparently
without the aid of the bow and arrow and prior to the invention
of the barbed arrow or lance head.

Fig. 104. Geographic distribution of Pre-Neanderthaloids and Neanderthaloids in
western Europe, showing the localities where the remains of Pre-Neanderthaloid
races (Heidelberg and Piltdown) and of true Neanderthaloids have thus far been dis-
covered. (Compare table, p. 219.)

Discovery of the Neanderthaloid Races

The open-air or nomadic life of all the tribes of western
Europe from Pre-Chellean nearly to the close of Acheulean
times was very unfavorable to the preservation of human re-
mains. It is possible that the bodies of the dead and of the aged
were thrown out to the hyaenas which surrounded the stations,
as among some of the tribes of Africa to-day, but it is equally

THE NEANDERTHAL RACE

215

possible that they were interred in some manner. Skeletons
buried near the surface in the river sands or gravels of the l ter-
races' would not have been preserved. We have seen that the
preservation of the Heidelberg and Piltdown remains was en-
tirely due to chance, the bones having been washed down and
mingled with those of the animals ; nor has any evidence been
found in the grotto of Krapina of ceremonial burial or of respect
for the dead, but on the contrary there is some evidence of canni-
balistic customs. Even before the close of early Mousterian
times all this was changed. Perhaps the closer association en-

^Kf

:":--^lg|

HfL .

3 <J$(

Hi

Ah

Fig. 105. Front view of the Neanderthaloid skull found at Gibraltar
in 1848 — the earliest discovery of a member of this race, now re-
garded as the skull of a woman. Photograph by A. Hrdlicka from
the original specimen. One-quarter life size.

forced by the more rigorous climate indirectly produced greater
respect for the dead and led to the custom of burial or the
orderly laying out of the remains of the dead in the floors of the
partly protected grottos and caverns, to which custom we owe
our present knowledge of the structure of Neanderthal man in
Mousterian times.

The first discovery of a Neanderthaloid was made in 1848,
eight years before the type of the Neanderthal race came to light.
This was the Gibraltar skull26 found by Lieutenant Flint, near
Forbes Quarry, on the north face of the Rock of Gibraltar. It
consists of a well-preserved skull, with the parietal bones only
missing and the face and base of the cranium remarkably com-
plete. In 1868 it was presented by Busk to the Museum of the

216

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

Royal College of Surgeons, in London, where it lies to-day. The
exact site of the discovery can no longer be positively identified ;
it was probably found in a still existing cave, and although its
archaeologic age cannot be determined, yet as its anatomical fea-
tures are those of the Neanderthal race, and as all the remains of
this race which can be dated with certainty are of Mousterian
age, it probably belongs to the Mousterian period. Of recent
years its great importance in the history of man has been revealed
in the studies of Sollas, Keith, and Schwalbe. Thus it has come

Devonian
lim*$fone

Sea Level

2000 meters

Fig. 106. Section of that part of the valley of the Diissel known as the Neanderthal,

showing the location of the limestone grotto where the Neanderthal

skeleton was discovered. Drawn by C. A. Reeds.

to be ranked among the Neanderthaloids and is considered of a
particularly primitive form, because of the extremely small size
of the brain. This feature and the slight development of the
supraorbital ridges, so characteristic of the Neanderthaloids, are
explained by the theory that the skull belonged to a female.

Sera27 considers the Gibraltar skull to be the most ape-like
of all human fossils and thinks it should not be classed with the
Neanderthaloids at all, but should be regarded as Pre-Neander-
thaloid ; this view is shared by Keith. Boule, however, believes
that this skull is of the same geologic age as that of Spy, La
Chapelle, La Ferrassie, and La Quina ; everything leads us to be-
lieve,28 he remarks, that the skull of Gibraltar is a female skull
of Neanderthal type. He elsewhere refers to the skulls of Gi-

THE NEANDERTHAL RACE 217

braltar, of La Quina, and of La Ferrassie II as probably those of
female Neanderthals.

The type skull of this great extinct race of men is that of
Neanderthal — certainly the most famous and the most disputed
of all anthropologic remains — appreciated by Lyell and Huxley,
but passed over by Darwin, and finally established by Schwalbe
as the most important missing link between the existing species
of man {Homo sapiens) and the anthropoid apes. In 185629
some workmen were engaged in clearing a small loam-covered
cave about six feet in height, the so-called Feldhofner Grotto, in
the cretaceous limestone of the valley known as the Neander-
thal, on the small stream Dlissel flowing between Elberfeld and

Fig. 107. The original type skull of Neanderthal (left side) discovered
in 1856. After Schwalbe. One-quarter life size.

Dusseldorf. They discovered some human bones, probably a
complete skeleton representing an interment, which, unfortu-
nately, were allowed to be scattered and crushed. Doctor Fuhl-
rott rescued the parts that remained, including the now famous
skullcap, both thigh-bones, the right upper- arm bone, portions
of the lower arm, bones of both sides, the right collar-bone,
and fragments of the pelvis, shoulder-blade, and ribs. All the
bones were perfectly preserved and are now to be found in the
provincial museum of Bonn.

The discovery made a great sensation, but at first the age of
these fossils remained doubtful ; some 150 paces from the grotto,
in a similar small cave were found bones of the cave-bear and
rhinoceros. In 1858 Schaaffhausen's memoir30 appeared, in
which he gave the first detailed description of these remains as
belonging to a primitive original race differing in every point
from recent man, and he never wavered from this standpoint.

218 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

In 186331 Busk, Huxley, and Lyell also placed this skeleton in its
true intermediate position between man and the anthropoid apes.
The determined opinion of Virchow that this was not a normal
type of man exerted so great an influence that not until the
classic work of Schwalbe,32 between 1899 and 1901, did this skel-
eton assume its commanding importance for all time, and even
this was subsequent to the discovery of two other Neanderthaloid
races.

At first, quite erroneously, this was associated with the so-
called race of Cannstatt, but long before Schwalbe' s work it was
recognized by King,33 in 1864, as a distinct species of man {Homo
neanderthalensis) 'the man of the Neander valley.' Not long
after the discovery of the Neander thaloids of Spy, in Belgium,
Cope,34 in 1893, proposed the same specific name of Homo neander-
thalensis. In 1897 Wilser35 suggested the name of Homo primi-
genius, which has been widely adopted in Germany, while among
French authors the same species of man is sometimes known
to-day as Homo mousteriensis. This variety of names serves at
least to record the unanimous opinion that this mid-Pleistocene
man belongs to a distinct species.

Since the race was very widely distributed, we may speak of
these people as the 'Neanderthals,' while races resembling the
Neanderthal species may be characterized as 'Neanderthaloid.'
The complete series of discoveries of members of this race is now
very large indeed.

In the year 1887 the Belgian geologists Fraipont and Lohest36
discovered in a grotto near Spy, not far from Dinant on the
Meuse, the remains of two individuals which are now distinguished
as Spy I and Spy II. In the same stratum with the skeletons,
beneath a layer of tufaceous limestone, flint implements of Mous-
terian age were embedded, together with remains of the woolly
mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, cave-bear, and cave-hyoena. This
discovery is one of the most important in the history of anthro-
pology, because it definitely dated the Spy men as belonging to
the period of Mousterian industry, and also because the authors
immediately recognized these men as belonging to the race of

THE NEANDERTHAL RACE

219

DISTRIBUTION OF THE REMAINS OF THE NEANDERTHALS

(Compare Fig. 104)

1. Or Unknown Lower Palaeolithic Times

1848.

Gibraltar.

Forbes Quarry.

Fragmentary skull.

1856.

Neanderthal.

Dusseldorf, Germany.

Skullcap and skeletal
fragments.

1859.

Arcy-sur-Cure.

Yonne, France.

1 lower jaw.

1866.

La Naulette.

Belgium.

1 lower jaw.

1888.

Malarnaud.

Ariege, France.

1 lower jaw.

?Gourdan.

Hautes-Pyrenees.

1 lower jaw.

1906.

Ochos.

Moravia.

1 lower jaw.

2. With Late Mousterian Industry

1887.

Spy I, II.

Near Dinant, Bel-

Two skulls and skel-

gium.

etons.

1907.

Petit-Puymoyen.

Charente, France.

Fragments of upper and
lower jaws.

1909.

Pech de l'Aze.

Dordogne, France.

Skull of a child.

1910.

La Ferrassie II.

Dordogne, France.

1 skeleton (female).

1911.

La Cotte de St.
Brelade.

Isle of Jersey.

13 human teeth.

1911.

La Quina II.

Charente, France.

Skull and fragments of
skeleton.

3, With Middle Mousterian Industry

1882.

Sipka.

Moravia.

Jaw of a child.

1908.

La Chapelle-aux-

Correze, France.

Almost complete skull

Saints.

and skeleton.

1909.

La Ferrassie 1.

Dordogne, France.

Portions of one skeleton.

1910.

La Quina 1.

Charente, France.

Foot bones.

4. With Early Mousterian Industry

1908.

Le Moustier.

Vezere Valley, Dor-
dogne, France.

Skeleton of a youth.

1914.

Ehringsdorf.37

Near Weimar.

Lower jaw.

5. With Mousterian or Acheulean Industry

1899.

Krapina.

Croatia, Austria-Hun-

Portions of many skel-

gary.

etons of adults and
of children.

1892.

Taubach.

Near Weimar.

1 milk tooth.

220 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

Neanderthal and of Cannstatt, which at the time were supposed
to be the same. Here for the first time the proportions of the
cranium and the brain, the very primitive features of the lower
jaw and of the teeth, the low stature, and several ape-like char-
acters of the limb bones became known ; here were observed the
prominent supraorbital ridges of the Neanderthal type, the
receding forehead, the cranial profile inferior to that of the lowest
existing Australian races, the narrow, dolichocephalic skull.

Fig. 108. Skull known as Spy I, discovered in 1887, m front of the

grotto of Spy, near Namur, Belgium. After Kraemer.

One-quarter life size.

The limbs were found to have retained the anthropoid dispropor-
tion between the thigh-bone and the shin-bone, and the important
discovery was made that this short, massively built, heavy-
browed, dull-visaged Neanderthal man was unable to stand
absolutely erect, the structure of the knee-joint being such that
the knees were constantly slightly bent. In other words, the
Spy man had not yet fully acquired the erect position of the
lower limbs.

This discovery may be said to have established the Neander-
thals in all their characters as a very distinct low race, but twenty-
two years elapsed before this was further confirmed by the finding
of another and still earlier type of Neanderthaloid at Krapina,
in northern Croatia, Austria-Hungary, as described at the close
of Chapter II (p. 181 above); a type which with its local varia-

THE NEANDERTHAL RACE 221

tions was soon determined as unquestionably belonging in the
same group with the man of Neanderthal and the men of Spy.

Many years before, namely, in 1866, the Belgian anthro-
pologist Dupont38 had discovered the remains of another mem-
ber of this race in a grotto on the bank of the River Lesse, near
La Naulette, not far from Furfooz, in northern Belgium. This
is now known as the La Naulette jaw and is found to be of
Neanderthal type. It was associated with bones of the woolly
mammoth, the rhinoceros, the reindeer, and a few fragments of
other human bones.

Again, in 1882, Maska39 found in a cave near Sipka, in Mo-
ravia, south of Sternberg, and six miles east of Neutitschein,
fragments of a child's lower jaw, extraordinarily strong, thick, and
large, and showing the incoming of the permanent teeth. From
this very same region is the jaw of Ochos, Moravia, found by
Rzehak40 about 1906. Only the alveolar part of the jaw was
found, but it served to demonstrate the very wide geographical
distribution of the Neanderthal race.

At this time the Dordogne region, long known to be an inten-
sive centre of Mousterian industry, from the time of Lartet's
discovery of Le Moustier, in 1863, had not yielded a single skel-
eton, or any anatomical evidence of the type of man which in
Mousterian times inhabited it. But beginning in the spring of
1908 there came in succession a whole series of such discoveries,
mostly of ceremonial burials, at La Chapelle-aux-Saints, at the
type station of Le Moustier itself, at La Ferrassie, another
station on the lower Vezere, and at La Quina.

In October, 19 10, was discovered the skull known as La Fer-
rassie II, of late Mousterian age ; it is probably that of a female,
and the remains were arranged in what was presumably a special
form of ceremonial burial, because the bones, instead of being
laid out straight in a certain direction, were in a crouching or
flexed position (see Appendix, Note X).

The Le Moustier skeleton was found by Hauser in the lower
grotto of Le Moustier, in the Vezere valley, in the spring of 1908,
and carefully removed with the aid of Professor Klaatsch.41

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

It belonged to a youth some sixteen years of age. The most
interesting feature of the discovery was the manner in which the
skeleton was laid out.42 The head rested on a number of flint
fragments carefully piled together — a sort of stone pillow; the
dead lay in a sleeping posture, with the head resting on the right
forearm. An exceptionally fine coup de poing was close by the
hand, and numerous charred and split bones of wild cattle (Bos
primigenius) were placed around, indicative of a food offering.
The flints were believed to belong to the Acheulean stage, which
underlies the layer of true Mousterian industry, long known in

Fig. 109. Grotto of La Chapelle-aux-Saints, Correze, a few miles to the eastward of Le

Moustier. After Boule.

this locality; but by French archaeologists and by Schmidt these
implements are regarded as of the earliest Mousterian age, in
which it is well known that the Acheulean coup de poing still
persisted. Unfortunately, the skeleton was not very well pre-
served and, while Klaatsch was entirely justified in classifying
it with the Neanderthaloids, it should be regarded not as a dis-
tinct species {Homo mousteriensis hauseri) but rather as a mem-
ber of the true Neanderthal race (Homo neanderthalensis). It
also proves to be a rather stocky individual, robust and of low
stature : the arms and legs are relatively short, especially the
forearm and the shin-bone.

THE NEANDERTHAL RACE

223

At the same time that the skeleton of Le Moustier was
being disinterred, the Abbes A. and J. Bouyssonie, and L. Bar-
don43 were exploring the Mousterian culture of the grotto near
La Chapelle-aux-Saints, a few miles to the eastward of Le Mous-
tier, and came upon a skeleton which has proved to be by far
the finest of all the Neanderthaloid fossils, including a remark-

Fig. no Entrance to the grotto of La Chapelle-aux-Saints, where the finest of all the
Neanderthaloid fossils was discovered in 1908. After Boule.

ably well-preserved skull, almost the entire back-bone, twenty
ribs, bones of the arm and of the greater part of the leg, and a
number of the bones of the hands and feet. This was also a
ceremonial burial of an individual between fifty and fifty-five
years of age, most . carefully laid out in an east-and-west direc-
tion in a small, natural depression. With it were found typical
Mousterian flints, also a number of shells and remains chiefly
of the woolly rhinoceros, the horse, the reindeer, and the bison.
The finding of a mature skull with the bones of the face in posi-
tion, and in a relatively perfect state of preservation, without
distortion of the entire cranium, afforded for the first time the

224

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

opportunity of finally determining not only all the skeletal char-
acters and proportions of Neanderthal man but also the actual
size and proportions of the brain. This superb specimen was
sent to the Paris Museum, and Boule's preliminary descriptions44

Fig. hi. The Neanderthaloid skull from La Chapelle-aux-Saints — side, front
and top views. After Boule. One-quarter life size.

and finally his almost faultless monograph45 aroused world-wide
interest in the Neanderthal race.

A year later a third Neanderthal skeleton was discovered in
the cave of La Ferrassie not far from Le Bugue, Dordogne, by
Peyrony. The bones were badly shattered, and the proofs of
ceremonial burial were not perfectly clear, but at a glance the
skeleton was clearly recognized from the characters of the skull,

THE NEANDERTHAL RACE 225

and particularly from those of the forehead, as belonging to the
Neanderthal race.

In the succeeding year, 1910, in the cavern of La Quina, De-
partment of Charente, to the north of the Vezere region46 were
found the foot bones of a man precisely resembling the La Cha-
pelle type, and again in 191 1 several parts of the skeleton of an-
other entirely typical member of the Neanderthal race were dis-
covered in the earliest Mousterian strata. The skull bones were
somewhat separated at the sutures. This was certainly not a

it 1 it

Fig. 112. Human teeth of Neanderthaloid type, discovered in a cave on the Isle of Jersey.
After Marett and Hrdlicka.

case of ceremonial burial. Like the Gibraltar skull, this is sup-
posed to be that of a female.

Of especial geographic interest is the discovery by Nicolle
and Sinel47 of thirteen human teeth in a Mousterian cavern on
St. Brelade's Bay, on the Island of Jersey,48 which furnishes
proof of the extension of the Neanderthal race to the Channel
Islands, when these were, in all probability, still a part of the
mainland. The teeth were associated with bones of the woolly
rhinoceros, of the reindeer, and of two varieties of the horse,
as well as with evidences of Mousterian hearths and flint imple-
ments. The distinctive features of the Neanderthal grinding-
teeth are the stout size, deep implantation, and expanded form
of the roots, which, with the heavy jaw, point to the toughness
of the food and to the muscular strength exerted in mastication.

226 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

The roots, instead of tapering to a point below, as in modern
man, form a broad, stout column, supporting the crown, adapted
to a sweeping motion of the jaw. This special feature alone would
exclude the Neanderthals from the ancestry of the higher races.
Thus, through a long series of discoveries, beginning in 1848
and rapidly multiplying during the last few years, we have found
the materials for a complete knowledge of the skeletal structure
of the men, women, and children of the Neanderthal race ; we
know the relative brain development as well as the stature of
the sexes ; we have determined that this race, and this only,
extended over all western Europe during late Acheulean and the
entire period of Mousterian times, and we have also learned that
it was a race imbued with reverence for the dead and therefore
probably animated by the belief in some form of future existence.

Characters of the Neanderthal Race

The skulls and skeletons49 of Neanderthal, Spy, Krapina,
Le Moustier, La Chapelle, La Ferrassie, and Gibraltar have so
many distinctive features in common that it is beyond question
that they must be classed in a closely related group. The 'dis-
tinctive features of this group are :

First, features found also in the different existing races of
man, but never in the anthropoid apes, and therefore human;
second, features, all of which have never been found combined in
any race of recent man, the group, therefore, represents a distinct
species of man ; third, features outside of the limits of variation
in the recent races of man, and intermediate between them and
the variation limits of the anthropoid apes.

Before looking at Neanderthal man as a whole, we may turn
our attention especially to a number of these peculiar features of
the race. All the earliest observers were impressed by the heavy,
overhanging brows and retreating forehead. In recent man
there is often a decided prominence above the eyes, from the
glabella or median point above the nose outward toward each
side, but generally the outer third of the margin of these promi-

THE NEANDERTHAL RACE

227

nences turns upward beneath the outer line of the eyebrows. In
the Neanderthals, on the contrary, these prominences beneath
the eyebrows surround the whole upper edge of the eye socket,
extending outward around the external

borders of the forehead, so that they ^ ^\

may be called ' tori supraorbitales ' ; the
extent of this prominent ridge above
and to the sides forms a veritable roof
over the eye sockets, which appear like
two deep, lateral cav-
erns. Such lateral
prominences do
occur, though
rarely, in re-
cent man; dP It- # ^ they are observed,

for example, in
certain Austra-
lians.
The front view of the Neanderthal
face, as seen in the female Gibraltar
skull, in which these eyebrow ridges
are by no means so prominent as in
the male skulls, is no less remarkable
for the great height of the face as com-
pared with the flatness of the forehead.
Placing the skull side by side with that
of the Australian,50 we observe at once
the enormous difference in the propor-
tions of the face and the cranium in
these two types, although the Australian represents one of the
lowest existing races of Homo sapiens ; we observe in the Gi-
braltar skull the very wide space between the eyes and the very
large size of the narial opening, which indicate a broad, flat-
tened nose ; there is a correspondingly long space between the
bottom of the narial opening and the line for the insertion of
the incisor teeth, indicating a very long upper lip.

Fig. 113. Skulls of a chim-
panzee (left), of La Cha-
pelle-aux-Saints (centre),
and of a modern French-
man (right), showing the
gradual disappearance of
the eyebrow ridges and pro-
jecting face. After Boule.

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

The jaw is less powerful than that of the Heidelberg man.
The Heidelberg jaw we have seen to be distinguished by its gen-
eral strength and clumsiness and its lack of chin, or rather a
chin without the slightest indication of a prominence ; on the
inside of this very thick, rounded chin plate, the characteristic
chin spine {spina mentalis) is lacking ; instead, a double groove
is present as the point of attachment for the muscles which con-

Fig. 114. Face view of the Gibraltar skull (left) after Hrdlicka, and of a modern
Australian skull (right) after Schwalbe, displaying the high, large visage of the former,
which suggests that of the anthropoid apes. Both one-quarter life size. The com-
parative horizontal lines are across the (a) nasion, or root of the nose, the (b) lower
edges of the orbits, the (c) lower edge of the nasal aperture, and the (d) top of the
front teeth.

nect the chin and tongue with the hyoid bone ; the ascending
process for the attachment of the muscles of the jaw is seen to
be unusually broad, 60 mm., in contrast to about 37 mm. in the
recent jaw; finally, the condyle for attachment with the skull
is particularly large.51

Like the Heidelberg jaw, that of the Neanderthals is distin-
guished by great thickness and massiveness. In general the
contours are similar ; in a few instances the chin process is sug-
gested by a slight prominence, but in general the chin is strongly
receding, and it agrees with that of Heidelberg in lacking the
spina mentalis. In other characteristics there are decided dif-
ferences in the Heidelberg and Neanderthal jaws. The form of
the latter is now known from the specimens of Krapina, of Spy,
of La Naulette, of Ochos, and of Sipka, and from the perfect
examples of Le Moustier and La Chapelle. The Sipka speci-

THE NEANDERTHAL RACE 229

men proves that even in a child ten years of age the jaw was
remarkable for thickness and strength. Boule52 entirely agrees
with Gorjanovic-Kramberger53 that the chin in the Neanderthal
jaw was only in process of formation, and throughout life at-
tained no more than an infantile form, that the Neanderthals
may be ranked, however, as Homines tnentales, whereas the Heidel-
bergs, in which the chin is entirely lacking, may be regarded as
Homines amentales.

The proportions of the teeth in the Neanderthals are equally
distinctive, especially in the size of the true grinders and cutting
teeth. As in the Heidelberg jaw, they form a closely set row,
from which the canine does not project as in the Piltdown den-
tition; in fact, the contour of the jaw and the proportions of
the teeth are distinctly human when compared with the orang-
like jaw of the Piltdown man. The grinding surface of the teeth
has many layers of enamel, and the cusps are well developed.
Unlike those of recent man, the incisors display folds of enamel
on the inner or lingual surfaces, a condition rarely observed in the
modern cutting teeth. In the teeth of the Heidelberg jaw,
the pulp cavities are exceptionally large, whereas in the teeth of
the Krapina race there is the unique feature that the molars have
no normal roots, the roots having been more or less absorbed, a
very rare occurrence in recent man. The dentition of La Chapelle
is also distinctly human, but extraordinarily massive, correspond-
ing with the general massiveness of the skull and masticating
apparatus ; in detail it is not that of civilized races, but an ex-
aggerated form of the type called macrodont.M The elongation
of the crown is also similar to what is termed hypsodont.

The grinding- teeth do not all show this massive size and co-
lumnar form, for about fifty per cent of the Krapina teeth have
distinct roots and are more like normal modern grinders. In
the Neanderthaloids of Spy the teeth are small and the roots
are of moderate size.55

This study of the forehead and of the eyebrow ridges, of the
great depth of the face, and of the peculiarly high, square form
of the eye sockets prepares us for a profile view of the skull of

230 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

La Chapelle in contrast with that of the most highly developed
and intellectual European type, namely, the profile of the dis-
tinguished American palaeontologist, the late Professor Edward
D. Cope, who bequeathed his skull and skeleton for purposes of
scientific study and comparison. In La Chapelle we at once
notice the platycephaly, or flattening of the skullcap, the retreat-
ing forehead, the great prominence of the eyebrow ridges resem-
bling that of the anthropoid apes, the lengthening of the face as

Fig. 115. Skull of La Chapelle-aux-Saints (outline) in comparison with
that of a high modern type (shaded); illustrating the projecting eye-
brows and prognathous, ape-like face of the Neanderthaloids. After
Boule. One-quarter life size.

compared with the flattening of the cranium, the great promi-
nence or prognathism of the face as a whole, and the special promi-
nence of the rows of cutting teeth as compared with the vertical
or indrawn line, and the recession of the tooth row in the Cope
profile. This comparison also brings out the striking contrast
between the high chin prominence of Homo sapiens and the
deeply receding chin of the Neanderthals. The contrast is
hardly less remarkable in the superior view of the skull in which
the Neanderthal type is seen to be extremely dolichocephalic, the
back of the skull being relatively broad and the front narrowing
in the region of the forebrain until it suddenly expands in the
prominent supraorbital processes.

As shown in the diagram on page 8, Fig. 1, the greatest

THE NEANDERTHAL RACE

231

length of the Neanderthal skull is found on the horizontal line
directly through the brain chamber, known as the glabella-inion
line, a line drawn from a prominence between the eyebrow ridges
to a point at the back of the skull known as the external occipital
protuberance, or inion. This is also the longest line in the skulls
of Spy and of La Chapelle, as well as of the anthropoid apes,56
but in the north Australian skull, Fig. i, owing to the greater
expansion of the upper part of the brain, the greatest length of

■

Fig. 116. Top view of three skulls — of a chimpanzee (left), of the man of La Chapelle-

aux-Saints (centre), and of a modern Frenchman (right) — showing the retreat

of the projecting face and prominent eyebrow ridges. After Boule.

the skull is at a point considerably above the glabella-inion line.
The median section of the skull of the chimpanzee, of the Nean-
derthal, and of the north Australian displays in a very striking
manner the generalization made by Schwalbe, in 1901, that the
Neanderthal skull is truly an intermediate or half-way form
between that of the anthropoid apes and that of Homo sapiens.
We observe in this illuminating section the growth of the dome of
the skull, that is, the great brain-bearing cavity above the glabella-
inion line g-i, by noting the contrast in the length of the vertical
line of the cranial height, as compared with the space below the
glabella-inion line indicated by the letters. This very important
vertical line terminates below at the opening, where the spinal
cord enters the base of the brain (see Fig. 1).

232 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

In many characteristics the Neanderthal skull is shown to
be nearer to that of the anthropoid apes than to that of Homo
sapiens. This conclusion arrived at by Schwalbe, in iqoi,57 has
been more than confirmed by Boule's masterly study58 of the
very complete skull of La Chapelle. After his detailed review, he
concludes : As to the unity of the Neanderthal head form, these
features are not peculiar to the skull of La Chapelle ; in every case
they are also found in the skulls of Neanderthal, Gibraltar, Spy,
Krapina, La Ferrassie, which witness to the homogeneity of that
human fossil type called Neanderthal. These features show a
structural affinity between the fossil men of the Mousterian period
and the anthropoid apes. It must be noted that many of these
features may be found also in recent human skulls of the inferior
races, but that they are very rare, very scattered, very isolated,
and occur only as aberrations. It is the accumulation of all
these features in every skull of a whole series which constitutes
an assemblage entirely new and of great importance. In the
skull, as in other parts of the anatomy of the Neanderthals, we
should not expect to find every character intermediate between
the anthropoids and recent man. The long Neanderthal face is
somewhat dmilar to that of the Eskimo and is in contrast with
the very short face of the existing Australians and Tasmanians.
The depression at the root of the nose, just below the glabella,
is very marked in all Neanderthals; there is less of the nose
bridge than in any recent races, except those of the male Aus-
tralians, yet the nose is not flattened but somewhat arched or
aquiline. This feature is not characteristic of all the anthropoid
apes, and in this respect the Neanderthals, Australians, and Tas-
manians are more different from the anthropoid apes than are
some of the white races; thus the Neanderthal nose, far from
resembling that of the anthropoids, differs from it more than
does that of some recent human types.59 Many anatomists,
following Huxley, have described the Australian and Tasmanian
skulls as more or less Neanderthaloid, and some authors have
gone so far as to regard these races as surviving Neanderthals.
It is true that some of the skulls in these existing races are ex-

THE NEANDERTHAL RACE

233

Cr6-Magnon.
European.

Galley Hiil.Briix-Briinn.

Tasmanian.
Australian.

Spy-Neanderthal.

Gibraltar.

traordinarily platycephalic and show a retreating forehead, that
others show supraorbital ridges almost as prominent as in the
Neanderthals, that sometimes the
prominence of the occipital inion
is very marked, that certain jaws
show a very retreating chin. Thus
one or another of these Neander-
thal features has been observed in
these lower existing races, but all of
these characteristics have never
been combined in one race as con-
stant features, and invariably asso-
ciated, as in all the skulls of the
Neanderthals known to us.

In brief, the Australian type of
head has nothing in common with
that of the Neanderthals except in
a small number of characteristics in
the region of the forehead and of
the nose. The distinguishing traits
of the Neanderthal head and face

are platycephaly, a retreat-

ing forehead, flattening of
the occiput or lower portion
of the skull, prominence of
the supraorbital ridges, chin
retreating or lacking, pro-
jection of the entire face
owing to the peculiar form
of the upper jaw, and the
relatively small size of the
Irontal lobes of the brain.
In fact, concludes Boule :
"All these modern so-called
'Neanderthaloids' are nothing but varieties of individuals of
Homo sapiens , remarkable for the accidental exaggeration of cer-

I

Pithecanthropus erectus

Anthropoid ape.

Fig. 117. Scale of ascent indicated in the skull
form of eleven races of fossil and living men,
based on the result of twelve different char*
acters of comparison. At the bottom stands
the anthropoid ape, and above this Pithe-
canthropus, the ape-man of Java. A wide
range is observed between the Neanderthaloid
skulls of Gibraltar and of Spy-Neanderthal.
Not far above these in the scale of ascent
stand the modern Australians and the re-
cently extinct Tasmanians. Above these low
races are found the fossil Upper Palaeolithic
races of Galley Hill, Briix, Briinn, and Pred-
most. At the top stand the modern Euro-
pean races, beside which the Upper Palaeo-
lithic Cro-Magnon race takes a high rank.
After Buchner.

234 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

tain anatomical traits which are normally developed in all speci-
mens of Homo neanderthalensis. The simplest explanation of
these accidents in most cases is atavism or reversion. We can-
not assert that there has never been an infusion of Neander-
thaloid blood in the groups belonging to species Homo sapiens,
but what seems to be quite certain is that any such infusion
can have been only accidental, for there is no recent type which
can be considered even as a modified direct descendant of the
Neanderthals."

This opinion is confirmed by the latest and most exhaustive
researches of Berry and Robertson,60 who conclude that neither
Australians nor Tasmanians have any direct relationship with
Homo neanderthalensis; the superficial points of cranial re-
semblance are explicable solely on the grounds of the remoteness
of the ancestry. The Australians and Tasmanians are descen-
dants not of the Neanderthal stock but of a late Pliocene or early
Pleistocene stock, which, following Sergi, may be called Homo
sapiens tasmanianus, of which the Tasmanian aboriginal, now
extinct, was the almost unchanged offspring. In respect to 'low'
characters, as shown in the diagram, Fig. 117, the Spy-Nean-
derthal skulls stand quite close to the Tasmanians and Aus-
tralians, and the Gibraltar skull stands midway between this
type and Pithecanthropus with respect to twelve different char-
acters of comparison.

It is interesting to note* that the Tasmanians were found in
a stage of flint industry very similar to that practised by the
Neanderthals in Mousterian times ; their flints were made from
artificially produced flakes, including a few examples61 that ex-
hibited a neatness of edge trimming and resultant regularity of
outline, whereas the greater part were characterized by an un-
skilful trimming and irregular outline ; the low status of the Tas-
manian implements can most correctly be described by the word
Pre-Aurignacian, that is, of Mousterian or of an earlier stage, but
not by any means 'Eolithic'

* The last of this very primitive race of the great island of Tasmania became extinct
in 1877.62

THE NEANDERTHAL RACE

235

Fig. i i 8. The Neanderthaloid skull of La
Chapelle-aux-Saints, with the right half re-
moved to show the shape of the brain, as
restored by J. H. McGregor. One-quarter
life size.

The brain of Neanderthal man was known to be of large size
even when estimated from the original skullcap of the Neander-
thal type. Darwin was com-
pelled to admit that the fa-
mous skull of Neanderthal
was well developed and capa-
cious, and Broca offered an
ingenious explanation of the
otherwise inexplicable fact
that the mean capacity of the
skull of the ancient cave-
dweller is greater than that
of many modern Frenchmen,
namely, that the average
capacity of the skull in civi-
lized nations must be lowered
by the preservation of a con-
siderable number of individ-
uals, weak in mind and body, who would have been promptly
eliminated in the savage state, whereas among savages the

average includes only
JT^^^^T-^^ the more capable indi-

viduals who have been
able to survive under
extremely hard condi-
tions of life. The skulls
of La Chapelle and of
Spy afforded an oppor-
tunity of determining
this very interesting
problem, and the re-
sults entirely confirm
the earlier estimates
of Schaaffhausen and
of Broca as to the great cubic capacity of the Neanderthal brain.
The estimates in descending order are as follows :

Fig. 119. Outline of the left side of the Neander-
thaloid brain of La Chapelle-aux-Saints, compared
with similar brain outlines of a chimpanzee and of a
high type of modern man. One-third life size.

236

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

Skull of Spy II (Fraipont) : ? 1723 c.cm.

" La Chapelle (Boule, Verneau, and Rivet) 1626

" Spy I (Fraipont) ? 1562

" Neanderthal 1408

" La Quina, female (Boule approximation) 1367

" Gibraltar, female (Boule estimate) 1296

The size of the brain in the existing races of Homo sapiens
varies from 950 c.cm. to 2020 c.cm.63 Thus in respect to the

Fig. 120. Brains of Lower and Upper Palaeolithic races compared (top and left side
views). Piltdown (left), as restored by J. H. McGregor; Neanderthal (centre) brain,
cast from the type skull; Combe-Capelle (right) from the base of the Upper Palaeolithic,
after Klaatsch. The Combe-Capelle brain, though unnaturally compressed, shows a
relatively broad frontal area. One-quarter life "size.

volume of cerebral matter the brain of the Neanderthal man is
surely human, but in form the brain lacks the proportions char-
acteristic of the superior organization of the brain in recent man.
In another important respect it is human: in the larger size of
the left hemisphere, indicating the development of the use of
the right hand. In its general form the brain is more like that
of the anthropoid apes in the relatively smaller size of the frontal
portion, in the simplicity and length of the convolutions, and in

THE NEANDERTHAL RACE 237

the position and direction of the great fissures at the side known
as the ' fissures of Sylvius' and of 'Rolando.' As studied by
Boule and Anthony64 there are many primitive characteristics
in the brain of the Neanderthals. The front of the forebrain,
the so-called prefrontal area, which is the seat of the higher facul-
ties, is not fully developed but has a protuberance as in the
brain of the anthropoids. The left frontal lobe in particular,
which is associated with the power of speech, is not much de-
veloped in the lower part, so that a limited development of the
faculty of speech is inferred. The lateral fissure of Sylvius is
relatively wide and open, and this and other features suggest
the brain of the anthropoid. The brain of the skull of La Quina,
which is believed to be that of a female, also shows many primi-
tive features.65 The absolute cubic capacity of the brain is less
significant of intelligence than the relative development of those
portions of the brain which are concerned in the higher processes
of the mind.

The stature of the various examples of the Neanderthal race
is estimated somewhat differently by Boule and by Manouvrier,
and also varies with the sex :

Neanderthal (Boule) 1.55 m. 5 ft. 1 in.

" (Manouvrier) 1-632 m. 5 ft. 4 1/5 in.

La Chapelle (Boule) 1.57 m. 5 ft. 1 4/5 in.

" (Manouvrier) 1.611 m. 5 ft. 3 2/5 in.

Spy (Manouvrier) 1.633 m- 5 ft- 4 3/10 in.

La Ferrassie I (Manouvrier) 1.657 m. 5 ft. 5 1/5 in.

Average of Neanderthals supposed male 1-633 m. 5 ft. 4 3/10 in.

La Ferrassie II (female) 1.482 m. 4 ft. 10 3/10 in.

The Neanderthal head is very large in proportion to the short,
thick-set body, which we observe rarely exceeds 5 feet 5 inches
in height in the male, and 4 feet 10 inches in the female. The
proportions of the body and limbs of the Neanderthals throw a
surprising light on their ancestral history as well as upon their
defects as a race dependent upon the chase. In proportion to
the length of the thigh, the lower leg is much shorter than in any
existing human race. The tibia or shin-bone is only 76.6 per

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

cent of the length of the femur or thigh-bone, whereas in the ex-
isting races with the shortest shin-bone, such as the Eskimos and

the majority of the yellow races, it is
never less than 80 per cent of the length
of the thigh-bone. In this respect the
Neanderthal man is not like the anthro-
poid apes but has a relatively shorter
shin-bone, because the gorillas have an
index of 80.6 per cent, the chimpanzees of
82 per cent, the orangs and gibbons of
above 83 per cent; thus all the anthro-
poid apes and the lower races of man
have a relatively longer leg from the knee
down than has the Neanderthal race.

The shortness of the shin-bone as com-
pared with the length of the thigh-bone is
proof that the Neanderthals were very
clumsy and slow of foot, because this
proportion is characteristic of all slow-
moving animals, whereas a long shin-bone
and a short thigh-bone indicate that a
race is naturally fleet of foot.

Similarly the Neanderthal man has a
very short forearm, only 73.8 per cent of
the upper arm ; it approaches the propor-
tions seen in the Eskimos, Lapps, and
Bushmen.66 Here, again, the Neanderthal
man differs from the anthropoid apes,
among which the shortest forearm is that
of the gorilla, having a ratio of 80 per
cent.

There are other features which would
tend to show that the ancestors of the
Neanderthaloids had been ground dwellers rather than tree
dwellers back into a very remote period of geologic time; the
arms are much shorter than the legs, whereas in tree dwellers

Fig. 121. Skeleton of the
Neanderthaloid man of
La Chapelle-aux-Saints.
About one - seventeenth
life size. After Boule.

THE NEANDERTHAL RACE

they are much longer. Thus, we have observed in the anthro-
poid apes that the arm is very long in proportion to the leg ; in
the chimpanzee, which has relatively the shortest arms among
the anthropoid apes, the index is 104 per cent, that is, the arms
are slightly longer than the legs. On the contrary, in the Ne-
anderthals the arm length is only 68 per cent of the leg length ;
thus it is very far removed from the anthropoid-ape type and
comes nearest to the Australian and African negro types.
Thus, to sum up the bodily proportions of the Neanderthals :

Arm short in proportion to leg, average index 68 per cent.
Forearm short in proportion to upper arm, average index 73.8 per cent.
Shin-bone short in proportion to thigh-bone, average index 76.6 per cent.
Stature extremely short in proportion to size of head.

The structure of the shoulder and of the chest is full of in-
terest. All the ribs are remarkably robust and of large volume,
and, whereas in existing races they exhibit a flattened section, in
the Neanderthals the section is distinctly triangular in form.
This implies a very muscular and robust torso in correlation with
the gigantic head and stout limbs. The collar-bones are corre-
spondingly long, presenting a ratio to the humerus exceeding
54 per cent, which is much higher than that among the average
existing races ; this indicates a very broad shoulder. The shoul-
der-blade is also very different in type from that of the higher
races of men, and even from that of the higher Primates ; it is
extremely short and broad.

While, as noted above, the arm of the Neanderthals is rela-
tively short and thus non-anthropoid, it presents a mingling of
human and ape characters. The upper arm, or humerus, is truly
of the human type, the torsion angle upon its axis being 1480,
whereas in the anthropoid apes the angle of torsion never passes
141 °. Among the bones of the lower arm the most significant
is the radius, with which the turning movement of the hand is
correlated ; the structure of the head of the radius has more re-
semblance to that of the anthropoid apes than to that of existing
species of man. The structure of the other bone of the forearm,

240

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

the ulna, is also very primitive, exhibiting certain monkey char-
acteristics.

The structure of the hand is a matter of the highest interest
in connection with the implement-making powers of the Neander-
thals. The hand is remarkably large and robust, comparable

Fig. 122. Thigh-bones, ox femora, of the Trinil, Neanderthal, and Cro-Magnon races,
compared with one of modern type. The Neanderthal femur seems to be short and
stout, whereas that attributed to Pithecanthropus is relatively long, slender, and
straight. Of the femora illustrated the Neanderthal and Trinil are those of the type
specimens, the Cro-Magnon is from the skeletal fragments of La Madeleine. After
Dubois, Boule, Lartet, and Christy. One-eighth life size.

in size with that of men of very large stature in existing races.
With respect to the opposition power of the thumb against the
fingers by means of the opponens muscle, a distinctively human
characteristic, the stage of Neanderthal development is decidedly
lower than that of existing races, because the joint of the meta-
carpal bone which supports the thumb is of a peculiar form, con-
vex, and presenting a veritable convex condyle, whereas in the
existing human races the articular surface of the upper part of the
thumb joint is saddle-shaped, that is, concave from within back-
ward, and convex from without inward. Thus the highly per-

THE NEANDERTHAL RACE 241

fected motions of the thumb in Homo sapiens were not attained
in Homo neanderthalensis. Two phalanges which are preserved
in the Chapelle-aux-Saints skeleton show that the ringers were
relatively short and robust.

In the structure of the hip-girdle our fossil man is altogether
human ; nevertheless, some of its characters are very primitive
and distinctive.

Similarly, the thigh-bone shows several primitive characters
which are only rarely seen in existing races, such as the third
trochanter and the strong, general forward curvature.

The structure of the knee-joint in relation to the shin-bone is
very peculiar, because it shows that the shin was always retro-
verted or bent backward. Two other features of the shin-bone
are its extreme abbreviation as compared with the femur, and
the absence of flattening, or platycnemism. Where the shin-
bone joins the ankle-bone (astragalus) are shown two facets, such
as are preserved only in those races of existing men which have
retained the habit of squatting or the folded position of the
limbs ; these facets are not found in races which have the habit
of sitting. They indicate that the resting position of the Nean-
derthals while engaged in industrial work was squatting, as
shown in our restoration of one of the Neanderthals at Le
Moustier.

Associated with these powerful and peculiarly shaped limbs
is the particularly short and thick-set vertebral column, each bone
of which is remarkable for its abbreviation. The neck especially
is entirely different in construction from that of existing races of
men. It would appear that the concave curvature of the back
in the Neanderthals was carried directly upward and continued
into the concave curvature of the neck, as among the anthropoid
apes, and especially in the chimpanzee. The vertebrae of the
neck, especially the fifth, sixth, and seventh, and the first dorsal,
resemble those of the chimpanzee far more closely than those of
the modern European ; the spinous processes are directed back-
ward instead of downward. This caused the habitual stooping
of Neanderthal man at the neck and shoulders and prevented

242 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

him from ever holding his head entirely erect. Whereas in the
back-bone of existing races the erect position is maintained by
four graceful curvatures, two toward the front, and two toward
the back, in the Neanderthals, as in the newly-born members of
the higher races, we observe only three curvatures, two concave

• f

Fig. 123. Restoration of the head of the Neanderthal man of La Chapelle-

aux-Saints, in profile, after model by J. H. McGregor.

One-quarter life size.

toward the front, namely, the back and neck curvature, just de-
scribed, and a sacral or pelvic curvature ; there is also a convex
lumbar curvature in the lower part of the Neanderthal back-bone,
which, however, is less pronounced than in existing species of
man.

Summing up the characters of the back-bone in the Neander-
thals, certain of them are very primitive, such as the structure
of the vertebrae of the neck and the robust development of the

THE NEANDERTHAL RACE

243

spinous processes, the absence of marked curvature in the lower
part of the back-bone and the very gentle curvature of the bones
of the sacrum.

The total aspect of Neanderthal man may be characterized
in the following manner:67 An enormous head placed upon a

r

Fig. 124. Restoration of the head of the Neanderthal man of La Chapelle-

aux-Saints, in front view, after model by J. H. McGregor.

One-quarter life size.

short and thick trunk, with limbs very short and thick-set, and
very robust; the shoulders broad and stooping, with the head
and neck habitually bent forward into the same curvature as
the back ; the arms relatively short as compared with the legs ;
the lower leg, as compared with the upper leg, shorter than in
any of the existing races of men ; the knee habitually bent for-
ward without the power of straightening the joint or of standing
fully erect; the hands extremely large and without the delicate

244 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

play between the thumb and fingers characteristic of modern
races ; the resort to a squatting position while occupied in flint-
making and other industries. Thus the ordinary attitudes char-
acteristic of Homo neanderthalensis would be quite different from
our own and most ungainly. The heavy head, the enormous
development of the face, and the backward position of the
foramen magnum, through which the spinal cord connects with
the brain, would tend to throw the upper part of the body for-
ward, and this tendency, with the lesser curvature of the neck,
the heavy shoulders, and the flattened form of the head, would
give this portion of the body a more or less anthropoid aspect.

Geographic Distribution of Mousterian Stations

The Neanderthal race of Mousterian times established sta-
tions all over western Europe, of which upward of fifty have
already been discovered, as compared with the fifty-seven or more
Acheulean stations known. At some points the old open camps
of the Acheulean flint workers were still visited, as along the
Thames, the Somme, and the Marne. Thus Abbeville, St.
Acheul, Montieres, and Chelles, in northern France, show a suc-
cession of Mousterian industry following the Acheulean, the Chel-
lean, and, at St. Acheul, even the Pre-Chellean. These may well
have been summer stations, visited at favorable seasons of the
year because of their abundant supply of flint. About 125 miles
to the east of St. Acheul, in Belgium, on a small tributary of
the Meuse, is the grotto of Spy, which, together with Mousterian
implements, has yielded two human fossil skeletons of the Nean-
derthal race.

In southern Devonshire is the famous cavern of Kent's Hole,
near Torquay, discovered as long ago as 1825 by MacEnery and
described in 1840 by Godwin- Austen.68 It is interesting to note
that teeth of the sabre-tooth tiger (Machcerodus latidens) have
been found in this cavern, leading Boyd Dawkins to believe that
this animal survived to late geologic times : it will be recalled
as a contemporary of the early Chellean flint workers at Abbe-

MOUSTERIAN INDUSTRY

245

ville. The animal life of Kent's Hole, as originally described by
Godwin- Austen, included remains of "elephant, rhinoceros, ox,
deer, horse, bear, hyaena, and a feline animal of large size" — fauna
now known to belong to the period of the fourth glaciation.*

X HUMAN FOSSILS

,fjj*

1- La Ferrassie

,

Z- La Micoque

(.)

3- Le Mouslier

• nTV^

4- La Rochette

(•5 ~"

5- Poland

^.•6 «8

6- Abri Audit

7- La Mout/ie

8" Laussel

©CEREMONIAL BURIALS

Fig. 125. Geographic distribution of the principal Mousterian industrial stations in
western Europe, attributed to the Neanderthal race.

To the south are three stations, one of which, La Cotte de St.
Brelade, on the present isle of Jersey, then part of the mainland,
has yielded Mousterian flakes and thirteen human teeth of
Neanderthal type.

Still farther to the south, in the Dordogne region, is found the
type station described on a previous page, of Le Moustier, the

* This cavern, like many of those discovered in the early days of anthropological
research, was not carefully explored in reference to the all-important horizontal bedding
of the layers of flint flakes and of animal remains.

246

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

centre of a group of eight sites crowded along the north and south
shores of the Vezere, which have become famous for the knowl-
edge they yield of the successive stages in the development of
the Mousterian implements, beginning with the primitive cul-
ture station of La Micoque, and including La Ferrassie, Le Mous-
tier, La Rochette, Pataud, La Mouthe, Laussel, and finally the
Abri Audit, which marks the closing stage in the development of

Fig. 126. The Mousterian cave of Homos de la Pefta, in the Cantabrian
Mountains of northern Spain. Photograph by N. C. Nelson.

the Mousterian industry and, in the opinion of many archae-
ologists, its transition to the Aurignacian. At several of these
places important discoveries have been made, both of human fos-
sils and of noteworthy transitions in the progress of invention.
Circling round this Vezere group are the stations of Petit-Puy-
moyen, La Quina, where implements of the closing stage of Mous-
terian industry have been found as well as a human fossil of the
Neanderthal type, and La Chapelle-aux-Saints, which has yielded
the only complete skeleton of a Neanderthal man so far dis-
covered.

In Spain is the station of San Isidro, near the headwaters of
the Tagus, and the beautifully situated grottos of Castillo and
Hornos de la Peiia, on the northern slopes of the Cantabrian
Mountains.

MOUSTERIAN INDUSTRY 247

As contrasted with the very numerous Acheulean sites of
Italy, it is surprising to note that only two Mousterian grottos
have thus far been discovered in this region : the Grotte delle
Fate in the mountains of Liguria, and the very important group
of caves on the Riviera, near Mentone, known as the Grottes
de Grimaldi, close to the seashore and at the very point where
the Italian Alps abut upon the sea. Crossing to the north, we

Fig. 127. Outlook from the cave of Hornos de la Pefia. Photograph
by N. C. Nelson.

note the superb Swiss grotto of Wildkirchli, on the headwaters
of the Rhine, 5,000 feet above sea-level.

In all Germany there are only about seven stations of unques-
tioned Mousterian age. Of these six are grottos, and the seventh,
Mommenheim, is a fluvial redeposit of loess along a small stream,
where only one implement has been found.69 It is interesting to
observe that in Germany these Mousterian sites occupy the great
wedge of territory between the Scandinavian ice-fields on the
north, and the Alpine on the south, and that Wildkirchli was
actually within the area of glaciation ; while the caves of Rauber-
hohle and Sipka were not far from the glaciers which clothed
the Carpathian Mountains, and Baumannshohle was not so very
remote from the great Scandinavian ice-field. In the region of
the headwaters of the Rhine and Danube the industry of the

248 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

Neanderthal race has thus far been traced only at the stations
of Irpfelhohle, Rauberhohle, and Sirgenstein. The latter cav-
ern is of especial importance because it comprises the entire
Palaeolithic history of this region, presenting a series of succes-
sive culture layers from Mousterian times up to the arrival of
the Neolithic race. Further to the east are the Gudenushohle,
near Krems, in Lower Austria, and Ochos and Sipka, in Moravia,
while over the Russian border are Wierschovie and Miskolcz. Well
to the northwest of Wildkirchli are the stations of Mommen-
heim and Kartstein, and to the north that of Baumannshohle.

Workmanship of the Neanderthals

The dense communal life of Mousterian times may have fa-
vored a social evolution, the development of the imagination and
of tribal lore, and the beginnings of the religious belief and cere-
monial of which apparent indications are found to be wide-spread
among the entirely different races of Upper Palaeolithic times. The
life is not, however, marked by industrial progress or invention.

The successive stages of the Mousterian industry have
not as yet been so clearly defined as those of the Acheulean
(Schmidt70). In the open Mousterian stations and caverns of
Belgium and England Schmidt has observed the stages of early,
middle, and late Mousterian. Breuil and Obermaier consider
La Micoque as belonging to the close of the Acheulean but as
marking the transition into the Mousterian. Breuil considers
the industry of the Combe-Capelle station as representing the
oldest true Mousterian culture. The researches which have
been carried thus far would appear to justify the following sub-
divisions of the Mousterian culture in southwestern France:

6. Abri Audit culture, marking the transition from late Mousterian to early

Aurignacian industry.
5. Late true Mousterian industry. La Quina type of implements with

scrapers and bone anvils.
4. Middle Mousterian industry, with a predominance of handsome, large
Mousterian points carefully 'retouched' on the edge and sometimes
on one side, a ' retouch ' at times approaching the superior Solutrean
technique.

MOUSTERIAN INDUSTRY 249

3. Primitive early Mousterian industry, with a limited inventory of im-
plements.

2. Combe-Capelle stage, with heart-shaped coups de poing and typical
Mousterian 'points.' (Arrival of reindeer.)

1. La Micoque culture, transitional from Acheulean to Mousterian times.
(No reindeer.)

The flint industry, although very different in its outward
appearance, is recognizable as a direct evolution from the Acheu-
lean, with the suppression or decline of certain implements and
the improvements of others. It is the product of the same kind
of mind at work with the same materials, but under different
climatic conditions and with new demands, especially for cloth-
ing as protection against the severe weather. We also cannot
avoid the feeling that the abandonment of the free, open life of
Chellean and early Acheulean times and the crowding of the
Neanderthal tribesmen beneath the shelters and in the grottos
had a dwarfing effect both upon the physique and upon the in-
dustry itself. The Mousterian implements, as compared with
the Acheulean, impress one as the work of a less muscular and
vigorous race.

In addition to the many fine transitions that one observes71
between the Acheulean and Mousterian industries at St. Acheul,
strong evidence is also furnished in favor of a close connection be-
tween these cultures by the discoveries at Laussel, on the Vezere,
near Les Eyzies. There, broad and deep before this shelter of
Laussel, lies the Mousterian layer, and directly beneath it is a
true Acheulean layer close to the waters of the valley of the
Beune. This proves that in Acheulean times this valley was
deepened to the same degree as to-day, and a close union of the
Acheulean to the Mousterian is here again evident. In the
valley of the Somme near St. Acheul Commont has also observed
proofs of a similar close connection between these cultures.
With such records in northern and southern France, the Nean-
derthal race, which is known toward the end of Acheulean times
and especially covers the entire period of Mousterian time, comes
much nearer to us. If we assign the Mousterian industry to

250

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

the last glacial period, we give it a duration of some 30,000 years,
and this is about the reckoning which thoughtful anatomists
have already assigned for the Neanderthal man.

Special Mousterian Implements

Two instruments are especially typical of the Mousterian in-
dustry from beginning to end; these are the 'pointe' and the
'racloir.' The former, pointed and spear-shaped, is from 1 to 4

Fig. 128. Typical Mousterian 'points' from the type station of Le Moustier, made of a
large flake of flint struck off from the nodule and retouched on only one side, leaving
on the opposite side a smooth, conchoidal surface. After Dechelette, by permission
of M. A. Picard, Librairie Alphonse Picard et Fils.

inches in length ; the latter is a broad scraper, from 1 to 2 inches
in width; and both have the distinctive peculiarity of being
composed of a large flake of flint struck off from a larger bulb
or nodule and of being retouched only on one side, leaving on
the opposite side the smooth conchoidal surface of the flake.72
This point and scraper are highly characteristic not only of the
early stages but of the Mousterian industry throughout its en-
tire course, including even the late La Quina types, and their
manner of making is obviously a modified usage of the late
Acheulean discovery of the flakes of Levallois.

A matter of the greatest interest in the industrial develop-
ment of western Europe at this time is the fact that this dis-

MOUSTERIAN INDUSTRY

251

covery of the utilization of the flake, whether in the ' lames de
Levallois' or in the Mousterian point and scraper, led to the
decline of the coup de
poing. The retouched
flakes of various shapes
were easier to make and
to repair and served
equally well the purposes
of skinning and dismem-
bering game which had
been previously served
by the ancient coup de
poing.73

In consequence, the
coup de poing, fashioned
from the core of the no-
dule, begins to play a very
secondary role and occurs
but rarely in the Mous-
terian levels. Even at St.
Acheul, the very centre of
its former reign, we begin
to find decadent forms
and poor workmanship,
which make it difficult to
recognize that these are
the successors of the finely
retouched Acheulean
coups de poing. While
the coups de poing at the
type station of Le Mous-
tier continue to retain
the old Acheulean pat-
terns— the oval, the heart-
shaped, the sharp-pointed
rather coarsely retouched.

Fig. 129. Mousterian 'points' and scrapers from
various parts of Europe, as interpreted by de
Mortillet. In some cases both sides of the im-
plement are shown; all are one-quarter actual
size except 101, which is one-half actual size.
100 — De Mortillet's theory of the manner of
using the Mousterian 'point,' which was held in
the hand and not shafted. 101 — Mousterian
point from Suffolk, England. 102 — Mousterian
point from Umbria, Italy. 103, 104 — A single
flake point from the Crimea, in southern Russia.
105, 106 — A long, narrow Mousterian point from
Oise, France. 107— A curved-in scraper, or
grattoir, from Dordogne, France; perhaps an im-
plement for dressing a wooden spear or lance.
108 — Bone splinter, broken for the marrow, but
not shaped.

— they are all of smaller size and
Thus, after thousands of years of

252 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

development and employment, the coup de poing falls into a
period of degeneration and of final disuse. The history of this
implement, which we have traced from its Pre-Chellean proto-
types, presents a most interesting analogy with the course of
evolution observed in so many animal and plant forms. It
passes through many stages of improvement and reaches a climax
of perfection and adaptation; it then comes into competition
with another form evolving on a fundamentally different and
superior plan and disappears in the struggle for existence through
the greater usefulness of the replacing type.

Successive Stages in the Mousterian Industry

The succession of industrial stages is best shown along the
Vezere. The oldest Mousterian industry is that of Combe- Capelle
with its heart-shaped, roughly fashioned coups de poing, entirely
lacking, however, any evidence of a surface prepared for the
grasp of the hand.

In the valley of the Somme Commont74 has observed the
three following stages in the advance of the Mousterian industry :

3. A late Mousterian culture which lies on the upper layers near the top
of the same gravel deposit and which shows entirely new technical
elements. The old coup-de-poing culture is no longer valued, and
all the implements found here are of flakes worked only on one side
and with an extraordinarily fine retouch.

2. A middle Mousterian horizon which lies in the lower layers of a gravel
deposit, belonging to the 'newer loess,' and which contains only one
small coup de poing.

1. An early Mousterian, with quite numerous lance-shaped coups de poing,
lies at the base of the 'newer loess,' showing that the coup-de-poing
tradition still lingers and the coup-de-poing type is still preserved.
With these are associated the new types of implements and espe-
cially the 'hand-points,' which are so typical of the Mousterian
industry.

The more recent levels (2, 3) contain longer flakes, which already exhibit
a tendency toward the blades, or 'lames,' of the Upper Palaeolithic.

In the shelters and caverns of Dordogne the same industrial
sequence may be observed, although the chronological succession

MOUSTERIAN INDUSTRY 253

of the strata is not always clearly defined. At the grotto of
Combe-Capelle the heart-shaped coups de poing retain most
strongly the old traditions, but even here these are outnumbered
by the well-fashioned Mousterian i points/ chipped only on one
side.

The further development of the Mousterian industry may be
observed in the type station of Le Moustier, where the lower
levels show a primitive Mousterian consisting mostly of very
fine, irregularly fashioned flakes, made into small scrapers, tri-
angular points, borers, and disks. The overlying layer includes
very carefully worked Mousterian points which are frequently
retouched on one side over the entire surface ; here the Mous-
terian technique reaches its highest development, so that Schmidt
designates it as 'high Mousterian.'75 Above this layer, again,
is a level of typical late Mousterian forms, quite unlike the small
primitive flakes of the lower level and resembling the character-
istic forms of La Quina, the dominant type being the finely
shaped La Quina racloir. The few diminutive coups de poing
which occur in this level at Le Moustier furnish the only distinc-
tion between the industry here and that of La Quina, where no
coups de poing are found. At Le Moustier also occur the typical
bone anvils which were first recognized at La Quina.

The Mousterian industry of the Neanderthals was thus de-
voted mainly to the development of the smaller forms of imple-
ments, for the most part retouched on one side only, and with
a constant improvement of technique. Yet the chief types of
Mousterian implements remain the same as in Acheulean times,
as shown in the accompanying table.

The implement known as the pointe, or the ' hand-point/
is a principal and very characteristic Mousterian form further
perfected from its Acheulean stage. It is spear-headed in shape
and chipped on one side only, and continues into late Mous-
terian times, being still found in the Mousterian levels of Spy,
in Belgium.

The pointe double, a double-pointed, spear-shaped form, at
times almost attains the elongate shape of the Solutrean pointe

254

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

de laurier, though never its slenderness, symmetry, and per-
fection of technique.

There are five or six well-defined varieties of the racloir, or
scraper, carefully fashioned out of flakes. The principal form

is crescentic in shape, with
outward-curved edge. Other
forms are saw-like with straight
edges or knife-edged. Another
form with very neatly and
symmetrically incurved borders
has its edges sharply retouched,
as if for the smoothing down of
bone or wooden shafts. The
borer is also fashioned of an
elongate flake and sometimes
finished with a very fine point
at one of its extremities. It is
noteworthy that the grattoir,
or planing tool, so well devel-
oped in the Upper Palaeolithic
industries, appears only spo-
radically in Mousterian times.
For example, at La Quina, in
the closing stages of the Mous-
terian industry, out of 220 im-
plements collected at hazard,
there were 166 scrapers of six different forms, 45 ' hand-points ' of
five different forms, and 5 double points, as compared with 5 grat-
toirs, or planing tools. There are very few knife-shaped forms.
It would appear that the racloir and the percoir were the principal
implements employed in the preparation of skins for clothing.

In early Mousterian times the coup de poing may still have
been used by the Neanderthals in the chase, and the fine, spear-
headed ' point ' and the rarer ' double point ' may have been de-
veloped" in response to the needs of hunters, who now ventured
the chase of the bison, the urus, the wild horse, and the reindeer.

Coup de poing

hand-stone.

(decadent),

ovoid.

heart-shaped.

sharp-pointed

Hachette,

chopper.

Grattoir,

planing tool.

Percoir,

drill, borer.

Couteau,

knife.

Racloir,

scraper.

knife-edged.

curved-out edge.

saw-edged.

double-edged.

beak-shaped.

many-edged.

Pointe,

1 hand-point. '

Percuteur ?

hammer-stone ?

War and Chase.

Pointe,

' hand-point/

Pointe double,

spear head?

Coup de poing,

hand-stone.

Pierre de jet,

throwing stone.

Couteau,

knife.

MOUSTERIAN INDUSTRY

255

The most striking features of all the implements which may
have been used in the chase are : first, the absence of any definite
proof of their attachment
to a shaft or handle ; and
second, the absence of
any barbed or headed
type of point. The use
of the barb, as we shall
see, appears to be a rela-
tively recent discovery
of the later cultures of
Upper Palaeolithic times.

The transition from
the Mousterian to the
Aurignacian appears in
the Abri Audit, which
also lies in the valley of
the Vezere. Here we still
find irregularly fashioned
coups de poing, decadent
followers of the heart-
shaped types of the earli-
est Mousterian industry ;
this is nearly the last
phase in the decline of
the old coup-de-poing
manufacture. While the
lance-shaped coup de
poing of the late Acheu-
lean never appears in any
true Mousterian indus-
try, the shorter, more
heart-shaped type of Combe-Capelle traverses the entire Mouste-
rian and, after further stages of degeneration, passes into the Abri
Audit culture and even lingers into the early Aurignacian. At this
latter station the typical Mousterian ' points ' are almost wanting.

Fig. 130. Late Mousterian implements, after de
Mortillet, one-quarter actual size. 109, no — ■
Point, finely retouched at one end, from Seine-et-
Marne, France. The reverse shows a retouch on
the flaked surface which suggests the double-face
Solutrean retouch, in, 112 — A very large
racloir, or scraper, from La Quina, Charente,
France; part of the bulb of percussion has been
chipped off. 113 — Double-ended point from Le
Moustier, retouched on both surfaces. 114, 115
— Combination point and scraper from Le Mous-
tier, Dordogne, France. 116 — Double scraper,
or racloir, with grattoir, or planing end.

256 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

The Mousterian, observes Schmidt,75 which preserves the tra-
ditions of the Lower Palaeolithic coup-de-poing culture, is one of
the most interesting phases in the development of Palaeolithic
industry, in that its successive stages exhibit the very last phases
of the great coup-de-poing industry, of which only the almond
and oval scraper types appear, and that very rarely, in the early
Aurignacian. On the other hand, in the late Mousterian we ob-
serve a trend toward the blade (lame) industry of the Upper
Palaeolithic. Careful study and observation of the subdivisions
of Mousterian culture have thus far been limited to central and
southern France, and they have not yet been traced in Spain;
but in the grottos of Belgium and England the early, middle,
and late Mousterian types are known to exist.

Bone anvils, fashioned out of the hard surfaces of the fore-
leg and foot bones of the bison and horse, were discovered at
La Quina in 1906. They show a flattened surface with cross
incisions too regular to be accidental and too far from the artic-
ulation to be the result of an inexpert attempt to sever the
joint.76 This was not the only use of bone in Mousterian times,
however, for primitive pointed implements of bone are occa-
sionally found in Dordogne, mingled with Mousterian flints. A
variety of rudely fashioned bone implements also occurs at Wild-
kirchli, in Switzerland.

Disappearance of the Neanderthal Race

We have seen that the Neanderthals dwelt in Europe for a
very long time, many thousands of years, during which they
doubtless underwent considerable evolution from lower to higher
types, and into varieties, under the modifying influences of
climate, food, and racial habits. Consequently the known re-
mains of Neanderthals exhibit a decided variation in head form,
as well as in dentition : some are more primitive and ape-like ;
others, such as Spy II, are more like the modern races. The
Krapina variety is more broad-headed than the typical Neander-
thal variety. The Gibraltar variety is in many respects of low

DISAPPEARANCE OF THE NEANDERTHALS 257

type. The individual known as Spy II is of higher type than
the other Neanderthals. The variations in stature so far as
known are slight.

For these and other reasons Hrdlicka,77 who has recently
made a broad comparative study of the chief Neanderthal re-
mains of Europe, is of the opinion that the Neanderthals partly
evolved into the lower races of Homo sapiens ; being not only in
some measure ancestral to such very primitive forms as the
Briinn or Pfedmost race of Upper Palaeolithic times, but even
contributing to the higher race of the Cro-Magnons. He also
holds that traces of Neanderthal blood and physiognomy are
not lacking even among modern Europeans.

A contrary view is set forth in the present volume ; namely,
that the Neanderthals represent a side branch of the human
race which became wholly extinct in western Europe. This
view the author shares with Boule and with Schwalbe. Cer-
tainly the evidence afforded by the known Upper Palaeolithic
burial sites does not support the theory that the Neanderthals
persisted. It is possible, however, that the Upper Palaeolithic
skeletons discovered at Predmost, and now awaiting descrip-
tion by Maska, may modify this conclusion and demonstrate
Hrdlicka' s theory that the Neanderthals survived and left de-
scendants or men of mixed Neanderthal and Homo sapiens race
along the valley of the Danube.

Whatever may have been their fate in other regions, cer-
tainly the most sudden racial change which we know of in the
whole prehistory of western Europe is the disappearance of the
Neanderthal race at the close of the Mousterian culture stage,
which was the latest industrial period of Lower Palaeolithic times,
and their replacement by the Cro-Magnon race. From geologic
evidence the date of this replacement is believed to have been
between 20,000 and 25,000 years before our era. So far as we
know at present, the Neanderthals were entirely eliminated ; no
trace of the survival of the pure Neanderthal type has been
found in any of the Upper Palaeolithic burial sites ; nor have
the alleged instances of the survival of the Neanderthal strain

258 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

or of people bearing the Neanderthal cranial characters been
substantiated. We incline to agree with Boule and Schwalbe
that the supposed cases among modern races of the transmis-
sion of Neanderthal characters are simply low or reversional
types, which, upon close analysis, are never found to present
the highly distinctive and peculiar combination of Neanderthal
characteristics.

There is some reason to believe that the Neanderthals were
degenerating physically and industrially during the very severe
conditions of life of the fourth glaciation, but the consequent in-
feriority and diminution in numbers would not account for their
total extinction, and we are inclined to attribute this to the
entrance into the whole Neanderthal country of western Europe
toward the close of Lower Palaeolithic times of a new and highly
superior race. Archaeologists find traces of a new culture and
industry in certain Mousterian stations preceding the disappear-
ance of the typical Mousterian industry. Such a mingling is
found in the valley of the Somme in northern France.

From this scanty evidence we may infer that the new race
competed for a time with the Neanderthals before they dispos-
sessed them of their principal stations and drove them out of the
country or killed them in battle. The Neanderthals, no doubt,
fought with wooden weapons and with the stone-headed dart
and spear, but there is no evidence that they possessed the bow
and arrow. There is, on the contrary, some possibility that the
newly arriving Cro-Magnon race may have been familiar with
the bow and arrow, for a barbed arrow or spear head appears
in drawings of a later stage of Cro-Magnon history, the so-called
Magdalenian. It is thus possible, though very far from being
demonstrated, that when the Cro-Magnons entered western Eu-
rope, at the dawn of the Upper Palaeolithic, they were armed
with weapons which, with their superior intelligence and physique,
would have given them a very great advantage in contests with
the Neanderthals.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

259

Commont, 191 2.1, p. 294.

Smith, W., 1894. 1, chap. XV.

Dietrich, 1910.1, pp. 329, 330.

Penck, 1 909. 1.

Leverett, 1910.1, pp. 306-314.

Geikie, 1914.1.

Op. cit., p. 272.

Op. cit., pp. 265-266.

Keith, 1911.1, p. 23, Fig. 5.

Munro, 1912.1, pp. 46, 47.

Lartet, 1861.1; 1875. 1.

De Vibraye, 1 864.1.

Massenat, 1868. 1.

Smith, W., 1 894.1, chap. XIV.

Geikie, 1914.1, p. 119.

Smith, W., op. cit., pp. 196,

197.
Op. cit., p. 224.
Geikie, 1914.1, p. 118.
Bachler, 1912.1.
Schmidt, I9i2.i,pp. 18-32, 165-

171.
Op. cit., Table opposite p. 270.
Osborn, 1910.1, pp. 419, 420.
Niezabitowski, 191 1.1.
Harle, 1908. 1, p. 302.
Obermaier, 1912.1, p. 135.
Keith, 1911.2.
Boule, 1913.1, pp. 220, 221.
Op. cit., p. 64.

Fischer, 1913.1, pp. 336, 337.
Schaaffhausen, 1875. 1; 1858. 1.
Lyell, 1 863. 1, pp. 80-92.
Schwalbe, 1897. 1; 1901.1; 1901.2;

1904. 1.
King, 1 864. 1.
Cope, 1 893. 1.
Wilser, 1 898.1.
Fraipont, 1 887.1.
Schwalbe, 1914.2.
Dupont, 1866. 1.
Maska, 1886. 1.
Rzehak, 1906. 1.
Fischer, 191 3.1.

(42) Klaatsch, 1909. 1.

(43) Bouyssonie, 1 909.1.

(44) Boule, 1908. 1 ; 1908.2; 1909. 1;

1911.1; 1912.1.

(45) Boule, 1913.1-

(46) Martin, H., 1911.1.

(47) Nicolle, 1910.1.

(48) Keith, 1911.1.

(49) Fischer, 1913.1, p. 352.

(50) Schwalbe, 1914.1, p. 544, Figs.

4 and 5.

(51) Fischer, op. cit.

(52) Boule, 1913.1, p. 85.

(53) Gorjanovic-Kramberger, 1909. 1.

(54) Boule, 1913.1, p. 104.

(55) Tomes, 1914.1, pp. 588-598.

(56) Schwalbe, 1901.2; i9i4.i,pp. 534,

535-

(57) Schwalbe, 1901.1.

(58) Boule, 1913.1.

(59) Op. cit., pp. 66, 67, 72, 75.

(60) Berry, 1914.1.

(61) Johnson, 1913.1.

(62) Quatrefages, 1884. 1, p. 394.

(63) Martin, R., 1914.1, p. 645.

(64) Boule, 1910.1; 1911.1.

(65) Anthony, 191 2.1.

(66) Boule, 1913.1, p. 119.

(67) Op. cit., p. 120.

(68) Geikie, 1914.1, p. 130; Godwin-

Austen, 1840. 1.

(69) Schmidt, 1912.1, pp. 23, 32, 66,

75, 76, 101, 169.

(70) Op. cit., p. 128.

(71) Schuchhardt, 1913.1, p. 144.

(72) Dechelette, 1908. 1, vol. I, pp.

98-101.

(73) Obermaier, 1912.1, p. 130.

(74) Commont, 1909. 1.

(75) Schmidt, 1912.1, pp. 126-128.

(76) Dechelette, 1908. 1, vol. I, pp.

104, 105.

(77) Hrdlicka, 1914.1

CHAPTER IV

OPENING OF THE UPPER^ PALEOLITHIC — THE GRIMALDI RACE —
ARRIVAL OF THE CRO-MAGNON RACE AND OF THE AURIG-
NACIAN INDUSTRY — GEOGRAPHIC AND CLIMATIC CONDITIONS —
MAMMALIAN LIFE — CHARACTERISTICS AND HABITS OF THE CRO-
MAGNONS — DISTRIBUTION OF THE AURIGNACIAN INDUSTRY —
THE BIRTH OF ART — ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE SOLU-
TREAN INDUSTRY — BRUNN RACE — SOLUTREAN INDUSTRY AND
ART.

In the whole racial history of western Europe there has never
occurred so profound a change as that involving the disappear-
ance of the Neanderthal race and the appearance of the Cro-
Magnon race. It was the replacement of a race lower than
any existing human type by one which ranks high among the
existing types in capacity and intelligence. The Cro-Magnons
belonged to Homo sapiens, the same species of man as our-
selves, and appear to have been the chief race of the Upper
Palaeolithic Period up to the very close of Magdalenian times,
after which they apparently underwent a decline.

Although there were one or more other races which influ-
enced the industrial development of western Europe, the Cro-
Magnons were certainly dominant, as shown both by the abun-
dance of their skeletal remains and by the wide distribution of
their industry and art; the Upper Palaeolithic may almost be
said to be the period of the Cro-Magnons as the Lower Palae-
olithic is that of the Neanderthals and the Pre-Neanderthals.
Their arrival toward the end of Mousterian times effected a so-
cial and industrial change and a race replacement of so profound
a nature that it would certainly be legitimate to separate the
Upper Palaeolithic from the Lower by a break equal to that which
separates the former from the Neolithic.1

The arrival of the Cro-Magnons and the introduction of the

260

OPENING OF THE UPPER PALEOLITHIC 261

Aurignacian industry are the first events of the prehistory of
Europe to which we can assign a date with any degree of con-
fidence; they correspond geologically with the close of the
fourth glaciation and the beginning of Postglacial time, the dura-
tion of which has been estimated by geologists from evidence of
many different kinds, but which brings us, nevertheless, to sub-
stantially similar conclusions. It seems that 25,000 years is a
conservative estimate for the duration of the Postglacial Period ;
this is supported by the independent observations of Lyell,
Taylor, Penck and Bruckner, and Coleman ; it is within the esti-
mates made by Chamberlin and Salisbury, Fairchild, Sardeson,
and Spencer ; it is somewhat larger than the estimates of Gilbert
and Upham.* Thus, with considerable confidence we may
record man of the modern type of Homo sapiens as entering
western Europe between 25,000 and 30,000 years ago.

The Lower Palaeolithic industrial cycle, comprising the
Chellean, Acheulean, and Mousterian, seems to have been
similar in evolution both around the Mediterranean coasts and
in the northern portions of Europe. From the fact that the
Cro-Magnons arrived with the Aurignacian industry it would
appear that they came through Phoenicia and along the south-
ern coasts of the Mediterranean, through Tunis, into Spain;
also perhaps along the northern coasts of the Mediterranean
through Italy. Their evolution had probably taken place some-
where on the continent of Asia, for their physical structure is
entirely of Asiatic type, and not in the least of African or Ethio-
pian type; that is, they exhibit no negroid characters what-
ever. The reason that Breuil considers that the Aurignacian
did not come in through central or eastern Europe is that there
are no early Aurignacian stations in either region, whereas the
Aurignacian is abundantly developed along the Mediterranean
coasts, both of Europe and Africa. The passage of the Cro-
Magnons along these coasts was, therefore, like the subsequent
wave of the true Mediterranean race, dark-haired, long-headed,
narrow-faced people, which followed this coast in early Neolithic

* See Appendix, Note VI.

262

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

times, or, again, like the wave of the Arabian or Moslem ad-
vance, which pressed forward along the northern coast of Africa
and into southwestern Europe.

Some support of this theory of migration along the north
coast of Africa is given by the presence of the skeletons of two
members of an entirely distinct race, which are commonly known

SttSBMSgiJslffiBr^t^K

%

SpM*^

-<rSeA'' 'I

'*&

^53^""' ' v J^ *c&^^eSI

m^xztf- ^JjFijgi ;j

*

i ^

Fig. 131. Entrance to the great Grotte du Prince at the base of the limestone promontory-
known as the Baousse Rousse, with a view of Mentone in the distance.
After Davanne.

as the l negroids of Grimaldi' because of their discovery in the
Grottes de Grimaldi near Mentone, and because they alone among
all the Upper Palaeolithic races thus far discovered in Europe
display a number of resemblances to the African negroid race.
Anatomically they are related neither to the Neanderthals nor
to the Cro-Magnons. Their archaeologic age appears to be early
Aurignacian because they are found immediately above the
layer which marks the close of Mousterian time and the last
climate favorable to the warm fauna of mammals.

OPENING OF THE UPPER PALAEOLITHIC 263

This sunny coast where modern France joins Italy has sup-
plied some of the most valuable records of the racial and indus-
trial transition from the Lower to the Upper Palaeolithic. Of
the nine Grottes de Grimaldi three at least show evidences of
occupation in closing Mousterian times, probably by men of the
Neanderthal race, although no skeletal remains of Neanderthals
have been found here. Four of the grottos, namely, the Grotte
des Enfants, the Grotte de Cavillon, the Barma Grande, and the
Baousso da Torre, have yielded altogether the skeletal remains
of sixteen individuals, all associated with implements of Aurig-
nacian culture and evidently representing a number of cere-
monial burials. Fourteen of these skeletons are attributed by
Verneau to the Cro-Magnon race; the other two are the 'ne-
groids of Grimaldi' above referred to. This is, therefore, a pre-
historic record of the greatest significance, which we shall now
examine more in detail.

Racial Succession along the Ancient Riviera

Where the southern spurs of the Alps descend into the Med-
iterranean and separate France from Italy we find a limestone
promontory, known as the Baousse Rousse, projecting in a long
cliff, beneath which the rocky shore descends abruptly into the
sea. Opening toward the south, and at intervals along the
base of this cliff are the nine Grottes de Grimaldi. Doubtless
the Neanderthals migrated along these shores at a time when
the hippopotamus, the straight- tusked elephant (E. antiquus),
and Merck's rhinoceros (R. merckii) still abounded as the last
representatives of the great African- Asiatic fauna. These hunters
of Mousterian times entered the sea-swept floor of the great
Grotte du Prince* (Fig. 131), with a ceiling height at that time
perhaps of over 80 feet, carrying in their game to the fire-hearths,
and leaving Mousterian implements in the accumulating de-
posits. In the succeeding layers of this grotto the changing
forms of animal life demonstrate the effect of the fourth gla-

* Named in honor of the reigning Prince of Monaco, whose generous gifts and personal
interest made the adequate exploration of these grottos possible.

264 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

ciation and the cooling of the climate toward the close of Mous-
terian times.

The smaller Grotte des Enfants (Fig. 132), which lies to the
west of the Prince's Grotto, was apparently occupied at a some-
what more recent period, because the lowest fire-hearths con-
tain, together with the Mousterian implements, remains of
Merck's rhinoceros only — apparently the last survivor here, as
well as in other parts of western Europe, of the warm African-
Asiatic fauna. The hippopotamus and the straight-tusked ele-
phant had either become extinct or had been driven farther
south by the time the hunters first occupied this grotto. In
the overlying layers of this and several other grottos the fire-
hearths contain remains of a rich forest fauna which includes
the wild boar, stag, roe-deer, wild horse, wolf, and bear. The
first signs of increasing cold in the mountains to the north is the
appearance of remains of the chamois and ibex driven from the
.Alpine heights. Then in still higher layers appears the reindeer,
harbinger of the tundra climate.

The Grimaldi Race

Verneau is inclined to regard the Grimaldi as a very ancient
race, antedating the Cro-Magnon.2 He believes that they be-
long to a new ethnic type which played an important role in
Europe and enjoyed a wide geographic distribution. There does
not, however, seem to be much support for this opinion, be-
cause, unlike some other races, no traces of the Grimaldis have
been found elsewhere, and it would appear more probable that
they were, as their skeletal characters indicate, true negroids
which perhaps found their way from Africa but never became
established as a race in western Europe.

The type consists of two skeletons found in the Grotte des
Enfants by Verneau in 1906. One skeleton is that of a middle-
aged woman ; the other is that of a youth of sixteen or seven-
teen. Both are referred to the existing species of man, Homo
sapiens. The layer which contained them is on a level two feet

Fig. 132. Section of the Grotte des Enfants, after Tschirret. In deposits which accumu-
lated to a thickness of over 30 feet this grotto contains in its ascending strata a com-
plete epitome of the vicissitudes of climate, together with four burials of members of
the Cro-Magnon Race, and, near the base, the burial of the two Grimaldi skeletons.
The layers in descending order are as follows :

A. Burial of two infant skeletons. Remains of forest and alpine (Ibex) mammals.

B. Burial of the skeleton of a Cro-Magnon woman. Remains of forest and alpine

mammals.

C. Fire-hearths containing forest mammals — the wild boar, also the reindeer.

D. Fire-hearths with flints of Aurignacian type. Remains of forest fauna — the marten.

E. Layer containing a cairn or artificial pile of stone. Remains of ibex, horse, wolf,

cave-lion, and fox.
Intermediate layer. Remains of the wild ass, perhaps of the steppe type, and of the
reindeer; also of the ibex, the wild horse, and forest fauna — the wild boar.

F. Large fragments fallen from the cave roof. No evidence of habitation.

G. Fire-hearths. Remains of the moose, roe-deer, fallow deer, stag, wild cattle, ibex,

fox, leopard, and rabbit.

H. Burial of a very tall skeleton of the Cro-Magnon Race (see Fig. 144, p. 297). Fire-
hearths containing remains of the forest fauna, also the alpine chamois and mar-
mot, the cave-hyaena, and the leopard.

/. Burial of two skeletons of the Grimaldi Race (see Fig. 133, p. 267). Flints of Aurig-
nacian type and remains of a forest fauna which includes the deer, also of the wild
horse, the alpine ibex, and the hyaena.

K. Traces of charcoal and disturbed fire-hearths.

K-L. Remains of Merck's rhinoceros and of the hyaena. Alpine (Ibex) and temperate
forest fauna.

L. Traces of fire-hearths with Mousterian implements, chiefly of quartzite, probably left
by members of the Neanderthal Race on the ancient floor of the grotto, following
the recession of the sea. Evidence of previous occupation by hyaenas.

265

266 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

lower than any which contained Cro-Magnons, and immediately
above the culture layer of Mousterian times.

The Grimaldi characters present a wide contrast to those of
the Cro-Magnon. The two known skeletons, of a woman and a
youth, are of inferior stature, not exceeding 5 feet 3 inches :

Grimaldi female estimated at 1.57 m. 5 ft. 2 in.

youth " " 1.55 m. 5 ft. 1 in.

These measurements, however, are only slightly inferior to those
of the Cro-Magnon woman and youth, which rise to 5 feet 5
inches. There are many negroid characters in the skull, in the
structure of the hip-girdle, and in the proportions of the limbs;
there are also some characters in common with the anthropoid
apes, namely, the long forearm, the curved thigh-bone, and the
marked prognathism, or projection of the tooth row ; the face is
low and broad, and extremely prognathous; the nose is platy-
rhine, or broad and flat ; the jaw is heavy, with large teeth and
without the chin prominence ; the head form, like that of the
Cro-Magnons, is dolichocephalic and somewhat disharmonic;
that is, while the head is long, the face is short and relatively
broad. Yet the cranial capacity is relatively high, being esti-
mated at 1,580 c.cm. Unlike the Cro-Magnons, the Grimaldis
have a relatively long forearm and a negroid type of pelvis.
The proportions of the leg are, however, somewhat similar to
those of the leg of the Cro-Magnon, the thigh-bone being short
and the shin-bone long, the index being 83.8 per cent. In addi-
tion to the long forearm, which approaches in form that of the
living anthropoid apes, there is a curved femur, distinctly of
anthropoid-ape character.

"In its body and tooth characters," observes Verneau,3 "this
negroid race in many respects shows a greater resemblance to
the anthropoid apes than does the Neanderthal race." He con-
tinues: "The fact remains that at a very remote period of the
Pleistocene there existed in Europe, beside the Neanderthal race,
a type of man that in many of his cephalic characters, in the
structure of his pelvis, and in his limb proportions showed strik-

THE GRIMALDI RACE

267

ing analogies to the negro of to-day. In their remarkable pro-
portions they exaggerate some of the peculiarities of the recent
negroes; the teeth resemble those of the Australian types.

Fig. 133. The Grimaldi skeletons found in the lower Aurignacian layer of the Grotte
des Enfants — the youth to the right and the woman to the left. After Verneau.

There is evidence of the establishment and spread of the Gri-
maldi race throughout western Europe, namely, in cases of partial
reversion to this type among the skeletal remains of the Neo-
lithic Age, the Bronze Age, and the early Iron Age in Brittany,

268

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

Switzerland, and northern Italy. Extreme prognathism is the
characteristic that most frequently appears, and in some instances
there is the broad nose, with the same osteological peculiarities
that mark the Grimaldi type. In every instance these individuals
show dolichocephaly, nearly always combined with a short,
broad face. Until the discovery of the Grimaldi type we were
at a loss to explain the existence of these individuals among a
population from which they differed so radically."

Fig. 134. Skull of the Grimaldi youth in front and in profile. After Verneau, one-
quarter life size.

Against this opinion of Verneau we should weigh the entire
absence of any trace of this Grimaldi race in any part of western
Europe among all the burials and other human remains of Upper
Palaeolithic age known at the present time. Setting aside any
such records which are of doubtful authenticity or difficult to
diagnose on account of their fragmentary nature, there remains
a number of human fossils representing at least ninety individuals
discovered at over fifteen widely distributed localities. None of
these shows any features of the Grimaldi race.

In describing the Grimaldi skeletons, Keith4 agrees that they
are of a mixed or negroid type ; the shallow, projecting incisor
part of the upper jaw and the characters of the chin are features
of recent negroid races ; so are the wide opening of the nose, the
prominent cheek-bones, the flat and short face. Yet the bridge

ARRIVAL OF THE CRO-MAGNONS 269

of the nose is not flat as in negroes, but rather prominent as in
Europeans, and the capacity of the skull in the woman (1,375
c.cm.) is ample. In the boy the teeth are large and of the negro
type ; he bears a striking resemblance to the woman, and his
cranial capacity (1,580 c.cm.) indicates a distinctly modern brain ;
the prominences of the forehead do not meet across the median
line as in certain negroids and in the Neanderthals. Keith
concludes that the Grimaldi people represent an intermediate
type in the evolution of the typical white and black races.

MAIN FEATURES OF THE ENTIRE UPPER
PALAEOLITHIC HISTORY

Having now considered the opening of the Upper Palaeo-
lithic, also the single appearance of the Grimaldi race of which
no further trace is known, it is desirable to briefly review the
entire Upper Palaeolithic history before we attempt to follow
in detail its successive phases beginning with the appearance of
the Aurignacian industry.

There is evidence of various kinds that the Cro-Magnons
arrived in western Europe, bringing in their Aurignacian indus-
try, while the Neanderthals were still in possession of the country
and practising their Mousterian industry. Thus in the valley
of the Somme, Commont believes he has recognized a level of
flints, exhibiting the primitive Aurignacian 'retouch' of Dor-
dogne, but occurring beneath a late Mousterian level. Addi-
tional evidence of a contact between the industries of these two
races is found at the stations of La Ferrassie, of Les Boufha, and
especially of the Abri Audit, where there is a distinct transition
period, in which the characteristic types of the late Mousterian
are found intermixed with a number of flints suggesting the
early Aurignacian ;5 here it would appear that the development
of the Aurignacian is partly a local evolution, and not an inva-
sion of wholly new types of implements. Breuil6 suggests that
these mixed layers may perhaps be explained by the supposition

270

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

that we have here degenerate or modified Mousterian tools, more
or less influenced by contact with the Aurignacian industry of
the Cro-Magnon race.

THE STONE IMPLEMENTS CHARACTERISTIC OF LOWER AND
UPPER PALAEOLITHIC TIMES

The Typical Stone Implements

Lower Paleolithic

Upper Paleolithic

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A.— WAR AND CHASE

*i. mlcrolithique ? arrow point? etc.

2. Pointe Point

3. Pointe a Soie Lance or Knife.

4. Pointe a Cran Lance-Head

5. Pointe de

Laurier " "

*6. Coup de Poing Hand-Axe,

Poniard, etc. . .

7. Pierre de Jet Throwing Stone.

*8. Couteau Knife

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B.— INDUSTRIAL AND DOMESTIC

9. Lampe Lamp

io. llssotr poltsher

11. Mortier Mortar

12. Hachette

(Tranchette) Chopper

*i3. Coup de Poing Hand- Axe, etc. . .

14. Grattoir Planing Tool

15. Racloir Scraper

16. Percoir Drill, Borer....
*i7. Couteau Knife

18. Enclume Anvil Stone

19. Percuteur Hammer-Stone . . .

C— ART, SCULPTURE, ENGRAVING

*30. mlcrolithique drill, graver,

and Etcher

21. Ciseau Chisel

22. Gravette Etching Tool

23. Burin Graver

(also Mortar, Hammer-Stone, and
Polisher)

* = twice mentioned (in different classifications).

+ or \X denotes an unusual or culminating development.

Again, the burial customs of the Neanderthals were in many
respects followed by the Cro-Magnons ; they chose, in fact, the
same kind of burial sites, namely, at the entrances of grottos

ARRIVAL OF THE CRO-MAGNONS

271

or in proximity to trie shelters. Some degree of ceremony must
have marked these burials, for with the remains were interred
implements of industry and warfare together with offerings of
food. Most of the Neanderthal burials were with the body ex-
tended ; the two burials of the Grimaldi race were with the

THE BONE IMPLEMENTS APPEARING AT THE CLOSE OF THE LOWER

PALEOLITHIC AND HIGHLY CHARACTERISTIC OF

THE UPPER PALEOLITHIC

The Typical Bone Implements

A.— WAR, CHASE, FISHING

*i. Lames Blades

2. Poignard Dagger

3. Hamecon? Fish-Hook?

4. Propulsetir Spear Thrower

5. Harpon Harpoon

6. pointe de sagaie javelin point..

7. Pointe de Lance Spear Point. . .

B.— INDUSTRIAL AND DOMESTIC

8. Spatule

9. Navette

10. Epingle

11. Aiguille
*i2. Lames

13. COMPRESSEUR

14. LlSSOIR

15. Coin

16. Ciseau

17. POINCON

Spatula. .
Shuttle . .

Pin

Needle . . .
Blades...

Anvil

Smoother.

Wedge

Chisel

Awl

C— CEREMONIAL, SOCIAL

18. BAton de Com-

mandement ceremonial staee

19. Baguette Wand

Lower Paleolithic

Upper Paleolithic

+

tt

* = twice mentioned (in different classifications).

+ or If denotes an unusual or culminating development.

limbs in a flexed position and tightly bound to the body, prob-
ably with skin garments or thongs. The Cro-Magnon burials
are either with the body extended, as in the Grottes de Gri-
maldi, or with the limbs flexed, as in the Aurignacian burial of
Laugerie Haute.

272 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

Whether the Neanderthals were exterminated entirely or
whether they were driven out of the country is not known ; the
encounter was certainly between a very superior people, both
physically and mentally, who possibly had the use of the bow
and arrow, and a very inferior and somewhat degenerate people
that had been already reduced physically and perhaps numer-
ically by the severe climatic conditions of the fourth glaciation.
The Neanderthals were dispossessed of all their dwelling-places
and industrial stations by this new and vigorous race, for at no
less than eighteen points the Aurignacian immediately succeeds
upon the Mousterian industry and in a few instances Cro-
Magnon burials occur very near the Neanderthal burial sites.

In the racial replacements of savage as well as of historic
peoples the men are often killed and the women spared and
taken into families of the warriors, but no evidence has thus
far been found that even the Neanderthal women were spared
or allowed to remain in the country, because in none of the
burials of Aurignacian times is there any evidence of the cross-
ing or admixture of the Cro-Magnons and the Neanderthals.

The chief source of the change which swept over western
Europe lay in the brain power of the Cro-Magnons, as seen not
only in the large size of the brain as a whole but principally in
the almost modern forehead and forebrain. It was a race which
had evolved in Asia and which was in no way connected by any
ancestral links with the Neanderthals ; a race with a brain
capable of ideas, of reasoning, of imagination, and more highly
endowed with artistic sense and ability than any uncivilized
race which has ever been discovered. No trace of artistic in-
stinct whatever has been found among the Neanderthals ; we
have seen developing among them only a sense of symmetry
and proportion in the fashioning of their implements. After
prolonged study of the works of the Cro-Magnons one cannot
avoid the conclusions that their capacity was nearly if not quite
as high as our own ; that they were capable of advanced educa-
tion ; that they had a strongly developed aesthetic as well as a
religious sense; that their society was quite highly differentiated

Pl. VI. The head of the Cro-Magnon type of Homo sapiens, a race inhabiting
southwestern Europe from Aurignacian to Magdalenian times. Antiquity in
western Europe estimated as at least 25,000 years. After the restoration modelled
by J. H. McGregor. For the bodily proportions of this finely developed race
compare PI. VII.

UPPER PALAEOLITHIC CULTURES 275

along the lines of talent for work of different kinds. One de-
rives this impression especially from the conditions surrounding
the development of their art, which are still mysterious and an
interpretation of which we shall attempt to give in the follow-
ing chapter.

Cultural, Racial, and Climatic Divisions

The Upper Palaeolithic covers the greater part of the ' Rein-
deer Epoch' as it was conceived by Lartet and Christy, who
began their systematic study and exploration of the caves of
Dordogne in 1863. They were soon joined by Massenat and the
Marquis de Vibraye, while Dupont took up the work in Belgium
and Piette made the artistic development, especially in the
Pyrenees, his chosen field.

Lartet was the first to perceive that the culture of the grotto
of Aurignac was quite distinct from that of the Lower Palaeo-
lithic in northern France; he also recognized in the shelter of
Laugerie Haute, in Dordogne, that there was still another cul-
ture, which is now known as the Solutrean; also that in the
shelter of Laugerie Basse, in Dordogne, there was yet another
industry, that which we now know as Magdalenian. M. de
Mortillet was the first to recognize the superiority of the Solu-
trean industry in stone, which in this period reached its height,
and its succession by the Magdalenian period, in which the in-
dustry in bone and horn reached a climax; but he failed to
recognize the very important preceding position of the Aurig-
nacian, and it was not until 1906 that the clear presentation by
Breuil of the entire distinctness of the Aurignacian industry led
to the adoption by the Archaeological Congress at Geneva of
three cultural divisions of the Upper Palaeolithic. In the mean-
time Piette had discovered that in the Mas d'Azil there was a
distinct cultural phase, the Azilian, following the Magdalenian,
and thus a fourfold division of the Upper Palaeolithic (Breuil,7
Obermaier8) was established, as follows :

AZILIAN. — Industry of the surviving Cro-Magnon and other resident
races, and of newly arrived brachycephalic and dolichocephalic races in

276 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

western Europe; decadent forms of flint and bone workmanship; entire
absence of art. Daun stage of Postglacial retreat; Europe with a milder
climate and forest and meadow fauna like that of early historic times.

MAGDALEN I AN. —Closing stage of the industry and art of the Cro-
Magnon race; bone implements highly developed; marked decline in the
flint industry. Close of Postglacial Period; climate alternately cold and
moist (corresponding with the Biihl and Gschnitz Postglacial advances of
the ice in the Alpine region), or cold and arid; Europe covered with the
tundra and steppe fauna; life chiefly in the shelters and grottos.

SOLUTREAN. — Culminating stage of flint industry; apparent in-
vasion in eastern Europe of the Briinn (Briix, Predmost, and [?] Galley Hill)
race. The highly developed flint industry of the Solutrean types; art
development of the Cro-Magnon race partly suspended. Dry, cold climate;
life largely in the open.

AURIGNACIAN. — Appearance of the Cro-Magnon race in south-
western Europe, succeeding the Mousterian industry; art of engraving
and drawing and sculpture of human and animal forms developing. Animal
life the same as during the fourth glaciation; climate cold and increasingly
dry; life chiefly in the grottos and shelters.

The successive phases of development of Upper Palaeolithic
industry and art have been traced with extraordinary precision
in Dordogne, in the Pyrenees, in northern Spain, and along the
Danube and upper Rhine by a host of able workers — Cartailhac,
Capitan, Peyrony, Bouyssonnie, Lalanne, and others. Breuil
has made himself master especially of the Aurignacian and has
succeeded Piette as the great historian of Upper Palaeolithic art.
Obermaier's chief service has been the comparison of the Upper
Palaeolithic of the Danubian region with that of Dordogne and
northern Spain both in regard to the geologic age and the archae-
ologic and racial succession. The labors of Schmidt along the
upper Rhine and Danube have not only brought this region into
definite prehistoric relation with the Dordogne and the Pyrenees
but have given us by far the clearest evidence of the relation
between the human and the industrial development and the suc-
cession of climatic phases in northern Europe. Finally, the ex-
plorations of Commont along the River Somme have proved that
this region, too, was frequented throughout all Upper Palaeolithic
times, during which it exhibits an industrial development hardly
less important than that of the Lower Palaeolithic.

UPPER PALEOLITHIC CULTURES 277

There are two very distinct lines of thought among these
archaeologists : the first is shown in the tendency to regard the
industries as mainly autochthonous, or as following local lines of
development; the exponents of this theory dwell most strongly
on the transitions between the Mousterian, the Aurignacian,
and the Solutrean industries. For example, the chief object of
Schuchhardt's tour9 through the Palaeolithic stations of Dor-
dogne was to observe the transitions from one period to another
and the evidence afforded of successive changes of climate.
This writer is impressed with the transitions ; he notes that the
typical curved knives of the Abri Audit furnish a transition
from the Mousterian scrapers to the Aurignacian ' points' of
La Gravette and La Font Robert; that the Solutrean takes
up all the hne threads of the Aurignacian culture and spins
them further into Magdalenian times. Thus we get an Aurig-
nacian-Solutrean-Magdalenian industrial cycle which is compar-
able to the Chellean-Acheulean-Mousterian cycle.

Breuil, on the other hand, from the archaeologist's stand-
point— because he is not especially interested in the matter of
racial development — is a strong exponent of the idea of suc-
cessive invasions of cultures, either from the south or Mediter-
ranean region or from the central region of Europe, which he calls
the ' Atlantic ' ; and he distinguishes sharply between these
two great areas of Upper Palaeolithic evolution, namely, the
southern and the central European, pointing out that it was only
after the establishment of more genial climatic conditions, like
those of modern times, that there was an added element of
northern or Baltic invasion. Certainly the archaeologic testi-
mony strongly supports this culture-invasion hypothesis and it
appears to be strengthened in a measure by the study of the
human types, although this study has not progressed beyond
the stage of hypothesis. When the Upper Palaeolithic races
have been studied with as close attention as those of the Lower
Palaeolithic we may be able to establish positively the relation
between these human types and the advance of certain cultures
and industries.

278 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

Distribution of Upper Palaeolithic Human Fossils

Our present view, as drawn from a consideration of the facts
before us, is that western Europe in Upper Palaeolithic times was
entered by four or five distinct races, all belonging to Homo
sapiens, only three of which became established :

5. The Furfooz (Of net, and [?] Grenelle) race, extremely broad-headed,
entering central Europe possibly from central Asia, bringing an Azilian
culture, without art or developed flint industry. (Alpine type.)

4. A dolichocephalic race with a narrow face, associated with the Fur-
fooz race, either connected with the Brunn and Briix, or an advance wave
of one of the dolichocephalic Neolithic races. (Mediterranean type.)

3. The Brunn (Briix, Pfedmost, and [?] Galley Hill) race, long-headed,
with a narrow, short face, probably entering central Europe directly from
Asia through Hungary and along the Danube; bringing a perfected Solu-
trean culture; inferior in brain development to the Cro-Magnons, in in-
dustrial contact with them but not displacing them.

2. The Cro-Magnon race, long-headed with a very broad face, entering
Europe in closing Mousterian or early Aurignacian times, probably from
the south along the Mediterranean coast, and bringing in an Aurignacian
flint industry and art spirit characteristic especially of Aurignacian and
Magdalenian times ; greatly reduced in number in closing Magdalenian
times, but leaving descendants in various colonies in western Europe.

1. The Grimaldi race, in the transition between the Mousterian and the
Aurignacian; negroid or African in character; apparently never established
as a race of any influence in western Europe.

The presence of these five races, and perhaps of a sixth if
the 'Aurignacian man' of Klaatsch proves to be distinct from
the Cro-Magnon, is firmly established by anatomy. It is most
important constantly to keep before our minds certain great prin-
ciples of racial evolution : (1) that the development of a racial
type, whether long-headed or broad-headed, narrow-faced or
broad-faced, of tall or of short stature, must necessarily be very
slow; (2) that this development of the races which invaded west-
ern Europe took place for the most part to the eastward in the
vast continent of Asia and eastern Europe ; (3) that, once estab-
lished through a long process of isolation and separate evolution,
these racial types are extremely stable and persistent ; their head

UPPER PALAEOLITHIC RACES

279

form, their bodily characters, and especially their psychic char-
acters and tendencies are not readily modified or altered ; nor are
they in any marked degree blended by crossing. Crosses do not
produce merely blends; they chiefly produce a mosaic of distinct
characters derived from one race or the other.

Fig. 135. Geographic distribution of Upper Palaeolithic human fossils in western Europe.

We must therefore imagine western Europe in Upper Palae-
olithic times again as a terminal region ; a great peninsula toward
which the human migrants from the east and from the south
came to mingle and superpose their cultures. These races took
the great migration routes which had been followed by other
waves of animal life before them ; they were pressed upon from
behind by the increasing populations of the east ; they were at-
tracted to western Europe as a fresh and wonderful game coun-
try, where food in the forests, in the meadows, and in the streams
abounded in unparalleled profusion. The Cro-Magnons espe-

280

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

daily were a nomadic hunting people, perfectly fitted by their
physical structure for the chase and developing an extraordinary
appreciation of the beauty and majesty of the varied forms of
animal life which existed in no other part of the w^orld at the
time. Between the retreating Alpine and Scandinavian glaciers
Europe was freely open toward the eastern plains of the Danube,

1 POST GLACIAL W>fy&*

4 "Ne wer L oess " ^gschnitz

' JK GLACIAL

WORM, WISCONSIN 1&W>

17

PREHISTORIC

NEOLITHIC

8 AZIUAN-TMDENOISIAN\ UPPFR
6S0LUTREAN \ PALAEO'

i5_AURIGNACIAN_ LUTMJ_C_

25,000 YEARS

4M0USTERIAN

50p00 YEARS

3ACHEULEAN

75,000 YEARS

2CHELLEAN

100,000 YEARS

I PRE-CHELLEAN

I25P00 YEARS

6\/50X)00 „

LOWER
^PALAEO-
LITHIC

.JG_QEN_ELLE_

CRO-MAGNON
CRIMALDI

NEANDERTHAL

(KRAP/NA)

P/LTDOWN

Fig, 136. Epitome of human history in western Europe during the Third Interglacial,
Fourth Glacial, and Postglacial Stages; showing also the three Postglacial advances
and retreats which succeeded the close of the Fourth Glacial Stage in the Alpine
region, theoretically corresponding with the climatic vicissitudes of Postglacial time.
From the data of Penck and Schmidt. Drawn by C. A. Reeds. (Compare Fig. 14.)

extending to central and southern Asia ; on the north, however,
along the Baltic, the climate was still too inclement for a wave
of human migration, and there is no trace of man along these
northern shores until the close of the Upper Palaeolithic, nor of
any residence of man in the Scandinavian peninsula until the
great wave of Neolithic migration established itself in that
region.

The climatic and cultural relations of Upper Palaeolithic times
may be correlated* in descending order as follows :

* This correlation agrees in the main with that of Schmidt in his Diluviale Vorzclt
Deutschlands.10

GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE 281

6. The Daun or final Postglacial advance of the glaciers of the Alps,
estimated at 7,000 B. C. Europe with its modern or prehistoric forest
fauna, the lion lingering in the Pyrenees, the moose in Spain. Azilian-
Tardenoisian, closing stage of the Upper Palaeolithic culture; western
j^urope peopled by the broad-headed race of Furfooz and Ofnet, also by a
narrow-headed race. Baltic Migration, Maglemose culture.

5. The Gschnitz stage in the Alps or second Postglacial advance. Cli-
mate still cold and moist but gradually moderating. Decline of the Mag-
dalenian. Period of the retreat of the tundra and steppe animals; mam-
moth, reindeer, and arctic rodents becoming more rare; Eurasia tic forest
mammals becoming more abundant.

Close of steppe period. Cro-Magnon race still dominant in western
Europe in the Late Magdalenian stage of culture.

4. Interval between the Buhl and Gschnitz Postglacial advances in the
Alps. A renewed steppe and 'loess' period. Climate cold and dry.
Mammoth and woolly rhinoceros, reindeer, full tundra and steppe fauna
very abundant. Cro-Magnon race in the stage of Middle Magdalenian
culture.

3. The Buhl stage of Postglacial advance in the Alps ; renewal of severe
conditions of cold moist climate, and spread all over western Europe of
the arctic banded and Obi lemmings of the Upper Rodent Layer. Biihl
moraines in Lake Lucerne estimated as having' been deposited between
16,000 and 24,000 years B. C. Cro-Magnon race dominant in the Early
Magdalenian stage of culture. \ X , ^^° -\^> ,^rv

2. Period of the first Postglacial interval or Achen retreat of the glaciers
in the Alpine region. A dry cold climate. Cro-Magnon and Briinn races
in the stage of Solutrean culture.

1. Close of fourth glaciation, between 24,000 and 40,000 years B. C.
Cold and moist but increasingly dry climate succeeding the fourth glacia-
tion and deposition of Lower Rodent Layer, or first invasion of the arctic
tundra rodents. Cro-Magnon and possibly Aurignacian race in the stage
of Aurignacian culture.

BEGINNING OF THE UPPER PALEOLITHIC

The Aurignacian Industry

We now glance at western Europe as it was between 25,000
and 30,000 years ago, at the opening of the Upper Palaeolithic.

During Aurignacian times France was still broadly con-
nected with Great Britain.11 The British Islands were not

282 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

only united with each other but with the continent, while the
elevation of the Scandinavian peninsula converted the Baltic
Sea into a great fresh-water lake, the old shores of which are
readily traced. Geikie also maintains that the rise of land in
Scotland after the fourth glaciation was accompanied by an
amelioration of climate and the advent of more genial conditions ;
a strong forest growth covered the lowlands, hence this is termed
the Lower Forestian stage of the physiographic history of north-
ern Britain; it corresponds to the temporary period of the
retreat of the glaciers in the Alpine region, which Penck has
named the Achenschwankung. The latter author is not inclined
to connect any marked rise of temperature in the Alpine region
with this interval of time ; to our knowledge no fossil plant
beds have been preserved which would give us such indications,
and the animal life, as we shall see, certainly affords only a
very slight indication of a rise in temperature in the retreat
of certain of the snow-loving tundra and northern steppe lem-
mings to the north; the greater number of tundra forms re-
mained. The continental elevation of the northern coast-line
of Europe would explain the advent of a dry continental cli-
mate and the renewal of high prevailing winds, at least during
the warmer and drier summer seasons, for it is certain that at-
mospheric conditions such as produced the great dust-storms
and deposition of ' loess' after the second and third glaciations
prevailed again in western Europe after the fourth glaciation.
This gave rise to deposits of what is known among geologists
as the 'newer loess,' and we find these sheets of 'newer loess'
spreading immediately above the Mousterian culture at a num-
ber of different points in western Europe.

When the Cro-Magnon race entered this part of Europe the
climate was becoming more dry and stimulating; the summers
were warm or temperate, the winters very severe. Great ice-
caps still spread over the Scandinavian peninsula and also over
the Alps, but the borders of the ice-fields no longer reached the
plains; in a sense, the Glacial Epoch had not yet closed, for
during the whole period of Postglacial time the glaciers of the

GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE

283

Alps, beginning in early Magdalenian times, developed three re-
newed advances, each somewhat less vigorous than the preced-
ing one, with intervening stages of a drier climate.

The greater number of the Aurignacian stations, like those
of Mousterian times, were under the shelters or within the

•w

Jr**i*^* Hi *****

in V

lit

^•"•*Z*ir.

Fig. 137. ' Tectif orms ' — schematic drawings in lines and dots believed to represent
huts and larger shelters built of logs and covered with hides. From the
walls of the cavern of Font-de-Gaume, Dordogne. After Breuil.

entrances of the grottos and caverns ; all the stations in south-
western France are of this character. There was, however, a
great open camp at Solutre, which was a most famous hunting
station for the wild horse in Aurignacian times. In northern
France there are several open stations, such as those of Mon-
tieres and St. Acheul, along the River Somme, and to the east,

284 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

along the middle Rhine, there are several open * loess ' stations,
such as those of Achenheim, Volklinshofen, Rhens, and Metter-
nich. It may very well be that these open stations were visited
only during the mild summer season. The continued choice of
sites which naturally afforded the greatest protection from the
weather, in France, Britain, Belgium, and all along the Dan-
ube, as well as in the genial region of the Riviera, is a sure in-
dication of a prevailing severe climate. It is hardly possible,
however, that the closed or protected stations were the only
residences of these people; they merely indicate the points
where the flint industry was continuously carried on and also
the vast foyers and gathering places; but there is little doubt
from the evidence afforded by the signs on the walls of the cav-
erns, known as 'tectiforms,' that huts and large shelters built of
logs and covered with hides were grouped around most of these
stations and scattered through the country at points favorable
for hunting and fishing. These would be the only dwelling-
places possible in such vast open camps, for example, as Solutre.

Climate and Life of Aurignacian Times

3. First Postglacial Retreat, Achenschwankung in the Alpine region.
Period of Solutrean industry. A cold dry climate, with dust-storms and
wide-spread deposition of 'loess' in western Europe. Flint workers seeking
many open stations. Horses and wild asses numerous on the prairies; rein-
deer and wild cattle very abundant.

2. Recession of the Ice-Fields of the Fourth Glaciation. Period of Aurig-
nacian industry. Climate cold and increasingly dry ; renewal of the dust-
storms and deposits of the 'newer loess.' Flint industry in the caverns,
grottos, shelters, and a few open stations. Opening of the Upper Palae-
olithic period. Arrival of the Cro-Magnon race.

1. Final Stage of Fourth Glaciation. Close of the Lower Palaeolithic
Mousterian culture. Gradual extinction of the Neanderthal race.

The arrival of the Cro-Magnon race and the beginning of the
Aurignacian industry took place during the period of retreat of
the ice-fields of the fourth glaciation. As we pass from the
levels of the early Aurignacian industry into those of the middle
and upper Aurignacian, we find that the mammal life of Mous-

MAMMALIAN LIFE

285

terian times continued in its prime all over western Europe, with
the addition, one by one, of some new forms from the tundras,
such as the musk-ox, and the successive arrival from the moun-
tains and steppes of western Asia of such characteristic forms as
the argali sheep and the wild ass, or kiang.

Mam-moth'

Woolly rhinoce

Fourth
Glaciation,

Fig. 138. Geographic distribution (horizontal lines) of the reindeer, mammoth, and
woolly rhinoceros, the three chief mammals of the tundra fauna, with reference to
the retiring ice-fields (dots) of the Fourth Glacial Stage. After Boule and Geikie.
(Compare Figs. 95 and 96.)

The extremely cold and moist climate of the fourth glacia-
tion had passed, and a somewhat drier but still extremely cold
climatic condition prevailed throughout western Europe. Dur-
ing the early Aurignacian the two northern types of lemming,
the banded lemming {My odes torquatus) and the Obi lemming
(Myodes obensis), were still found along the upper Danube, as in
the grottos of Sirgenstein, Ofnet, and Bockstein. From middle
Aurignacian on through Solutrean times these denizens of the
extreme north disappear from this region of Europe. Further

286 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

evidence of a dry, cold climate is found in the recurrence of
dust-storms and in the great deposits of 'newer loess' begin-
ning in certain parts of Europe at the very close of the Mous-
terian industry and extending through both middle and late
Aurignacian and Solutrean times in all the region of the upper
Rhine, along both shores of the Danube, and westward in the
valley of the Somme, in northern France. This period is there-
fore believed to correspond with the Achen retreat of the great
glaciers still covering the Alpine region.

Another striking proof of the amelioration of climate is the
return of the flint workers to many of the open stations, old
and new, in various parts of western Europe, the climate being
more endurable because less humid. In Mousterian times the
open stations were very rare and were perhaps visited during
the summer season only; in Aurignacian times they were
more abundant, there being twelve open stations out of a total
of about sixty stations thus far discovered ; in Aurignacian and
Solutrean times the type station of Solutre was much frequented,
and many other open camps are found in various parts of west-
ern Europe.

This is still the Reindeer Period; in fact, it is the typical
' Reindeer Epoch' of Lartet, and the predominant forms of life
are the woolly mammoth and the woolly rhinoceros; but for a
time the reindeer seems to have been less abundant, and Aurig-
nacian times are marked apparently by a very greatly increased
number of horses. The animal life throughout retains its
northern or arctic character ; the tundra species predominate,
the hardy forms of the forests and meadows of Eurasia are next
in number, and then are found a few of the steppe forms, with
here and there forms characteristic of the Alps. The entire
fauna of the Aurignacian may be summed up as follows :

The wild ass, or kiang, of the Asiatic deserts appears in late
Aurignacian times in the region of the upper Rhine and upper
Danube, as seen in the deposits of Wildscheuer, Thaingen, Kess-
lerloch, and Schweizersbild, and also there probably arrived
in Europe at this time the Elasmo there (E. sibericum). a gigan-

MAMMALIAN LIFE

287

Tundra Life.

Reindeer, woolly mammoth,
wholly rhinoceros, musk-
ox (rare), arctic fox, arctic
hare, arctic wolverene, arc-
tic ptarmigan.

Banded and Obi lemmings
in lower Aurignacian only.

ibex, alpine

Alpine Life.

Argali sheep,
ptarmigan.

Steppe Life.

Steppe horse, kiang,
tral Asiatic ass.

cen-

tic rhinoceros, distinguished from all others that we have been
considering by the entire absence of the anterior horn and

by the possession of an enormous
single horn situated on the forehead
above the eyes, also by the elabo-
rate foldings of the dental enamel,
to which the name ' Elasmo there '
refers; its teeth were especially
adapted to a grassy diet; it ap-
parently wandered into Europe from
the arid grassy plains of central and
western Asia, and its appearance is
connected with the extensive de-
forestation accompanying the tundra
and steppe periods of mammalian
life.

These periodic arrivals from cen-
tral Asia suggest the existence of
migration routes which may also
have been followed by tribes of Pa-
laeolithic hunters.

There is no evidence at this
time of the presence of the more
characteristic animals of the steppes,
such as the saiga antelope, the jer-
boa, and the steppe hamster, which
enter Europe during the later period
of Magdalenian culture. As an in-
dication, perhaps, of the dryness of
the climate we observe that the moose (Alces) is no longer
recorded, although it reappears in western Europe in later Mag-
dalenian times. The giant deer (Megaceros) appears in southern
Germany with the early Aurignacian culture, but this would
seem to be the time of its extinction, because it does not occur
in association with any of the later industries. For a time the
bison in Dordogne, in southern Germany, and in Austria appears

Forest Life.

Red deer, roe-deer, giant
deer, brown bear, cave-
bear, wildcat, wolf, fox,
otter, lynx, weasel.

Meadow Life.
Bison, wild cattle.

Asiatic Life.

Cave-hyaena, cave-lion,
? cave-leopard.

288 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

to be far more abundant than the wild cattle ; the latter animals
are not recorded either by Schmidt or Dechelette in association
with the Aurignacian culture, but they reappear in the moister
period of Magdalenian times.

The remains of similar late Pleistocene mammals lie scat-
tered over a large area in Britain, and we must conclude' from
their presence, observes Dawkins,12 that Britain was still broadly
connected with the mainland of Europe. This is proved by
the occurrence of the mammoth fauna in various places now
covered by the sea, as in Holyhead Harbor, off the coasts of
Devonshire and of Sussex, and in the North Sea. On the Dog-
ger Bank the accumulation of bones, teeth, and antlers is so
great that the fishermen of Yarmouth have collected in their
nets and dredges more than three hundred specimens. They
belong to the bear, wolf, cave-hyaena, giant deer, Irish elk, rein-
deer, stag, bison, urus, horse, woolly rhinoceros, mammoth, and
beaver, and are to be viewed as the remains of animals deposited
by river currents, as in the case of similar accumulations on
land. Had they been deposited by the sea they would have
been sifted by the action of the waves, the smaller being heaped
together in one place and the larger in another. The carcasses
had evidently been collected in the eddies of a river that helped
to form the Dogger Bank, which now rises to within eight fath-
oms of the sea-level.

One of the animals of the Aurignacian period which is best
known is the 'horse of SolutreV Around the great Aurignacian
camp at Solutre there accumulated the remains of a vast number
of horses, which are estimated at not less than 100,000; the
bones are distributed in a wide circle around the ancient camp,
consisting of broken or entire skeletons compacted into a veri-
table magma, with which occur also remains of the reindeer, the
urus, and the mammoth interbedded with all the types of Aurig-
nacian implements. The majority of these horses belong to the
stout-headed, short-limbed forest or northern type, measuring
54 inches (13.2 hands) at the withers, and about the size of the
existing pony.13 The joints and hoofs were especially large, and

THE CRO-MAGNON RACE 289

the long teeth and powerful jaws were adapted to feeding on
coarse grasses ; the greater part of the remains are those of horses
from five to seven years of age. There is no evidence that the
men of Aurignacian times either bred or reared these animals;
they pursued them only for food. The discovery that the horse
might be used as an animal of transport appears to have been
made in the far East, and not in western Europe.

The animal and plant life of the Aurignacian station near
Krems, on the Danube, above Vienna,14 includes a strong ele-
ment of the tundra forms — the arctic fox, wolverene, mammoth,
rhinoceros, musk-ox, reindeer, hare, and ptarmigan. The steppe
fauna, on the other hand, is rare, including only the suslik, but
not the saiga antelope or any of the other characteristic steppe
types. The principal objects of the chase were not only the
mammoth, which was extraordinarily abundant, but also the
reindeer and wild horses ; the ibex is rare.

Obermaier observes that the chart of the geographic distri-
bution of the Aurignacian shows this culture to belong essentially
to the provinces surrounding the entire Mediterranean, from
Syria (the grottos of Lebanon) through north Africa (Algiers) to
Spain. It also has a strong development throughout France,
entering middle and southern Germany and passing along the
Danube to Austria, Poland, and southern Russia (Mezine) north
of Kiev. There is no doubt that the mammoth hunters of
Krems belonged in this wide-spread distribution ; the shells used
for ornaments, which unmistakably recall those of the Riviera,
are only in part local from the neighborhood of Vienna; the
larger part is from the Mediterranean. We may imagine that
these shells passed through several hands among this race of
nomadic hunters, and this is not surprising in view of the girdle
which the Aurignacian stretched around the entire Mediterranean
Sea.

Discovery of the Cro-Magnon Race

The earliest discovery of a member of this race was that by
Buckland, in the cave of Paviland, which opens on the face of

290

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

a steep limestone cliff, about a mile east of Rhossilly, on the coast
of Gower, Wales.15 As described by Sollas, a painted skeleton,
long known as the 'Red Lady,' was found in the kitchen mid-
den which forms the floor of this cave ; recent investigation has
proved that this skeleton belongs to a man of the Cro-Magnon
race ; the associated implements are of Aurignacian type. Pavi-

FiG. 139. Section of the sepulchral grotto of Aurignac, the type station of Aurignacian

culture, as restored by Lartet from the description of the original condition of

the grotto as it was in 1852. After Lyell.

land cave is thus the first Aurignacian station discovered in
Britain and marks the most westerly outpost of the Cro-Mag-
non race.

In 1852 the sepulchral grotto of Aurignac, on the nearest spur
of the Pyrenees, in Haute- Garonne, was accidentally discovered
by a laborer. It was almost filled with bones, among which were
two entire skulls and many fragments, numbering altogether no
less than seventeen skeletons of both sexes and of all ages. The
mayor of Aurignac ordered all the bones to be taken out and re-
interred in the parish cemetery. Thus, in i860, when Lartet
visited this grotto and determined it as the type station of a
distinct industry, all the human remains had been lost beyond

THE CRO-MAGNON RACE

291

recovery, and with them all possibility of learning to what race,
culture, and geologic age they belonged. On a sloping terrace
in front of the grotto was the hearth containing one hundred flint
implements, mingled with the remains of a typical reindeer fauna.
In 1868 Lartet explored a grotto in the little hamlet of Cro-
Magnon, near Les Eyzies, on the Vezere, where he found five

N.E.

S.W.

Fig. 140. Section of the Grotto of Cro-Magnon, in which the fossilized skeleton
of the 'Old Man of Cro-Magnon/ type of the Cro-Magnon race, was discovered
in 1868, together with the remains of four other individuals. After Louis
Lartet. Scale = 1-125.

skeletons, which have become the type of the great Cro-Magnon
race of Upper Palaeolithic times. The grotto was accidentally
discovered by workmen building a road in the Vezere valley.
Here Lartet found the skeleton of an old man, now known as the
i old man of Cro-Magnon ' ; then that of a woman, whose fore-
head bore the mark of a wound from some heavy blow ; close
to her lay the fragments of a child's skeleton and near by those
of two young men. Flint implements and perforated shells were
found with these skeletons.

In May, 1868, the material was first described by Broca,16
his excellent account being later reprinted and amplified in the
Reliquice Aquitanicce of Lartet and Christy.17 Broca referred to

202

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

these skeletons as incontestable proofs of the contemporaneous
existence of man and the mammoth. The associated mammalian
life was that of the reindeer and the industry is now known to be
of the Aurignacian stage. In his classic original description of
this type Broca remarks upon the high stature, the face very

Fig. 141. Head of the very tall skeleton of Cro-Magnon type discovered in the Groltc
des Enfants. After Verneau. One-quarter life size.

broad in relation to its height, with very long and very narrow
orbits; the large and markedly dolichocephalic skull, with an
unusually large brain capacity, noting that the brain capacity
of the Cro-Magnon woman surpasses that of the average male
of to-day; the forehead correspondingly broad, vertical, convex
on the median line ; the bones of the limbs robust, and the shin-
bones flattened transversely; altogether a very high racial type
of skeleton belonging to the species Homo sapiens.

THE CRO-MAGNON RACE

293

Verneau,18 in his description of the Cro-Magnon type, empha-
sizes the disharmonic form of the head, for the dolichocephalic
form of the skull is combined with a face very broad for its height,
and this, in fact, is the unique and most distinctive feature of
the Cro-Magnon race. The cheek-bones are both broad and
high. It is curious that in this face, so broad across the cheek-

Fig. 142. Head of the 'Old Man of Cro-Magnon,' rejuvenated by the restoration of
the teeth, showing the method of restoration of the features adopted in all the models
by J. H. McGregor. The diameter of the head across the cheek-bones is seen to be
greater than that across the cranium. (Compare Figs. 146 and 147, also PL VI.)

bones and cheek arches, the space between the eyes is small, the
nose is narrow and aquiline, and the upper jaw is noticeably
narrow; it is no less remarkable that this upper jaw projects
forward, while the upper part of the face is almost vertical, as in
the highest types of Homo sapiens. The eye sockets, which are
remarkably broad, are rather shallow, and their angles are but
slightly rounded off, so that the form suggests a very long rec-
tangle ; the mandible is thick and strong, and the chin massive,

294

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

triangular, and very prominent ; the marks of muscular attach-
ment denote great muscular development around the thick,
strong jaws, in which the parts for the attachment of the vertical

DISCOVERIES CHIEFLY OF THE CRO-MAGNON AND GRIMALDI

RACES*
Referred to Aurignacian Times

Date of
Discovery

Locality

Number of Individuals

Culture Stage

Cro-Magnon and (?) Aurignacian Race

1823.

Paviland cave, western Wales.

One skeleton.
Burial.

Aurignacian.

1852.

Aurignac, Haute- Garonne, Pyrenees,

Seventeen skeletons.

?

France.

Burial.

1868.

Cro-Magnon, Dordogne, France.

Three incomplete
skeletons and
fragments of two
others.
? Burial.

n

1872-1884.

Grottes de Grimaldi, Baousse-Rousse,

Italy.

Burial.

1. Grotte des Enfants

Four skeletons.

11

(Grotte de Grimaldi).

2. Grotte de Cavillon.

One

"

3. Barma Grande.

Six

"

4. Baousso da Torre.

Three "

"

1909.

Combe-Capelle, Dordogne.

Type of Homo aurig-
nacensis, Klaatsch.
Burial.

1909.

Laugerie Haute, Dordogne.

One skeleton.
Burial.

?

Solutre.

Fragments.

?

Camargo (Santander), Spain.

Fragment of skull.

"

Willendorf, Austria.

Fragments.

Late Aurignacian.

Cave of Antelias (Syria).

Scattered bones.

Aurignacian.

Grimaldi Race

1906.

Grottes de Grimaldi, Baousse-Rousse,
Italy.

1. Grotte des Enfants

Two skeletons.

Aurignacian or 1

(Grotte de Grimaldi).

Late Mous- 1
terian.

* Obermaier,19 R. Martin.20

muscles are unusually large. I would add, says Verneau, to
these essential characteristics the surprising capacity of the
cranium, which Broca estimated as at least 1,590 c.cm. The
majority of these features are found in almost all of the skulls
of the Cro-Magnon race in the Grottes de Grimaldi. The top

THE CRO-MAGNON RACE 295

view of the skull is unusual on account of the extreme prominence
of the eminences of the parietals, which give the skull a pentag-
onal effect when seen from above. The eyebrow ridges show
decided prominences above the orbits but disappear completely
in the median line and at the sides and thus differ totally from
those in the Neanderthal head.

Of the numerous skeletons found in the Grottes de Grimaldi,
or Baousse-Rousse, near Men tone, the one first discovered is
most widely known as the 'man of Mentone,' which was found
in the Grotte de Cavillon, in 1872, by Riviere; hence this is
sometimes spoken of as the Mentone race ; but, as Verneau shows,
while the measurements of the skulls of Baousse-Rousse show
some variety, they do not exceed what might be expected in
individual variation, and we conclude that all the men of tall
stature found in the Grottes de Grimaldi belong to the Cro-
Magnon race, which is not to be confused with the very distinct
dwarf Grimaldi race discovered in the Grottes de Grimaldi by
Verneau, in 1906, in a lower level than any of the skeletons of
the Cro-Magnon type.

In Aurignacian times, lofty stature seems to have been a gen-
eral characteristic of this race, but there appears to have been a
gradual decrease in height, so that in later industrial times the
race in general is somewhat smaller in stature. The heights are
as follows :

Cro-Magnon type of Dordogne 1.80 m. 5 ft. 10 % in.

" woman slightly inferior in size.

Baousse-Rousse, Grottes de Grimaldi.
Adult males of

Cavillon 1.79 m. 5 ft. 10 yi in.

Barma Grande II 1.82 m. 5 ft. 11 y2 in.

Baousso da Torre II 1.85 m. 6 ft. % in.

Barma Grande 1 1.93 m. 6 ft. 4 in.

Grotte des Enfants 1.94 m. 6 ft. 4 y2 in.

Average 1.87 m. 6 ft. 1 ^ in.

Woman of Barma Grande estimated at 1.65 m. 5 ft. 5 in.

Youth of 15 years, Barma Grande, estimated at 1.65 m. 5 ft. 5 in.

The woman had not reached complete development. As
there is a variation of 6 inches in the height of the various male

296

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

skeletons, it is evident that we cannot reach a trustworthy con-
clusion from a single subject ; but there would seem to be quite
a disparity in height between the sexes.

The very large skeleton from the Grotte des Enfants, measur-
ing 6 feet 4*4 inches, was found associated with the remains of

Fig. 143. The abri or shelter of Laugerie Haute, Dordogne, France, where the Aurig-

nacian burial of a skeleton referred to the Cro-Magnon race, was discovered

in 1909. Photograph by Belves.

the reindeer, 15 feet below the surface, from which it would ap-
pear probable that the skeleton antedates the Aurignacian skel-
eton of Laugerie Haute, and even of Cro-Magnon. Thus the
so-called man of Mentone may be an ancestor of the race which
was found in Cro-Magnon and other regions of Dordogne. It
is these men of great height, found in Barma Grande and the
Grotte des Enfants, which Verneau selects for his description of
the primitive members of the Cro-Magnon race, which at this
time lived along the Riviera and in the valley of the V6zere and
later spread over a vast area in western Europe. It is probable

THE CRO-MAGNON RACE

297

that in the genial climate of the Riviera these men obtained
their finest development ; the country was admirably protected

wummwM:!

HPi

i

Fig. 144. Comparative view of the Neanderthal skeleton (left) from La Chapelle-anx
Saints, and of the skeleton of a very tall member of the Cro-Magnon race (right) dis-
covered in the Grotte des Enfants. After Boule and Verneau. Both figures are ap-
proximately one-seventeenth life size.

from the cold winds of the north, refuges were abundant,
and game by no means scarce, to judge from the quantity of
animal bones found in the caves. Under such conditions of

298

MEN 01' THE OLD STONE AGE

life the race enjoyed a fine physical development and dispersed
widely.

With an average height of 6 feet ilA inches, these cave-dwellers
may be said to demonstrate one of the most striking traits of
the Cro-Magnon race. In the proportions of the limbs and in
the great size of the upper part of the chest these men are re-
moved from the modern European type and approach some of
the African negroid types, although there is not the least resem-
blance to the negro type in the skull or in the dentition. In
contrast with the Neanderthals are three characters of the limbs :

n.i

Fig. 145. Sections of the tibia or shin-bone, (i) the normal triangular type;

and (2) the extremely platycnaemic flattened type characteristic of the

Cro-Magnon race. After Broca.

the leg was very long in comparison with the arm ; they show a
remarkable lengthening of the forearm in proportion to the upper
arm and a still more remarkable lengthening of the lower leg or
shin-bone in proportion to the thigh-bone ; the tibia has an index
of 81-86 per cent as compared with the femur, which is relatively
greater than that of the average modern European, with a tibio-
femoral index of 79.7 per cent. This long shin-bone indicates
that these men were swift of foot, quite in keeping with their
undoubted nomadic habits and wide distribution. The flatness
of the tibia, which is strongly marked in 62 per cent of the
skeletons, may well be due to the habit of squatting while en-
gaged in fashioning flints and in other industrial occupations.
The leg, long in comparison with the arm, and the thigh-bone,
strongly developed, are both characters of a hunting race. The
foot has a very protruding heel, but the sole and the toes are

THE CRO-MAGNON RACE 299

of moderate length. The hip-girdle is of a type which has noth-
ing negroid about it, but is as fine as that of the most civilized
whites; it is marked by its strength, the augmentation of all
the vertical and transverse diameters, and the reduction of the
anteroposterior diameters. The shoulders are exceptionally
broad. The fact that the arms are relatively short as com-
pared with the legs is also a high racial character. The upper
arm is very robust, and in some cases the left arm is more largely
developed, in others the right.

In all the skulls from these grottos near Mentone, the face
shows the essential features of the Cro-Magnon race, its breadth
being due to the development of the cheek-bones and the zygo-
matic arches, for the upper jaws are narrow, and the nose is thin
or leptorhine. At the root the nose shows a marked depression,
but it rises immediately to a considerable prominence ; it thus
undoubtedly had an aquiline profile. The orbits always present
the form of a long rectangle, so characteristic of the race along
the Vezere. All these characters leave no doubt of the racial
affinity of the skeletons from the Grottes de Grimaldi with the
original Cro-Magnon type. It must be concluded, therefore,
that certain peculiar features noted in the type of the 'old man
of Cro-Magnon' are purely individual, and that we are not jus-
tified in assuming the admixture of a foreign element to ac-
count for the weakness of some characteristics which we notice
in the majority of the Cro-Magnon subjects from the caves of
Grimaldi. *

The highly evolved characters of the skeleton in this race
are in keeping with the extraordinarily great cranial capacity.
Broca estimated the 'old man of Cro-Magnon' as having a
cranial capacity of 1,590 c.cm., and in the female the brain is
estimated at 1550 c.cm. Verneau estimates the five large male
skulls of Cro-Magnon type at Grimaldi as having an average
capacity of 1,800 c.cm., the lowest being 1,715 c.cm., and the
highest 1,880 c.cm. This race, observes Keith,21 was one of
the finest the world has ever seen. The wide, short face, the
extremely prominent cheek-bones, the spread of the palate and

300

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

a tendency of the upper cutting teeth and incisors to project
forward, and the narrow, pointed chin recall a facial type which
is best seen to-day in tribes living in Asia. to the north and to
the south of the Himalayas. As regards their stature the Cro-

:\.n\:/s-

Fig. 146. Restoration of the head of the 'Old Man of Cro-Magnon,' in pro-
file, modelled after the type skull of Cro-Magnon, Dordogne, with the
teeth restored and the head given a younger appearance. After the
model by J. H. McGregor. One-quarter life size.

Magnon race recalls the Sikhs living to the south of the Him-
alayas. In the disharmonic proportions of the face, that is,
the combination of broad cheek-bones and narrow skull, they
resemble the Eskimo. The sum of the Cro-Magnon characters
is certainly Asiatic rather than African, whereas in the Gri-
maldis the sum of the characters is decidedly negroid or African.
We shall trace this great race through the Solutrean and

THE CRO-MAGNON RACE

301

Magdalenian stages of the Upper Palaeolithic and consider its
disappearance and possible distribution at the close of Mag-
dalenian times. It will then be interesting to consider the evi-
dence of the survival of the descendants of this race in various

Fig. 147. Restoration of the head of the ' Old Man of Cro-Magnon,' front
view. After the model by J. H. McGregor. One-quarter life size.

parts of western Europe and possibly among the primitive in-
habitants of the Canary Islands, known as the Guanches.

Evidence of Other Races

It is a mooted question whether the Cro-Magnons were the
only people inhabiting Europe in early Aurignacian time or
whether there were also two other races, the Grimaldi and the
Aurignacian. As we have seen in the preceding pages, there
is no evidence that the negroid Grimaldi race ever became es-

302 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

tablished in Europe ; the idea of the presence of a negroid race has
taken the fancy of archaeologists like Breuil and Rutot, when seek-
ing an African, Egyptian, or Bushman analogy in certain phases
of early Aurignacian art ; but it rests merely on the slender evi-
dence afforded by the isolated skeletons of a woman and of a boy.

The case of the Aurignacian race is different; this is held
by competent anatomists (Klaatsch,22 Keith23) to be distinct from
the Cro-Magnon race and to bear some resemblance to the
Briinn (Briix, Pfedmost, [?] Galley Hill) race which, we know,
became established in central Europe certainly as early as So-
lutrean times, if not before.

The so-called Aurignacian race (Homo sapiens aurignacensis) ,
described as a subspecies of existing man, is based upon a type
found in the shelter of Combe-Capelle near Montferrand, Peri-
gord, in the summer of 1909 by O. Hauser.24 It is commonly
known as the ' Combe-Capelle ' man from the scene of its dis-
covery, or as the Aurignacian man (Homo aurignacensis) ; if a sub-
species, it certainly belongs to Homo sapiens. The adult male
skeleton was discovered lying undisturbed in the lowest stratum of
an Aurignacian industry and was carefully disinterred by Klaatsch
and Hauser. It was apparently a case of ceremonial burial;
a great number of unusually fine flints of early Aurignacian type
was found with it, also a necklace of perforated shells (Littorina,
Nassa) ; the limbs were bent.25 Water saturated with lime had
dripped upon the burial-place, resulting in the remarkable preser-
vation of the skeleton. This skeleton is compared by Klaatsch
with that of Briinn, Moravia, and of Galley Hill, near London,
from which he concludes that it represents a distinct type, the
Aurignacian race ; the stature is 5 feet 3 inches, as compared with
6 feet il/i inches, the average in the five Cro-Magnon males of
Grimaldi; the brain case is well arched and falls within the
variation limits of Homo sapiens. The skull is very long and
narrow, the cephalic index being 65.7 per cent; in some points
it shows a striking similarity to that of Briinn, in others it varies
from it in the direction of the recent European form ; the face
is not narrow nor is it prognathous ; the lower jaw is small with a

BURIAL CUSTOMS 303

well-developed chin. Klaatsch finds many characteristics re-
sembling those of the Cro-Magnon race, including the Chancelade
type which is a late Cro-Magnon. He suggests that the Cro-
Magnon type may be considered a further development of the
Aurignacian. It seems probable that the Aurignacian man is a
member of the true Cro-Magnon race and that additional evidence
is required to establish it as distinct. Schliz26 considers that this,

Fig. 148. Brain outline of the man of the so-called Aurignacian race discovered at

Combe- Capelle in 1909 (after Klaatsch), as compared with the brain outlines

of a chimpanzee and of Homo sapiens.

skull is an intermediate form between that of the Cro-Magnon
and the Briinn race, an indication that these two races were
undergoing a parallel development.

Burial Customs

Similar customs of burial prevailed widely in Aurignacian
times, as we have observed from the use of color in the Paviland
interment of western Wales and in the Briinn interment of
Moravia. This is a feature seldom found in the Neanderthal
burials, although the latter are accompanied by signs of great
reverence and by an abundance of ornaments and finely finished
flints. Up to the present time the races of the Upper Palaeolithic
have been studied with far less anatomical precision than those
of the Lower, and the attribution of many of the burials to the
Cro-Magnon race awaits verification.

304 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

We have little record of the Paviland burial except that the
skeleton was that of a man of the Cro-Magnon race and col-
ored red. Of the burial of Aurignac we have no record other
than that seventeen skeletons were placed close together; it
would appear that this compound burial may have been the
sequel of a battle or, less probably, that of an epidemic. The
type skeletons of the Cro-Magnon race were simply lying on
the surface of a deep shelter ; thus there has always been some
doubt as to their exact archaeological age ; a large number of
perforated shells was found among the bones, as well as pen-
dants of ivory.

The most remarkable Cro-Magnon burials of undoubted Au-
rignacian age are those of the Grottes de Grimaldi ; the infant
skeletons found here are neither colored nor decorated, but oc-
curred with a vast number of small perforated shells (Nassa),
evidently forming a sort of burial mantle. Similarly, the fe-
male skeleton was enveloped in a bed of shells not perforated;
the legs were extended, while the arms were stretched beside
the body; there were a few pierced shells and a few bits of
silex. One of the large male skeletons of the same grotto had
the lower limbs extended, the upper limbs folded, and was
decorated with a gorget and crown of perforated shells ; the
head rested on a block of red stone. In the 'man of Mentone/
found in 1872, the body rested on its left side, the limbs were
slightly flexed, and the forearm was folded ; heavy stones pro-
tected the body from disturbance ; the head was decorated with
a circle of perforated shells colored in red, and implements of
various types were carefully placed on the forehead and chest.
Similarly in the burial of Barma Grande three skeletons were
found placed side by side in a layer of red earth containing a
large quantity of peroxide of iron ; two of the skeletons rested
on the left side, the limbs extended or slightly flexed ; the fore-
head and chest and one of the limbs were encircled with shells.

In the burial of the so-called Aurignac man of Combe-Ca-
pelle, described above, the limbs were outstretched and the body
was decorated with a necklace of perforated shells and sur-

AURIGNACIAN INDUSTRY 305

rounded with a great number of fine Aurignacian flints. It
appears that in all the numerous burials of these grottos of Au-
rignacian age and industry of the Cro-Magnon race we have
the burial standards which prevailed in western Europe at this
time.

We must infer that the conception of survival after death
was among the primitive beliefs, attested by the placing with
the dead of ornaments and of weapons and in many instances
of objects of food. It is interesting to note that the grottos and
shelters were so frequently sought as places of burial, also that
the flexed limbs or extended position of the body prevailed
throughout western Europe into Neolithic times, as well as the
use of color through the Solutrean into Magdalenian times. It
is probable from their love of color in parietal decorations, and
from the appearance of coloring matter in so many of the burials,
that decoration of the living body with color was widely prac-
tised, and that color was freshly applied, either as pigment or
in the form of powder, to the bodies of the dead in order to pre-
pare them for a renewal of life.

Aurignacian Flint and Bone Industry

As pointed out in the introduction of this chapter, the geo-
graphical distribution of the early Aurignacian industry is espe-
cially interesting in its bearing upon the routes by which the Cro-
Magnon race entered Europe. "We can hardly contemplate an
origin directly from the east," says Breuil,27 "because these ear-
lier phases of the Aurignacian industry have not as yet been met
with in central or eastern Europe." A southerly origin seems
more probable, because the Aurignacian colonies appear to sur-
round the entire periphery of the Mediterranean, being found in
northern Africa, Sicily, and the Italian and Iberian peninsulas,
from which they extended over the larger part of southern
France. In Tunis we find a very primitive Aurignacian like that
of the Abri Audit of Dordogne, with implements undoubtedly
similar to those of Chatelperron, in France. Even far to the

306

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

east, in the cave of Antelias, in Syria, as well as in certain stations
of Phoenicia,28 culture deposits are found which are character-
istically Aurignacian. Again, in southern Italy implements of
typical Aurignacian form, tending toward the superior stage, are
found in the grotto of Romanelli, Otranto.

On the other hand, in favor of the theory of local or autoch-
thonous evolution of this culture is the direct succession described
below of Aurignacian prototypes and early Aurignacian imple-
ments above the older Mousterian layers in the various stations

of Dordogne. In fact, the

Art.

Microlithique, microlith.
Burin, graver

(first appearance).

Industrial.

Coup de poing, hand-stone

(rare and degenerate).
Pointe, point.

* Chatelperron (curved).

double-pointed.

relation of the Aurignacian
industry to the preceding
Mousterian is one of the most
important in the history of
Palaeolithic archaeology, be-
cause of the change of race
which occurred at this time.
How far is it derivative and
autochthonous, how far is it
new and influenced by inva-
sion and the handicraft of a
new and superior race?

First, as for transition from
the older culture, it is impor-
tant to note throughout that
the ' Aurignacian retouch' is
identical with the Mousterian ;
this retouch is on one side of
the flake only and gives it a
short, abrupt, and blunt edge.
As we shall see, it is essenti-
ally different from that dis-
covered by the Solutrean flint
workers and employed in Solutrean times, a superior technique
which produced a sharp, thin edge, many of the implements

* Denotes very frequent occurrence of a typical form.

Racloir,

scraper.

convex.

concave.

straight.

double-edged.

triple-edged.

Grattoir,

planing tool.

Percoir,

drill, borer.

Couteau,

knife, blade.

Enclume,

anvil stone.

Percuteur,

hammer-stone.

rar and Chase.

Pointe,

point.

Pierre de jet,

throwing stone.

Couteau,

knife, blade.

Pointe de lance,

bone lance-heads.

AURIGNACIAN INDUSTRY

307

being dressed on both sides. On the other hand, Breuil con-
cludes that the early Aurignacian industry can only in part be
derived from the late Mousterian and that it is partly due to
the invasion of a race which ranks much higher in the scale of
intelligence than the Neanderthal.

The pure early Aurignacian industry is seen in the regions of
Dordogne and the Pyrenees in the layers of Chatelperron, Ger-
molles, Roche au Loup, Haurets, and Gargas. The cave of

Fig. 149. Implements designed for engraving and sculpture. Evolution of the angu-
late graving- tool or burin, from the early Aurignacian of Chatelperron (left), to the
late Solutrean of Placard (right). After Breuil. About one-third actual size. These
small implements, chiefly made from elongated flakes and distinguished by a sharp
angulate edge at one end suitable for graving on bone or stone, are especially charac-
teristic of the Aurignacian stage of culture, in which they first appear. 1, 2. Chatel-
perron points. 6. Prototype of the Magdalenian 'parrot-beak.' Some of these burins,
such as 7, are made into grattoirs or planing tools at the other end.

Gudenushohle, near Krems, in Lower Austria, exhibits a very
primitive phase of the early Aurignacian. Here numerous small
flints were found, resembling those found at Brive by the Abbes
Bardon and Bouyssonie; similar microliths are also found at
Pair-non-Pair, Gironde, at various stations in Dordogne, and at
the Grottes de Grimaldi, on the Riviera, in layers of corre-
sponding age.

The chief invention of this stage is the ' Chatelperron point'
(Fig. 149), a direct development from the curved point of the
Abri Audit (Fig. 151) and a dominant type of the early Aurig-
nacian culture. Small almond-shaped ' coups de poing' are

308

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

still met with at Chatelperron and a few other localities, but
Breuil suggests that these may not be real examples of Aurig-
nacian industry but implements carried off from older sta-
tions.

The use of elongated flakes is another feature of this early
industry, but the retouch of the edges cannot compare with the
fine 'grooved retouch' of the middle Aurignacian; as yet the
flakes are thick and large. Many of the scrapers are 'keeled'
(grattoirs carenes) .

An entirely new implement appears in addition to the trian-
gular and elongate flakes of flint shaped into points and scrapers
of forms ; this is the primitive graving-tool, or burin, which at
first is quite rare, but which we know was designed by the

Cro-Magnon artists for their

Art Implements.
Microlithique,

* Burin,
Ciseau,

* Gravette,

microlith.
graver,
chisel,
etching tool

(first appearance).

New Industrial Implements.

Pointe, point

(leaf-shaped).
* Grattoir carene, keeled scraper.

Perqoir, drill, borer.

* curved (first appearance) .
Couteau, knife, blade.

* curved-in edges.
Poinqon, awl

(bone).

New Implements of War and Chase.
Pointe a cran, shouldered point

(stone).
Pointe de sagaie, javelin point

(bone).

early engravings on stone (Fig.
149).

A fourth highly distinctive
feature of the early Aurigna-
cian is the use of a variety of
implements of bone and horn
consisting chiefly of javelin
points and drills and of coarse,
spatula-like tools.

In the middle Aurignacian
the flake industry reaches its
perfection of form and tech-
nique; the edges of the flakes
are shaped all around with the
'grooved retouch' resulting in
symmetrical forms such as the
oval, double-ended 'points,'
the leaf-shaped 'points,' and

the double scrapers ; this, in
is the culmination of the 'Aurignacian retouch,' which

The retouch of the long flakes is

fact

afterward begins to decline.

* Denotes very frequent occurrence of a typical form.

AURIGNACIAN INDUSTRY

309

fine and parallel, but as yet the flakes themselves are generally
thick and heavy, so that their ends are, perforce, much broader
than those of the Solutrean and Magdalenian fashion. One of
the most distinctive forms of this middle Aurignacian industry
is the ' keeled scraper' {grattoir carene) with an abruptly grooved
retouch (Fig. 150).

Still more significant in connection with the rapid artistic
development of these people is the remarkable increase in the

Fig. 1 50. Implements suitable for the dressing of hides and for sculpture. The keeled
scraper or planing tool — grattoir carene — characteristic of the Aurignacian culture.
After Breuil. About two-fifth actual size, i, 2, 3. Short and broad types appearing
in the middle Aurignacian. 4, 5. More elongated types of the advanced middle Au-
rignacian from Cro-Magnon, Dordogne. 6. Elongated type (pic) of the close of the
middle Aurignacian. 7, 8. Small grattoir s with handles, suitable for sculpture.

number and variety of graving- tools, including numerous curved
gravers. Almost all the chief types of gravers (burins) have
now been invented, and tools of bone have become extremely
numerous and varied. To engraving and linear design have
been added the art of sculpture and the primitive use of color
(Breuil,29 Schmidt30).

In the Dordogne region this evolution of the middle Aurig-
nacian is exemplified at Le Ruth, Le Roc de Combe-Capelle, and
the principal layers of the Abri Audit as well as at the shelter of
Laussel. It is well developed also at Le Trilobite, on the head-
waters of the Seine.

310

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

Art.

Microlithique,

microlith.

Burin,

graver.

Ciseau,

chisel

(of stone and bone).

Gravette,

etching tool.

Pic,

pick

(triangular or quadrangular,

for sculpture).

In the late Aurignacian (Breuil,31 Obermaier32) there is a no-
table departure from the Mousterian fashion of chipping the

flakes ; even the dis-
tinctive blunt ' Aurig-
nacian retouch' is
somewhat weakened;
but at the same time
the work on the elon-
gated flakes becomes
more facile and skilful.
For delicate, artistic
work there appear ex-
tremely small imple-
ments or 'microliths'
of various shapes.

The early and mid-
dle Aurignacian
1 point' and the 'grat-
toir,' sharpened all
around, as well as the
incurved flake become
less frequent. The
grattoirs, or planing
tools, are somewhat
higher and narrower
than those of the early
Aurignacian but not very different in form; two forms of
grattoir are recognized, one long and not very thick, the other
high and keel-shaped (grattoir carene).

Among the percoirs a curved form is very characteristic, and
we also note a variety of small knives, or couteaux.

The inventive genius of this people is displayed in the rapidly
increasing variety of flint implements designed for fishing or for
the chase. Toward the end of the Upper Aurignacian there
appears the shouldered spear head (pointe a cran), and also a

* Denotes very frequent occurrence of a typical form.

Ceremonial.

Baton de commandement, ceremonial staff
(first appearance).

New Industrial Implements.

Grattoir, planing tool

* long but not thick.
Aiguille, needle

(bone, first appearance).

New Implements of War and Chase.
Lance and spear head types, of stone :

(a) Pointe a cran, shouldered point.

(b) Pointe a soie, tongued point

(Font Robert type).

(c) Pointe de lau- laurel-leaf

rier(?), point(?).

Couteau, knife, blade

(bone, first appearance).

AURIGNACIAN INDUSTRY

311

lance form of which the most perfect types have been found at
Willendorf , in Austria, and at Grimaldi, on the Riviera. More or
less sporadically there appear specimens of the tongued spear
heads (pointes a sole), such as are found at Spy, Font Robert,
and Laussel. This type of flint is constantly found associated
with rudely formed prototypes of the Solutrean laurel-leaf point.
Decorative art has now become a passion, and graving-tools
of great variety of shape, curved, straight, convex, or concave,

Fig. 151. Implements of industrial use, of the chase, and of fishing; also suitable for
fine engraving and etching on stone or bone. Evolution of the Aurignacian pointe
with abrupt retouch along one edge, from the base to the summit of the Aurignacian.
After Breuil. About one-third actual size. 1-4. Primitive curved points from the
Abri Audit, Dordogne. 5. More evolved curved point from Gargas. 6, 7. Points
from Chatelperron, at the base of the middle Aurignacian. 11-28. Microlithic points
from La Gravette and Font Robert. The form of 28 suggests that of the pointe a cran
or ' shouldered point ' characteristic of the late Solutrean.

diversified both in size and in style of technique, are very numer-
ous. We may imagine that the long periods of cold and inclem-
ent weather were employed in these occupations. The use of
the reindeer horn is developing, and the decoration of the bone
with very fine lines drawn by the microlithic tools is at times
very remarkable. Here appear the earliest examples of the so-
called baton de commandement, which is supposed to have served
as a ceremonial staff or wand ; it is made of the reindeer antler
with a great hole bored at the point where the brow tine unites

312

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

with the main beam ; some of these batons are ornamented with
rude engravings, but not as yet with sculpture.

Strong and very sharp graving- tools were also needed for the
sculpture out of ivory and soapstone of such human figures and
figurines as the statuettes found in the Grottes de Grimaldi and
at Willendorf and still more powerful tools for such work as the
large stone bas-reliefs of Laussel. At this time the Cro-Mag-
nons were also fashioning stronger tools for the engraving of

Fig. 152. Prototypes of the Solutrean laurel-leaf point, probably an imple-
ment of war or the chase. After Breuil. Large symmetrical flakes chipped
over the entire surface. 1, 2. Late Aurignacian types from Font Robert.
3, 4, 5. Points from the Proto-Solutrean layer of the Grotte du Trilobite.

animals in stone, for shallow forms of bas-relief on the walls of
the caves, and for other animal outlines. The most evolved
animal figures of this period arouse the thought of Magdalenian
art in its beginnings.

As this industrial evolution widens it is apparent that we
witness not the local evolution of a single people but rather the
influence and collaboration of numerous colonies reacting more
or less one upon the other and spreading their inventions and
discoveries. These people were essentially nomadic and no
doubt carried the latest types of implements from point to point
or bartered them in trade. Thus there is not only a definite
succession in such places as Dordogne, but in more remote re-
gions the form of the implements may take on some important

AURIGNACIAN INDUSTRY 313

differences.33 There are also other localities where the industry
seems for a while to be suspended; thus in the Cantabrian Moun-
tains of Spain we find only the early and the late Aurignacian.
Stations similar in culture to those of Dordogne extend
northward into Germany and Belgium and eastward into Aus-
tria and Poland. Thus the characteristic flint spear heads,
known as the pointe a sole and pointe a cran extend from
Laussel along the Vezere to Willendorf, in Austria; and the
female figures of Baousse-Rousse (Grimaldi) and of Willendorf
represent the same stage of evolution as the large stone bas-
relief of Laussel. Again, we observe some relations between
the Aurignacian cultures of Austria and of the Italian penin-
sula, such as the pointe a cran, derived from the gravette
and found both in various stations of northern Italy and at
Willendorf. In western Russia the Aurignacian station of Me-
zine, Chernigov, shows clearly the types of the superior Aurig-
nacian in the graving of bone and ivory, in the small batons
recalling those of Spy, in Belgium, and of Brassempouy, in
southwestern France, in the large bone piercers perforated at
the head, suggesting the primitive needles from the shelter of
Blanchard, and in the degenerate statuettes resembling the
type of Brassempouy.

Distribution or the Aurignacian Industry

When the general geographic distribution of the Aurignacian
(Fig. 153) is compared with that of the Mousterian (Fig. 125) it
is surprising to find how many of the stations are identical; it
would appear as if the Cro-Magnons had driven the Neander-
thals from their principal stations over all of western Europe for
the pursuit of their own industries and of the chase. We have
already spoken of the invasion of the Mousterian stations along
the Riviera, in the Pyrenees, in the Cantabrian Alps, and along
the Dordogne and the Somme ; this occupation also extends
along the Meuse, the Rhine, and the Danube ; but, whereas
there are only six stations in all Germany of unquestioned
Mousterian age, there are more than double that number in

314

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

Aurignacian times. The Cro-Magnons entered the grottos of
Sirgenstein and Rauberhohle, near the headwaters of the Dan-
ube ; northwest of Sirgenstein they established the open ' loess '
station of Achenheim, west of Strasburg ; in the lower layers of

A

1- Miremont

9-Abn Audit

Z-La Ferrassie

10-La Moiithe

3-Gorged' Enfrr

n-La Roche St. ChrUtoplu

4_ Laugerie Haute

\Z-Fongal

5-Le Ruth

13" Lanssel

6"" La Rocliette

X4rFant-de- Gaume

7- Crd-Magnon

15-Sireuil

irPataud

16-La Grese

Fig. 153. Geographic distribution of the principal Aurignacian industrial stations in

western Europe.

the l newer loess ' was also the station of Volklinshof en, south of
Achenheim; along the middle Rhine were the 'loess' stations
of Rhens and Metternich, and to the far north, close to the
borders of the Scandinavian glacier, was the somewhat doubtful
Aurignacian station of Thiede. The Cro-Magnon men entered
the Sirgenstein grotto and scattered the implements of their
culture above the 'lower rodent layer/ composed of the Obi
lemming, and also left remains of the woolly rhinoceros, the
woolly mammoth, the stag, and the reindeer on the floor of

THE BIRTH OF ART

315

the cavern. The Upper Aurignacian also extends down the
Danube as far as Willendorf, and possibly to Brlinn, Moravia,
which last, however, may be of Solutrean age. Altogether be-

L

1

'"» « w-

1

^ -

1

4

t t

*

J ■

Fig,. 154. Outlook over the Bay of Biscay from the entrance of the cavern of Pindal,
in the province of Asturias, northern Spain. Photograph by N. C. Nelson.

tween seventeen and twenty Aurignacian stations have been
discovered in the region north of the Danube and along the
Rhine.

Aurignacian Art*

The strongest proof of the unity of heredity as displayed
in the dominant Cro-Magnon race in Europe from early Aurig-
nacian until the close of Magdalenian times is the unity of their

* Breuil.34 Schmidt.35

316 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

art impulse. This indicates a unity of mind and of spirit. It is
something which could not pass to them from another race, like
an industrial invention, but was inborn and creative. These
people were the Palaeolithic Greeks; artistic observation and rep-
resentation and a true sense of proportion and of beauty were
instinct with them from the beginning. Their stone and bone
industry may show vicissitudes and the influence of invasion
and of trade and the bringing in of new inventions, but their
art shows a continuous evolution and development from first to

Fig. 155. Outline of a mammoth painted in red ochre in the cavern of Pindal,

and attributed by Breuil to the Aurignacian. Only two limbs are

represented. After Breuil.

last, animated by a single motive, namely, the appreciation of
the beauty of form and the realistic representation of it.

This art, as first discovered by Lartet and further made known
through the brilliant studies of Piette and Breuil, is industrial
{Vart mobilier), consisting of the decoration of small personal be-
longings, ornaments, and implements of stone, bone, and ivory.
According to the later researches of Sautuola, Riviere, Cartai-
lhac, Capitan, and Breuil it is also mural or parietal part parietal),
consisting of drawings, engravings, paintings, and bas-reliefs on
the walls of caverns and grottos. It remained for Breuil espe-
cially to demonstrate that the mobile and the parietal art are
identical, the work of the same artistic race, developing along

THE BIRTH OF ART 317

closely similar lines, step by step. Thus the art becomes a new
means not only of interpreting the psychology of the race but
of establishing the prehistoric chronology.

Dating of the Art

One of the first questions which rises in our mind is this —
how is this art dated ; how can these steps be positively deter-
mined ?

The age of these engraved or painted designs on the walls of
the caverns is determined in a number of ways described by
Breuil.36 The simplest method is where the wall designs of one
period are covered by the archaeological layers of succeeding
periods. This has been observed in four cases, as at Pair-non-
Pair, Gironde, where primitive engravings of horses, caprids, and
bovids are buried under flints characteristic of the late Aurig-
nacian mingled with bones of the mammoth, rhinoceros, lion,
hyaena, bison, and reindeer. Again, the deeply engraved bison
on the wall of the grotto of La Greze, Dordogne, is found beneath
a talus of Solutrean flints associated with remains of the bison,
reindeer, and rhinoceros. In the Grotte de la Maine, Dordogne,
are found several finely engraved middle Magdalenian figures of
animals buried beneath late Magdalenian implements associated
with the reindeer fauna.

Very important, indeed, is the age of the sculpture and bas-
reliefs found in Laussel. The human sculptures are determined
to be of late Aurignacian age, because they are buried in an
early Solutrean talus. The splendid wall sculptures of the series
of horses in the Cap-Blanc shelter, near the Laussel shelter, are
shown to be of middle Magdalenian age, because of the upper
Magdalenian strata which covered and partly concealed them.

In other instances we can date a drawing in a cavern by the
period at which the opening was closed ; for example, the cave of
La Mouthe, Dordogne, was closed in by a Magdalenian layer of
flints which touched the roof and firmly sealed up the entrance
until recent times. Again, at Gargas, Hautes-Pyrenees, we

318

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

know that the last occupation by the Cro-Magnons was near
the end of Aurignacian times, as indicated by a hearth filled

Fig. 156. Primitive painted outlines of animals from the cavern walls of Font-dc-Gaumc,
Dordogne, attributed by Breuil to the early Aurignacian. The outlines represent the
horse, ibex, cave-bear, wild cattle, and reindeer. After Breuil.

with late Aurignacian flints and with the remains of the bear,
hyaena, horse, and reindeer ; the opening of the grotto was
buried beneath these foyers, which obstructed the entrance until
the cave was rediscovered at a comparatively recent date. Also

THE BIRTH OF ART

319

at Marsoulas, Haute- Garonne, there are two hearths, one late
Aurignacian, the other late Magdalenian ; the grotto was then
closed until recent times. The grotto of Niaux, on the Ariege,
which contains fine examples of drawings of middle Magdale-
nian times at a distance of 1,800 feet from the entrance, was
protected for a long period by a lake 6 feet deep and several
hundred feet long. At Altamira, near Santander, the superb
frescoed ceiling was buried, long before Neolithic times, by the

w

Fig. 157. The woolly rhinoceros, painted in red ochre with shading and partial rep-
resentation of the hair, in the cavern of Font-de-Gaume, Dordogne. Attributed by
Breuil to the late Aurignacian. Possibly Magdalenian. After Breuil.

closing up of the entrance, which was rediscovered only about
thirty years ago.

A third method of dating the art is still more significant ; it
is through a similarity in the engravings on bone, found in the
old hearths associated with flints, to the mural decorations which
are found upon the walls. Thus, at Altamira, engravings on
bone associated with Solutrean and Magdalenian flints enabled
Alcalde del Rio and Breuil to date the engravings on the lime-
stone walls. Hence, in grottos which have never been closed
up and which have been frequented at different times from the
Palaeolithic to the present epoch one observes that the mural
designs in the caverns are invariably accompanied by Upper
Palaeolithic implements with a similar style of decoration ; and
this is the case at Font-de-Gaume, Combarelles, Portel, Mas
d'Azil, Castillo, Pasiega, and Hornos de la Pena. The bone en-

320 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

gravings of the female red deer found at Altamira are identical
in their artistic period with those found on the walls of the same
grotto. The excavations at Castillo, where numerous shoulder-
blades of the deer were found engraved in the same style as those
of Altamira, prove that all these engravings and drawings are
to be referred to ancient Magdalenian rather than to upper
Solutrean times. The engravings upon the walls in the grotto
of Hornos de la Pena, of Aurignacian times, are dated through
the discovery at the base of the layer of Aurignacian flints of an
engraved equine figure similar to the engravings at Altamira.

A fourth method applies to those not infrequent cases when
two or three designs are superposed one upon the other, from
which it necessarily follows that the underlying designs must
antedate those above.

Through the application of these four methods Breuil has
succeeded in dating all the steps in the advance of art from
Aurignacian into Magdalenian times.

Engraving, Painting, and Sculpture

In the archaic drawings of the caverns of Pair-non-Pair, La
Greze, and La Mouthe most of the animal figures are somewhat
heavily and deeply engraved ; the proportions are not true ; the
head is usually too small, with a large, short body which is often
lightly modelled, resting on thin extremities. Quadrupeds are
frequently represented with but two legs, as in the case of the
mammoth. That the powers of observation were only gradually
trained is shown by the fact that details which in later drawings
are well observed are here overlooked; the profile drawings of
animals, with one fore leg and one hind leg represented, are quite
like those of children.

Progress toward a true representation of animal form in
drawing begins very early ; even in middle Aurignacian times
primitive drawing and engraving commences to replace sculp-
ture. Both the flint 'burins' and the engravings on the walls
of the grottos show that the beginnings of drawing may be

THE BIRTH OF ART

321

traced back to early Aurignacian times. While the Palaeolithic
artists early in the Aurignacian had obtained a certain facility
in plastic work, their drawings, which are solely contours —
somewhat imperfect and deeply engraved lines — show a grad-
ual development. The degree of skill attained
in late Aurignacian times we know from the
engraving of a horse on a stone fragment from
Gargas, and from a sketch of the hinder quarter
of a horse found in the cave of Hornos de la
Peria, which is engraved on the frontal bone of
one of the wild horses ; the latter is strikingly
similar to one of the engravings found at the
entrance to the same grotto. The engravings
on a slab of slate of the heads of two woolly
rhinoceroses37 (Fig. 161) probably belong to the
late Aurignacian. Similar attempts are found
in the Abri Lacoste. Ornamentation develops
in the middle Aurignacian, but retains a simple
geometric character.

The parietal art on the walls of the caverns,
mostly deep engravings, consists of stiff profiles
in single lines and in red or black coloring. The
animals represented are the ibex, the horse, the
bison, and rarely the mammoth. The caves
where these are found are Pair-non-Pair, La
Greze, La Mouthe, Bernifal, Font-de-Gaume,
Altamira, and Marsoulas. Crucibles for grind-
ing the color are found in the grotto of Mar-
soulas, the color being made by grinding up the
red and yellow oxides of iron.

The development of art during the whole
Aurignacian is continuous and is undoubtedly the
work of one race ; Breuil considers it the work certainly either of
the tall Cro-Magnons or of the small Grimaldis ; there is, however,
no evidence of the survival of the Grimaldi race, and we may
safely attribute this entire art development to the Cro-Magnons.

Fig. 158. Female
figurine carved in
crystalline talc,
discovered at the
Grottes de Grimaldi,
near Mentone.
This figurine, pos-
sibly modelled
after one of the
Grimaldi negroids,
represents the en-
ceinte condition
common to many
of these figures.
It is peculiar in
showing that ab-
normal develop-
ment behind the
hips known as
steatopygy. After
Reinach.

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

The creative spirit manifested itself along many different
lines. In the fashioning of bone in early Aurignacian times there
begins a new industry capable of great possibilities ; out of com-
binations of lines there develop geometric figures ; in animal fig-
ures there is an attempt at simple symmetric relations, but a
full, free composition is not attained. With further experience

in working with bone and ivory, we find

in the middle Aurignacian the first plastic
representations of the human figure in the
round.

The Cro-Magnon artist undertook this
plastic work, choosing chiefly for his sub-
ject the female figure. These small plastic
models were probably designed as idols;
the figures arp often misshapen; in the
face the eyes frequently are not indicated
I at all ; in some cases the ear is indicated ;

they recall the style of the modern cubists.
■ V More care is given to the sculpture of the

^P form of the body than of the face. The

ivory statue known as the Venus of Bras-
sempouy lies at the base of the middle
Aurignacian; of the same epoch are the
female statuettes of Sireuil, and the torso
from Pair-non-Pair, whereas the soapstone
figurine of Mentone and the ivory statu-
ettes of Trou Magrite, Belgium, belong to
the late Aurignacian. The spread of these
idols, which are altogether characteristic of the earlier period of
the Upper Palaeolithic, is traced eastward to Willendorf, Aus-
tria, and to Brunn, Moravia.

Breuil's great contention is a certain similarity to north
African art, which would seem to agree with his theory that the
Cro-Magnon people followed the southern shores of the Medi-
terranean, bringing with them the Aurignacian industry and the
glyptic art of the female statuettes similar to those of baked

Fig. 159. Statuette in
limestone from the grotto
of Willendorf, Lower Aus-
tria, attributed to the late
Aurignacian. This fe-
male figurine, possibly an
idol and generally known
as the 'Venus of Willen-
dorf,' is about four and
one-half inches in height.
After Szombathi.

THE BIRTH OF ART

323

clay which are found along the valley of the Nile. These figu-
rines have in common the great development of all the parts
connected with maternity, and in some cases a coiffure or head-
dress very much like that found in the most primitive Egyp-
tian work. The extreme corpulence of all the figurines has
been compared with the 'steatopygy,' or development of what

Fig. 160. Female figurine in soapstone, discovered at the Grottes de Grimaldi,

near Mentone, and attributed to the late Aurignacian. After Ober-

maier. This seems to be a prototype of modern cubist art.

are politely known as the 'posterior curves/ of the female in
many African races. But only one of these Aurignacian figu-
rines is truly l steatopygous ' ; the others are simply corpulent, a
condition due to eating large quantities of fat and marrow, and
probably to a very sedentary life. It is noteworthy that none
of the male figures in drawing and sculpture is corpulent. While
the art of the statuettes appears to come to a close in late Au-
rignacian times, it may extend into the Solutrean at Briinn,
Moravia, and at Trou Magrite, Belgium. With due regard for
analogies, it would rather appear probable that this archaic
sculpture was autochthonous.

324

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

The art of engraving and drawing was almost certainly
autochthonous, because we trace it from its most rudimentary
beginnings. This northern art developed from the beginning of
Upper Palaeolithic times over the whole of southwestern France
and in the northwest of Spain, being contemporaneous with the
descent of the alpine fauna from the Pyrenees and the Alps and

Fig. 161. Superposed engravings of various mammals on a slab of slate found in the
Grotte du Trilobite, Yonne, France. In detail are seen the profiles of two woolly rhi-
noceroses superposed on the rump of a mammoth with tail upturned. After Breuil.

the presence all over western Europe of the tundra fauna. It
was, by preference, an animal art, begun by the Aurignacians
but largely suspended in Solutrean times.

Painting38 also had its birth in the Aurignacian, in the simple
contours of the hand pressed against a wall surface or outlined
with color, accompanied by primitive attempts at linear drawing
in color and painted groupings ; for example, the crude outlines of
the bison in the grotto of Castillo are of Aurignacian age, also the

THE BIRTH OF ART 325

black linear designs of the deer and of the ibex in the cavern of
Font-de-Gaume, Dordogne, the striking red linear design of the
mammoth in the grotto of Pindal, in northern Spain, represent-
ing the animal as with two limbs, and the red outlines of wild

Z00

i ft

' 0F«

fk

f%::; -:: \J

f / v

Fig. 162. Silhouettes of complete and of partly mutilated hands from the walls
of the grotto of Gargas in the Pyrenees. After Breuil.

cattle in Castillo. Breuil also attributes to Aurignacian times
the spirited figure of the woolly rhinoceros in red ochre in the
cave of Font-de-Gaume, as well as the outline of the stag in red
color.

We are impressed throughout with three qualities in this
Aurignacian design : first, the very close observation of the
animal form; second, the attempt at realistic effect produced
with very few lines ; third, the element of motion or movement

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

in these animals. For example, the two heads of the woolly rhi-
noceros in the slab engravings of the Trilobite grotto (Fig. 161)
are remarkably correct in proportion ; there is an attempt with
fine lines to indicate the wool hanging along the lower surface of
the head ; behind these two figures is the rump of an elephant

Fig. 163. The* long, overhanging cliff of Laussel on the Beune is a typical rock shelter,

first sought in Acheulean times, and also visited during the Mousterian, Aurig-

nacian, and Solutrean stages. Photograph by N. C. Nelson.

with the tail upturned, an adaptation of the artist to the form
of the slate fragment ; the outlines of the feet both of the rhi-
noceros and the mammoth are remarkably accurate representa-
tions of these pachyderms.

In the more advanced development of draftsmanship in late
Aurignacian times the engravings of these animals not merely
approach the truth, but characteristic features are strikingly
represented ; and with a few sure lines the proportions of the
body as a whole are better preserved, while the complicated
curves of the hoofs and of the head show very close observation.

THE BIRTH OF ART

327

In the grotto of La Greze overhanging the Beune, a small
tributary of the Vezere, was found an archaic Aurignacian out-
line of the bison deeply incised on the limestone walls. The
grotto of Gargas,* Hautes-Pyrenees,39 is one of the most fa-
mous stations ; it was entered in closing Mousterian times and
was occupied at intervals during the Aurignacian stage. Beneath
the Mousterian layer is a deep deposit of entire skeletons of the
cave-bear without any traces of human industry. These layers
lie beyond the grotto in the vast foyer which opens above into

Fig. 164. Section of the rock shelter of Laussel, showing the superposed industrial
layers from Acheulean to Solutrean times. After Lalanne.

a great chimney, so that this is one of the true cavern habitations.
The drawings along the walls of the cave include a large number
of figures in a very unequal style, which belong chiefly to middle
and upper Aurignacian times. Among these are two figures of
birds, several mammals, a few primitive drawings of wild cattle,
the bison, the ibex, and numerous representations of the horse.
A long serpentine band of color meanders among some of these
drawings. Most interesting are the silhouettes of the hand in
black and red produced by pressing the hand against the lime-
stone wall and covering the surrounding surface with color. It
would appear that the fingers were mutilated or cut off at the
middle joint, because one, two, three, and four of the fingers are
wanting, but the thumb is never mutilated. This mutilation

* The writer had the privilege of visiting all these caverns in the company either of
Professor Emile Cartailhac, or of the Abbe Breuil.

328

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

of the hand may be compared with similar practices prevailing
among some Australian tribes.

In the cavern of Marsoulas, on the headwaters of the Garonne,
the conditions are altogether different; the parietal art here
represents two cultural stages, the late Aurignacian and the late
Magdalenian. There is a small entrance grotto with two

hearths, corresponding to these
two industries. The entrance
to the cave is well up on the
side of the hill, and the drawings
which belong with the upper
Aurignacian culture are some-
what damaged. Again, we find
designs extending along the wall
below the drawings. There are
numerous outlines of the bison
in black, the entire side of the
body being covered with splashes
of red.

The great abri of Laussel, on
the Beune, was first visited by
the Neanderthals, for there are
two Mousterian layers and
above them two Aurignacian
layers, the lower belonging to
the middle Aurignacian industry
and the upper to the closing
Aurignacian period. This long, overhanging cliff of Laussel is a
typical shelter, first sought in Acheulean times, revisited in
Mousterian times, then again in middle or late Aurignacian, in
Solutrean, and finally in Magdalenian times. As these succes-
sive layers rise they approach the shelter of the cliff, so that
the Magdalenian flint workers were directly beneath the over-
hanging rock shelter, which opened outward toward the sun.

In the upper Aurignacian layer Lalanne discovered two bas-
reliefs representing the figures of a man and of a woman. The

Fig. 165. Bas-relief of a woman with a
drinking horn, sculptured on the face
of a boulder within the shelter of Laus-
sel, and attributed to the late Aurig-
nacian. After Lalanne. About one-
eighth actual size.

THE BIRTH OF ART

329

bas-relief of the woman represents a nude figure holding the
horn of a bison in the right hand ; this is cut from a block of
limestone with a relief of about two centimetres, and it measures
forty-six centimetres in height ; with the exception of the head,
the entire body is polished, and at certain points there remain
traces of red coloring. A little
farther on the artist had modelled
the figure of a man in three-
quarter view in the attitude of
casting a spear or of an archer
drawing the bow; the top of the
head and the extremities of the
limbs have been broken away ; the
figure measures forty centimetres
in height. These bas-reliefs of
Laussel are regarded as sincere rep-
resentations, for the artist has pre-
sented as accurately as possible the
contemporary human figure ; both
the man and the woman are rep-
resented in motion. On the tech-
nique employed in this primordial
sculpture, Doctor Lalanne observes
that we find at Laussel a series of
tools perfectly adapted to attain
this result, many of which would
have been inexplicable unless found
to occur in connection with the

sculpture itself. It is curious to note how many analogies there
are between the flint utensils of the primitive sculptor and those
of the sculptors of our own day. First, we find tools designed
to remove the rock, there are points, pickaxes, chopping tools
for shaping the rock, saws, and coarse stone planers ; all of
these are perfectly adapted to the hand, from which we may
conclude that our artist was right-handed. There is a great
number of graving-tools, or burins, all forms being represented

Fig. 166. Bas-relief of a spear
thrower or hunter, sculptured on
the face of a boulder within the
shelter of Laussel. After Lalanne.
About one-sixth actual size.

330 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

— plain, double, fine, coarse, and combinations of the burin and
grattoir. Some of the burins show the sharp-angled point cen-
tred at the extremity of a blade ; these are the ordinary types ;
but in many the blade ends with a terminal retouch, which
may be transverse, oblique, concave, or convex with the point
to one side. The grattoirs, or planers, are equally numerous,
with examples of all the known forms. Many of these are
formed at the end of a blade ; a few are circular, and others are
at the opposite end of a pointed blade ; the latter are particu-
larly fine and are retouched around the entire edge. But the
artist did not merely carve his subjects; he also coated them
with a paint made of ochre and manganese ; he crushed his
coloring matter on a palette of schist, and we have found one
of these unbroken and still bearing the red and ochre colors.
This palette is io>^ inches long and 6 inches wide ; it is oblong
in form.

Distribution of the Solutrean Industry

The period of the Solutrean industry is one of the most diffi-
cult to interpret in the whole prehistory of western Europe.
The remains of this industry in several localities lie directly be-
tween those of the Aurignacian and the Magdalenian ; in others,
as at Solutre, they directly follow the Aurignacian. There is no
doubt that this represents a very long and a very important
epoch in Upper Palaeolithic development. From the cultural
standpoint it represents a climax in the flint industry, but a
period of suspension or of arrested development in art.

A glance at the maps of the Mousterian (Fig. 125), the Aurig-
nacian (Fig. 153), and the Solutrean (Fig. 167) culture stations
shows that the geographic distribution of the Solutrean is en-
tirely unique ; whereas the Aurignacian culture may be said to
girdle the Mediterranean, both on its southern and northern
coasts, the Solutrean culture is absent in this entire region. The
interpretation of this strange phenomenon offered by Breuil,
that the Solutrean culture entered Europe directly from the
east and not from the south, may be connected with the theory

ORIGIN OF THE SOLUTREAN CULTURE

331

that toward the end of Aurignacian times a new race from the
central east was working westward through Hungary and along
the Danube — a race of inferior mental type, but extremely ex-
pert in fashioning the flint spears and lances with what is known
as the Solutrean 'retouch.' This may be the race of Brtinn,

|® CEREMONIAL BURIALS \

1- Gorge d>Enfer

7- Les£y;ies

Z- Laugerie Basse

8- Liveyre

3- Laugerie Haute

9- Rey

4-Le Ruth

10- La Griie

5- Crd-Magnon

H- Moulin de Laussel

fi- Palaud

12- Laussel

| • X HUMAN FOSSILS]

Fig. 167. Geographic distribution of the principal Solutrean industrial stations in

western Europe.

Briix, and Pfedmost, the remains of which are found in two
localities associated with these highly perfected flint spear heads.
Either by the invasion of this race or, more probably, by the in-
vasion of the highly perfected spear-head industry itself, the type
station of Solutre, on the Saone, was established and the region
of Dordogne reached, where this industry progressed at twelve
different stations.

There is no doubt whatever that the new and entirely dis-
tinct Brunn race penetrated the Danubian region at this time,

332 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

but there is no evidence from skeletal remains that it reached
France. It is quite possible that some of the flint workers adept
in the Solutrean 'retouch' migrated into the far western sta-
tions of Dordogne, bringing with them their beautiful technique,
but without leaving traces of their skeletal remains through
ceremonial burial. This unsettled problem affords one of the
many reasons why the anatomy of all the Upper Palaeolithic
men of western Europe should be most carefully studied and
compared.

Another mystery of Solutrean times is the arrest of the ar-
tistic impulse which had animated the Cro-Magnons through-
out the entire Aurignacian. Evidences of artistic work in Solu-
trean times are very rare, and some drawings which have been
attributed to the Solutrean, as at Altamira, have now been re-
ferred to the Magdalenian. Is it possible that the Cro-Magnon
race for a time suspended its artistic endeavor only to renew
it under the different conditions of environment of Magdale-
nian times? Unfortunately, the Solutrean burials afford very
little evidence on this point. One interpretation which may be
offered is that the Solutrean was evidently a period of open-air
life, and that the new implements of the chase of Solutrean
type absorbed the industrial energies of these people, for the
weapons were fashioned in enormous numbers. Consistent with
this theory of climatic influence is the fact that the return of
the severe climate of Magdalenian times, which crowded the
men again into the shelters and grottos, was accompanied by a
renewal of the artistic development continuing from the point
where it had been interrupted in closing Aurignacian times.
That Aurignacian and Magdalenian art is the work of one race
there can be no question whatever; that this race was the
Cro-Magnon is now absolutely demonstrated.

The climate of Solutrean times is generally believed to have
been cold and dry. In the region of Dordogne throughout this
period the reindeer was still far more numerous than any other
animal; so we may safely conclude that this was the principal
object of the chase and of food ; in fact, it would appear that the

HUMAN FOSSILS 333

reindeer were resident forms in the valley of the Vezere, hunted
and consumed throughout the year.40 Here we also occasionally
find the northern steppe or Obi lemming, an animal which at the
same time extends along the borders of the Volga River toward
southern Russia. It would appear that in Solutrean times in
southwestern France there prevailed a dry, cold continental
subarctic climate like that of the Caspian, Volga, and Ural steppes
of the present day. With the mammoth and the reindeer occur
a great variety of northern European forest forms — the true fox,
the hare, the stag, the brown bear, the wolf, the bison, and the
urus. Most interesting is the identification of the jackal belong-
ing to the ancient species C. neschersensis. In the type indus-
trial locality of Solutre the reindeer is very abundant in the
fire-hearths associated with the lower Solutrean industry, but
less abundant in the upper levels; an antelope, perhaps the
saiga antelope, is said to be found among the crude engravings
on bone.

Solutrean Races

There were certainly two distinct races of men in Europe
during Solutrean times, to the east the race of Brunn and to
the west the race of Cro-Magnon. Remains attributed to the
Cro-Magnons have been found in the Departments of Charente,
Gironde, Lot, Haute- Garonne, Tarn, and Dordogne. But most
of these remains are very fragmentary and cannot readily be
determined racially. The fragments of ten skulls and a few other
bones found, in the Grotte du Placard, Charente, are attributed
to late Solutrean and to early Magdalenian times and consti-
tute one of the most exceptional discoveries which have thus
far been made in France ; the interments probably date from
the early Magdalenian (p. 380), but are probably of a race
surviving from the Solutrean. The section of the cave deposit
is from 23 to 26 feet in thickness and is highly instructive ; it
shows eight cultural layers, separated by layers of debris and
succeeding each other in the following order:

334 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

8. Neolithic layer.

7-4. Magdalenian layers; in the lowest layer is the ceremonial burial
of four skulls.

3. Solutrean layer with shouldered points {pointes a cran) and a few
laurel-leaf points {pointes de lanrier).

2. Solutrean layer with laurel-leaf points but no shouldered points;
knives, grattoirs, scrapers, borers, in great numbers, together with javelin
points and awls in bone and ornamented with notches, and fragments of
red chalk and black lead found embedded with the Solutrean points.

1. Mousterian layer.

Race of Brunn, Brux, Predmost, and (?) Galley Hill

In 187 1 a skullcap, now in the Royal Museum of Vienna, was
discovered in the course of coal mining at Brux, Bohemia. In
1 89 141 a skeleton, apparently of the same race, was discovered
at Brunn, Moravia, deeply embedded in loess along with bones
of the woolly mammoth and other great Pleistocene mammals.
In 1892 it was described by Makowsky,42 who a few years be-
fore had excavated from the loess sand in the neighborhood of
Briinn the fragmentary skull now known as Briinn II. Both
these skulls are of a somewhat low racial type, and for a long
time they were regarded as transition forms between the Nean-
derthals and Homo sapiens, but in 1906 Schwalbe43 showed the
affinity between the skulls of Brux and Briinn and at the same
time their entire distinctness from the Neanderthal skull and
their approach to lower forms of Homo sapiens. The chief dis-
tinction of these skulls is their extreme elongation or dolicho-
cephaly, the ratio of width to length being 69 per cent in the
Brux skull, and 68.2 per cent in the Briinn skull. The latter
ranks lower in racial type than the Australian negroids. The
chief distinction from the Neanderthal skull is in the index of
the height of skull (51.22 per cent) and in the absence of the
prominent ridges extending across the eyebrow region above
the nose ;* the forehead, in brief, is more modern, the frontal

* Despite Schwalbe's statement, the supraorbital ridges in this skull appear to form a
complete bridge. Doctor Hrdlicka regards the related Predmost skull as distinctly show-
ing Xeanderthaloid affinity.

THE BRtTNN RACE

335

angle being 74.7-75 per cent. The brain capacity in this race
is estimated, according to Makowsky,44 at 1,350 c.cm. Both
the Briix and Briinn skulls are harmonic ; they do not present

Fig. 168. The type skull known as Briinn I — supposed male — discovered at Briinn,
Moravia, in 189 1. It was found deeply imbedded in loess along with bones of the
woolly mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, giant deer, reindeer, and other Pleistocene
mammals, and is believed to be of Solutrean age. After Makowsky. One-third
life size.

the very broad, high cheek-bones characteristic of the Cro-
Magnon race, the face being of a narrow, modern type, but
not very long. There is evidence that the neck and shoulders

336

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

were powerful and muscular; the prominence of the chin is
pronounced ; the dentition is macrodont, that is, the last lower
molar is of exceptionally large size ; there was no prognathism
or protrusion of the jaws. The second Brtinn skull (Briinn II)
may represent a female type of the Briinn race, the cephalic
index being estimated at 72 per cent.

DISCOVERIES CHIEFLY OF THE CRO-MAGNON AND BRUNN RACES*

Referred to Solutrean Times

Date of
Discovery

Locality

Number of Individuals

Culture Stage

Cro-Magnon Race ( ?)

Grotte du Placard,

Fragments of ten skulls

Late Solutrean and

Charente, France.

and a few other bones.

early Magdale-
nian.

Pair-non-Pair,

Skull fragments.

Solutrean.

Gironde, France.

Lacave,

(( (C

"

Lot, France.

Montconfort,

" "

«

Haute- Garonne, France.

Roset,

('( 11

Late Solutrean.

Tarn, France.

Badegoule,

Bones.

Solutrean.

Dordogne, France.

Brunn-Brux-I

Predmost Race

1880.

Predmost,

Portions of twenty skel-

Solutrean.

Moravia, Austria.

etons.

1891.

Briinn,

Male skeleton (Briinn I) .

"

Moravia, Austria.

(?) Female skeleton
• (Briinn II).

Ballahohle,

Skeleton of infant.

(?) «

Miskolcz, Hungary.

( ?) Galley Hill.

One skeleton.

Unknown.

* Obermaier,45 R. Martin.46

There is a possibility47 that the Briinn race was ancestral
to several later dolichocephalic groups which are found in the
region of the Danube and of middle and southern Germany.
Schliz characterizes the Briinn skull as distinguished by the
retreating forehead, by massive eminences above the orbits sep-
arated by a cleft in the median line, by broad, low orbits, and
prominent chin. These characters are met with again in one
of the dolichocephalic skulls found in the interment at Ofnet,

THE BRtFNN RACE 337

at the very close of Upper Palaeolithic times. It would thus
appear that the Brunn race is distinct from the Cro-Magnon
race, that it represents a long-headed type which became estab-
lished along the Danube as early as Solutrean times, and that
it may possibly be connected with the introduction of some of
the peculiar features of the Solutrean culture.

One of the skeletons of Brunn, found at a depth of 12 feet
below the surface of the 'loess/ was lavishly adorned with
tooth-shells, perforated stone discs, and bone ornaments made
from the ribs of the rhinoceros or mammoth and from the teeth
of the mammoth; associated with these was an ivory idol, ap-
parently of a male figure, of which only the head, the torso, and
the left arm remain. The skeleton and many of the objects
found with the sepulture were partly tinted in red. An ivory
figurine belongs to the Eburneen stage of Piette and appears
to indicate that the burial was of Aurignacian rather than of
Solutrean age.

The Pfedmost ' mammoth hunters' also probably belonged
to this race. They are represented by the remains of six indi-
viduals excavated since 1880 at Predmost, Moravia, by Wankel,
Kfiz, and Maska. The bones were found in a very much shat-
tered condition. Maska has since discovered a collective burial
of fourteen human skeletons, with remains of six others; the
bodies were covered with stones, but no flints or objects of art
were buried with them. The dimensions of the limbs indicate
a race of large stature. The skeletons were deeply buried in
' loess/ and above and below the rich archaeological layer were
abundant debris of the mammoth, representing between eight
and nine hundred specimens. Along with the numerous flints,
including laurel-leaf spear heads of middle Solutrean type, were
found other objects and even primitive works of art in bone and
ivory. There is no question that the human remains belong to
the middle Solutrean stage.48

With this race is also associated by many authors (Schwalbe,
Schliz, Klaatsch, Keith) the Galley Hill skull, which was found
in 1888, buried at a depth of 8 feet in the 'high terrace' gravels

338 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

90 feet above the Thames.49 Sollas thinks it highly probable
that the remains were in a natural position and of the same age
as the high-level gravels and the Palaeolithic flints and remains
of extinct animals which they contained, but Evans and Dawkins
regard the Galley Hill man as belonging to a long-headed Neo-
lithic race interred in a Palaeolithic stratum. The gravels of the
'high terrace' in which the Galley Hill skull was buried are by
no means of the geologic antiquity of 200,000 years assigned
to them by Keith;50 they are probably of Fourth Glacial or of
Postglacial age, and lie within the estimates of Postglacial time,
namely, from 20,000 to 40,000 years.

The antiquity of the Galley Hill cranial type has been main-
tained with ability by Keith. The skull is extremely long or
hyper dolichocephalic, the cephalic index being estimated by
Keith at 69 per cent;51 the brain capacity is estimated at be-
tween 1,350 c.cm. and 1,400 c.cm. ; the cheek-bones are not
preserved, so that no judgment can be formed as to this most
distinctive character of the Cro-Magnon race. With this Gal-
ley Hill race Keith also compares the Combe- Capelle, or Aurig-
nacian man of Klaatsch,52 although he mistakenly considers the
Combe- Capelle man of much less geologic antiquity. He con-
tinues: "Thus, while the writer is inclined to agree in provi-
sionally assigning the Combe-Capelle man to the Galley Hill
race, he believes that further discoveries will show that the
Combe-Capelle man belongs to a branch marked with certain
negroid features."

SOLUTREAN FLINT INDUSTRY

The 'Solutrean retouch' marks one of the most notable ad-
vances in the technique of flint working ; it is altogether distinct
from the 'Aurignacian retouch,' which is an heritage from the
Mousterian.™ The flint is chipped off by pressure in fine, thin
flakes from the entire surface of the implement, to which in its
perfected form the craftsman can give a thin, sharp edge and
perfect symmetry. This is a great advance on the abrupt Aurig-

SOLUTREAN INDUSTRY

339

nacian retouch, in which the flint is chipped back at a rather
blunt angle to make a sharp edge. According to de Mortillet,

Fig. 169. Typical Solutrean implements of war and chase. After de Mortillet. Pointes
en feuille de laurier, or laurel-leaf points, artistically retouched on both surfaces, at
both ends, and on both borders; regarded by de Mortillet rather as blades of poniards
than as javelin heads. 120. Lozenge-shaped form from the type station of Solutre,
Saone-et-Loire. 121. Elongate form found at Solutre. 122. The largest pointe dis-
covered at Solutre. 123. One of the smallest points found at Solutre. 124. Solutrean
point from Laugerie Haute, Dordogne. 127. Point from Gargas, Vaucluse. 128.
Point of exceptionally fine workmanship. 130. One of eleven very large Solutrean
laurel-leaf points found in a cache at Volgu; probably a votive offering, as the flints
are too slender to be of any use and one at least shows traces of coloring. All the
flints are shown one-quarter actual size, except 129, which is one-half actual size.

the Solutrean method of pressure made possible the execution of
much more delicate work.

The question at once arises, did this industrial advance take
place in France or was it an invention brought from the east?
On this point Breuil observes54 that in the highest Aurignacian

340 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

levels in Belgium, in Dordogne, and at Solutre the Solutrean
technique becomes faintly apparent either in the 'stem' points
{pointes a sole) of Font Robert, La Ferrassie, and Spy or in the
double-edged points tending toward the laurel-leaf type of the
Solutrean, but that all the other implements remain purely
Aurignacian.

Relations and Subdivisions of Solutrean Culture

Lower {Early) Magdalenian.
Prototypes of bone harpoons.
Beginnings of animal sculpture.

Absence of any trace of the laurel-leaf spear heads of Solutrean times.
Upper {Late) Solutrean.
Typical shouldered points {pointes a cran) — elongate flakes worked on

one or both sides and notched. Small laurel-leaf spear heads.
Bone javelin points, awls, and needles, very finely worked. Placard.
Lacave.
Middle {High) Solutrean.

Large 'laurel-leaf spear heads worked on both sides. Climax of Solu-
trean flint industry. Placard.
Lower {Proto-) Solutrean.

Primitive 'laurel-leaf and 'willow-leaf spear heads, most of them
worked on only one side. Grotte du Trilobite.
Transition from Aurignacian.
Pedunculate spear heads {pointes a soie) of primitive Font Robert type.
Climax of human sculpture.

As to the chief source of Solutrean influence, the same au-
thor remarks that, since this culture is entirely wanting in cen-
tral and southern Spain, in Italy, in Sicily, in Algeria, and in
Phoenicia, we should certainly not look to the Mediterranean
for its origin but rather to eastern Europe ; for in the grottos
of Hungary we find a great development of the true Solutrean,
while so far the Aurignacian has not been found here, although
we do find traces of the earlier transitional stages below the
levels of the true laurel-leaf points. We must admit, therefore,
that in all probability the Solutrean culture reached Europe
from the east and that its source is as mysterious as that of
the Aurignacian, which, as we have seen, was of southern and
probably of Mediterranean origin. It is not impossible that the

SOLUTREAN INDUSTRY 341

evolution of the laurel-leaf point took place in Hungary, for
it was certainly not evolved in central or western Europe.

At Pfedmost, in Moravia, we observe an advanced Aurig-
nacian industry which had adopted a Solutrean fashion in its
spear heads. Here the laurel-leaf implements are few, while
the implements of bone are abundant; but in the Solutrean
stations of Hungary there are no bone implements. As the Solu-
trean technique comes to perfection the laurel-leaf spear head,
so characteristic of the full Solutrean industry, is created and
is met with in Poland, in Hungary, in Bavaria, and then in
France, where the industry extends southward to the west and
east of the central plateau. In France it appears quite sud-
denly in the Grotte du Trilobite (Yonne), and also in Dordogne
and Ardeche, where the Proto-Solutrean types show marked
impoverishment, both in the variety and in the execution of
most of the flint implements, the only exception being the flat-
tened spear heads, pointes a face plane, which show a regular
Solutrean retouch, beautiful but monotonous. Laurel-leaf points
discovered at Crouzade, Gourdan, and Montfort denote the
presence of the true Solutrean culture, but this culture does not
approach the stations in the neighborhood of Brassempouy.
Toward the north the grotto of Spy, in Belgium, affords ex-
amples of Proto-Solutrean types, which have also been traced
in several British caverns, but it is not certain that true Solu-
trean implements are found in Britain.

In Picard a Proto-Solutrean layer has been found, but no
laurel-leaf points. In the type station of Solutre in south-
eastern France Breuil discovered two Solutrean layers, quite
different from each other : one rich in bone implements and
graving-tools, with small flint laurel leaves retouched on only
one face; the other poor in bone implements but with large
laurel-leaf spear heads.

The Solutrean culture never penetrated to the south of the
great barrier of the Pyrenees, but, passing through the Vezere
valley, in Dordogne, it spread along the western coast to the
northern slopes of the Cantabrian Mountains into the province

342

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

of Santander, Spain. Here the laurel-leaf points of the middle
Solutrean are found at Castillo, while the shouldered points,
pointes a cran, typical of the later Solutrean, are found at Al-
tamira, together with bone implements. None the less, it should
be noticed that in the southwest of Europe the earlier phases

Fig. 170. The type station of Solutrean culture, near the present village of Solutre, in

south central France, sheltered on the north by a steep roCKy ridge and with a

fine sunny exposure toward the south.

of the Solutrean are characterized by a decrease in the use of
bone, which, however, increases again in the upper levels.

The type station of the Solutrean culture is the great open-
air camp of Solutre, near the Saone, sheltered on the north by a
steep ridge and with a fine, sunny exposure toward the south.
The traces of this great camp, which is the largest thus far dis-
covered in western Europe, cover an area 300 feet square and
are situated within a short distance of a good spring of water.
As explored, in 1866, by Arcelin,65 Ferry, and Ducrost, this sta-
tion had already been occupied in Aurignacian times; and two

SOLUTREAN INDUSTRY

343

sections, taken at two different points, showed the deposits of
the old camp to be from 22 to 26 feet in thickness, representing
superposed Aurignacian and Solutrean fire-hearths with thick
layers of intermediate debris. In the Aurignacian level is found
the vast accumulation of the bones of horses already described.

Fig. 1.71. Centre of the great open camp of Solutre, covering an area 300 feet square, with
the village of Solutre in the distance. First occupied in Aurignacian times, and a favorite
and densely inhabited camp throughout the Aurignacian and Solutrean stages. In Aurig-
nacian times the remains of thousands of horses were accumulated around this station.

In the middle Solutrean levels great fireplaces are found with
flint utensils and the remains of abundant feasts among the
charred debris. The fauna includes the wolf, the fox, the hy-
aena, both the cave and the brown bear, the badger, the rab-
bit, the stag, wild cattle, and two characteristic northern forms
— the woolly mammoth and the reindeer ; the remains of the
last are the most abundant in the ancient hearths.

In all the Solutrean stations, beside the bone implements,56
we find two distinct classes of flints. The first belongs to the
entire 'Reindeer Epoch' and consists of single and double

344 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

scrapers, drills, burins, retouched flakes, and plain ones of
small dimensions.

The second is composed of the 'leaf types, which are solely
characteristic of the Solutrean and which degenerate and entirely
disappear at its close ; these latter are the arrow and lance head
forms, many of which are fashioned with a rare degree of per-
fection and exhibit the beautiful broad Solutrean retouch across
the entire surface of both sides of the flake, together with per-
fect symmetry, both lateral and bilateral; they are commonly
known as the willow-leaf (narrow) and the laurel-leaf (broad)
forms. The explorers of the type station of Solutre have dis-
covered five principal shapes, as follows : (i) irregular lozenge ;
(2) oval, pointed at both ends; (3) oval, pointed at one end;
(4) regular lozenge ; (5) arrow-head form with peduncle, doubt-
less for attachment to a shaft. The perfected Solutrean laurel-
leaf spear heads do not reappear in any other Upper Palaeolithic
period, but their resemblance to Neolithic flints is very marked.

The ' willow-leaf ' spear heads {pointes de saute) , chipped on
only one side, characteristic of the early Solutrean, may possibly
be contemporary with the closing Aurignacian culture of Font
Robert. At Solutre layers have also been discovered rich in
bone implements and in graving-tools, as well as small 'laurel-
leaf points worked on only one face. As regards the general
tendencies of the early Solutrean culture in Dordogne, at the
Grotte du Trilobite (Yonne), and in Ardeche, there is a marked
decline in the work in bone and in the variety and workmanship
of all the implements, excepting only that of the primitive
flattened spear heads, made of flakes, retouched in Solutrean
fashion, but on one side only. Typical deposits of early Solu-
trean culture are found at Trou Magrite, in Belgium, at Font
Robert, Correze, and in the third level of the Grotte du Trilo-
bite, Yonne ; in the second level we find flints with the nascent
Solutrean retouch.

The distinctive implement of the 'high' or middle Solutrean is
the large 'laurel-leaf point, flaked and chipped on both sides and
attaining a marvellous perfection in technique and symmetry.

SOLUTREAN INDUSTRY 345

The finest examples of these spear heads are the famous pointes
de laurier, fourteen in number, discovered at Volgu, Saone-et-
Loire, in 1873 : they were found together in a sort of cache and,
it would seem probable, were intended as a votive offering, for
one at least was colored red, and all were too fragile and delicate
to be of any use in the chase. They are of unusual size, the
smallest measuring 9 inches, and the largest over 13^. In
workmanship they are equalled only by the marvellous Neolithic
specimens of Egypt and Scandinavia.

At Solutre and other stations implements of bone are also
found, although by no means of such frequent occurrence as in
the later divisions of the Solutrean. While the most easterly
Solutrean stations of Hungary exhibit no bone implements,
these are abundant at Pfedmost, in Moravia, where the culture
altogether is of an advanced Aurignacian type, with the Solu-
trean retouch used in the shaping of its flint spear heads. The
bone industry includes a number of awls and smoothers, as well
as numerous ' batons de commandement.' On this level at
Pfedmost a few works of art are found consisting of the rep-
resentations of four animals sculptured on nodules of lime-
stone, the subjects apparently being reindeer, and also of one
single engraving on bone.

The chief invention of the late Solutrean is the ' shouldered
point' (pointe a cran), a single notched and very slender dart.
These notches are the first indication of the value of the barb
in holding a weapon in the flesh. Here also is a stem for the at-
tachment of the shaft of the dart. In earlier stages of the Solu-
trean one finds flints where the unsymmetrical base of the 'point'
shows a small obtuse tongue or stem. The elongate peduncle at
the base of such spear heads (pointes a sole) is developed into the
pointe a cran, or shouldered point, made of long, fine flakes,
with a short retouch on one or both sides, and found in the late
Solutrean at the grotto of Lacave, at Placard, and at many of
the stations in Dordogne. No example of the pointe a cran
has ever been found at the type station of Solutre, but it is of
frequent occurrence at the stations between the Loire and the

346

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

Cantabrian Pyrenees, being found at Altamira, at Laugerie
Haute, at Monthaud (Indre), in Chalosse and Charente, while
the great cave of Placard has yielded no less than 5,000 speci-
mens, whole and broken.

Fig. 172. Typical Solutrean implements of the chase, of fishing, and of industry. After
de Mortillet. 131,132. A laurel-leaf point retouched on both sides. 133-138. Various
forms of the pointe a cran, or 'shouldered point,' a type distinctive of the late Solutrean.
It has an elongated peduncle or stem at one side adapted for the attachment of a wooden
shaft, and was probably an implement of the chase, being suitable for fishing or for
hunting small game. The examples figured show a great variety of finish and retouch.
137 is from Placard and 138 from the Grottes de Grimaldi. 139. Poincon, or awl, beau-
tifully shaped. 140. Per coir, drill or borer. 141. Flake retouched on one border, re-
calling the style of the Aurignacian points. 142, 143. Finely retouched points, suit-
able for engraving or etching. All the flints are shown one-half actual size.

At Monthaud there are also found bone implements in-
cluding a number of poinqons (awls) and a series of sagaies
(javelin points). Solutrean sagaies, however, are very rare and
very primitive as compared with the Magdalenian.

SOLUTREAN ART 347

The successive phases of Solutrean industry are all shown in
southern France. As to its stratigraphic relations, the type
station of Solutre exhibits lower and middle Solutrean above
Aurignacian hearths and deposits; that of Placard, Charente,
shows the middle and upper Solutrean overlaid by a Magdale-
nian layer. In the Grotte du Trilobite the Solutrean layer lies
between one of Aurignacian and one of primitive Magdalenian ;
it is here that we find the clearest transition from the Aurig-
nacian culture in the appearance of prototypes of the laurel and
willow-leaf points, made of flakes, retouched on only one side.
At Brassempouy the Solutrean lies immediately beneath a Mag-
dalenian layer, with engraved bones and Magdalenian flints.
Needles, which are particularly abundant in the Magdalenian
epoch, are also found in a number of the Solutrean stations.
In the grotto of Lacave, Lot, in an upper Solutrean layer, Vire
has found beautiful bone needles, pierced at one end and of fine
workmanship, and engraved utensils of reindeer horn ; here also
was found the head of an antelope engraved on a fragment of
reindeer horn. The local fauna of this period included the horse,
the ibex, and the reindeer.

Solutrean Engraving and Animal Sculpture

The artistic work of Solutrean times is not so rich as that of
the Aurignacian. This, as we have suggested, may be partly
attributable to the less wide-spread distribution of the Solu-
trean culture, as well as to the great importance which was at-
tached to the careful fashioning of the stone weapons. None
the less we can trace indications of the development of both
phases of art, the linear and the plastic, and especially the begin-
nings of animal sculpture. From the full, round sculpture of
Aurignacian times there follows in Solutrean times a develop-
ment of carving in bone of the Rundstabfiguren (baton, or cere-
monial staff), and of high relief. The Hon57 and the head of a
horse at Isturitz, in the Pyrenees, which Breuil attributes to a
late Solutrean period, are typical examples of this work.

348 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

Relatively rare are the parietal and mobile engravings as well
as the schematic representations, such as are found at Placard
and Champs Blancs. According to Alcalde del Rio, there are
found at Altamira, in northern Spain, very simple, finely en-
graved figures of the doe on the bone of the shoulder-blade ; the
head and neck are covered with lines, and both the eye and the
nostril as well as the form of the ear are very characteristic of
the animal. Breuil, however, considers these as belonging rather
to earlier Magdalenian times.

Decorative art certainly makes some advances over the Au-
rignacian work, because the arrangement of the geometric figures
is quite clear, and the execution shows marked progress in the
technique of engraving.

At Pfedmost, near the site of the human burial described
above, there has been discovered a statuette of the mammoth
sculptured in the round, in ivory, which proves that animal
sculpture was well advanced in Solutrean times. The statuette
was found six to nine feet beneath the surface of the 'loess,' in
an undoubted Solutrean layer. The accompanying fauna is of
a truly arctic character: the mammoth being extraordinarily
abundant; the tundra forms including the mammoth, woolly
rhinoceros, musk-ox, reindeer, arctic fox, arctic hare, glutton,
and banded lemming ; the Asiatic forms including the lion and
leopard; the forest and meadow fauna embracing the wolf,
fox, beaver, brown bear, bison, and wild cattle, moose, and
horse, also the ibex. Among the remnants of 30,000 flints there
are a dozen points (feuilles de laurier) and other pieces with the
Solutrean 'retouch.' The industry in ivory, bone, and reindeer
horn is also varied, including numerous poniards, polishers,
piercers, dart-throwers, and batons de commandement.

This ivory sculpture of the mammoth indicates very accu-
rately the characteristic contours of the top of the head, and of
the back ; the striations on the side represent the falling masses
of hair. Other sculptured figures representing the mammoth are
believed to be of Magdalenian age, the best known being the
figures found in the grottos of Bruniquel and Laugerie Basse,

SOLUTREAN ART 349

a fragment from Raymonden, Dordogne, and a bas-relief in the
grotto of Figuier, Gard. All these sculptures of the mammoth
have in common the indication of a very small ear — similar to
that in the Pfedmost model — feet shaped like inverted mush-
rooms, bordered with short, coarse hairs, the tail terminating in

Fig. 173. Mammoth sculptured on a fragment of ivory tusk from the Solutrean station
of Predmost, Moravia. After Maska. This figure is covered with fine lines repre-
senting the long, hairy coating, and measures about four and one-half inches.

a long tuft of hairs. If the figure of Pfedmost is of Solutrean
age, it is by far the earliest of all the sculptured or engraved
animal representations in the mobile art, and is also the most
complete of the animal figurines of this group. It is certainly
of more recent date than the engraved designs of Aurignacian
age in the grottos of Gargas and of Chabot or than the red or
black tracings of the mammoth, also of Aurignacian age, at
Castillo, Pindal, and Font-de-Gaume. It is probable that the
mammoth figures of Combarelles are of later date than the
Pfedmost sculpture and belong to the beginning of Magdalenian
times, while those at Font-de-Gaume belong to the end of Mag-

350

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

dalenian times and are the most recent of all the parietal designs.
Despite the differences in age and technique, all the designs of the
mammoth are undoubtedly the work of artists of a single race ;
they agree in faithfully portraying the external form of this great
proboscidian which wandered over the steppes and prairies of
western Europe from the beginning of the fourth glaciation until
near the close of Postglacial times.

(i) Breuil, 191 2.7.

(2) Verneau, 1906. 1, pp. 202-207.

(3) Op. cit., p. 204.

(4) Keith, 1911.1, p. 60.

(5) Obermaier, 1912.1, p. 178.

(6) Breuil, 191 2. 7, p. 174.

(7) Op. cit.f pp. 165-168.

(8) Obermaier, 191 2.1, pp. 177, 178.

(9) Wiegers, 1913.1.

(10) Schmidt, 1912.1, p. 266.

(11) Geikie, 1914.1, p. 278.

(12) Dawkins, 1880.1, pp. 148, 149.

(13) Ewart, 1904. 1.

(14) Obermaier, 1909.2, p. 145.

(15) Sollas, 1913.1, p. 325-

(16) Broca, 1868.1.

(17) Lartet, 1875. 1.

(18) Verneau, 1886. 1; 1906. 1, pp. 68,

69.

(19) Obermaier, 191 2.2.

(20) Martin, R., 1914.1, pp. 15, 16. (49)

(21) Keith, 1911.1, p. 71.

(22) Klaatsch, 1909. 1.

(23) Keith, op. cit., p. 56.

(24) Hauser, 1909. 1.

(25) Fischer, 1913.I;

(26) Schliz, 1912.1, p. 554.

(27) Breuil, 1912.7, p. 175.

(28) Op. cit., p. 183.

(29) Op. cit., pp. 177-180.

(30) Schmidt, 191 2.1, p. 266.

(31) Breuil, op. cit., p. 178.

(32) Obermaier, 1912.1, p. 181.

(33) Breuil, 191 2.7, p. 169.

(34) Breuil, 191 2.1, pp. 194-200.

(35) Schmidt, 1912.1.

(36) Breuil, op. cit.

(37) Schmidt, 1912.1, p. 142.

(38) Breuil, 1912.1, p. 202.

(39) Breuil, 1912.6.

(40) Hilzheimer, 1913.1, p. 151.

(41) Fischer, 1913.1.

(42) Makowsky, 1902. 1.

(43) Schwalbe, 1906. 1.

(44) Makowsky, op. cit.

(45) Obermaier, 1912.1, pp. 342-355-

(46) Martin, R., 1914.1, pp. 15, 16.

(47) Schliz, 1912.1.

(48) Dechelette, 1908. 1, vol. I, p.
28.

Keane, 1901.1, p. 147.

(50) Keith, 1911.1, p. 30.

(51) Op. cit., pp. 28-45.

(52) Op. cit., pp. 51-56.

(53) Obermaier, 191 2.1, p. 93.

(54) Breuil, 1912.7, p. 188.

(55) Arcelin, 1 869.1.

(56) Dechelette, 1 908.1, vol. I, pp.

i37-i4i-

(57) Schmidt, 191 2.1, p. 144, Tafel B.

CHAPTER V

MAGDALENIAN TIMES — CLIMATE AND^ MAMMALIAN LIFE OF EUROPE
— CUSTOMS AND LIFE OF THE CRO-MAGNONS ; THEIR INDUSTRY
IN FLINT AND BONE; THEIR DISTRIBUTION — DEVELOPMENT OF
THEIR ART, ENGRAVING, PAINTING, SCULPTURE — ART IN THE
CAVERNS — CLIMAX OF THE MAGDALENIAN ART AND INDUSTRY OF
THE CRO-MAGNONS — APPARENT DECLINE OF THE RACE.

The art and industrial epoch of Magdalenian times is by far
the best known and most fascinating of the Old Stone Age.
This period forms the culmination of Palaeolithic civilization;
it marks the highest development of the Cro-Magnon race pre-
ceding their sudden decline and disappearance as the dominant
type of western Europe. The men of this time are commonly
known as the Magdalenians, taking their name from the type
station of La Madeleine, as the Greeks in their highest stage
took their name from Athens and were known as the Athenians.

We would assign the minimum prehistoric date of 16,000
B. C. for the beginning of the Magdalenian culture, and since
we have assigned to the beginning of the Aurignacian culture
the date of 25,000 B. C, we should allow 9,000 years for the
development of the Aurignacian and Solutrean industries in
western Europe.

Introduction. Industrial and Artistic Development

Well as this culture is known, its origin is obscured by the
fact that it shows little or no connection with the preceding
Solutrean industry, which, as we have noted (p. 331), seems like
a technical invasion in the history of western Europe and not
an inherent part of the main line of cultural development. Thus
Breuil1 observes that it appears as if the fundamental elements
of the superior Aurignacian culture had contributed by some

351

352 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

unknown route to constitute the kernel of the Magdalenian
civilization while the Solutrean episode was going on elsewhere.
Again, early Magdalenian art bears striking resemblances to the
superior Aurignacian art of the Pyrenees, especially the parietal
art, as shown by comparing the Aurignacian engravings of Gar-
gas with the early Magdalenian of Combarelles. Moreover, the
same author observes that, if there is one certain prehistoric
fact, it is that the first Magdalenian culture was not evolved
from the Solutrean — that these Magdalenians were newcomers
in western France, as unskilful in the art of shaping and retouch-
ing flints as their predecessors were skilled. Ancient Magda-
lenian hearths are found in many localities close to the levels of
the upper Solutrean industries with their shouldered spear
points (pointes a cran) and highly perfected flint work. Yet the
Magdalenians show a radical departure from the Solutrean type
of flint working ; both in Dordogne (Laugerie Haute and Laus-
sel) and in Charente (Placard) the splinters of flint are massive,
heavy, badly selected, often of poor quality, and poorly retouched,
sometimes almost in an Eolithic manner ; at the same time, the
chance flints, that is, the piercers and graving- tools made from
splinters of any accidental shape, are abundant. To these peo-
ple flint implements appear to be altogether of secondary im-
portance ; although the flints are very numerous, they are not
finished with any of the perfection of the Solutrean technique ;
the laurel-leaf spear head and shouldered dart head have disap-
peared entirely, but a great variety of smaller graving and chas-
ing forms are employed for fashioning the implements of bone
and horn. What a contrast to the beautiful flints so finely re-
touched and of such carefully selected materials, found in the
very same stations in middle and upper Solutrean layers!

Thus Breuil, always predisposed to believe in an invasion of
culture rather than in an autochthonous development, favors
the theory of eastern origin for the Magdalenian industry, be-
cause this is not wanting either in Austria or in Poland ; two
sites of ancient Magdalenian industry have been found by Ober-
maier in the ' loess' stations of Austria, while in Russian Poland

ORIGIN OF THE MAGDALENIAN CULTURE 353

the grotto of Maszycka, near Ojcow, exhibits workings in bone
resembling those found at the grotto of Placard, Charente, in the
layers directly succeeding the base of the Magdalenian. The
fact that near the Ural Mountains there has also been found a
peculiar Magdalenian culture, the origin of which is not western,
inclines us to believe that the Magdalenian culture extended from
the east toward the west, and then, later, toward the Baltic.

This theory of the eastern origin of the Magdalenian industry
has, however, to face, first, the very strong counter-evidence of

Fig. 174. One of the large bison drawings in the cavern of Niaux, on the
Ariege, showing the supposed spear or arrow heads with shafts on its side.
The artist's technique consists of an outline incised with flint followed by
a painted outline in black manganese giving high relief. After Cartailhac
and Breuil. Greatly reduced.

the close affinity between Aurignacian and Magdalenian art,
which Breuil himself has done the most to demonstrate ; second,
the physical, mental, and especially the artistic unity of the Cro-
Magnon race in Aurignacian and Magdalenian times. The
recent discovery of two Cro-Magnon skeletons together with two
carved bone implements of Magdalenian type, at Obercassel,
on the Rhine, links the art with this race and with no other, be-
cause, as we remarked above, an artistic "instinct and ability
cannot be passed from one race to another like the technique of
a handicraft. Breuil2 himself has positively stated that the
whole Upper Palaeolithic art development of Europe was the
work of one race : if so, this race can be no other than the Cro-
Magnon.

We must, therefore, revert to the explanation offered in a
preceding chapter, that the Solutrean technique was an intrusion

354

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

or an invasion either brought in by another race or acquired
from the craftsmen of some easterly race, perhaps that of Briinn,
Briix, and Pfedmost. Why the art of fashioning these perfect
Solutrean spear, dart, and arrow heads was lost is very difficult
to explain, because they appear to be the most effective imple-
ments of war and of the
chase which were ever
developed by Palaeo-
lithic workmen.

It is possible, al-
though not probable,
that the bow was in-
troduced at this time
and that a less perfect
flint point, fastened to
a shaft like an arrow-
head and projected with
great velocity and ac-
curacy, proved to be far
more effective than the
spear. The bison in the
cavern of Niaux show
several barbed points
adhering to the sides,
and the symbol of the
fleche appears on the sides of many of the bison, cattle, and other
animals of the chase in Magdalenian drawings. From these
drawings and symbols it would appear that barbed weapons of
some kind were used in the chase, but no barbed flints occur at
any time in the Palaeolithic, nor has any trace been found of
bone barbed arrow-heads or any direct evidence of the existence
of the bow.

In compensation for the decline of flint is the rapid develop-
ment of bone implements, the most distinctive feature of Mag-
dalenian industry. In the late Solutrean we have noted the
occasional appearance of the bone javelin points (sagaies) with

Fig. 175. Decorated sagaies, or javelin points, of
bone; pointed at one end and bevelled at the
other for the attachment of a shaft. After Breuil.

MAGDALENIAN CULTURE

355

their decorative motifs; these become much more frequent in
Magdalenian times. They occur in the most ancient Magda-
lenian levels of the grotto of Placard, Charente, which are prior
even to the appearance of prototypes of the harpoon, the evolu-
tion of which clearly marks off the early, middle, and late divi-
sions of Magdalenian times. These primitive javelins, decorated

Fig. 176. Head of the forest or of the steppe horse engraved on a fragment
of bone, from the Grotte du Pape, Brassempouy. After Piette.

in a characteristic fashion, are found in Poland, at the grotto of
Kesslerloch and other places in Switzerland, at many stations in
Dordogne and the region of the Pyrenees in southern France,
and in the Cantabrian Mountains of northern Spain.

It is only above the levels where early types of these javelin
points occur that the rudimentary harpoons of the typical early
Magdalenian are found. The discovery of the bone harpoon as
a means of catching fish marks an important addition to the food
supply, which was apparently followed by a decline in the chase.
Later, to the javelin, lance, and harpoon is added the dart-
thrower (propulseur) , which gradually spreads all over western

356 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

Europe, where also the evolution of these bone implements and
of the decoration with which they are richly adorned enables
the trained archaeologist to establish corresponding subdivisions
of Magdalenian time.

From the uniform character of Palaeolithic art in its highest
forms of engraving, painting, and animal sculpture we may infer
the probable unity of the Cro-Magnon race, especially throughout
western Europe. During Magdalenian times various branches
of art reached their highest point and were the culmination of

Fig. 177. Polychrome wall-painting of a wolf from the cavern of Font-de-Gaume.

After Breuil.

a movement begun in the early Aurignacian. The artist, whose
life brought him into close touch with nature and who evidently
followed the movements both of the individual animals and
of the herds for hours at a time, has rendered his observations in
the most realistic manner. Among the animals represented are
the bison, mammoth, wild horse, reindeer, wild cattle, deer, and
rhinoceros ; less frequent are representations of the ibex, wolf,
and wild boar, and there are comparatively few representations
of fishes or of any form of plant life ; the nobler beasts of prey,
such as the lion and the bear, are often represented, but there are
no figures of the skulking hyaena, which at that time was a rare
if not almost extinct animal. While many figures are of real

MAGDALENIAN CULTURE

357

artistic worth and reach a high level, others are more or less
crude attempts ; the composition of figures or of groups of animals
is rarely undertaken.

The artistic sense of these people is also manifest in the deco-
ration of their household utensils and weapons of the chase.
Here the smaller animals of the chase, the saiga, the ibex, and

Fig. 178. Crude sculpture of the ibex, from the Magdalenian deposit at

Mas d'Azil on the right bank of the Arize. After Piette.

A little less than actual size.

the chamois, are executed with a sure hand. Sculpture of animal
forms in the large, which begins in Solutrean times, is continued
and reaches its highest point in the early Magdalenian. At this
period the use of sculpture as a means of decoration arises and
extends into the middle and late Magdalenian. These latter
divisions are also distinguished by the reappearance of human
figurines, nude, like the Aurignacian, and occasionally somewhat
more slender. Thus it would appear that the artistic spirit,
more or less dormant in Solutrean times, was revived.

358 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

In the variety of industries we find evidences of a race en-
dowed with closely observant and creative minds, in which the
two chief motives of life seem to have been the chase and the
pursuit of art. The Magdalenian flints are fashioned in a some-
what different manner from the Solutrean : long, slender flakes
or 'blades' with little or no retouch are frequent, and in other
implements the work is apparently carried only to a point where
the flint will serve its purpose. No attempt is made to attain
perfect symmetry. Thus the old technical impulse of the flint
industry seems to be far less than that among the makers of the
Solutrean flints, while a new technical impulse manifests itself
in several branches of art : arms and utensils are carved in ivory,
reindeer horn and bone, and sculpture and engraving on bone
and ivory are greatly developed. We find that these people are
beginning to utilize the walls of dark, mysterious caverns for
their drawings and paintings, which show deep appreciation for
the perfection of the animal form, depicted by them in most life-
like attitudes.

We may infer that there was a tribal organization, and it has
been suggested that certain unexplained implements of reindeer
horn, often beautifully carved and known as 'batons de com-
mandement,' were insignia of authority borne by the chieftains.

There can be little doubt that such diversities of tempera-
ment, of talent, and of predisposition as obtain to-day also pre-
vailed then, and that they tended to differentiate society into
chieftains, priests, and medicine-men, hunters of large game and
fishermen, fashioners of flints and dressers of hides, makers of
clothing and footwear, makers of ornaments, engravers, sculptors
in wood, bone, ivory, and stone, and artists with color and brush.
In their artistic work, at least, these people were animated with
a compelling sense of truth, and we cannot deny them a strong
appreciation of beauty.

It is probable that a sense of wonder in the face of the
powers of nature was connected with the development of a re-
ligious sentiment. How far their artistic work in the caverns
was an expression of such sentiment and how far it was the

Pl. VII. Cro-Magnon man in the cavern of Font-de-Gaume, Dordogne, restored in the
act cf drawing the outlines of one of the bisons on the wall of the Galerie des Fresques.
Drawn under the direction of the author by Charles R. Knight.

MAGDALENIAN CULTURE

359

outcome of a purely artistic impulse are matters for very care-
ful study. Undoubtedly the inquisitive sense which led them
into the deep and dangerous recesses of the caverns was accom-
panied by an increased sense of awe and possibly by a senti-
ment which we may regard as more or less religious. We may
dwell for a moment on this very interesting problem of the

Fig. 179. Decorated batons de commandement carved from reindeer horn with a large
perforation opposite the brow tine. After Lartet and Christy.

origin of religion during the Old Stone Age, so that the reader
may judge for himself in connection with the ensuing accounts
of * Magdalenian art.

"The religious phenomenon/ ■ observes James,3 "has shown
itself to consist everywhere, and in all its stages, in the conscious-
ness which individuals have of an intercourse between them-
selves and higher powers with which they feel themselves to be
related. This intercourse is realized at the time as being both
active and mutual. . . . The gods believed in — whether by
crude savages or by men disciplined intellectually — agree with
each other in recognizing personal calls. . . . To coerce the
spiritual powers, or to square them and get them on our side,
was, during enormous tracts of time, the one great object in our
dealings with the natural world."

360 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

The study of this race, in our opinion, would suggest a still
earlier phase in the development of religious thought than that
considered by James, namely, a phase in which the wonders of
nature in their various manifestations begin to arouse in the
primitive mind a desire for an explanation of these phenomena,
and in which it is attempted to seek such cause in some vague
supernatural power underlying these otherwise unaccountable
occurrences, a cause to which the primitive human spirit com-
mences to make its appeal. According to certain anthropolo-
gists,* this wonder-working force may either be personal, like
the gods of Homer, or impersonal, like the Mana of the Mel-
anesian, or the Manitou of the North American Indian. It
may impress an individual when he is in a proper frame of
mind, and through magic or propitiation may be brought into
relation with his individual ends. Magic and religion jointly
belong to the supernatural as opposed to the every-day world
of the savage.

We have already seen evidence from the burials that these
people apparently believed in the preparation of the bodies of
the dead for a future existence. How far these beliefs and the
votive sense of propitiation for protection and success in the
chase are indicated by the art of the caverns is to be judged in
connection with their entire life and productive effort, with
their burials associated with offerings of implements and arti-
cles of food, and with their art.

The Three Climatic Cycles of Magdalenian Times

The culture of the Cro-Magnons was doubtless influenced
by the changing climatic conditions of Magdalenian times, which
were quite varied, so that we may trace three parallel lines of
development: that of environment, as indicated by the climate
and the forms of animal life, that of industry, and that of art.

The entire climatic, life, and industrial cycle of which the

* From notes by Doctor Robert H. Lowie (Nov. 16, 1914) of the American Museum
of Natural History on the opinions of Marett (Anthropology) and of James.

MAGDALENIAN CLIMATE 361

Magdalenian marks the conclusion has been presented in Chapter
IV (p. 281). After a very long period of cold and somewhat arid
climate following the fourth glaciation, it would appear that west-
ern Europe in early Magdalenian times again experienced a stage
of increasing cold and moisture accompanied by the renewed
advance of the glaciers in the Alpine region, in Scandinavia,
and in Great Britain. This is known as the Buhl stage in the
Alps, in which the snow-line descended 2,700 feet below its
present level and the great glaciers thrust down along the south-
erly borders of Lake Lucerne a series of new moraines distinctly
overlying those of the fourth glaciation. Another indication of
the lowered temperature and increased moisture in the same
geographic region is found in the return of the arctic lemmings
from the northern tundras ; these migrants have left their re-
mains in several of the large grottos north of the Alps, espe-
cially in Schweizersbild and Kesslerloch, composing what is
known as the Upper Rodent Layer, with* which are associated
the implements and art objects of the early Magdalenian cul-
ture stage.

We have adopted the minimum estimate of 25,000 years
since the fourth glaciation, but Heim4 has estimated that the
much more recent prehistoric event of the advance of this minor
Buhl glaciation began at least 24,000 years ago, that it extended
over a very long period of time, and that the Buhl moraines in
Lake Lucerne are at least 16,000 years of age.

The three climatic changes of Magdalenian times are there-
fore as follows :

First, the Buhl Postglacial Stage in the Alps, which corre-
sponds with what Geikie has named the Fifth Glacial Epoch,
or Lower Turbarian, in Scotland ; for he believes that a relapse
to cold conditions in northern Britain was accompanied by a
partial subsidence of the coast lands, that snow-fields again
appeared, that considerable glaciers descended the mountain
valleys, and even reached the sea. At this time the arctic
alpine flora of Scotland also descended to within 150 feet of the
sea-level. The result of this renewed or fifth glaciation in

362

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

western Europe was the advent of the great wave of tundra
life and the descent to the plains of all the forms of Alpine life.
Second, it would appear that in middle Magdalenian times,
after the Buhl advance, there occurred a temporary retreat of
the ice-fields, and that during this period the full tide of life from
the steppes of western Asia and eastern Europe for the first time

^POSTGLACIAL <y£fy0}'.
? "Newer Loess " /GSchnitz n

' W. GLACIAL j2^^
WORM, WISCONSIN sLAUM"

EREBMTUELC.

w

NEOLITHIC

8 AZ1UAN-TARDEN0ISIAN\ UPPER
7 MAGDALENIAN I Saiach

6S0LUTREAN ) PALAEO'

5 A URIGNA QIAN_ JjJHfflL

25,000 YEARS

4M0USTERIAN

50p00 YEARS

3ACHEULEAN

75f00 YEARS

2CHELLEAN

lOOpOO YEARS

I PRE-CHELLEAN

f 25000 YEARS

6 15 on 00

LOWER

)PALAEO

LITHIC

.M.&EM&AS..

CRO-MAGNON
CRIMALDI

NEANDERTHAL

* (KRAPINA)

P/LTDOWN

Fig. 180. Correlation of the Postglacial climatic changes with the four stages of Upper
Palaeolithic culture: the Aurignacian coincident with the final retreat of the fourth
glaciation; the Solutrean coincident with the interval preceding the Buhl advance;
the Magdalenian coincident with the Buhl and Gschnitz Postglacial advances; and
the Azilian coincident with the Daun or third Postglacial advance. (Compare
Fig. 14.)

spread over western Europe, including especially such animals
as the jerboa and the saiga antelope, the dwarf pika and steppe
hamster. Correlation is very hazardous, but this ice retreat
may correspond with the Upper Forestian, or Fifth Interglacial
Stage in Scotland, described by Geikie, the stage which he men-
tions as marked by the elevation of the Scottish coast with the
retreat of the sea beyond the present coast-lines ; geographic
changes which were accompanied by the disappearance of per-
ennial snow and ice, and the return of more genial conditions.
The tundra fauna still prevailed ; such a typical arctic animal
as the musk-ox wandered as far south as Dordogne and the

MAGDALENIAN CLIMATE 363

Pyrenees, and became one of the objects of the chase. During
what is known as the middle or 'full Magdalenian' the tundra,
steppe, alpine, forest, and meadow faunae spread over the plains
and valleys throughout western Europe.

Third, the second Postglacial advance, known as the Gschnitz
stage in the Alpine region, appears to have been contemporane-
ous with the closing period of Magdalenian culture. This was
the last great effort of the ice-fields to conquer western Europe,
and in the Alpine region the snow-line descended 1,800 feet below
the present levels ; it marked the closing stage of the long cold
climatic period that had favored the presence of the reindeer,
the woolly mammoth, and the woolly rhinoceros in western
Europe, as well as the close of the ' Reindeer Epoch' of Lartet.
Again, in the north of Britain Geikie observes an Upper Turbarian
or Sixth Glacial Epoch, accompanied by a partial subsidence of
the Scottish coast, and the return of a cold and wet climate ;
there is evidence of the existence of snow glaciers upon the high
mountains only. The Gschnitz stage marks the end of glacial
conditions in Europe, the retreat of the tundra and steppe faunae,
and the predominance of the forest and meadow environment
and life.

In the Alps there was, however, still a final effort of the
glaciers, known as the Daun stage, which, it is believed, broadly
corresponds with the period of the Azilian-Tardenoisian industry,
and a climatic condition in Europe favorable to the spread of the
Eurasiatic forest and meadow life.

The key to this great prehistoric chronology is found in
palaeontology. The arctic tundra rodents especially are the
most invaluable timekeepers ; according to Schmidt5 there is
no doubt whatever that the Upper Rodent Layer, composed of
the animals of the second invasion from the arctic tundras,
corresponds, on the one hand, with the beginning of the Mag-
dalenian industry and, on the other, with the renewed glacial
advance in the Alpine region, known as the Buhl stage, and prob-
ably also with that in the north. The Upper Rodent Layer of
Magdalenian times is found in the remarkably complete succes-

364 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

sion of deposits at the stations of Schweizersbild and Kessler-
loch, which are more recent in time than the 'low terraces'
bordering the neighboring River Rhine. The fossil animals prove
that after the extreme cold of early Magdalenian times the
tundra fauna gradually gave way to a wide-spread steppe fauna.
Along the Rhine and the Danube the banded lemmings become
less frequent ; the jerboas, hamsters, and susliks of the steppes
become more abundant. Exactly similar changes are observed
in Dordogne. In Longueroche, on the Vezere, there occur for
the first time in western Europe great numbers of rabbits (Lepus
cuniculus) ; numerous hares (Lepus timidus) are also observed
at the type station of La Madeleine, especially in the upper-
most and lowermost culture layers. These small rabbits prob-
ably came from the Mediterranean region and denote a slight
elevation of temperature. But it is only in the very highest
Magdalenian layers that the animal life of western Europe
begins to approach that of recent times, namely, that of the
prehistoric forest and meadow faunae.

Mammalian Life or Magdalenian Times

Thus it is very important to keep in mind that during Mag-
dalenian times there were both cold and moist periods favor-
able to tundra life and cold and arid periods favorable to steppe
life. In the latter were deposited the sheets of 'upper loess.'

The mammalian life of Magdalenian times is of interest not
only in connection with the climate and environment of the
Cro-Magnon race, but with the development of their industry
and especially of their art. It is noteworthy that the imposing
forms of animal life, the mammoth among the tundra fauna
and the bison among the meadow fauna, made a very strong
impression and were the favorite subjects of the draftsmen
and colorists ; but the eye was also susceptible to the beauty of
the reindeer, the stag, and the horse and to the grace of the
chamois. The artists and sculptors have preserved the external
appearance of more than thirty forms of this wonderful mamma-
lian assemblage, which accord exactly with the fossil records pre-

MAMMALIAN LIFE 365

served in the fire-hearths of the grottos and shelters, and with
the deposits assembled by beasts and birds of prey in the unin-
habited caverns.

No artists have ever had before them at the same time and
in the same country such a wonderful panorama of animal life
as that observed by the Cro-Magnons. Their representations in
drawing, engraving, painting, and sculpture afford us a view of
a great part of the life of the period, including its contingent of

Fig. 181. Reindeer with outlines first engraved and then retraced with heavy lines of

black manganese finely finished with a wash of gray tone, from the Galerie

des Fresques at Font-de-Gaume. After Breuil.

forms from the tundras, steppes, Alpine summits, and Eurasiatic
forests and meadows, and the one surviving member of the
Asiatic fauna, the lion.

The paintings and drawings of Dordogne chiefly represent
the mammoth, reindeer, rhinoceros, bison, horses, wild cattle,
red deer, ibex, lion, and bear. The caverns of the Pyrenees of
southern France present chiefly bison, horses, deer, wild cattle,
ibex, and chamois ; the reindeer and mammoth are relatively
rare, and in some cases entirely wanting in the parietal art ; this
is singular because in the Pyrenees the reindeer constituted the
principal food of the authors of the drawings and frescos. In

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

the caves of the Cantabrian Mountains representations of the
reindeer are entirely absent, while the doe and stag of the

red deer are frequently pictured ; there
are only a few representations of the
mammoth and one of the cave-bear.
In the drawings of eastern Spain deer
and wild cattle are abundantly repre-
sented, and there is undoubtedly a rep-
resentation of the moose at Alpera.

As regards the sources of this great
fauna, we have observed that in late
Aurignacian and Solutrean times, at
Pfedmost, Moravia, and elsewhere, the
steppe fauna was not richly represented
in western Europe, for it included only
the steppe horse and the wild Asiatic
ass or kiang; that the contemporary
tundra fauna lacked two of the smaller
but most characteristic forms, the banded
and the Obi lemmings, although all of
the large tundra forms were still wide-
spread and freely intermingled with the
forest and meadow life ; and that prey-
ing upon these herbivorous mammals
were the surviving Asiatic lions and
hyaenas.

The successive faunal phases of
Magdalenian times, beginning with the
early cold and moist or tundra period,
have been determined with wonderful
precision by Schmidt from the animal
remains found associated with the lower,
middle, and upper Magdalenian cultures
in the grotto and cavern deposits of
of the upper Rhine, and of the upper
Danube. This region was lacking in some of the characteristic

Favorite Art Subjects
Tundra Life.

Mammoth.
Woolly rhinoceros.
Reindeer.

Musk-ox.

Steppe Life.

Steppe horse.
Saiga antelope.
Wild ass, kiang.

Asiatic Life.

Lion.
Desert horse.

Alpine Life.

Ibex.
Chamois.

Meadow Life.

Bison.
Wild cattle.

Forest Life.

Red deer, stag.

Forest horse.

Cave-bear.

Wolf.

Fox.

Wild boar.

Moose.

Fallow deer.

Sea Life.
Seal.

Reptiles, Birds, Fishes.
(Rarely depicted.)

northern Switzerland.

MAMMALIAN LIFE

367

animals seen in Dordogne, yet these invaluable records show that
throughout the entire period of Magdalenian times, probably ex-
tending over some thousands of years, the forests, meadows, and
river borders of western Europe maintained the entire existing,
or rather prehistoric, forest and meadow faunae. The royal stag,

Fig. 182. Modern descendants of the four principal types of the horse family which
roamed over western Europe in Upper Palaeolithic times: (A) the plateau, desert, or
Celtic horse, (B) the steppe or Przewalski horse, (C) the forest or Nordic horse, and
(D) the kiang or wild ass of the Asiatic steppes.

or red deer (Cervus elaphus), was no longer accompanied by the
giant deer (Megaceros), which apparently left this region of Europe
in Aurignacian times, but the maral or Persian deer (Cervus mar at)
occasionally appears ; both the stag and the roe-deer (Capreolus)
were especially abundant in southwestern Europe and the Can-
tabrian Mountains of northern Spain, where the stag became the
favorite subject of the Magdalenian artists at the same time that
the reindeer was the favorite subject in the region of Dordogne.
In the forests were also the brown bear, the lynx, the badger, the
marten, and in the streams the beaver; tree squirrels (Sciurus

368

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

vulgaris) appear for the first time ; and in Dordogne rabbits and
hares become numerous. Among birds we observe the grouse
and the raven. The wild boar (Sus scrofa ferus) was occasion-
ally found in the region of the Danube and the Rhine, but
abounded in southwestern Europe and the Pyrenees. The two

Fig. 183. The desert or Celtic horse, with delicate head, long, slender limbs, and short
back, from a painting on the ceiling of Altamira, in northern Spain. The horse is
painted in red ochre with black manganese outlines. The eye, ear, mouth, nostrils,
and chin are carefully engraved. After Breuil.

dominant forms of meadow life surviving from the earliest
Pleistocene times, and widely distributed throughout the Mag-
dalenian are the bison (B. priscus) and the wild cattle (Bos
primigenius) ; of these animals the bison appears to have been
the more hardy, and seeking a more northerly range, while the
urus was extremely abundant in southwestern France and the
Pyrenees.

In connection with art, the majestic form of the bison seemed

MAMMALIAN LIFE 369

to strike the fancy of the artist more than the less- imposing out-
lines of the wild cattle ; there are perhaps fifty drawings of the
bison to one of the Bos. Among the forest and meadow life, not
recognized in the fossil remains, but clearly distinguished in the
work of the artists, are two types of horses, the forest or Nordic
horse, related to the northern or draught horse, and the dimin-
utive plateau or desert horse (E. caballus celticus) related to the
Arab. With the forest life should also be numbered the cave
bear (Ursus spelceus) of southwestern Europe and the moose

>)

*^s^%*&

"i\k

J

-i^-e-

4^

^ ' I

i

Ml

yj

%^^^^ul

|

\

Ny/i'

3-?

■d&ml rl

mm

•SKS^

fj i)ti//'

S^ /:.

< X,:,„y^ -

Ia

,1! ip"

; \.X~*~

— =

N^

Fig. 184. Heads of four chamois engraved on a fragment of reindeer horn, from the
grotto of Gourdan, Haute-Garonne. After Piette.

(Alces), indicated by the artists of Aurignacian times as present
in the Cantabrian Pyrenees.

It is the above entire Eurasiatic forest and meadow fauna
which survived all the climatic vicissitudes of Pleistocene time,
and which alone remained in western Europe to the very close
of the Upper Palaeolithic culture, and into the period of the
arrival of the Neolithic race.

The descent of the European and Asiatic alpine types of mam-
mals to the lower hills and valleys is one of the most striking
episodes of Magdalenian times. The argali sheep (Ovis arga-
loides) of western Asia had already appeared in the upper Danu-
bian region during the Aurignacian; it is replaced in Magda-
lenian times by the ibex (Ibex priscus), and by the chamois,
which descended along the northern slopes of the Alps and of
the Pyrenees, and became numbered among the most highly
favored subjects of the Magdalenian artists, especially in the

370 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

mobile art of ivory and bone, and in the decoration of their
spear throwers and batons de commandement. From the moun-
tains also come the pikas or tailless hares (Lagomys pusillus),
the alpine marmot (Arctomys mar motto), the alpine vole (Arvi-
cola nivalis), and the alpine ptarmigan (Lagopus alpinus).

The Tundra Climate or Early Magdalenian Times

In the first cold moist period the full wave of arctic tundra
life appeared in the whole region between the Alpine and Scan-
dinavian glaciers during the renewed descent of the ice-fields;
this was the tundra stage of early Magdalenian times, accom-
panying the Buhl advance. At the stations of Thaingen, Schwei-
zersbild, Kastlhang, and Niedernau, appears the musk-ox, to-
gether with the woolly mammoth, the woolly rhinoceros, and the
reindeer. The discovery of the grotto of Kastlhang, a reindeer
hunting station in the Altmuhltale of Bavaria6 fills out what
has long been a gap in the geographic distribution of the early
Magdalenian. The principal objects of the chase here were
the reindeer, the wild horse, the arctic hare, and the ptarmi-
gan ; the royal stag is very rare, and the bison is wanting en-
tirely; a strong arctic character is given to the fauna by the
presence of the banded lemming, the arctic wolverene, and the
arctic fox. From this region the musk-ox migrated far to the
southwest, reaching the northern slopes of the Pyrenees. At
the same time the arctic grouse, the whistling swan, and other
northern birds entered the region of the Rhine and the Dan-
ube. But the surest indicators of a cold tundra climate pre-
vailing during the period of the Buhl advance are the banded
lemming (Myodes torqualus) and the Obi lemming (Myodes oben-
sis), which are found in the same deposits with the arctic hare,
the reindeer, and the woolly mammoth mixed with the imple-
ments of the early Magdalenian industry at the stations of
Sirgenstein, Wildscheuer, and Ofnet along the upper and mid-
dle Danube. There also appear the ermine and the arctic wol-
verene ; in fact, almost all the characteristic forms of tundra

■^ijki. -

©:

^.*n~

Fig. 185. Characteristic forms of alpine life, which descended from the mountains or
migrated from the highlands of western Asia in Aurignacian and Magdalenian times:
the ibex, the chamois, the alpine ptarmigan, the argali sheep, and the (A) alpine vole,
all shown one-twenty-fifth life size; and the (.4) alpine vole also one-fifth life size.

372 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

life except the polar bear, which only enters the northern tun-
dras in the summer season.

The regions of the northern Alps bordering the great gla-
ciers of the Bilhl and Gschnitz advances, were barren stretches
of rock, and the valleys and plateaus now free from ice became
tundras, where the swamps alternated with patches of polar wil-
lows and stunted fir-trees, while other areas were covered with
low, scrubby birches, or reindeer moss and lichens. The return
of these hard conditions of life undoubtedly exerted a great in-
fluence both upon the physical and mental development of the
Cro-Magnon race ; it was at the very period when the life con-
ditions in western Europe were most severe that the artistic de-
velopment of these people began to revive. Forced to return to
the shelters and grottos, which certainly were less frequented
in Solutrean times, there was time for the development of the
imagination and for its expression both in the mobile and parietal
arts. There was a less vigorous development of the flint indus-
try, and apparently a degeneration in physique and stature.

In Germany and northern Switzerland, on the headwaters of
the Rhine and the Danube, the entrance and departure of the
northern waves of life are recorded, especially in the grottos of
Sirgenstein, Schussenquelle, Andernach, Schmiechenfels, and
Propstfels. It would appear that the woolly mammoth and the
woolly rhinoceros were not hunted in this region, for their remains
are not preserved in any of the grottos or stations mingled with
the middle or late Magdalenian cultures. On the other hand,
we find the steppe horse, the kiang, the stag, and the reindeer
very abundant indeed. The bison is absent, and wild cattle
are very rare ; so that this region is not typical of the mammalian
life of Magdalenian times as found in Dordogne and in the
Pyrenees.

The migration of the woolly mammoth and woolly rhinoceros
along the Pyrenees and westward into the Cantabrian Moun-
tains, and the crossing of the Pyrenees by the reindeer, have
already been described. In the mural frescos of Font-de-Gaume,
Dordogne, it is noteworthy that the very latest engravings are

MAMMALIAN LIFE 373

those of the mammoth superposed on the fine polychromes
which belong to the period of middle Magdalenian art.

The Dry Steppe Climate of Middle Magdalenian

Times

The cold, dry period, when the full tide of steppe life reached
western Europe, is of somewhat uncertain date; it probably
began during the stage of the middle Magdalenian industry and
continued into the late or high Magdalenian. There was cer-
tainly an environment attractive to these peculiar and very
highly specialized mammals, which at the present time are neu-
tral in color, swift of foot, inured to existence on very sparse vege-
tation, and adapted to extremes of heat and cold. Among the
smaller steppe forms were the suslik or pouched marmot of the
steppes (Spermophilus rufescens) and the steppe hamster (Cricetus
phceus)j also the Siberian vole (Arvicola gregalis) ; still more
characteristic was the great jerboa (Alactaga jaculus) , with long,
springy hind legs, and the saiga antelope (Antilope saiga). With
these mammals appeared the steppe grouse (Perdix cinerea),
which is found along the Danube in late Magdalenian strata;
another bird characteristic of the northern steppes and tundras
is the ' woodcock owl' (Brachyotus palustris). Accompanying
these mammals was undoubtedly the steppe horse (Equus przewal-
ski), now restricted to the desert of Gobi; it is said to occur in
the grottos of northern Switzerland.

It would appear that the saiga antelope may have reached
eastern Europe in late Solutrean times, for its outline is said to
be found in an engraving at Solutre. Widely spread over Europe
was the giant Elasmothere ; it would seem very unlikely that
this animal was present in Magdalenian times, for it certainly
would have attracted the attention of the artists. Neither have
we any positive artistic records of the wild ass, or kiang, although
certain of the drawings in the grottos of Niaux and Marsoulas,
of the middle Magdalenian, also of Albarracin, in Spain, may be
interpreted as representing this animal. Thus the Asiatic steppe
and desert fauna, which in the region of the upper Rhine and

Fig. 186. Steppe mammals from the steppes and deserts of Asia, which invaded western
Europe in Upper Palaeolithic times; the first arrivals appearing during the cold, dry
period of late Acheulean times, becoming more numerous in the dry period of Aurig-
nacian and Solutrean times, and completely represented in Magdalenian times. The
saiga antelope, the (A) steppe hamster, the (B) great jerboa, and the kiang, or Asiatic
wild ass, are all shown one-twenty-fifth life size. The (^4) steppe hamster is also shown
one-fifth life size and the (B) great jerboa one-twelfth life size. Drawn by Erwin S.
Christman.

MAMMALIAN LIFE

375

Danube was restricted to two species of mammals in Aurignacian
and Solutrean times, rises to nine or ten species in middle Mag-
dalenian times, so that for the first time during the entire 'Rein-
deer Epoch' the steppe and tundra faunae are equally balanced.
There are also six or seven species of birds from the moors and
uplands of central Asia. The bird life
depicted in middle Magdalenian art
includes the ptarmigan or grouse, the
wild swan, geese, and ducks.

The present flora of the subarctic
steppes in southeastern Russia and
southwestern Siberia includes forests
of pine, larch, birch, oak, alder, and
willow, extending along the banks of
the rivers and streams and inter-
spersed with broad, low, grassy plains.
There are many gradations between
the low and high steppes;7 the cli-
mate in summer is relatively warm,
the temperature rising to 700, while
the average temperature in mid-winter
hardly exceeds 300 ; in general there is FlG- l87- Ptarmigan, or grouse,

, , - carved in reindeer horn, from

a strong contrast between the summer Mas d'Azii After Piette. The

and Winter Seasons, the Steppe lands restored portions (head and feet)

are indicated by dotted lines.

in summer are practically rainless, so

that the sand and dust rise with every wind. Thus, both in
summer and winter sand and dust storms play an important
role. The great snow-storms of the subarctic steppes are as
destructive as those of the more northerly tundras and often
result in great loss of life. Numerous discoveries tend to prove
that similar conditions prevailed in western Europe during Mag-
dalenian times. Thus at Chateauneuf-sur-Charente, a mingled
tundra and steppe fauna is found containing the bones of many
young animals which must have perished during a blizzard. It
will be recalled that in this region is the station of Le Placard
of late Solutrean and Magdalenian age. Near Wiirzburg, Ba-

376 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

varia, there is a fauna buried in the 'loess' containing twenty
species of mammals of the tundras and steppes, together with
the bison and the urus.8

Perhaps the strongest proof of the extension of cold, dry-
steppe conditions of climate is the migration of the saiga ante-
lope (Saiga tartarica) into the Dordogne region, where it is rep-
resented both in carvings and engravings, and into other parts
of southwestern France, where its fossil remains have been found
in thirteen localities in association with a cold steppe fauna.
In the same region have been found the remains of the musk-ox
(Ovibos), one of the most distinctive members of the arctic
fauna.

Human Races or Magdalenian Times

It appears that the Cro-Magnon race continued to prevail,
yet anthropologists have long been divided in opinion as to the
racial affinity of the men found in the Magdalenian industrial
stage. The most famous burials are those of Laugerie Basse
and Chancelade in Dordogne, each consisting of skeletons of in-
ferior stature, not improbably belonging to women. They cer-
tainly represent a race somewhat different from the typical
Cro-Magnons of Aurignacian times, as found at Cro-Magnon
and in Grimaldi. The archaeologist de Mortillet referred both
these skeletons to a new race, the race de Laugerie. Schliz, who
has most recently reviewed this subject, has, however, rightly
treated all these people as Cro-Magnons of a modified type.

The Magdalenian skeleton of Laugerie Basse, found by Mas-
senat in 1872, was resting on the back, with the limbs flexed,
and with it was a necklace of pierced shells from the Mediter-
ranean : the body apparently had been covered with a layer
of Magdalenian implements. According to the length of the
femur, the individual was 1.65 m., or 5 feet 1 inch in height;
the bones were strong and compact; the skull was well arched,
with a straight forehead and a cephalic index of 73.2 per cent.

The so-called Chancelade skeleton was found in the shelter
of Raymonden in 1888, at a depth of 5 feet, and was also in a

HUMAN FOSSILS

377

folded position, resting directly on the rock and covered with
several layers of artifacts of the later Magdalenian culture ; the
limbs were so tightly flexed as to prove that they had been en-
veloped in bandages. This skeleton shows a well-arched skull,
a high, wide forehead, and a dolichocephalic head form, but
the limbs are comparatively small, the height not exceeding

W&fflMWiMr :&

f

W$k '"■ t*B

Bill

■ ' ^ ''*

**3*-^--. ^W'"

"

Ljr

■§

' jH

1 , fSi

1 '■'"' x'

uc

Fig. i88. The a&n of Laugerie Basse, Dordogne, a famous Magdalenian station and
burial site of the skeleton of Laugerie Basse. This ancient rock shelter, like that of
Cro-Magnon and many others, shows at the present day a cluster of peasants' dwell-
ings around its base. Photograph by Belves.

1.50 m., or about 4 feet 7 inches; the upper arm and thigh
are short, compact, and clumsy, and the femur is crooked with
comparatively thick ends ; this skeleton is generally classed with
the Cro-Magnon race, but Klaatsch considers that it may be-
long to a distinct type. We cannot disregard, says Breuil,9 the
anatomical characters attributed by Testut to the man of Chance-
lade and its resemblances to the actual Eskimo type ; this indi-
cation is in favor of a new element, arriving perhaps from Asiatic
Siberia, but acquiring in western Europe the, artistic culture

378

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

realized and conserved in certain districts by the Aurignacian
tribes and their derivatives. All of the Aurignacian, Solutrean,
and Magdalenian races, however, recall very forcibly the race
of Cro-Magnon, which tends to prove that these transformations
in culture were not made without a notable element of human
continuity.

DISCOVERIES OF MAGDALENIAN AGE CHIEFLY ATTRIBUTED TO
THE CRO-MAGNON RACE*

Date of
Discovery

Locality

Nature of Remains

1863.

Bruniquel (Tarn-et-Garonne, France).

Skeletal fragments. Burial.

1864.

La Madeleine (Dordogne, France).

Skeletal fragments.

1869.

Laugerie Basse I (Dordogne, France).

Skeletal fragments.

1871.

Gourdan (Haute-Garonne, France).

Skeletal fragments.

1872.

Laugerie Basse II (Dordogne, France).

1 skeleton. Burial.

1872-1873.

Sorde (Duruthy) (Landes, France).

1 skeleton. Burial.

1874.

Freudenthal (near S chaff hausen, Swit-
zerland).

Fragments of skulls and of pelvis.

1874.

Kesslerloch (near Thaingen, Switzer-
land).

Collar-bone.

1883.

Le Placard (Charente, France).

8 skulls, chiefly fragmentary.

1888.

Chancelade (Raymonden) (Dordogne,
France).

1 skeleton, almost complete. Burial.

1894.

Les Hoteaux (Ain, France).

1 skeleton, almost complete. Burial.

1914.

Obercassel (near Bonn, Germany).

2 skeletons, male and female, almost
complete. Burial. Early Magda-
lenian.

Les Eyzies (Dordogne, France).

Skeletal fragments.

La Mouthe (Dordogne, France).

1 tooth, 1 vertebra.

Limeuil (Dordogne, France).

Skull fragments.

Grotte des Hommes (Yonne, France).

3 skulls and other skeletal fragments.

Brassempouy (Landes, France).

2 teeth.

Grotte des Fees (Gironde, France).

Fragments of upper and lower jaw.

Lussac (Vienne, France).

Fragment of lower jaw.

Mas d'Azil (Ariege, France).

1 skull top. Early Magdalenian.

Lourdes (Hautes-Pyrenees, France).

Skull fragments.

Castillo (Santander, Spain).

Skull fragment. Early Magdalenian.

Gudenushohle (Austria).

1 infant's tooth.

Andernach (north of Koblenz, Ger-

2 child's incisors and 7 rib fragments.

many).

After Obermaier,10 R. Martin,11 and others.

Another Magdalenian burial is that at Sorde, Landes, in the
grotto of Duruthy; this skeleton was discovered in 1872, buried
at a depth of 7 feet, the body being ornamented with a neck-
lace and a girdle of the teeth of the lion and of the bear, pierced
and engraved. Seven skulls found in 1883 in the grotto of
Placard, Charente, also belong to the Magdalenian. The

HUMAN FOSSILS 379

skeleton discovered in 1894 in the grotto of Les Hoteaux, Ain,
was buried at a depth of 6 feet beneath Magdalenian imple-
ments ; the body, resting on the back, was covered with red
ochre ; the thigh-bones were inverted, indicating that the limbs
had been dismembered before burial — a custom observed among
certain savages.

These are the best preserved Magdalenian remains which
have been discovered in France up to the present time. The

Fig. 189. Human skull-tops cut into ceremonial or drinking bowls, from the
Magdalenian layer of Placard, Charente. After Breuil and Obermaier.

matter of chief significance is the survival of modes of burial
characteristic of the Cro-Magnons in Aurignacian times, with the
use of color and of ornaments and with the body in some instances
folded and bandaged.

In the great grotto of Placard, near Rochebertier, Charente,
a new feature in the mode of interment has been discovered — the
separation of the head from the body.* The previous ceremonial
burials, which began certainly among the Neanderthals in Mous-
terian times, always show the custom of burying the entire body ;
in the Upper Palaeolithic there commences the new custom of
imbedding the body in ochre or red coloring matter, and this

* This custom is observed again in Azilian times in the burials at Ofnet on the
Danube (see page 475).

380 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

obtains from the Aurignacian burials of Grimaldi to the Azilian
burial of Mas d'Azil. The flexing of the limbs occurs fre-
quently in Upper Palaeolithic times. It would appear as if the
new ceremonial of Placard had been introduced in the earliest
Magdalenian times, for in the lowest Magdalenian layers four
skulls were found closely crowded together, with the top of the
cranium turned downward; of other portions of the skeleton only
a humerus and a femur were found. In an upper layer of the same
industrial stage a woman's skull and jaw were found, surrounded
by snail shells, many of them perforated. Still more singular is
the occurrence in Magdalenian strata of this grotto of two sep-
arate skull-tops, fashioned by some sharp flint implement into
bowls (Fig. 189).

Again, at Arcy-sur-Cure three skulls have been discovered
placed closely together, and with them a flint knife in a layer
superposed upon an Aurignacian industry. The Placard type of
burial of the head only is shown again in the Azilian stage at
Ofnet, Bavaria.

The uncertainty regarding the racial afhnity of the men of
Magdalenian culture has now been entirely removed by the dis-
covery, in February, 19 14, of two skeletons at Obercassel, near
Bonn, the first instance of complete human skeletons of Quater-
nary age being found in Germany.12 As reported by Verworn,13
the skeletons lay little more than a yard apart ; they were cov-
ered by great slabs of basalt, and lay in a deposit of loam deeply
tinged with red. This red coloring matter, which extended com-
pletely over the skeletons and surrounding stones, indicates
that it was a ceremonial burial similar to that practised by the
Aurignacian Cro-Magnons. Along with the skeletons were found
bones of animals and several specimens of finely carved bone,
but no flint implements of any kind. The bone implements
include a finely polished 'lissoir' of beautiful workmanship,
placed beneath the head of one of the skeletons; the handle
is carved into a small head of some animal resembling a marten ;
the sides show the notched decoration so typical of the French
Magdalenian. The second specimen of carved bone is one of

HUMAN FOSSILS

381

the small, flat, narrow horse-heads, engraved on both sides,
such as are found at Laugerie Basse and in the Pyrenees. One
of the skeletons is of a woman about twenty years of age, and,
as is usual in young female skeletons, it exhibits the racial char-
acters in a much less marked degree than the male skeleton,
which belongs to a man of between forty and fifty years; the
cephalic index is 70 per cent; the supraorbital ridges are well
developed, and the orbits are distinctly rectangular; the limb
bones indicate a body about 155 cm., or 5 feet 1 inch, in height.

Fig.

190. The skulls of two skeletons of the Cro-Magnon race, one male (right) the
other female (left) , recently discovered at Obercassel near Bonn, associated
with Magdalenian implements. After Bonnet.

In contrast to this more refined skull, the extremely broad
and low face of the man is entirely disproportionate to the mod-
erately broad forehead and well rounded skullcap ; the breadth
of the face is 153 mm. and exceeds the greatest width of the
skull, which is only 144 mm. This is a markedly disharmonic
type, the width of the face being due not only to the broad upper
jaw but to the exceptional size and breadth of the cheek-bones.
The skull is decidedly dolichocephalic, the cephalic index being
74 per cent ; the brain capacity is about 1,500 c.cm. ; the orbits
are rectangular, and above them extends an unbroken supraor-
bital ridge, with a slight median frontal eminence ; the nasal
opening is relatively small ; the lower jaw has a strongly marked
chin ; the crowns of the teeth have been worn down until the

382 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

enamel has almost disappeared. While the muscular attachments
indicate great bodily strength, the height does not exceed 5 feet
3 inches. As pronounced Cro-Magnon features, both of the
Obercassel skulls show an unusually wide face ; in both the pro-
files are straight and the root of the nose depressed, the nose is
narrow, and the orbits are rectangular. But, observes Bonnet,
the greatest width of these skulls is not found across the parietals,
as in the typical Cro-Magnons, but just above the ear region, a
much lower position; in this respect the Obercassel skulls re-
semble the skull of the Chancelade skeleton.

This very important discovery of two undoubted descendants
of the Cro-Magnon race associated with bone implements of
lower Magdalenian workmanship appears to prove conclusively
that the Cro-Magnons were the art-loving race. The Obercassel
skeletons confirm the evidence afforded by the burials in France
that these people were of low stature ; perhaps because of the
severe climatic conditions of Magdalenian times they had lost
the splendid physical proportions of the Cro-Magnons living
along the Riviera in Aurignacian times. The skull also, while
retaining all the pronounced Cro-Magnon characters, had under-
gone a modification in the point of greatest width.

In the reduction of the stature of the woman to 5 feet 1 inch
and of the man to 5 feet 3 inches, and in the reduction of the
brain capacity to 1,500 c.cm., we may be witnessing the result
of exposure to very severe climatic conditions in a race which
retained its fine physical and mental characteristics only under
the more genial climatic conditions of the south.

The Four Industrial Phases of Magdalenian Culture

The industrial development belongs throughout to central
and western Europe rather than to the Mediterranean. It is
remarkable that it does not extend along the African coast, or
even into Italy or southern Spain. It has been found to present
four great steps or phases as follows :

The earliest types 14 of the incipient Magdalenian culture or

MAGDALENIAN INDUSTRY

383

Proto-Magdalenian, are nowhere better represented than under
the great shelter of Placard, in Char en te, where the deep succes-
sive deposits compel a realization of the long period of time re-
quired for the evolution of the Magdalenian with its wonderful
artistic culmination. Even prior to any discovery of the harpoon
or of any example of the art of engraving comparable to the

Fig. 191. The great abri, or rock shelter, of La Madeleine, type station of the Magda-
lenian industry. Ruins of the abbey beyond. Photograph by Belves.

classic series of higher levels we find three levels of incipient
Magdalenian industry at Placard. Similar local horizons, recog-
nizable from the type of their javelin points (sagaies) and from
their decorative motifs, are also found at Kesslerloch, Switzer-
land, and as far east as Poland. From Dordogne they extend
into the Pyrenees and into the Cantabrian Mountains of northern
Spain, but not farther south. There is thus a very primitive
Magdalenian industry wide-spread over central and western
Europe, either autochthonous or influenced from the east, but
certainly not from the Mediterranean. It is only above these

384 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

primitive horizons that layers are discovered with the rudimentary
harpoons, and then with the perfected harpoons with single and
double rows of barbs. It would appear as if the basins drained
by the Dordogne and the Garonne were at once the most densely
populated and also the centres from which industry, culture, and
art spread to the east and to the west.

In the heart of the Dordogne region is the great rock shelter
of La Madeleine, the type station of Magdalenian culture, and
around it are no less than fifteen stations. This station, in which
the lowest industrial layer {niveau inferieur) is subsequent to the
Proto-Magdalenian phase and belongs to the early Magdalen-
ian, was extensively excavated by Lartet and Christy15 dur-
ing the decade following its discovery, in 1865, and more recently
by Peyrony and others. The industrial deposit is situated at
the base of an overhanging limestone escarpment on the right
bank of the Vezere River; it extends for a distance of 50 feet
with an average thickness of 9 feet, the lowest or early Mag-
dalenian levels reaching down below the present level of the
Vezere. It is a significant fact that the river floods which from
time to time occur here also occasionally drove out the flint
workers in Magdalenian times. It indicates an unchanged topog-
raphy and similar conditions of rainfall. We must picture this
cliff fringed with a northern flora, these river banks as the haunt
of bison and reindeer, and the site of a long, narrow camp of
skin-covered shelters.

Among the numerous specimens of typical Magdalenian in-
dustry and art which have been found here may be mentioned
a geode of quartzite, apparently used to contain water, and stone
crucibles, usually of rounded form, adapted to the grinding up
of mineral colors for tattooing or artistic purposes; one of
these crucibles, showing traces of color, still remains. The finest
among the art objects is the spirited engraving, on a section of
ivory tusk, of the woolly mammoth charging ; this is one of the
most realistic pieces of Palaeolithic engraving which has ever been
found ; there are indications that the artist used this relatively
small piece of ivory for the representation of three mammoths;

MAGDALENIAN INDUSTRY 385

but in the reproduction (Fig. 199) all the lines are eliminated
except those belonging to the single charging mammoth ; we
observe especially the elevation of the head and the tail, also the
remarkably lifelike action of the limbs and body.

Very numerous industrial levels are discovered in eight or ten
overlying hearths, which are, however, divided into three main
levels, as follows :

Niveau superieur (late Magdalenian culture).

Harpoons with a double row of barbs. Indications that the climate was
colder and drier, resembling that of the steppes. Bison, horses, and
reindeer abundant.

Niveau moyen (middle Magdalenian culture).

Harpoons with barbs on one side only; also batons de commandement.
Indications that the climate was more moist, with frequent inunda-
tions from the river. Bison, reindeer, and horses less abundant.

Niveau inferieur (early Magdalenian culture).

Harpoons with a single row of barbs. Indications of animal sculpture.
Remains of bison and of reindeer, but those of horses especially nu-
merous.

In the Early Magdalenian we note the invention of the
harpoon ; its first crude form is that of a short, straight point of
bone, deeply grooved on one face, the ridges and notches along
one edge being the only indications of what later develop into
the recurved barbed points of the typical harpoon. As noted
above, this invention was destined to exert a very strong influ-
ence on the habits of these people. Large fish undoubtedly were
very abundant in all the rivers at that time, and this new means
of obtaining an abundant food supply probably diverted the
Cro-Magnons in part from the more ardent and dangerous pur-
suit of the larger kinds of game. The discovery soon spread, and
among a number of localities where prototypes of the harpoon
are found may be mentioned Placard, in Charente ; Laugerie
Basse, in Dordogne ; Mas d'Azil, on the Arize ; and Altamira,
in northern Spain. In the early Magdalenian also a great va-
riety of flint drills or borers are developed in connection with
the fashioning of bone, including the * parrot-beak ' type, or

386

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

recurved flint. The microlithic flints, exclusively designed for
fine and delicate artistic work, are more abundant than in any

Fig. 192. Industrial and art implements of Magdalenian times, chiefly elongate flakes
retouched at one or at both ends for various uses. After de Mortillet. 160. Long,
narrow flint blade from the type station of La Madeleine. 161. A similar implement
from the grotto of Mursens, Lot. 162. A 'knife' flake from Laugerie Basse, Dordogne.
163. A flint blade, very characteristic of the period, from La Madeleine. 164. A minute
flake with cutting border and short, curved point. 165. An elongate flake shaped into
a graltoir, or planing tool, at one end, from La Madeleine. 166. An elongate, pointed
graving-tool, retouched at the end and at one side. 167. A pointed tool of chalcedony.
168. A minute pointed flake. 169. A 'parrot-beak' graving-tool of flint. 170. A
straight flint graver, from Les Eyzies, Dordogne. 171. A similar graver, from Lau-
gerie Basse. 172. A similar graver, from La Madeleine. 173. Flint graver with base
retouched, from the Gorge d'Enfer. 174. A double-ended implement, burin and gral-
toir, from Laugerie Basse. 175. Flint burin, or graver, approaching the 'parrot-beak'
type of 169, from Les Eyzies. 176. Double burin, or graver, of flint, from the Grotte
du Chaffaud, Vienne. All figures arc one-third actual size.

previous stage, and were used to shape and finish the bone im-
plements which chiefly distinguish the Magdalenian culture.
Other implements which enable us to recognize the early Mag-

MAGDALENIAN INDUSTRY

387

dalenian culture layers are javelin points of bone or reindeer-
horn with oblique bases, small staves of reindeer-horn or ivory,
oval plates of bone frequently decorated with engraved designs,
and slender, finely finished needles.

The Middle Magdalenian implements were more widely
distributed than the early types, the most characteristic weapon
being the harpoon with a well-defined single row of barbs (Breuil,16
Schmidt17). According to Breuil, this single-rowed harpoon is

Fig. 193. Typical forms of Magdalenian bone harpoons. After Breuil. (^4) 1 to 9,
single-rowed harpoons, characteristic of the early and middle Magdalenian; 1, 4, 8,
from Bruniquel; 2, 5, from Laugerie Basse; 6, from Mas d'Azil; 7, from La Mairie;
3 and 9, from Valle and Castillo. About one-quarter actual size. (B) 10 to 15, double-
rowed harpoons, characteristic of the late Magdalenian; 10, 12, from Bruniquel; 11,
from Massat; 13, from Mouthier; 14, from La Madeleine; 15, from Kesslerloch,
Switzerland. About one- third actual size.

rare in the lower layers but abundant in the upper layers of
middle Magdalenian times ; with it occur examples of the single-
rowed harpoon with swallow-tail base. Other implements of
this stage are the bone javelin points with cleft base, small
bone staves richly decorated, also numerous needles, finer and
more slender than those of the early Magdalenian. It is very
interesting to note that there are no distinctive inventions in
the flint industry, which shows no important advances, although
microlithic flints are still more abundant than before. For in-
dustrial purposes scrapers continue to be very abundant, as
well as borers for the perforation of bone implements. The

388 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

middle Magdalenian industry is best represented in the deposits
of central and southern France, at Raymonden, Bruniquel,
Laugerie Basse, Gourdan, Mas d'Azil, and Teyjat.

The chief weapon of Late Magdalenian times is the harpoon
with the double row of barbs, which is found at all the principal
discovery sites extending from stations in southwestern and
southern France far to the east. Besides the double-rowed
harpoon, the cylindrical chisel of reindeer-horn frequently occurs,
often pointed at the end and with a small curve at the side ; this,
like other bone implements, was richly decorated with engraving.
This late Magdalenian level is distinguished everywhere by the
rich decoration of all the bone implements and weapons, as well
as of the 'batons de commandement.' The quantity of bone
needles, more numerous in this stage than ever before, attests
the greater refinement of finish in the preparation of clothing.

This was the culminating point both in Magdalenian indus-
try and art, and probably also in the morale and modes of living.
Characteristic types of this late Magdalenian culture are found
at La Madeleine, Les Eyzies, and Teyjat, and extend into the
northern Pyrenees, at Lourdes, Gourdan, and Mas d'Azil. Their
easterly geographical distribution will be described on a later
page. The microlithic flints now reach their culminating point;
to the small bladed flakes with blunted backs are added little
feather-shaped flint blades, and still others with oblique ends,
which begin to suggest the geometric forms of the succeeding
Tardenoisian industry. Among the flint borers we notice a
prevalent type with a stout central point, also the so-called
' parrot-beak' borer; for the preparation of skins, scrapers are
made, as before, of thin flakes, slightly retouched at both ends
to give a rounded or rectangular form.

Following the late or high Magdalenian stage is a period of
decline in industry. In southern France18 both flint and bone
implements show unmistakable indications of the approach
either of the succeeding Tardenoisian or Azilian stage. In the
Pyrenees both the flints and the great polishers of deer-horn begin
to resemble those which occur in the post-Magdalenian levels.

MAGDALENIAN INDUSTRY 389

This industrial stage corresponds broadly with the period of
decline in art, and with the change both in the industrial habits
and in the artistic spirit of the Cro-Magnons.

The divisions of the Magdalenian are, therefore, as follows :

5. Decline of the Magdalenian art and industry.

4. Late Magdalenian typified at La Madeleine, Dordogne.

3. Middle Magdalenian typified at La Madeleine, Dordogne.

2. Early Magdalenian typified at La Madeleine, Dordogne.

1. Proto-Magdalenian typified at Placard, Charente.

Flint and Bone Industry

Through the four successive stages of development which we
have already traced (p. 382) there are perceived certain general
tendencies and characteristics which clearly separate the Mag-
dalenian from the preceding Solutrean culture.

Compared with Solutrean times, when the art of flint work-
ing reached its high-water mark, the Magdalenian palaeoliths
show a marked degeneracy in technique, having neither the sym-
metry of form nor the finely chipped surfaces which distinguish
the Solutrean types ; indeed, they do not even equal the grooved
marginal retouch of the best Aurignacian work. The Magdalenian
retouch shows no influence of the Solutrean; it is even more blunt
and marginal than the late Aurignacian. In compensation for
this decadence in the art of retouch, the Cro-Magnons now show
extraordinary skill in producing long, narrow, thin flakes of flint,
struck off the nucleus with a single blow; these 'blades,' which
are very numerous, are often not retouched at all ; occasionally
a few hasty touches are used to attain a rounded or oblique end ;
in other cases a very limited marginal chipping along the sides
or the development of an elongated pedicle {sole) produces very
effective implements for graving and sculptural work.

For the art of engraving perfect burins, burin-grattoirs, and
burins doubles were rapidly made from these thin flakes ; also
burins with oblique terminal edge and with the ' parrot-beak '
end. For industrial purposes some of the flints were denticu-
lated around the border, doubtless for the preparation of fibres

390

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

and of thin strips of leather for the attachment of clothing
to the body and for binding of the flint and bone lance-heads
to wooden shafts. Extremely fine percoirs have been found
adapted to perforating the bone needles ; the grattoir, single
or double, was also fashioned out of these flakes, and the nu-
cleus of the flint was used as a hammer. Hammers of simple
rounded stones are also found.

But the notable feature of Magdalenian industry is the ex-
tensive and unprecedented use of bone, horn, and ivory. From
the antlers of the reindeer are early developed the sagaies or

Fig. 194. Types of the flint blade with denticulated edge, a characteristic
industrial tool of Magdalenian times, from Bruniquel, Les Eyzies, and
Laugerie Basse. After Dechelette, by permission of M. A. Picard, Librai-
rie Alphonse Picard et Fils.

javelin points of varying size, usually ornamented along the sides
and with several forms of attachment to the wooden shaft,
either forked, bevelled, or rounded. The ornamentation consists
of engraved elongate lines or beaded lines, and of deep grooves
perhaps intended for the insertion of poisonous fluids or the out-
let of blood.

Of all the Magdalenian weapons the most characteristic is
the harpoon, the chief fishing implement, which now appears for
the first time marked by the invention of the barb or point retro-
verted in such a manner as to hold its place in the flesh. The
barb does not suddenly appear like an inventive mutation, but
it very slowly evolves as its usefulness is demonstrated in prac-
tice. The shaft is very rarely perforated at the base for the
attachment of a line ; it is cylindrical in form, adapted to the

MAGDALENIAN INDUSTRY

391

capture of the large fish of the streams. That a barbed weapon
was also used in the chase seems to be indicated by drawings
in the grotto of Niaux and lines engraved on the teeth of the
bear, but these drawings indicate the form of an arrow rather
than of a harpoon. The length varies from two to fifteen inches.
The harpoons may have been projected by means of the so-called
propulseurs or dart-throwers, which resemble implements so

10 cm

I

1

s

Fig. 195. Bone needles from the grotto of Lacave, Lot. After Vire.

employed by the Eskimo and Australians of to-day. These
dart-throwers are often beautifully carved, as in the case of one
found at Mas d'Azil, ornamented with a fine relief of the ibex.
Then there were batons de commandement, carved with scenes
of the chase and with spirited heads of the horse and other
animals, which quite probably were insignia of office. Reinach
has suggested that batons were trophies of the chase, and accord-
ing to Schoetensack they may have been used as ornaments to
fasten the clothing. The discovery of mural painting and en-
graving suggests the possibility that these batons were believed
to have some magical influence, and were connected with mys-
terious rites in the caverns, for a great variety of such ceremonial

392 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

staffs is found among primitive peoples. Geographically, the
batons spread from the Pyrenees into Belgium and eastward
into Moravia and Russia.

Slender bone needles brought to a fine point on stone polish-
ers indicate great care in the preparation of clothing. Associated
with the borers are many other bone implements : awls, hammers,
chisels, stilettos, pins with and without a head, spatulas, and pol-
ishers; the latter may have been employed in the preparation
of leather. The borers, pins, and polishers appear from the very
beginning of the period of sculpture. The name of poniard
(poignard) is given to long points of reindeer-horn ; one of these
was found at Laugerie Basse.

History or Upper Paleolithic Art

Following the pioneer studies of Lartet, the history of the
art of the Reindeer Period, as manifested in bone, ivory, and the
engraved and sculptured horns of the deer, occupied the last
thirty-five years of the life of Edouard Piette,19 a magistrate
of Craonne who pursued this delightful subject as an avoca-
tion. He was a pioneer in the interpretation of Vart mobilier, the
mobile art. It must be remembered that in Piette's time the
fourfold divisions of Upper Palaeolithic culture so familiar to us
were only partly perceived ; his studies, in fact, related chiefly to
the mobile art of Magdalenian times, and he undertook to fol-
low its modifications in every successive grotto, beginning with
his brochure La Grotte de Gourdan, in 1873, in which he first an-
nounced the idea which underlay all his later conclusions, that
sculpture preceded line engraving and etching. He divided the
art into a series of phases ; that of the red deer (Cervus elaphus)
he termed Elaphienne, that of the reindeer Tarandienne, that of
the horse Hippiquienne, and that of the wild cattle Bovidienne.
In concluding this early work of 1873, he remarked: "To write
the history of Magdalenian art is to give the history of primi-
tive art itself." He observed that in sculpturing the horn of the
reindeer the artist was obliged to work in the hard exterior bone
and to avoid the spongy interior ; this defect in material suggested

UPPER PALAEOLITHIC ART 393

the invention of the bas-relief. The statuette he regarded as
the assemblage of two bas-reliefs, one on either side of the bone.
Thus he described the ivory head of the woman of Brassempouy,
the only human face of Upper Palaeolithic times which is even
fairly well represented; also the two imperfect feminine torsos
in ivory. In 1897, at the age of seventy, Piette undertook his
last excavations, and the sum of his labors is preserved for us in
the magnificent volume entitled VArt pendant Vdge du Renne,
published in 1907.

The pupil and biographer of Piette, l'Abbe Henri Breuil, ob-
serves that his scheme of art evolution is exact along its main
lines.20 It is true that human sculpture appears for the first time
in the lower Aurignacian, that it survives the Solutrean, and
even extends into middle Magdalenian times, but this enormous
period cannot be placed in one archaeological division as Piette
supposed ; in truth, he did not suspect the prolonged gestation
of Quaternary art, but contracted into one small division the
documents of numerous phases. At the same time, Piette was
right in attributing the flower of the art of engraving accom-
panied by contours of animal forms in relief to the second and
third levels of the Magdalenian industry, but he had no idea
that this development had been preceded by a long period in
which engraving had been practised in a timid and more or
less sporadic manner as a parietal art on the walls of the cav-
erns as well as on bone and stone. It is also true that a con-
siderable facility in sculpture preceded the art of engraving, but
it was arrested in its progress while engraving slowly developed ;
in the early choice of subjects the sculptors of middle and late
Aurignacian times showed a preference for the human form,
while later, in Solutrean and early Magdalenian times, they in-
clined principally toward animal figures, so that sculpture was
not suddenly eclipsed. The first engravings made with fine
points of flint on stone are hardly less ancient than the first sculp-
tures, and modestly co-exist beside them up to the moment
where engraving, greatly multiplied, largely supplants sculpture.
Finally, observes Breuil, it is one of the glories of Edouard Piette

394

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

to have understood that the painted pebbles of Mas d'Azil rep-
resented the last prolongation of the dying Quaternary art.

It is fortunate that the mantle of Piette fell upon a man of
the artistic genius and appreciation of Breuil, to whom chiefly
we owe our clear understanding of the chronological development
of Upper Palaeolithic art. In the accompanying table (p. 395)
are assembled the results of the observations of Piette, Sautuola,
Riviere, Cartailhac, Capitan, Breuil, and many others, largely in
the order of sequence determined through the labors of Breuil.

Fig. 196. Geographic distribution of the more important Palaeolithic art stations of
Dordogne, the Pyrenees, and the Cantabrian Mountains. After
Breuil and Obermaier.

We are far from 1880, observes Cartailhac,21 when the dis-
covery by Sautuola of the paintings on the roof of the cavern of
Altamira was met with such scepticism and indifference. Know-
ing the artistic instincts of the Upper Palaeolithic people from
their engraving and carving in bone and ivory, we should have
been prepared for the discovery of a parietal art. The publica-
tion of the engravings in the grotto of La Mouthe by Riviere22
in April, 1895, was the first warning of our oversight, and imme-
diately Edouard Piette recalled Altamira to the memory of the
workers on prehistoric art. The discovery of Sautuola ceased
to be isolated. Led by the engravings found in La Mouthe,

Sculpture

Incised Figures

Painted Figures

AZILIAN.

VI. No animal draw-
ings.

VI. Conventional Azilian
decoration. Flat pebbles
(galets) colored in red and
black. Mas d'Azil, Mar-
soulas, Pindal.

Late
Magdalenian.

Middle
Magdalenian.

Early
Magdalenian.

Slender human
figurines in ivory
and bone.

Animal forms in
reindeer and stag
horn on implements
of the chase and
ceremonial insignia.

Animal sculpture.
Bisons of Tuc d' Au-
doubert; hi^h re-
liefs of horses, Cap-
Blanc.

V. Entirely wanting.

IV. Graffites feebly
traced; fine lines indi-
cating hair predominate
in the drawings, as at
Font-de-Gaume and
Marsoulas. Perfected
animal outlines and de-
tails.

Fine animal outlines,
Grotte de la Mairie,
Marsoulas.

Perfected engraving
on bone and ivory.

III. Deeply incised
fines followed by light
graffite contour lines.
Incised outlines and
hair, e. g., mammoths
of Combarelles. Stri-
ated drawings, Castillo,
Altamira, Pasiega.

V. No animal art. Vari-
ous schematic and conven-
tional figures and signs
(bands, branches, lines,
punctuated surfaces sug-
gesting the Azilian galets).

IV. Polychrome animal
figures with the contour in
black and interior modelling
obtained through a mingling
of yellow, red, and black
color. Constant association
of raclage and of inci-
sions with painting. Mains
stylisees. Great, brilliant
polychrome frescos of
Marsoulas, Font-de-Gaume,
Altamira.

Animal outlines in black,
Niaux.

III. Figures of a flat tint
and Chinese shading with-
out modelling, also dotted
animal figures as at Font-
de-Gaume, Marsoulas, Al-
tamira, Pasiega.

SOLUTREAN.

Bone sculpture in
high relief; Isturitz,
Pyrenees. Animal
sculpture^ in the
round, P"ed:n3st.

Engravings.

Late
aurignacian.

Early
aurignacian.

Heavy human
statuettes (idals) of
Mentone, Brass 2 m-
pouy, Willendjrf,
Briinn. Human bas-
reliefs of Lauss^l.
Heavy human fig-
urines of Sireuil,
Pair-non-Pair.

Animals in low
relief.

II. Animal and hu-
man figures, at first very
deeply incised, then less
so; four limbs generally
figured. Designs vigor-
ous, somewhat awk-
ward, as at La Mouthe,
then more characteristic
as at Combarelles.

I. Figures deeply in-
cised, heavy, in abso-
lute profile; stiff in form
as at Pair-non-Pair, La
Greze, La Mouthe, Gar-
gas, Bernifal, Hornos de
la Pena, Marsoulas, Al-
tamira.

Archaic animal out-
lines of Castillo.

II. Filling in lines at first
feeble, then more and more
strong, finally associated
with contour modelling
which ultimately covers the
entire silhouette. Incised
lines associated with paint-
ing as at Combarelles, Font-
de-Gaume, La Mouthe, Mar-
soulas, Altamira.

I. Linear tracings in mono-
chrome, single black or red
lines, indicating only a sil-
houette. Two limbs out of
four are ordinarily figured.
The most ancient paintings
of Castillo, Altamira, Pindal,
Font-de-Gaume, Marsoulas,
La Mouthe, Combarelles,
Bernifal.

Statuary and bas-
relief.

Mobile and parietal
art in line.

Parietal and mobile art in
color.

STAGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF UPPER PALAEOLITHIC ART

396 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

Daleau discovered the engravings in the grotto of Pair-non-Pair,
Gironde. In 1902 there was the double discovery of the en-
gravings in the grotto of Combarelles, and of the paintings in the
grotto of Font-de-Gaume, communicated by Capitan and Breuil.
Discoveries at Marsoulas, Mas d'Azil, La Greze, Bernifal, and
Teyjat soon followed.*

In 1908 Dechelette listed eight caverns in Dordogne, six in
the Pyrenees, and seven along the Cantabrian Pyrenees of
northern Spain, but there are now upward of thirty caverns in
which traces of parietal art have been found, and doubtless the
number will be greatly enlarged by future exploration, because
the entrances of many of the grottos have been closed, and the
remote recesses in which drawings are placed, as in the recent
discovery of Tuc d'Audoubert, are very difficult to explore.

The chief divisions of Upper Palaeolithic art are as follows :

1. Drawing, engraving, and etching with nne flint points on surfaces of
stone, bone, ivory, and the limestone walls of the caverns.

2. Sculpture in low or high relief, chiefly in stone, bone, and clay.

3. Sculpture in the round in stone, ivory, reindeer and stag horn.

4. Painting in line, in monochrome tone, and in polychromes of three
or four colors, usually accompanied or preceded by line engraving, with
flint points or low contour reliefs.

5. Conventional ornaments drawn from the repetition of animal or
plant forms or the repetition of geometric lines.

Drawings axd Engravings of the Early Magdalenian

We have already traced the art of engraving, as it first ap-
pears in late Aurignacian times, into the Solutrean ; in the
latter it is but feebly represented. Its further development in
early Magdalenian times is found in the engravings made with
more delicate or more sharply pointed flint implements, capable
of drawing an excessively fine line ; these were doubtless the early
Magdalenian microliths. The animal outlines, with an indication

* The whole history of these successive discoveries, beginning with the finding of an
engraved bone, in 1834, in the grotto of Chaffaud, and concluding with the discoveries
of Lalanne. and of Becouen. in 1012. is summarized in the admirable little handbook
by Salomon Reinach.' This convenient volume also includes outline tracings of the
more important drawings and sculptures found in western Europe up to the present time.

MAGDALENIAN ENGRAVINGS

397

of hair, are frequently sketched with such exceedingly fine lines
as to resemble etchings ; the figures are often of very small
dimensions and marked by much closer attention to details,
such as the eyes, the ears, the hair both of the head and the

Fig. 197. Primitive outline engravings of woolly mammoths of Aurignacian

or early Magdalenian times, from the walls of the cavern of

Combarelles. After Breuil.

Fig. 198. Engraved outlines and hair underlying the painting of one of the
mammoths, from the wall of the Galerie des Fresqucs, Font-de-Gaume.

After Breuil.

mane, and the hoofs ; the proportions are also much more exact,
so that these engravings become very realistic. Breuil ascribes
to the early Magdalenian the engraved mammoth tracings of
Combarelles. Engravings of this period are also found in the
grottos of Altamira in Spain, and of Font-de-Gaume in Dor-

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

dogne, and to this stage belongs the group of does at Altamira,
distinguished by the peculiar lines of the hair covering the face.
The subjects chosen are chiefly the red deer, reindeer, mammoth,
horse, chamois, and bison. The striated drawings of Castillo
and Altamira, which partly represent hair and are partly indica-
tions of shading, belong to this period.

Fig. 199. Charging mammoth engraved on a piece of ivory tusk, from the station of
La Madeleine. After E. Lartet. For the sake of showing this figure clearly, other
outlines in this drawing, which were probably designed to indicate a herd of charging
mammoths, are omitted or represented by dotted lines. This classic engraving, de-
scribed on pages 384 and 385, is one of the most lifelike Palaeolithic representations
known of an animal in action.

The engravings in the grotto of La Mouthe were discovered
by Riviere, in 1895, and were the means of directing attention
afresh to the long-forgotten parietal art found in Altamira by
Sautuola in 1880. The drawings at La Mouthe begin about
270 feet from the entrance and may be traced for a distance of
100 feet, scattered in various groups ; they manifestly belong to
a very primitive stage, probably early Magdalenian, the point
of chief interest being that, while the greater part of the engrav-
ings are in simple incised lines, here and there the contour is
enforced by a line of red or black paint ; this is the beginning of

MAGDALENIAN ENGRAVINGS

399

a method pursued throughout the Magdalenian parietal art, in
which the artist carefully sketches his contours with sharp-
pointed flints before he applies any color. This treatment, at
first limited to the simple outlines, led to tracing in many of the
details with engraved lines, the eyes, the ears, the hair; thus
Breuil has shown that in its
final development a carefully
worked-out engraving under-
lies the painting. In the La
Mouthe drawings the propor-
tions are very bad ; they repre-
sent the reindeer, bison, mam-
moth, horse, ibex, and urus;
spots of red are sometimes
splashed on the sides of the
animals ; here and there is a
bit of superior work, such as
the reindeer in motion.

The cavern of Combarelles,
discovered in 1901, in Dor-
dogne, near Les Eyzies, con-
tains by far the most remark-
able record of early Magdale-
nian art ; there are upward of
four hundred drawings and en-
gravings representing almost
every animal of early Magdalenian times, among them the horse,
rhinoceros, mammoth, reindeer, bison, stag, ibex, lion, and wolf ;
there are also between five and six representations of the men of
the time, both masked and unmasked ; the style is more recent
than that of the oldest drawings in Font-de-Gaume, but much
more ancient than the period of polychrome art.* The gallery
is 720 feet long, and barely 6 feet broad; the drawings begin
about 350 feet from the entrance, and are scattered at irregular

Fig. 200. Engraved outlines believed to
represent human grotesques or masked
figures found on the cavern walls of
Marsoulas, Altamira, and Combarelles.
After Obermaier.

* Only a few drawings from this cavern have as yet been published, such as the famous
mammoth of Combarelles ; the entire work is in the hands of Breuil.

400

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

intervals to the very end. In general the art is very fine and
evidently largely the work of one artist ; representations of the
woolly rhinoceros and of the mammoth are very true to life;
there is a pair of splendid lions, male and female ; the drawings
of the horse are abundant, and side by side we have a represen-

FiG. 201. Entrance to the cavern of Combarelles near Les Eyzies, Dordogne, where

upward of four hundred wall engravings have been discovered.

Photograph by Belves.

tation of several types of horses, the pure forest type with the
arched forehead, the small, fine-headed Celtic type, and a larger
type reminding us of the kiang, or wild ass. Here the greater
part of the work is engraving, as contrasted with the painted
outlines in the cavern of Niaux and with the etched outlines of
the Grotte de la Mairie.

Even a large cavern like Combarelles offers comparatively
few surfaces favorable to these engraved lines; but, small or large,
such surfaces were eagerly sought, sometimes near the floor,
sometimes on. the walls, and again on the ceilings; even with

MAGDALENIAN ENGRAVINGS

401

the brilliant light of an acetylene lamp it is now difficult to dis-
cover all these outlines, some of which are drawn in the most
unlooked-for places. If the
extremely fine incisions, such
as those representing the hair
of the mammoth, are so diffi-
cult to detect with a powerful
illuminant, one may imagine
the task of the Cro-Magnon
artists with their small stone
lamps and wick fed by the
melting grease. One such lamp
has been found in the grotto
of La Mouthe, about 50 feet from the entrance ; the workman's
pick broke it into four pieces, only three of which were re-
covered. The shallow bowl contained some carbonized matter,

Fig. 202. Cave-bear engraved in outline,
from the cavern of Combarelles.
After Breuil.

Fig. 203. Stone lamp of Magdalenian age discovered in the -grotto of La Mouthe by E.
Riviere. It is cut in sandstone and ornamented on the lower surface with the head
and horns of the ibex. Such lamps were doubtless used by the artists to light the
deep recesses of the caverns. After Riviere, redrawn by Erwin S. Christman. One-
third actual size. (Compare PI. VII.)

an analysis of which led Berthelot, the chemist, to conclude that
an animal fat was used for lighting purposes. Like most other
implements, this lamp is decorated — in this instance by an en-

402

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

graving of the head and horns of the ibex. Three of these lamps
have been found in Charente and Lot, and it is noteworthy that
lamps similar to those of the Magdalenian period are used in
Dordogne at the present day.

Fig. 204. Entrance to the cavern of La Pasiega, not far from Castillo. The seated

figure with the staff is M. l'Abbe Henri Breuil, the present leader in the

study of Upper Palaeolithic art. Photograph by N. C. Nelson.

In the great cavern of Castillo,* at Puente-Viesgo, discovered
in 1903 by Alcalde del Rio, which is entered by the majestic
grotto already described on p. 162, the animal drawings are
mostly of an archaic character, belonging to the very beginnings

* The stations of Castillo, of Pasiega, and of Altamira were visited by the writer,
under the guidance of Doctor Hugo Obermaier, in August, 1912.

MAGDALENIAN ENGRAVINGS

403

of early Aurignacian parietal art. The most abundant subjects
are horses and deer, which entirely replace the reindeer drawings
so abundant in central France, outlines of the stag and of the
doe being very numerous; on the other hand, the bison and the
ox are rarely drawn. Belonging to the category of most primi-

'/'*![

tive painting are the simple
outlines in black of a horse and
of a mammoth, the two limbs
of one side being represented as
inverted triangles, terminating
in a sharp point, like the draw-
ings of children. Of more re-
cent style are the rather crude
polychrome bisons, numerous
hands outlined in red, and a
vast number of tectiform signs
and symbols which represent
inferior work of the middle
Magdalenian period.

On the other side of the
same mountain is the grotto of
Pasiega, discovered in 191 2 by
Doctor Hugo Obermaier. This
small grotto, about 500 feet
above the river, receives its
name as a retreat of the shepherds. In the floor is a very narrow
opening through which one rapidly descends by means of a tube
of limestone barely large enough to admit the passage of the
body. The interior is very labyrinthine. After passing through
the Galerie des Animaux and the Galerie des Inscriptions, one
reaches, after a most difficult detour, the terminal chamber,
which Obermaier has called the Salle du Trone, the throne-
room; here there is a natural seat of limestone, with supports
at the sides for the arms, and one can still see the discolora-
tion of the rock by the soiled hands of the magicians or of the
artists. In this salle there are a few drawings and engravings

Fig. 205. Carefully engraved half-figure
of a bison, from the cavern of Marsoulas;
an example of the engraver's work pre-
ceding the application of color. After
Breuil. One-eighth actual size.

404

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

on the walls, and a few pieces of flint have been discovered. In
no other cavern, perhaps, is there a greater sense of mystery
as to the influence, whether religious, magical, or artistic, which
impelled men to seek out and enter these dangerous passages,
the slippery rocks illumined at best by a very imperfect light,
leading to the deep and dangerous recesses below, where a mis-
step would be fatal. The impulse, whatever it may have been,
was doubtless very strong, and in this, as in other caverns,

x\

v- \ r- ■' '• "

Fig. 206. Herd of horses engraved on a small slab of stone, found in the grotto of Chaf-
faud, Vienne, France. After Cartailhac. This impressionistic grouping and perspec-
tive is very exceptional in Palaeolithic design. About nine-tenths actual size.

almost every surface favorably prepared by the processes of
nature has received a drawing. No industrial flints have been
found at the entrance to this cavern, but some have been traced
into the interior. The art is considered partly of late Aurigna-
cian, perhaps of Solutrean, and certainly in part of early Mag-
dalenian times ; in general it is much more recent than that of
Castillo. It consists both of engravings and painted outlines,
with proportions usually excellent and sometimes admirable.
The paintings of deer are in yellow ochre, of the chamois in
red. There are altogether 226 paintings and 36 engravings, in
which are represented 50 roe-deer, 51 horses, 47 tectiforms, 16

MAGDALENIAN ENGRAVINGS

405

Bos, 15 bison, 12 stags, 9 ibexes, 1 chamois, and 16 other forms,
distributed in all parts of the cave. The outlines are in solid
red color or in stripes of red or black, or there is a series of spots ;
the subjects are chiefly the stag, the doe, the wild cattle (which
are rather common), the bison (which are less common), the
ibex, and the chamois. Among the numerous representations
of the horse there are two small engravings of a type with erect
mane, both the feet and the hair being indicated with great
care, the limbs well designed and of excellent proportions, clearly
in early Magdalenian style. Of the utmost interest is the dis-
covery here of two horses drawn with rounded forehead and
drooping mane, the only instance in which the drooping mane

$0i

^ fty~

Fig. 207. Impressionistic design of a herd of reindeer engraved on the radius of an
eagle nearly eight inches in length, found in the upper Magdalenian layers of the
Grotte de la Mairie. After Capitan and Breuil.

of the modern type of horse (Equus caballus) has been observed
in the cavern drawings.

In the advanced development of middle or high Magdalenian
art, parietal engraving with finely pointed flint implements pre-
sents a nearer approach to the truth both of proportion and of
detail than do the earlier stages. In this stage the engravings
seem to consist chiefly of independent animal figures and to
furnish a prelude to the application of color. A simple but
striking example of approaching perfection of technique is seen in
the bison (Fig. 205) engraved in the cavern of Marsoulas, where
the profile is outlined and great shaggy masses of hair beneath
the neck are admirably indicated. In these drawings the com-
plicated details of the feet, with their characteristic tufts of hair,
and of the head show far more careful observation. In the

406

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

great series of bison at Font-de-Gaume the entire animal is
sketched in with these finely engraved lines, as brought out
through the wonderfully close observation and studies of Breuil.
This is quite similar to the practice of the modern artist who
sketches his figure in crayon or charcoal before applying the
color.

There are two quite different styles in this engraving, one
seen in the deep incised lines of the reindeer head in the cavern

Fig. 208. Stag and salmon engraved on an antler, from Lorthet, Hautes-
Pyrenees. After Piette. This design is believed to represent a herd of
stag crossing a stream, one of the very rare Palaeolithic attempts at
composition.

of Tuc d'Audoubert (Fig. 232), a complete design in itself, an-
other seen in the deep incisions in the limestone outlining the
horses and the bison as observed in the cavern of Niaux
(Fig. 174). Here the engraved line is followed by the appli-
cation of a black painted line, the effect being to bring out the
body in the surrounding rock so as to give the silhouette a
high relief.

In the drawings in the large on these curved wall surfaces,
only part of which could be seen by the eye at one time, the
difficulties of maintaining the proportions were extreme, and
one is ever impressed by the boldness and confidence with which
the long sweeping strokes of the flint were made, for one rarely
if ever sees any evidences of corrected outline. Only a lifelong

MAGDALENIAN ENGRAVINGS 407

observer of the fine points which distinguish the different pre-
historic breeds of the horse could appreciate the extraordinary
skill with which the spirited, aristocratic lines of the Celtic are
executed, on the one hand, and, on the other, the plebeian and
heavy outlines of the steppe horse. In the best examples of
Magdalenian engraving, both parietal and on bone or ivory, one
can almost immediately detect the specific type of horse which
the artist had before him or in mind, also the season of the year,

Fig. 209. Outlines of a lioness and a small group of horses of the Celtic or Arab type,

a delicate wall engraving in the Diverticule final of the cavern of Font-

de-Gaume. After Breuil.

as indicated by the representation of a summer or winter coat
of hair.

The realism of most of the parietal art passes into the im-
pressionism of the excessively fine engravings on bone or reindeer
horn, executed with a few strokes, of a herd of horses or of rein-
deer (Fig. 207), or where a herd of deer is seen (Fig. 208) cross-
ing a stream full of fishes, as in the well-known engravings on
reindeer horn found in the grotto of Lorthet, in the Pyrenees.
This is one of the very rare instances in Palaeolithic art, either
engraving or painting, which shows a sense of composition or the
treatment of a subject or incident involving more than one figure.
Others are the herd of parsing reindeer found engraved on a bit
of schist in the grotto of Laugerie Basse, the lion facing a group
of horses engraved on a stalagmite at Font-de-Gaume, and the
procession of mammoths engraved upon a procession cf bison in
the same cavern.

408

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

Beginnings of Painting

The beginnings of painting in Aurignacian times, consisting
of simple contours and crude outlines in red or black, with little
or no attempt at shading, pass in early Magdalenian time24 into

a long phase of mono-
chromes, either in black
or red, in which the tech-
nique pursues a number
of variations, from simple
linear treatment, contin-
uous or dotted, to half
tints or full tints, grad-
ually encroaching on the
sides of the body from
the linear contour. Of
this order are the figures
in flat tints and shading,
resembling those of the Chinese, without modelling; also the
figures entirely covered with dots, such as are seen at Marsoulas,

Fig. 210. Early painting. A small horse of the
Celtic or Arab type, with painted outline and
body colored in black, from a wall of the cavern
of Castillo, Spain. After Breuil.

-

FlG. 21 r. Early painting Galloping horse of the Celtic or of the steppe type painted
in black and white, from a wall of the cavern of Font-de-Gaume. After Breuil.

Font-de-Gaume, and Altamira. The tints, as in the drawing of
the galloping steppe horse, pass inward from the black outline

MAGDALENIAN PAINTING

409

to enhance the effect of roundness or relief. In the splendid
series of paintings in the cavern of Niaux there is little more than
the black outline of the body, but the covering of the sides with
lines, indicating the hair, lends itself to the rounded presentation
of form. A somewhat similar effect is sought in the lines of the
woolly rhinoceros painted in red in the cavern of Font-de-Gaume,
which Breuil attributes to the Aurignacian stage, but which also
suggests the early Magdalenian.

Fig. 212. Opening (cross) of the cavern of Niaux, in the Pyrenees, near Tarascon.

Drawings in Various Caverns of the Early and
Middle Magdalenian

The grandest cavern thus far discovered in France is that of
Niaux (1906), which from a small opening on the side of a lime-
stone mountain and 300 feet above the River Vic de Sos extends
almost horizontally 4,200 feet into the heart of the mountain.25
Not far from Tarascon on the Ariege it lay near one of the most
accessible routes between France and Spain. Passing through
the long gallery beyond the borders of the subterranean lake
which bars the entrance, at a distance of half a mile we reach a

410

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

great chamber where the overhanging walls of limestone have
been finely polished by the sands and gravels transported by
the subglacial streams; on these broad, slightly concave panels
of a very light ochre color are drawings of a large number of
bison and of horses, as fresh and brilliant as if they were the
work of yesterday ; the outlines drawn with black oxide of man-
ganese and grease on the smooth stone resemble coarse lithog-
raphy. The animals are drawn in splendid, bold contours, with
no cross-hatching, but with solid masses of bright color here and
there ; the bison, as the most admired animal of the chase, is

Fig. 213. Engraved and painted horse, apparently of the Celtic type and
with heavy winter coat, from the cavern of Niaux. There is a mark behind
the right shoulder which has been interpreted as the sign of an arrow or
spear head. After Cartailhac and Breuil. (Compare Fig. 174.)

drawn majestically with a superb crest, the muzzle most per-
fectly outlined, the horns indicated by single lines only, the eyes
with the defiant expression highly distinctive of the animal
when wounded or enraged. Here for the first time are re-
vealed the early Magdalenian methods of hunting the bison, for
upon their flanks are clearly traced one or more arrow or spear
heads with the shafts still attached ; the most positive proof of
the use of the arrow is the apparent termination of the wooden
shaft in the feathers which are rudely represented in three of
the drawings. There are also many silhouettes of horses which
strongly resemble the pure Asiatic steppe type now living in
the desert of Gobi, the Przewalski horse, with erect mane and
with no drooping forelock ; in contrast to the bison, the eyes are
rather dull and stupid in expression. There are also drawings

THE ART OF THE CAVERNS

411

of other types of horses, a very fine ibex, a chamois, a few out-
lines of wild cattle, and a very fine one of the royal stag ; we find
no reindeer or mammoth represented. In some of the narrower
passages the rock has been beautifully sculptured by water, and

Fig. 214. Professor Emile Cartailhac at the entrance of the cavern of Le Portel, Ariege.
Photograph by H. F. Osborn.

the artists have been quick to take advantage of any natural
lines to add a bit of color here or there and thus bring out the
outline of a bison.

Presenting the widest possible contrast to Niaux is the cavern
of Le Portel, west of Tarascon, with its contracted entrance and
a very rapidly descending passage hardly broad enough to admit
the body. This narrow and tortuous cave terminates in an ex-

412

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

tremely small passage, so narrow as barely to admit the athletic
and determined artist explorer, the Abbe Breuil. Here, as in
Font-de-Gaume and other caverns, is one of the greatest myster-
ies of the cave art, namely, that these terminal and dangerous
diverticules finals were wrought with some of the most careful
and artistic designs. Le Portel, like Niaux, reveals a single style,
but one altogether different. Very numerous bison are drawn in
outline both in red and black ; the sides of the body are often

Fig. 215. Finely engraved outlines of the Celtic horse and of the reindeer, in the Grotte
de la Maine, near Teyjat, Dordogne. After Capitan and Breuil.

dotted with red or hatched in close parallel lines. On a long
horizontal panel are seen many bison in red, and one observes
here a finery drawn pair of bison feet in the best Magdalenian
style. The horse as represented here is of a quite different type
with thin upper tail and a tail-tuft resembling that of the wild
ass, so that one is almost tempted to believe that the kiang is
intended, but the ears are too short ; it has a high rump and a
high, splendidly arched neck, like that of the stallion, and the eye
is better drawn ; the body is covered with long vertical or oblique
lines which might be mistaken for stripes, but this hatching is a
matter of technique only. Again, the mane is erect, and there is
no forelock ; in fact, none of these Magdalenian artists has rep-
resented the horse with the forelock, indicating that this char-

THE ART OF THE CAVERNS

413

acter of the modern horse was unknown in western Europe and
probably came in during Neolithic times.

Of an entirely different type are the beautifully engraved
miniature figures of animals discovered in 1903 in the Grotte de

Fig. 216. Reindeer, cave-bear, and two horses of the large-headed forest type with

arched forehead, engraved on a panel about twenty inches in length in the

Grotte de la Mairie. After Capitan and Breuil.

la Mairie.26 The outlines, from 18 to 20 inches in length, are
sharply engraved on the limestone stalagmites ; they are all in
the middle Magdalenian style and include the stag, reindeer,

Fig. 217. Wild cattle, bull and cow (Bos primigenius) , engraved in the Grotte de la
Mairie, each figure being about twenty inches in length. After Capitan and Breuil.

bison, cave-bear, lion, wild cattle, and two very distinct types
of horses: one of these types is large-headed with an arched
forehead; this is probably the forest type and perhaps represents

414 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

the horse most abundant at the Solutre encampment (see p. 288) ;
the other horse is small-headed, with a perfectly flat, straight
forehead, corresponding with the Arab or Celtic pony type.

Drawings and Paintings of the End of the
Middle Magdalenian

The fourth and final developmental phase of painting flowers
out toward the end of middle Magdalenian times in the grand
period of polychromes. These are first etched with underlying

Fig. 218. Outline of one of the bison in the Galerie des Fresques at Font-
de-Gaume, showing the preliminary etching or engraving preparatory
to the polychrome fresco painting. After Breuil.

lines engraved with flint, the surface of the limestone having
been previously prepared by the thinning or scraping of the
borders (r adage) to heighten the relief of the drawing; then a
very strong contour is laid down in black, and this may be fol-
lowed by a further contour line in red (the use of black and red
is very ancient) ; an ochreous brown color is mixed in, conform-
ing well with what we know to be the tints of the hairy portions
of the bison. Thus gradually a complete polychrome fresco art
develops. The final stage of this art follows, in which the filling
out of various tones of color requires the use of black, brown, red,
and yellowish shades. The underlying or preliminary engraving
now begins to recede, being retained only for the tracing in of
the final details of the hair, the eyes, the horns, and the hoofs.

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POLYCHROME PAINTING

415

The early stages of this art are seen in the cavern of Marsoulas.
and its height is reached in the mural frescos of Font-de-Gaume
and in the ceiling of Altamira, the latter still in a perfect and
brilliant state of preservation.

To prepare the colors, ochre and oxide of manganese were
ground down to a fine powder in stone mortars; raw pigment

Fig. 219. Entrance on the right to the grotto leading to the great cavern of Font-de-
Gaume on the Beune. Photograph by N. C. Nelson.

was carried in ornamented cases made from the lower-limb bones
of the reindeer, and such tubes still containing the ochre have
been found in the Magdalenian hearths; the mingling of the
finely ground powder with the animal oils or fats that were used
was probably done on the flat side of the shoulder-blade of the
reindeer or on some other palette. The pigment was quite per-
manent, and in the darkness of the Altamira grotto it has been
so perfectly preserved that the colors are still as brilliant as if
they had been applied yesterday.

The art of the grotto of Marsoulas, in the Pyrenees, is both

416

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

of an earlier and of a later period ; the engraved lines, as of
the head and front of a bison, are beautifully done in advanced
Magdalenian style, deep incisions representing the larger out-
lines and finer incisions representing the hair ; here the outlines
are also traced in color, and there are several masks or grotesques
of the human face ; these last are treated with a total disregard
of the truth which characterizes the animal work. Among the
few bison represented here, some are covered with dots or
splashes of color, others show the painted outline which begins

Rubicon
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Grande Galerie
des Fresques

PLAN de la GROTTE

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Fig.

220. Map of the cavern of Font-de-Gaume, showing the 'Rubicon,' the Grande
Galerie des Fresques, in which the chief polychrome paintings are found, and
the Diverticule final. After Capitan.

to extend over the surface with gradations of tint, anticipating
the color effects attained in the finished paintings of Altamira and
of Font-de-Gaume. All the details of the early technique are
found here : the artist outlines the form with an engraved line ;
he traces in black color the contours of the head and of the body;
he begins to apply masses of red over the figure. This beginning
of polychrome art at Marsoulas is a step toward coloring the en-
tire surface with red ochre and black, as in the finished paintings
of a later period.

The grand cavern of Font-de-Gaume,27 on the Beune, not far
from Les Eyzies, contains the most complete record of Upper
Palaeolithic art, especially from the close of Aurignacian to the

Fig. 221. Narrow passage in the cavern of Font-de-Gaume, known as the 'Rubicon.'

On the left wall at this point are two painted bison, and on both walls are

marks left by the claws of the cave-bear. After Lassalle.

POLYCHROME PAINTING

419

close of Magdalenian times. There are crude Aurignacian
drawings, simple outlines painted in black, outlines supplemented
by the indication of hair (examples of the early stages in the de-
velopment of polychrome work as well as of the very highest
stages), compositions like the lion and the group of horses, and
the murals in the Galerie des Fresques, which show a general com-
position in the processions of animals, as well as some special
compositions such as the reindeer and bison facing each other.
The life depicted is largely that of the tundras, mammoths,
rhinoceroses, and reindeer, but it also includes the steppe or
Celtic type of horse, represented galloping (Fig. 211), and a

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Fig.

222. Plan of a portion of the left wall decoration in the Galerie des Fresques at
Font-de-Gaume, showing reindeer and the procession of bison. After Breuil.

small group of horses of the Arab or Celtic type. Of the meadow
fauna the bison is generally represented in preference to the
wild ox or urus.

Throughout the cavern the favorable surfaces of the walls
are crowded with engravings, and in the Galerie des Fresques,
beyond the narrow passage known as the ' Rubicon' (Fig. 221),
we see altogether the finest examples of Upper Palaeolithic art.
On each side of this gallery is a peculiarly advantageous mural
surface, broad, relatively smooth, and gently concave (PL VII),
probably the best which any cavern afforded, and here we ob-
serve great processions of mammals superposed upon each other,
like the records of a palimpsest, as if such a surface was so rare
that it was visited again and again. The most imposing series
is that of the bison, done in the finest polychrome style, mostly

420

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

headed in one direction. The reindeer form another series and
in some instances face each other, although mainly arranged in
a long procession facing to the left. This superposition of draw-
ing upon drawing ends with the latest superposition in finely
incised lines of a great procession of mammoths upon that of
the polychrome bisons. It is somewhat difficult to reconcile a
religious or votive interpretation with the multiplication of these

Fig. 223. Another portion of the left wall decoration of the Galerie des Fresques, show-
ing the preliminary engraving (above), and the painting (below) of the great proces-
sion of mammoths, superposed upon drawings of the bison, reindeer, and horse. This
section is about fourteen feet in length. After Breuil.

drawings upon each other. Moreover, it appears to be incon-
sistent with the reverent spirit which pervades the work in this
and in all other caverns, for what impresses one most is the ab-
sence of trivial work or meaningless drawings.

It seems as if at every stage in their artistic development
these people were intensely serious about their work, each draw-
ing being executed with the utmost possible care, according to
the degree of artistic development and appreciation.

In the great gallery of frescos we find not less than eighty

t

POLYCHROME PAINTING

421

figures, in some cases partly covered by a fine sheen of stalag-
mitic limestone ; these include 49 bison, 4 reindeer, 4 horses, and
15 mammoths. The bison polychromes have suffered somewhat
in color and are far less brilliant than those at Altamira. In
the polychromes the color is applied either in long lines of red
or black surrounding the contours of the animal or in flat tints
placed side by side, or again the two colors are mingled and give

PIg. 224. Detail of the engraving of the central group of figures on the left wall decora-
tion of the Galerie des Fresques (see Fig. 223), showing the etching of a mammoth
superposed upon that of a bison, superposed in turn upon those of a reindeer and of
a wild boar. These figures are on different scales, and in the present faded condition
of the frescoes are difficult to detect. After Breuil.

intermediate tints with striking effect. On one of the finest of
these bison is the underlying drawing of a reindeer, a wild boar,
and the superposition of an excellent engraving of a mammoth,
which is represented on an altogether different scale, so that it
falls well within the body lines of the bison (Fig. 224). In each
of these mammoths the grotesque but truthful contour is pre-
served in the drapery of hair which almost completely envelops
the limbs; the emphasizing of the sudden depression of the
dorsal line behind the head is everywhere the same and un-
doubtedly conforms very closely to nature.

422

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

After passing the Galerie des Fresques we penetrate to the
final recess called the Diver ticule final, through excessively nar-

FlG. 225. Entrance to the cavern of Altamira, showing the proximity of the roof of
the cavern to the present surface of the earth. Photograph by N. C. Nelson.

row tubular openings barely admitting the body, and we are
again overcome with the mystery as to what impulse carried this
art into the dark, deep portions of the caverns. If it were due

POLYCHROME PAINTING

423

to a feeling partly religious which regarded the caverns with
special awe, why do we find equally skilful and conscientious
work on all the mobile utensils of daily life and of the chase,
apart from the caverns ? The superposition of one drawing upon
another, which is especially characteristic of this cavern, does not
seem to strengthen the religious interpretation.

It would appear that the love of art for art's sake, akin in a
very rudimentary form to that which inspired the early Greeks,
together with the fine spaces which these caverns alone afforded
for larger representations, may be an alternative explanation.

Fig. 226. Plan showing the grouping of bison, horses, red deer, and wild boar, in the
polychrome paintings on the ceiling of Altamira. After Breuil.

There is no evidence that numbers of people entered these cav-
erns. If this had been the case there would be many more ex-
amples of inartistic work upon the walls. It is possible that the
Cro-Magnon artists constituted a recognized class especially
gifted by nature, quite distinct from the magician class or the
artisan class. The dark recesses of the caverns opening back
of the grottos may have been held in awe as mysterious abodes.
In line with this theory is the suggestion that the artists may
have been invited into the caverns by the priests or medicine-
men to decorate the walls with all the animals of the chase.

The polychromes of the ceiling of Altamira in northern Spain,
which rank in the crude art of Palaeolithic times much as the
ceiling of the Sistine Chapel does in modern art, are somewhat

424

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

more conventional in technique than those of Font-de-Gaume, but
they are manifestly the work of the same school, and prove that
the technique of art spread like that of engraving, of sculpture,
and of the preparation of flint and bone implements all over
southwestern Europe. One could not have more striking proof
of the unity of race, of a community of life, and of an inter-

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Fig. 227. The ceiling of Altamira, showing the round projecting bosses of limestone on
which the recumbent figures of the bison are painted. After Lassalle.

change of ideas among these nomadic people than the close re-
semblance which is observed in the art of Altamira, Spain, and
that of Font-de-Gaume, 290 miles distant, in Dordogne.

Very picturesque is the account of the discovery of this
wonderful ceiling, made not by the Spanish archaeologist Sautuola
himself, but by his little daughter, who, while he was searching
for flints on the floor of the cavern, was the first to perceive the
paintings on the ceiling and to insist upon his raising his lamp
aloft. This was in 1879, l°ng before the discovery of parietal
art in France. The ceiling is broad and low, within easy reach
of the hand, and the oval bosses of limestone (Fig. 227), from

POLYCHROME PAINTING

425

4 to 5 feet in length and from 3 to 4 in width, led to the develop-
ment here of one of the most striking characteristics of all Palae-
olithic art, namely, the artist's adaptation of the subject to his
medium and to the character of the surface upon which he was
working. It seems to show a high order of creative genius that
each of these projecting bosses was chosen for the representation
of a bison lying down, with the limbs drawn up in different posi-
tions beneath the body (Fig. 228) and very carefully designed,

Fig. 228. Female bison lying down with the limbs drawn beneath the body, so that

only the horns and tail project beyond the convex surface of the limestone

boss on the ceiling of Altamira. After Breuil.

and with the tail or the horns alone projecting beyond the con-
vex surface to the surrounding plane surface. This is the only
instance known where the bison are represented as lying down,
in most lifelike attitudes, showing the soles of the hoof, observed
with the greatest care and represented by a few strong and sig-
nificant lines. Thus while the Altamira coloring inclines to con-
ventionality, the pose of these animals indicates the greatest
freedom of style and mastery of perspective anywhere observed.
In this wonderful group there is also a bison bellowing, with his
back arched and his limbs drawn under him as if to expel the
air. One striking feature in all these paintings is the vivid rep-

426

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

resentation of the eye, which in every case is given a fierce and
defiant character, so distinctive of the bison bull when enraged.
We also observe a wild boar in a running attitude and several
spirited representations of the horse and of the female deer.
The cavern of Altamira, besides this chef-d'oeuvre, contains work
of a very advanced character, as indicated in the imposing en-

Fig. 229. The royal stag (Cervus elaphus) engraved on the ceiling of the cavern

of Altamira. About twenty-six inches in length. After Breuil.

One-eighth actual size.

graving of the royal stag (Fig. 229), which is altogether the finest
representation of this animal which has thus far been discovered
in any cavern.

Altamira, like Font-de-Gaume, presents many phases of the
development of art in Magdalenian times. There is a Solutrean
layer in the foyer of this great cavern, but Breuil is not inclined
to attribute any of the art to this period. The first entrance of
Altamira by the Cro-Magnon artists is dated by the discovery
of engravings on bone of the female red deer, which are identical

MAGDALENIAN SCULPTURE

427

with those on the walls and which belong to very ancient Magda-
lenian times, the period at which the caverns of Castillo and La
Pasiega were also entered.28

Sculpture

Animal sculpture in the round, which is indicated by the
few statuettes found with the burial at Briinn, Moravia, and by

\>-^

Fig. 230. Statuette of a mammoth in reindeer horn from the Abri de Plantade at Bruni-
quel. After Piette. "A statuette presenting the general form of the mammoth with
some fantastic features. It formed part of a pendant of which the shank, terminating
with a perforation, has been broken. The tusks were laid against this shank and
strengthened it. The incisions bordered by notches suggest the nostrils of some im-
aginary monster. The trunk seems to grow out of the neck, not the head. The tail
having been broken off in Palaeolithic times, the owner made a hole in the back and
inserted one there. The material was too thin to admit of representing the proper
thickness of the animal. It was made to be viewed from the side."

the ivory mammoth statuette found at Pfedmost, continued into
early Magdalenian times and certainly constitutes one of the
most distinctive features of the art of that period, because in
the later Magdalenian it took a different trend in the direction of
decorative sculpture. Only two fine examples of early Mag-
dalenian animal sculpture have been found, but these are of
such a remarkable character as to indicate that modelling in
the round was widely pursued at this time. These are the bisons
discovered in 191 2 in the cavern of Tuc d'Audoubert near Mon-

428

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

tesquieu, in the Pyrenees, and the fine bas-reliefs of horses at the
shelter of Cap-Blanc, on the Beime, in Dordogne.

In company with Professor Cartailhac the writer had the
good fortune to enter the cavern of Tuc d'Audoubert a few days
after its discovery by the Comte de Begouen and his sons ; it
is still in the making, for out from the entrance flows a stream of

Fig. 231. Entrance to the cavern of Tuc d'Audoubert, near Montesquieu- Avantes in
the Pyrenees. This is one of the rare instances in which the stream that formed the
cavern is still flowing from the entrance. Photograph by N. C. Nelson.

water large enough to float a small boat, by which the first of
a series of superbly crystallized galleries is reached. After pass-
ing through a labyrinth of passageways and chambers a favorable
surface was found where the Begouen party showed us a whole
wall covered with low-engraving reliefs, very simply done, fine
in execution, with sure and firm outlines of the bison, the favorite
subject as in all other caverns ; horses fairly well executed and
of the same steppe type as those in the near-by cavern of

MAGDALENIAN SCULPTURE 429

Niaux ; one superbly engraved contour of the reindeer, with its
long, curved horns ; the head of a stag with its horns still in
the velvet ; and a mammoth. All this work is engraved ; there
are no drawn outlines, but here and there are splashes of red

Fig. 232. Head of a reindeer deeply incised or engraved in the limestone wall of the
cavern of Tuc d'Audoubert. After Begouen.

and black color. Shortly afterward a great discovery was made
in this cavern ; it is described as follows by the Comte de Be-
gouen :* " To-day I am happy to give you excellent news from
the cavern Tuc d'Audoubert. As you were the first to visit

* Letter of October 23, 191 2.

430

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

this cavern, you will also be the first to learn that in an upper
gallery, very difficult of access, at the summit of a very narrow
ascending passage, and after having been obliged to break a
number of stalactites which completely closed the entrance, my
son and myself have found two superb statuettes in clay, about
60 cm. in length, absolutely unbroken, and representing bison.

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Tuc d'Audoubert. The length of each of these models is about two feet.

After Begouen.

Cartailhac and Breuil, who have come to see them, were filled
with enthusiasm. The ground of these chambers was covered
with imprints of the claws of the bear, skeletons of which were
buried here and there. The Magdalenians have passed through
this ossuary and have drawn out all the canine teeth to make
ornaments of them. Their steps left their fine impressions on
the humid and soft clay, and we still see the outlines of several
bare human feet. They had also lost several flakes of flint and
the tooth of an ox pierced at the neck ; we have collected them,

:

M

AGDALENIAN SCULPTURE

431

and it seems as if they had only dropped yesterday ; the Mag-
dalenians also left an incomplete model of a bison and some
lumps of kneaded clay which still carry the impression of their
ringers. We produce the proof that in this period all branches
of art were cultivated." This model of the male and female
bison in clay has been described by Cartailhac as of perfect
workmanship and of ideal art.

The procession of six horses cut in limestone under the shel-
tering cliff of Cap-Blanc is by far the most imposing work of

Fig. 234. One of a series of horses of the high-bred Celtic type, sculptured in high

relief on the wall of the cliff shelter known as Cap-Blanc. The actual length of

each of these sculptures is about seven feet. After Lalanne and Breuil.

Magdalenian art that has been discovered. The sculptures are
in high relief and of large size and are in excellent proportion ;
they appear to represent the high-bred type of desert or Celtic
horse, related to the Arabian, so far as we can judge from the
long, straight face, the slender nose, the small nostrils, and the
massive angle of the lower jaw ; the ears are rather long and
pointed, and the tail is represented as thin and without hair;
they were found partly buried by layers containing implements
of middle Magdalenian industry, and they are therefore assigned
to an early Magdalenian date in which animal sculpture in the
round reached its climax.

432

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

From the early to the middle Magdalenian period animal sculp-
ture in bone, horn, and ivory was followed as decorative art in
a bold and highly naturalistic manner. Adaptation of the animal

Fig. 235. Head of a horse sculptured on a reindeer antler, from the Magdalenian layer of
Mas d'Azil on the right bank of the Arize. After Piette. Actual size.

figure to the surface and to the material employed is nowhere
shown in a more remarkable way than in the batons, the dart-
throwers, and the poniards. Of all the work of the Upper
Palaeolithic, these decorative heads and bodies are, perhaps, the

Fig. 236. Statuette carved on a fragment of mammoth tusk, representing a horse of
Celtic type with mane erect, from the grotto of Les Espelugues, Lourdes.
After Piette. About one and one-third actual size.

MAGDALENIAN SCULPTURE

433

most highly artistic creations in the modern sense. The famous
horse found in the late Magdalenian levels of Mas d'Azil (Fig.
235) and the small horses from the grotto of Espelugues, of the
middle Magdalenian, are full of movement and life and show
such certainty and breadth of treatment that they must be re-
garded as the masterpieces of Upper Palaeolithic glyptic art.
The ibex carved on the dart-thrower from the grotto of Mas
d'Azil (Fig. 178) indicates observation and a striking power of

Fig. 237. Head of a woman with head-dress sculptured in ivory, from the Magdalenian
levels of Brassempouy. After Piette. One and one-fifth actual size.

expression; while all the details are noted, the treatment is
very broad,

The continuation of animal sculpture in the round is seen in
the well-known horse statuette from the grotto of Lourdes ; the
partly decorative striping is a step in the direction of conventional
treatment. The sculptured reindeer discovered by Begouen in
the grotto of Enlene is treated in a somewhat similar style.

Small human figurines again appear in the form of statuettes
in bone or ivory, representing the renaissance of the spirit of
human sculpture. Some of this work is apparently in search of
beauty and with altogether different motives from the repellent
feminine statuettes of middle and late Aurignacian times, for

434 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

the subjects are slender and the limbs are modelled with relative
skill. As in the earlier works, there is a partial failure to portray
the features, which is in striking contrast to the lifelike treat-
ment of animal heads. Very few examples of this work have
been found, and most of them have been broken. To this period
belong the Venus statuette of Laugerie Basse and the head of a
girl carved in ivory found at Brassempouy (Fig. 237) with the
features fairly suggested and an elaborate head-dress.

Geographic Distribution of the Magdalenian Culture

In Magdalenian times the Cro-Magnon race undoubtedly
reached its highest development and its widest geographic dis-
tribution, but it would be a mistake to infer that the boundaries
of the Magdalenian culture also mark the extreme migration
points of this nomadic people, because the industries and inven-
tions may well have spread far beyond the areas actually inhabited
by the race itself.

Absence of Magdalenian influence around the northerly
coasts of the Mediterranean is certainly one of the most surpris-
ing facts. Breuil has suggested that Italy remained in an Aurig-
nacian stage of development throughout Magdalenian times and
indicates that there is much evidence that Magdalenian culture
never penetrated into this peninsula, for in Italy the Aurignacian
industrial stage is succeeded by traces of the Azilian. This geo-
graphic gap, however, may be filled at any time by a fresh dis-
covery. In Spain, also, the Magdalenian culture is known only
in the Cantabrian Mountains, but never farther south, one of
the earliest sites found in this region being the grotto of Pena la
Miel, visited by Lartet in 1865, and one of the most famous the
cavern of Altamira, discovered by Sautuola in 1875 ; to the north-
east is the station of Banyolas. So far the eastern provinces of
Spain have not yielded any implements of engraved or sculptured
bone.

In contrast to this failure to reach southward, the Magdalenian
culture is widely extended through France, Belgium, England,

EXTENT OF THE MAGDALENIAN CULTURE

435

Germany, Switzerland, Austria, and as far east as Russia. It
would appear either that the men of Magdalenian times wan-
dered far and wide or that there was an extensive system of
barter, because the discovery of shells brought for personal
adornment from the Mediterranean seashores to various Mag-

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6~ Trou de Frontat

3- Engis

Trou des Nutons

ArTroti Mag r tie

Trou de Praule

STATIONS OF THE DANUBE

fiG. 238. Geographic distribution of the principal Magdalenian industrial stations in

western Europe.

dalenian sites in France and in central Europe seems to indicate
a wide-spread intercourse among these nomadic hunters and a
system of trade reaching from the coasts of the Mediterranean
and the Atlantic to the valley of the Neckar in Germany and
along the Danube in Lower Austria. Another proof of this inter-
course is the wide distribution not only of similar forms of im-
plements but of very similar decorations ; as an instance, Breuil
notes the likeness of schematic engravings on reindeer horn in

436 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

the two primitive Magdalenian layers of Placard, Charente, to
those found in the Polish cavern of Maszycka, near Ojcow, and
to others in the corresponding layers of Castillo, near Santander,
of Solutre on the Saone, and of various sites in Dordogne. A
very distinctive geometric decoration on bone is that of broken
zigzag lines with little intercalated transverse lines, which we
notice at Altamira, in northern Spain, and which also occurs here
and there in Dordogne and in Charente and extends to the grottos
of d'Arlay in the Jura. Another style of ornament, with deep
pectinate and punctuate lines, found in the very ancient Mag-
dalenian of Placard, also occurs in the most ancient layers of
Kesslerloch, Switzerland. Spiral ornaments like those on the
bone weapons of Dordogne, of Arudy, and of Lourdes are found
at Hornos de la Pena, in the Cantabrian Mountains. The spread
of analogous decoration is still more striking when we find it
occurring in the details of sculpture or in a certain type of dart-
thrower (propulseur), which extended from the Pyrenees east-
ward to the Lake of Constance. Inventions like that of the
harpoon and fashions like those of the decorative motifs were
carried from point to point.

This influence does not lead to identity. Some of the phases
of art and of decoration are confined to certain localities; for
example, the engravings of deer on the bone shoulder-blades in
the caverns near Santander, Spain, are not duplicated in France ;
also there are numerous local styles witnessed in the forms and
decorations of the javelin, the lance, and the harpoon ; these vari-
ations, however, do not conceal the element of community of
culture and of similar fluctuations of industry and art between
widely distant stations.

Many Magdalenian stations were crowded around the shel-
tered cliffs of Dordogne (Fig. 238). Besides these, we observe
the Magdalenian sites of Champs, Ressaulier, and the grotto of
Combo-Negro in Correze ; south of Dordogne and Correze are
other stations along the Garonne and the Adour. Some of the
finest examples of Magdalenian art have come from Bruniquel,
on the Aveyron. near the boundary between Tarn-et- Garonne

EXTENT OF THE MAGDALENIAN CULTURE 437

and Tarn, where no less than four important sites have been
excavated.

The culture map of France in Magdalenian times is covered
from north to south with these ancient camp sites, either clus-
tered along the river borders, where erosion has created shelters,
or in the great outcrops of limestone along the northern slopes of

Fig. 239. Necklace of marine shells, from the cave of Cro-Magnon^ mostly periwinkles,
some related to species now living in the North Sea, Purpura, Turitella, and Fusus.
After E. Lartet. The Cro-Magnon grotto dwellers used shells belonging to existing
species, while in the deposits at La Madeleine and Laugerie Basse fossil shells are found.
The use of seashore shells as ornaments in various parts of the interior of Europe indi-
cates that they were brought long distances in trade. The remains of such ornaments
were found with the skeleton of Aurignacian age from Paviland, Wales. Necklaces
were also made of small plates of ivory and the perforated teeth of the cave-bear.
One-third actual size.

the Pyrenees, where the exposure of the limestone has led to the
formation of grottos and caverns, or on the plateaus where game
abounded or flint could be found for the rapidly declining flint
industry. Near the Gulf of Lyons are the stations of Bise,
Tournal, Narbonne, and Crouzade ; extending westward toward
the headwaters of the Ariege are La Vache, Massat, and the great
tunnel station of Mas d'Azil, formed by the River Arize; here
the Magdalenian levels discovered by Piette have yielded some

438 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

of the most notable Magdalenian works of art, including animal
statuettes, bas-reliefs, and engravings with incised contours.

Farther west, on the headwaters of the Garonne, is Gourdan,
where Piette began his remarkable excavations in 187 1 and dis-
covered two of the ancient Magdalenian phases of sculpture ;
then comes the more westerly group of Aurensan, Lor the t, and
Lourdes, the latter a grotto which has yielded one of the finest
examples of the horse sculptured in ivory, and which has since
become famous as the site of a miracle and of modern pilgrimage.
Between the Garonne and the Bay of Biscay lie the stations of
Duruthy and the Grotte du Pape of Brassempouy, the latter
occupied in Magdalenian times, but best known as a centre of
late Aurignacian sculpture of statuettes.

To the northeast, in the very heart of the mountainous region
of Auvergne, is the station of Neschers, where a flow of lava from
Mount Tar tare t descended over the slopes of Mont-Dore and
covered a Mousterian industrial deposit with its mammoth
fauna and then, after a lapse of time, became the site of a Mag-
dalenian industrial camp, so that Boule has been able to deter-
mine the geologic age of the most recent volcanic eruptions in
France, those of the Monts d'Auvergne, as having occurred be-
tween the periods of Mousterian and Magdalenian industry.

In view of the frequent occurrence of Aurignacian and Solu-
trean camps as well as of Neolithic stations in southeastern
France, we are surprised at the extreme rarity there of Magda-
lenian flint implements. However, Capitan has recognized a
Magdalenian station at Solutre, near the headwaters of the Saone,
and not far from this site is the station of Goulaine, which has
yielded an enormous flint scraper or anvil, the largest Upper
Palaeolithic implement ever found ; it is carefully chipped around
the entire curved edge and weighs over 4^ pounds. To the
north of the Dordogne is the celebrated grotto of Placard, in
Charente, where the dawn of the Magdalenian industry has been
discovered, and again directly north of this is the grotto of Chaf-
faud, at Savigne, where the first engraved bone of the 'Rein-
deer Age' was discovered in 1834 ; not far from this is the shelter

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| PALsEOLITHfC STATIONS Q CITIES OF MODERN GERMANY

Fig. 240. Geographic distribution of the Magdalenian and other Palaeolithic stations on
the upper waters of the Rhine and of the Danube. The chief Magdalenian stations are:
Andernach, Bockstein, Buchenloch, Ganscrsfelsen, Hohlefels bei Hiitten, Hohlefeh bei
Schelklingen, Hohlestein, Kartstein, Kastlhdnghohle, Kesslerloch, Martinshohle, Mnn-
zingen, Niedernau, Oberlarg, Ofnet, Propstfels, Schmiechenfels, Schnssenqnelle, Schweizers-
bild, Sirgenstein, Strassberg, Wildhaus, Wildscheuer, and W inter lin gen. After R. R
Schmidt, modified and redrawn.

440 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

of Garenne, near St. Marcel (Indre), which has afforded a fine
figure of a galloping reindeer.

These geographic and artistic records are of intense interest
as carrying the Perigord or Dordogne culture northward. Some-
what to the east, on the headwaters of the Cure, a tributary of
the Yonne, there is an important group including over sixty open
shelters formed in the Jurassic limestone, in which characteristic
Magdalenian bone implements have been found. Of these the
most famous are the Grotte des Fees, and the Grotte du Tri-
lobite, both of which were first entered by the Neanderthals in
Mousterian times and were again sought by the Cro-Magnons
in Magdalenian times. Passing still farther north, the Cro-
Magnons visited the borders of the Somme and sought the his-
toric flint station of St. Acheul, which had been frequented by
races of men for thousands of years previous, back to Pre-
Chellean times.

To the northeast are the stations of Belgium, chiefly made
known through the labors of Dupont, distributed along the val-
leys of the Lesse and of the Meuse and yielding characteristic
Magdalenian flints as well as a number of engravings on bone.
We may be sure that this region was under Cro-Magnon rule and
that their control extended over into Britain, where, it will be
recalled, a Cro-Magnon skeleton was found at Paviland, in
western Wales. Here, again, in Magdalenian times the Cro-
Magnon race was probably wide-spread over southern Britain.
At Bacon's Hole, near Swansea, Wales, there is a wall decoration
consisting of ten red bands, which, according to Breuil and Sollas,
may possibly be of Palaeolithic age. More definite is the Magda-
lenian industry observed at the Cresswell Crags, in Derbyshire ;
while near Torquay, Devonshire, is the famous station of Kent's
Hole, discovered in 1824, in which a bone needle has been found
and several harpoons with double rows of barbs belonging to the
late Magdalenian industry.

In Germany, whereas only three Solutrean stations have
been discovered,29 there are no less than fourteen Magdalenian
stations to attest the wide spread of that culture. Thus the

EXTENT OF THE MAGDALENIAN CULTURE 441

favorite grotto of Sirgenstein, near the centre of the Magda-
lenian stations on the upper waters of the Danube, although
abandoned in Solutrean times, was again entered by man during
the early Magdalenian culture stage. Coincident with the return
of man to this great grotto was the arrival of the banded lem-
ming {My odes torquatus), the herald of the cold tundra wave of
life in the far north. At the very same time man with the banded
lemming arrived at Schweizersbild, near the Lake of Constance ;

Fig. 241. Reindeer engraved around a piece of reindeer antler, from Kesslerloch, Switz-
erland. This is a unique instance of the portrayal of landscape in Palaeolithic
art. After Heim. Slightly more than three-quarters actual size.

at a slightly earlier period, with the dawn of Magdalenian cul-
ture, man entered the sister station of Kesslerloch. It certainly
appears that a cold moist climate accompanying the Buhl ad-
vance influenced all the Cro-Magnon peoples of this region just
north of the Alpine glaciers and compelled them to seek the
grottos and shelters. There are, however, some open stations
in this general region, for example, at Schussenried, Wiirttem-
berg; the Magdalenian culture layer is not found in a grotto, but
lies under a deposit of peat mingled with the remains of the
reindeer, horse, brown bear, and wolf. Again, among the best-

442 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

known sites along the middle Rhine is the open-air station of
Andernach. Demonstrating the eastward distribution of the
art of engraving on ivory and bone is the presence in An-
dernach and in the grotto of Wildscheuer, near Steeten, on
the Lahn, of engravings of this character. Thus far these are
the only German stations in which such engravings have been
found.

Of especial interest also is the open Magdalenian c loess' sta-
tion of Munzingen, on the upper Rhine, because it proves that
the highest layers of the 'upper loess/ corresponding with the
dry or steppe period of climate, were contemporaneous with the
advanced or late Magdalenian industry, also because this final
' upper loess' stage about corresponds with the period when the
last of the arctic tundra mammals began to abandon central
Europe. It was at this critical geologic time that the late Mag-
dalenian culture began to draw to a close. Kesslerloch, Switzer-
land, has yielded a considerable number of engravings on bone,
including one of the finest examples of a browsing reindeer
(Fig. 241), and Schweizersbild also has yielded a considerable
number of rather crude engravings.

Frequented in Magdalenian times was that part of the Swabian
Jura lying between the headwaters of the Neckar and of the
Danube ; along the course of the Danube, from Propstfels, near
Beuron, in the southwest, to Ofnet, in the northeast, extend
the other stations of Hohlefels bei Hiitten, Schmiechenfels, and
Bocksteinhohle.

West of the Danube the industry was carried into the present
region of Bavaria, as indicated by the recent discovery of Kastl-
hang.30 Here, beginning with the early Magdalenian (Gourdanien
injerieur of the French school) and extending to the middle or
high Magdalenian (Gourdanien superieur), we find a complete
series of Magdalenian stations; the middle Magdalenian layer
is of exactly the same type as that found in the Abri Mege of
Dordogne and in the lower levels of the Grotte de la Mairie ;
the same culture stage is again observed in southern Germany
in the stations of Schussenquelle and of Hohlefels, and it extends

EXTENT OF THE MAGDALENIAN CULTURE 443

eastward into Austria in the station of Gudenushohle as well as
into several Moravian stations, for example, that of Kostelik.

These facts are of extraordinary interest, for they show that
the civilization, such as it was, of the Upper Palaeolithic was
very widely extended. This marks an important social charac-
teristic, namely, the readiness and willingness to take advantage
of every step in human progress, wherever it may have originated.
At this point, therefore, it is interesting to compare the Mag-
dalenian industry of Germany with that of France.31 Germany
shows the same technical and stylistic tendencies and the same
evolutionary direction as France. The mammalian life was, of
course, the same in both countries, for in each region the giant
types of mammals still survived, and the banded lemming of the
arctic appears in the sheltered valleys of the Dordogne as well
as in Belgium and in Germany. The vicissitudes of climate were
undoubtedly the same ; we observe the alternation of cold moist
climate in the early Magdalenian along the upper Danube as
well as in the early Magdalenian of the type station of La Made-
leine, Dordogne. Again, we observe the transition into the dry
cold climate in the steppe character of the fauna both along the
upper Rhine, at Munzingen, and also beneath the shelter station
of La Madeleine, as recorded by Peyrony.

More vital still for this community of industrial culture was
the community of race, for at Obercassel we find the same Cro-
Magnon type as that discovered beneath the sheltering cliffs of
Dordogne. It appears probable that the inventions of the cen-
tral region of Dordogne travelled eastward when we note the fact
that none of the prototypes of early forms of the harpoon which
were common in southern France occur in any of the stations
of central Europe, but the single-rowed harpoon is characteristic
of the middle Magdalenian all over Germany. Other primitive
Magdalenian bone implements, such as the bone spear point
with the cleft base, the batons, and the needles, are also of rare
occurrence in the German stations. In late Magdalenian times,
however, a complete community of culture is established, for the
industry of both countries in flint and bone appears to be very

444

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

similar : flint microliths appear in increasing number and variety ;
beside the small flint flakes with blunted backs, numerous feather-
shaped flakes of Pre-Tardenoisian type are found, as well as the
types of graving flints. Some specialties of French Magdalenian
culture did not find their way into Germany; for example, the
graver of the ' parrot-beak ' type has been found in France but
has not been traced far eastward. In both countries, however,

Fig. 242. Entrance to the grotto of Kesslerloch, near Lake Constance. Photograph

by N. C. Nelson.

are found upper Magdalenian chisels of reindeer horn and per-
fected bone needles, batons, and harpoons with double rows of
barbs. On the other hand, works of art and decorative designs
in horn and bone are almost entirely wanting in German locali-
ties, with the exception of the stations of Andernach and Wild-
scheuer previously mentioned. In late Magdalenian times, both
in Germany and France, we find the Furasiatic forest fauna be-
coming more abundant.

The two famous Swiss stations of Kesslerloch and Schweizers-

EXTENT OF THE MAGDALENIAN CULTURE 445

bild, near Lake Constance, appear throughout Magdalenian times
to have been in very close touch with the cultural advances of
Dordogne. Kesslerloch32 has yielded 12,000 flints of small
dimensions, resembling in their succession those of the type

Fig. 243. The famous shelter station of Schweizersbilcl, under a protecting cliff of
limestone, near Lake Constance, Switzerland. On the right stands Dr. Jakob
Niiesch, who has devoted three years to the excavation and study of this site. Pho-
tograph by N. C. Nelson.

station of La Madeleine ; also needles, single and double har-
poons, dart-throwers, batons, as well as the fine engravings men-
tioned above ; bone sculpture is represented here in the unique
head of a musk-ox (Ovibos moschatus), in carvings of the reindeer
and of other animals on the batons and weapons of the chase.
Kesslerloch lies on the edge of a moderately wide valley, trav-
ersed by a brook ; in this sheltered, well-watered, hilly region, the
trees flourished and harbored the forest animals, while the gla-
ciers, retreating and leaving damp and stony areas, were closely

446 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

followed by the tundra fauna ; the woolly rhinoceros and mam-
moth persisted here longer than in other parts of Europe ; the
horse of Kesslerloch is said to show resemblances to the Przewal-
ski horse of the desert of Gobi, in central Asia, and is consequently
referred to the steppe type. The development of the flints takes
place step by step with that of the sister cavern of Schweizersbild,
and in early Magdalenian times these flints are found associated
with the arrival of the great migration of the arctic tundra rodents,
the banded lemmings (My odes torquatus). A hearth with ashes
and coals and many charred bones of old and young mammals,
including the woolly rhinoceros, has been found here ; the animal
life altogether includes twenty-five species of mammals, among
them the woolly mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, reindeer, and
lion.

Less than four miles distant from Kesslerloch, in a small
valley about two miles north of Schaflhausen, is the other famous
Swiss station of Schweizersbild. The Cro-Magnons were at-
tracted to this spot by the protecting cliff of isolated limestone
rock rising sheer from the meadow-land, at the base of which is
a shelter facing southwest, with an entrance of about 30 feet
in height, commanding a wide view of the distant valley. In
the accumulations at the base of this shelter we find a complete
prehistory of the human, industrial, faunal, and climatic changes
of this region of Switzerland from early Magdalenian into Neo-
lithic times. It was not until the true early Magdalenian, after
both the Aurignacian and Solutrean stages had closed, that man
first found his way here during the Bilhl advance, the period of
the deposition of the Upper Rodent Layer with its cold arctic
and steppe fauna ;33 but from this time the grotto was occupied
at intervals until full Neolithic times. The beginning of these
industrial deposits is estimated by Nuesch as having occurred
between 24,000 and 29,000 years ago, but we have adopted a
somewhat lower and more conservative estimate. In descending
order the various layers of this shelter, as studied by Nuesch, are
as follows :

EXTENT OF THE MAGDALENIAN CULTURE 447

Section or the Schweizersbild Deposits

Neolithic

6. Layer of humous earth, between 15 and 19 inches in thickness, con-
taining Neolithic implements.

5. Gray culture layer, about 15 inches in thickness, including many fire-
hearths, ornaments of shell, polished Neolithic flints, and unglazed pottery.
The true forest fauna includes the brown bear, badger, marten, wolf, fox,
beaver, hare, squirrel, short-horned wild ox (Bos taurus brachyceros) , and
reindeer, also the domesticated goat and sheep.

Upper Palceolithic

4. Thin layer of forest-living rodents, principally squirrels. Split
bones and worked flints ; no carvings in bone or horn ; industry of late
Magdalenian or close of Magdalenian Upper Palaeolithic age ; evidences
that climate was changing, steppe conditions passing away, and forests be-
coming more dominant ; only a few steppe species ; the forest species in-
clude the reindeer, hare, pika, squirrel, ermine, and marten.

3. Yellow culture layer, steppe period, rich in fire-hearths and yielding
14,000 flints of middle [ ? and late] Magdalenian age ; engravings on rein-
deer antlers, ornaments of shells and teeth. Mixed fauna with steppe and
forest types predominant; of the few tundra forms, reindeer very abundant
and also arctic fox, but banded lemming and other tundra types entirely
lacking ; steppe and desert fauna includes the kiang, Persian maral deer,
P alias's cat (Felis manul), steppe horse, and steppe suslik; of alpine type,
the ibex ; numerous forest species, pine marten, beaver, squirrel, red deer,
roe-deer, and wild boar.

2. Arctic tundra rodent layer, 20 inches in thickness ; period of the
Buhl Postglacial advance; the banded lemming (Myodes torquatus) most
abundant, mingled with early Magdalenian flint and bone implements ; one
fire-hearth ; abundant tundra fauna, including all tundra types except the
Obi lemming, and the musk-ox (Ovibos moschatus) which is found in Kess-
lerloch; indications of a very cold, moist climate; the banded lemming,
arctic fox, arctic hare, reindeer, wolverene, ermine, also such forest forms
as the wolf, fox, bear, weasel, and a number of northern birds.

1. GraVel bed and old river deposit, recognized by Boule as belonging
to the moraines of the fourth glaciation.

This wonderful deposit of human artifacts and animal re-
mains gives us a complete registration of the changes of climate
in this region accompanying the changes of culture and the de-
velopment of the Magdalenian race.

448

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

Turning our survey to the course of the Danube, we note
that several Magdalenian stations extend into the provinces of
Lower Austria, chief among them being both the open 'loess'
station of Aggsbach, and that of Gobelsburg; there is also the
Hundssteig near Krems, better known as the station of Krems,
and the cavern known as the Gudenushohle ; in the latter sta-

Fig. 244. The open loess station of Aggsbach, on the Danube, near Krems. After

Obermaier.

tion the characteristic batons, javelins, and bone needles have
been found.*

The cavern district of Moravia attracted a relatively large
population, and among the numerous stations are the grottos of
Kfiz, Zitny, Kostelik, Byciskala, Schoschuwka, Balcarovaskala,
Kulna, and Lautsch. Near the Russian border bone imple-
ments like those of Gudenushohle on the Danube have been
found at the station of Kulna, and the industrial stratification of

* J. Bayer34 has lately expressed the opinion that the industry of the open ' loess '
stations of Munzingen, Aggsbach, and Gobelsburg is not really of Magdalenian age, but
represents an atypical Aurignacian.

DECLINE OF THE MAGDALENIAN CULTURE 449

Sipka is very clear. Not far from Cracow, across the Russian
border, the caverns in the region of Ojcow were entered by men
carrying the Magdalenian culture. Another
site in Russia is the grotto of Maszycka, and
characteristic Magdalenian harpoons, needles,
and batons de commandement with other im-
plements have also been found to the eastward,
in the neighborhood of Kiev, in the Ukraine.

Decline of the Magdalenian Culture

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The highest point touched by the Cro-
Magnon race in the middle or high Magda-
lenian appears to correspond broadly with the
cold arid period of climate in the interval be-
tween the Buhl and Gschnitz advances in the
Alpine region, during which the steppe mam-
mals spread widely over southwestern Europe.
The saiga antelope, for example, a highly
characteristic steppe type, is represented in
one of the most skilful bone carvings found
in the late Magdalenian layers of Mas d'Azil ;
also the steppe type of horse is frequently re-
presented in the most advanced engravings of
late Magdalenian times. How far this cold,
relatively dry climate influenced the artistic
and creative energy of the Cro-Magnons is
largely a matter of conjecture. The entirely
independent records of La Madeleine, of
Schweizersbild, and of Kesslerloch concur
in associating the highest stage of Magda-
lenian history of art with the predominance
of the steppe fauna and evidences of a cold
dry climate. That the mammoth still
abounded is seen in the mammoth engravings
which are superposed on those of the bison in Font-de-Gaume.

The succeeding life period is that of the retreat of the tundra

Fig. 245. Front and
side views of a saiga
antelope carved upon
a bone dart-thrower
from the Magdale-
nian deposits of Mas
d'Azil. After Piette.

450 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

and steppe mammals and of the increasing rarity of the reindeer
and of the mammoth in southwestern Europe ; it corresponds
broadly with the returning cold and moist climate of the second
Postglacial advance known in the Alps as the Gschnitz stage.
With the spread of the forests and the retreat to the north of the
reindeer, the principal source both of the supply of food and
clothing and of all the bone implements of industry and of the
chase, a new set of life conditions may have gradually become
established. If it is true, as most students of geographical con-
ditions and of the climate maintain, that Europe at the same time
became more densely forested, the chase may have become more
difficult, and the Cro-Magnons may have begun to depend more
and more upon the life of the streams and the art of fishing. It
is generally agreed that the harpoons were chiefly used for fish-
ing and that many of the microlithic flints, which now begin to
appear more abundantly, may have been attached to a shaft for
the same purpose. We know that similar microliths were used
as arrow points in predynastic Egypt.

Breuil35 observes very significant industrial changes in clos-
ing Magdalenian times : first, the beginning of small geometric
forms of flints suggesting the Tardenoisian types ; second, the
occasional use of stag horn in place of reindeer horn ; third, a
modification in the form of bone implements toward the pat-
terns of Azilian times ; fourth, the rapid decline— one may almost
say sudden disappearance — of the artistic spirit. Schematic and
conventional designs begin to take the place of the free realistic
art of the middle Magdalenian.

Thus the decline of the Cro-Magnons as a powerful race may
have been due partly to environmental causes and the aban-
donment of their vigorous nomadic mode of life, or it may be
that they had reached the end of a long cycle of psychic develop-
ment, which we have traced from the beginning of Aurignacian
times. We know as a parallel that in the history of many civi-
lized races a period of great artistic and industrial development
may be followed by a period of stagnation and decline without
any apparent environmental causes.

CRO-MAGNON DESCENDANTS 451

Cro-Magnon Descendants in Modern Europe

We might attribute this great change, which affected all of
western Europe, to the extinction of the Cro-Magnon race were
it not for the existing evidence that the race survived throughout
the Azilian-Tardenoisian or close of the Upper Palaeolithic. On
the close of the Palaeolithic the race broke up throughout western
Europe into many colonies, which can perhaps be traced into
Neolithic and even into recent times. The anatomical evidence
for this survival theory chiefly consists of the highly character-
istic form of the head.

In Europe a very broad face and a long, narrow cranium is
such an infrequent combination that anthropologists maintain
that it affords a means of identifying the descendants of the pre-
historic Cro-Magnon race wherever they persist to-day. Since
Dordogne was the geographic centre of the race in Upper Palae-
olithic times, is it merely a coincidence that Dordogne is still
the centre of a similar type ? Ripley^ has given us a valuable
resume of our present knowledge of this subject. The most
significant trait of the long-headed people of Dordogne is that in
many cases the face is almost as broad as in the normal Alpine
round-headed type ; in other words, it is strongly disharmonic ;
in profile the back part of the head rises and in front view the
head is narrowed at the top ; the skull is very low-vaulted ; the
brow ridges are prominent ; the nose is well formed ; the cheek-
bones are prominent, and the powerful cheek muscles give a
peculiarly rugged cast to the countenance. The appearance,
however, is not repellent, but more often open and kindly. The
men are of medium height, but very susceptible to environment
as regards stature ; they are tall in fertile places, and stunted in
less prosperous districts. They are not degenerate at all, but
keen and alert of mind. The present people of Dordogne agree
with but one other type of men known to anthropologists, namely,
the ancient Cro-Magnon race. The geographical evidence that
here in Dordogne we have to do with the survivors of the real
Cro-Magnon race seems to be sustained by a comparison of the

452 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

characteristics of the prehistoric skulls found at Cro-Magnon,
Laugerie Basse, and elsewhere in Dordogne, with the heads of
the types of to-day. The cranial indices of the prehistoric skulls,
varying from 70 per cent to 73 per cent, correspond with indices
of the living head of 72 per cent to 75 per cent. None of the
people of Dordogne are quite so long-headed as this, the aver-
age index of the living head in an extreme district being 76
per cent ; but within the whole population there are much lower
indices.

The probability of direct descent becomes stronger when we
consider the disharmonic low-skulled shape of the Cro-Magnon
head and the remarkable elongation of the skull at the back.
In the prehistoric Cro-Magnons the brows were strongly devel-
oped, the eye orbits low, the chin prominent. The facial type
has been characterized by de Quatrefages37 as follows: "The
eye depressed beneath the orbital vault ; the nose straight rather
than arched ; the lips somewhat thick, the jaw and the cheek-
bones strongly developed, the complexion very brown, the hair
very dark and growing low on the forehead — a whole which,
without being attractive, was in no way repulsive."

In southern France we observe a continuity not only of the
head form but of the prevalence of black hair and eyes. Why
should this Cro-Magnon type have survived at this point and
have disappeared elsewhere ? In order to consider the particular
cause of this persistence of a Palaeolithic race, we must, with
Ripley, broaden our horizon, and consider the whole southwest
from the Mediterranean to Brittany as a unit.

The survival is partly attributed to favorable geographical
environment and partly to geological and racial barriers. On
the north the intrusion of the Teutonic race was shut off and
competition was narrowed down to the Cro-Magnon and Alpine
types.

If the people of Dordogne are veritable survivors of the Cro-
Magnons of the Upper Palaeolithic, they certainly represent the
oldest living race in western Europe, and is it not extremely
significant that the most primitive language in Europe, that of

CRO-MAGNON DESCENDANTS 453

the Basques of the northern Pyrenees, is spoken near by, only
200 miles to the southwest? Is there possibly a connection
between the original language of the Cro-Magnons, a race which
once crowded the region of the Cantabrian Mountains and the
Pyrenees, and the existing agglutinative language of the Basques,
which is totally different from all the European tongues? This
hypothesis, suggested by Ripley,38 is very well worth considering,
for it is not inconceivable that the ancestors of the Basques con-
quered the Cro-Magnons and subsequently acquired their lan-
guage.

The prehistoric Cro-Magnon men would seem, therefore, to
have remained in or near their early settlements through all the
changes of time and the vicissitudes of history. "It is, per-
haps," observes Ripley, "the most striking instance known of
a persistency of population unchanged through thousands of
years."

The geographic extension of this race was once very much
wider than it is to-day. The classical skull of Engis, Belgium,
belongs to this type. It has been traced from Alsace in the east
to the Atlantic in the west. Ranke asserts that it is to be found
to-day in the hills of Thuringia, and that it was a prevalent
type there in the past. Verneau considers that it was the type
prevailing among the extinct Guanches of the Canary Islands.
Collignon39 has identified it in northern Africa, and regards
the Cro-Magnons as a subvariety of the Mediterranean race,
an opinion consistent at least with the archaeological evidence
that this race came into Europe with the Aurignacian culture,
which was circum-Mediterranean in distribution. Traces of Cro-
Magnon head formation are found among the living Berbers.

At present, however, this race is believed to survive only in
a few isolated localities, namely, in Dordogne, at a small spot
in Landes, near the Garonne in southern France, and at Lan-
nion in Brittany, where nearly one- third of the population is
of the Cro-Magnon type. It is said to survive on the island
of Oleron off the west coast of France, and there is evidence of
similar descent to be found among the people of the islands

454 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

of northern Holland. The people of Trysil, on the Scandina-
vian peninsula, are characterized as having dishannonic fea-
tures, possibly representing an outcrop of the Cro-Magnon
type.

Our interest in the fate of the Cro-Magnons is so great that
the Guanche theory may also be considered; it is known to
be favored by many anthropologists: von Behr, von Luschan,
Mehlis, and especially by Verneau. The Guanches were a race
of people who formerly spread all over the Canary Islands and
who preserved their primitive characteristics even after their
conquest by Spain in the fifteenth century. The differences
from the supposed modern Cro-Magnon type may be mentioned
first. The skin of the Guanches is described by the poet Viana
as light-colored, and Verneau considers that the hair was blond
or light chestnut and the eyes blue; the coloring, however, is
somewhat conjectural. The features of resemblance to the an-
cient Cro-Magnons are numerous. The minimum stature of the
men was 5 feet 7 inches, and the maximum 6 feet 7 inches;
in one locality the average male stature was over 6 feet. The
women were comparatively small. The most striking char-
acters of the head were the fine forehead, the extremely long
skull, and the pentagonal form of the cranium, when seen from
above, caused by the prominence of the parietals — a Cro-Mag-
non characteristic. Among the insignia of the chiefs was the
arm-bone of an ancestor ; the skull also was carefully preserved.
The offensive weapons in warfare consisted of three stones, a
club, and several knives of obsidian ; the defensive weapon was
a simple lance. The Guanches used wooden swords with great
skill. The habitation of all the people was in large, well-shel-
tered caverns, which honeycombed the sides of the mountains;
all the walls of these caverns were decorated ; the ceilings were
covered with a uniform coat of red ochre, while the walls were
decorated with various geometric designs in red, black, gray,
and white. Hollowed-out stones served as lamps. We may
conclude with Verneau that there is evidence, although not of
a very convincing kind, that the Guanches were related to the

CRO-MAGNON DESCENDANTS

455

Cro-Magnons.40 His observations on these supposed Cro-Mag-
nons of the Canary Islands are cited in the Appendix, Note V.
We regret that Verneau in his memoir41 does not present his
more recent views in regard to the prehistoric distribution of
this great race.

(i) Breui], 191 2.7, p. 203.

(2) Op. cit., p. 205.

(3) James, 1902. 1.

(4) Heim, 1 894.1, p. 184.

(5) Schmidt, 1912.1, p. 262.

(6) Fraunholz, 191 1.1.

(7) Geikie, 1914.1, pp. 25, 26.

(8) Boule, 1 899. 1.

(9) Breuil, 191 2.7, pp. 203-205.

(10) Obermaier, 191 2.1, pp. 341, 342.

(11) Martin, R., 1914.1, pp. 15, 16.

(12) Verworn, 191 4.1.

(13) Op. cit., p. 646.

(14) Breuil, 1912.7, p. 201.

(15) Lartet, 1875. 1.

(16) Breuil, 1912.7, p. 213.

(17) Schmidt, 191 2.1, p. 136.

(18) Breuil, op. cit., pp. 216, 217.

(19) Breuil, 1909.3.

(20) Op. cit., p. 410.

(21) Cartailhac, 1906. 1, pp. 227, 228.

(22) Riviere, 1897. 1; 1897.2.

(23) Reinach, 1913.1.

(24) Breuil, 191 2.1, p. 202.

(25) Cartailhac, 1908. 1.

(26) Capitan, 1908. 1, pp. 501-514.

(27) Ibid., 1910.1, pp. 59-132.

(28) Breuil, 1912.1, pp. 196, 197.

(29) Schmidt, 1912.1, p. 116.

(30) Fraunholz, 1911.1.

(31) Schmidt, 1912.1, p. 154.

(32) Dechelette, 1908. 1, vol. I, pp.

191-194.

(33) Nehring, 1 880.1; 1 896.1.

(34) Bayer, 1912.1, pp. 13-21.

(35) Breuil, 1912.7, pp. 212, 216.

(36) Ripley, 1899. 1, pp. 39, 165, 173,

174-179, 211, 406.

(37) Op. cit., p. 176.

(38) Op. cit., p. 181.

(39) Collignon, 1 890.1.

(40) Verneau, 1891.1.

(41) Ibid., 1906. 1.

North Africa and Spain

Before continuing with Chapter VI the reader should care-
fully study the note on the Capsian flint industry (see Ap-
pendix, Note XI, p. 514) of Spain and northwest Africa, of
which the type station is Gafsa, a place about 180 miles south-
west of the city of Tunis in the region lying between Tripoli
and Algiers now known as Tunis. It would appear that this
part of Africa was probably the home of the Tardenoisian in-
dustry described on p. 465.

The connection between Spanish and North African life in
Palaeolithic times has recently been fully described by Hugo
Obermaier in his very interesting work, El Hombre fosil, pub-
lished in Madrid in 19 16.

CHAPTER VI

CLOSE OF THE OLD STONE AGE — INVASION OF NEW RACES —
HISTORY OF THE MAS D'AZIL, OF FERE-EN-TARDENOIS — FOREST
ENVIRONMENT AND LIFE — ORIGIN OF THE AZILIAN-TARDENOI-
SIAN CULTURE — CHARACTERS AND CUSTOMS OF THE NEW RACES
— TRANSITION TO THE NEOLITHIC AND RELATIONS OF THE OLD
AND NEW RACES — APPARENT CHIEF LINES OF HUMAN DESCENT
AND OF HUMAN MIGRATION INTO WESTERN EUROPE.

We have now reached the very close of the Old Stone Age,
a period which is believed to extend between 10,000 and 7,000
years before the present era. The entrance to the final cultures
of the Upper Palaeolithic, known as the Azilian-Tardenoisian,
marks a transition even more abrupt than that witnessed in any
preceding stage. It is not a development; it is a revolution.
The artistic spirit entirely disappears ; there is no trace of animal
engraving or sculpture ; painting is found only on flattened
pebbles or in schematic or geometric designs on wall surfaces.
Of bone implements only harpoons and polishers remain, and
even these are of inferior workmanship and without any trace
of art. The flint industry continues the degeneration begun in
the Magdalenian and exhibits a new life and impulse only in
the fashioning of the extremely small or microlithic tools and
weapons known as 'Tardenoisian.' Both bone and flint weapons
of the chase disappear, yet the stag is hunted and its horns are
used in the manufacture of harpoons. This is the 'Age of the
Stag,' the final stage of the 'Cave Period' in western Europe, and
is subsequent to the 'Age of the Reindeer' in the south.

It would appear as if the very same regions formerly occu-
pied by the great hunting Cro-Magnon race from Aurignacian
to Magdalenian times were now inhabited by a race or races
largely employed in fishing. The country is thickly forested.

456

INVASION OF NEW RACES 457

The climate is still cold and extremely moist, and human life
everywhere is in the grottos or entrances to the caverns.

Invasion of Four New Races in Closing Upper Paleolithic

Times

How far this revolution is due to the decline of the Cro-
Magnon race and how far to the invasion of one or more new
races is very difficult to determine in the absence of the anatom-
ical evidence derived from skeletal remains. Two new races
had certainly found their way along the Danube as shown in
the burials of Of net, in eastern Bavaria ; one is extremely broad-
headed and perhaps of central Asiatic origin, while the other is
extremely long-headed and perhaps of southerly or Mediter-
ranean origin. It is possible that these two races correspond
respectively with the easterly and southerly industrial influences
which are observed in the Azilian-Tardenoisian stage. The
former is the first brachy cephalic race to enter western Europe,
for it will be recalled that all the previous races, the Cro-Magnons,
the Briinns, and the Neanderthals, are dolichocephalic. The
long-headed race found at Ofnet is very clearly distinguished
from the disharmonic long-headed Cro-Magnon race by the nar-
rowness of the face ; in other words, it is an harmonic type of
head and face, which may have been Mediterranean in origin,
like the so-called ' Mediterranean race' of Sergi.

This fresh invasion of western Europe by two races arriving
by one or more of the great migration routes from the vast
Eurasiatic mainland to the east, races with a relatively high brain
development, is certainly one of the most surprising features of
the close of the Palaeolithic Period, for we have long been accus-
tomed to think that these fresh easterly and southerly invasions
began only in Neolithic times.

As the Upper Palaeolithic draws to an end, there is, according
to Breuil, still another industrial influence making itself felt:
it comes from the northeast along the shores of the Baltic.

Putting together all the fragmentary evidence which we
possess, we may regard western Europe at the close of the Old

458 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

Stone Age as peopled by four and possibly by five distinct races,
as follows :

5. Arriving late in Palaeolithic times, a race along the shores of the
Baltic, known only by its Maglemose industry; possibly a Teutonic race.

4. A south Mediterranean race, known only by its Tardenoisian in-
dustry, migrating along the northern shores of Africa and spreading over
Spain; with a conventional and schematic art; probably an advance wave
of the true 'Mediterranean' race of Sergi; possibly identical with race 3
below. (The same as Race 4, p. 278.)

3. A long-headed race found at Of net, in eastern Bavaria; possibly
a branch of the true ' Mediterranean ' race 4 above, but not related to the
Briinn. (Possibly the same as Race 4.)

2. The newly arriving Furfooz-Grenelle race, broad-headed; known
along the Danube at Of net, in eastern Bavaria, and northward in Belgium;
possibly a branch of the 'Alpine' race. (The same as Race 5, p. 278.)

1. The surviving Cro-Magnons, in a stage of industrial decline, pur-
suing the Azilian industry, probably inhabiting France and northern Spain.

The broad-headed Ofnet race mentioned above is apparently
the same as the Furfooz-Grenelle race, and may also correspond
with the existing Alpine- Celtic race of western Europe. The
long-headed race of Ofnet may correspond with the existing
1 Mediterranean ' race of Sergi.

The presence of the Cro-Magnon race in western Europe
during Azilian-Tardenoisian times is not sustained, so far as we
know, by any anatomical evidence, but is suggested by the mode
of burial of two skeletons found by Piette in the Azilian deposits
of the station of Mas d'Azil. This burial, like that of Ofnet, is
typical of Upper Palaeolithic and not of Neolithic times. These
skeletons lay in the ' Azilian' layer (VI) described below. As
the smaller bones were missing, Piette concluded that the re-
mains had been for some time exposed to the weather before
burial, and that the larger bones had been scraped and cleaned
with flint knives, and then colored red with oxide of iron before
interment. According to other authorities, the traces of scrap-
ing and cleaning are doubtful ; there can be no question, how-
ever, that the separation of the bones of the skeleton and the
use of coloring matter constitute strong evidence that this
Azilian burial was the work of members of the Cro-Magnon race.

MAS D'AZIL 459

In addition to what we have said as to the survival of the
Cro-Magnon race in the preceding chapter, the opinion of Car-
tailhac1 may be cited: "The race of Cro-Magnon is well de*
termined. There is no doubt about their high stature, and To-
pinard is not the only one who believes that they were blonds.
We have traced them through the 'Reindeer Period ' into the
Neolithic Epoch, where they were widely distributed and posi-
tively related either to the ancient or actual populations of mod-
ern France, being especially characteristic of our region [France]
and of the western Mediterranean. While the race of Cro-Mag-
non predominated in the south and in the west, that of Furfooz
predominated in the northeast of France and in Belgium. These
brachycephals were probably brown-haired or of dark coloring."

But before observing further the characters of these four or
five races, let us examine their industries.

Discovery of the Azilian Type Station

As remarked above, it is believed that these industries pre-
vailed between 7,000 and 10,000 years before our era, that is,
between the close of Magdalenian times and the beginning of the
Neolithic or New Stone Age. This transition period corresponds
with the interval in which the Azilian-Tardenoisian culture swept
all over western Europe and completely replaced the Magda-
lenian. From Castillo in the Cantabrian Mountains of northern
Spain to Ofnet on the upper Danube there is a complete replace-
ment by this new culture. The Magdalenian culture does not
linger anywhere ; it is totally eliminated ; the suddenness of
the change both in the animal life and in the industry is nowhere
more clearly indicated than at the type station of Mas d\\zil in
southern France, which may now be described.

In 1887 Edouard Piette commenced his exploration of the
deposits in the great cavern of Mas d'Azil. This station takes
its name from the little hamlet of Mas d'Azil in the foot-hills of
the Pyrenees about forty miles southwest from Toulouse. Here
the River Arize winds for a quarter of a mile through a lofty
natural tunnel traversed by the highway from St. Girons to

460

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

Carcassonne. A rich layer of Magdalenian deposits first at-
tracted Piette's attention, and he found here some of the finest
examples of late Magdalenian art, but above these deposits he
discovered a hitherto unrecognized industrial stage, to which
he gave the name Azilian. The Azilian layers yielded over one
thousand specimens of flattened and double-barbed harpoons

Fig. 246. Western entrance to the great station of Mas d'Azil. "Here the River Arize
winds for a quarter of a mile through a lofty natural tunnel traversed by the high-
way from St. Giroi\s to Carcassonne." Photograph by N. C. Nelson.

made of the horns of the stag, thus widely differing from the late
Magdalenian harpoons which are rounded and made of the horns
of the reindeer. The entire succession of deposits, as explored
by Piette, is an epitome of the prehistory of Europe from early
Magdalenian times to the Age of Bronze, and should be compared
with the successive deposits of Castillo (p. 164), Sirgenstein (p.
202), Ofnet (p. 476), and Schweizersbild (p. 447).
The Mas d'Azil section is as follows:

MAS D'AZIL 461

Prehistoric and Neolithic

LX. Iron implements, pottery of the Gauls. At the top Gallo-Roman
remains, glass and glazed pottery.

VIII. Middle Neolithic and Age of Bronze; layer of pottery, polished
stone implements, traces of copper and of bronze.

VII. Dawn of the Neolithic. Fauna includes the horse, urus, stag,
and wild boar. Chipped and polished flints, awls and polishers in bone;
harpoons rare. Beginnings of pottery.

Upper Paleolithic

VI. Azilian, red archaeological layer, masses of peroxide of iron. Ex-
tremely moist climate. Broad flat harpoons of stag horn perforated at the
base, numerous flattened and painted pebbles (galets), flints of degenerate
Magdalenian form, especially small rounded planers and knife flakes, awls
and polishers in bone. No trace of reindeer in the fire-hearths ; stag abun-
dant, also roe-deer and brown bear; wild boar, wild cattle, beaver, a variety
of birds. No trace of polished stone implements. Interred in this layer,
beneath the deposits of streaked cinders and quite undisturbed, two human
skeletons were found, which Piette believed had been macerated with flints
and then colored red with peroxide of iron.

V. Sterile finely stratified loam layer, a flood deposit of the River Arize.

IV. Late Magdalenian culture layer; twelve double-rowed harpoons
made of reindeer horn, a few fashioned from stag horn; numerous engrav-
ings and sculptures in bone. Remains of the reindeer rare in the hearths;
those of the royal stag (Cervus elaphus) abundant.

III. A sterile flood deposit of the River Arize.

II. Middle and Early Magdalenian culture layers, with barbed
harpoons of reindeer horn; flint implements of early Magdalenian type,
bone needles. Bones of the reindeer abundant.

I. Gravel deposits. Interspersed fire-hearths.

The total thickness of these culture deposits is 8.03 m., or
26 feet 4 inches. The Azilian type layer (VI) containing flat
harpoons of stag horn and painted pebbles, intercalated between
the deposits of the Reindeer Age and the Neolithic layers, is, on
account of its stratigraphic position, the most interesting and
instructive of all the sites representing this phase of transition ;
and Piette was fully justified in giving to the corresponding cul-
ture period the name of Azilian.2

The transformation of art and industry, indicated in the
Azilian culture layer, is as decided as that in the animal life.

462

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

We observe in this layer no trace of the animal engravings or
sculptures which occur so abundantly in the late Magdalenian
layer below ; the use of pigments is confined to the paintings of
schematic or geometric figures on the flattened pebbles. There
is no suggestion of art in any of the bone implements, and the
harpoons of stag horn are rudely fashioned ; this type of harpoon
appears to be the chief survivor of the rich variety erf imple-

:291 288 290 287

Fig. 247. Typical Azilian harpoons of stag horn. After de Mortillet. 287. A single-
rowed harpoon from Mas d'Azil. 288. Harpoon with perforated base from the shelter
of La Tourasse, Haute-Garonne. 289. Double-rowed harpoon from the same shelter.

290. A similar harpoon with the barbs alternate instead of opposite, from Mas d'Azil.

291. Harpoon with triangular base and round perforation from the Grotte de la Vache,
near Tarascon. All one- third actual size, except 291, which is four-ninths actual size.

ments noted in the Magdalenian layer below. The stag horn
harpoon, moreover, is fashioned with far less skill than the
beautiful Magdalenian harpoons ; like them it has two rows of
barbs, but they are not cut with the same delicacy and exactness.
As to the form of the new model, it is explained by the nature of
the new material ; the interior of the stag horn being composed
of a spongy tissue, could not be utilized as could the harder and
more compact interior of the reindeer horn; the craftsman,
therefore, was obliged to fashion his harpoon out of the exterior
of one side of the stag horn, and in consequence to make it flat.
There are no bone needles, no javelins or sagaies; nor are there
any of the beautifully carved weapons of bone. There is also a

MAS D'AZIL 463

reduction in the uses to which the split bones are put, such as
the large lissoirs or polishers. The bone implements appear to
be derived from an impoverished late Aurignacian stage; the
same is true of the flint implements, for we observe a return of
the keeled scraper (grattoir carene). There is also a return of
certain types of graving tools and of the knife-like form of the
flake ; even some of the small geometric types of flints resemble
those of the Aurignacian levels.

The many shells of the moisture-loving snail Helix nemoralis,
found in the fire-hearths of Mas d'Azil are proofs of the humidity
of the climate, a fact confirmed by the contemporary flood de-
posits of the Arize. The frequent and heavy rains drove the
last few representatives of the steppe fauna away to the north.
These climatic conditions favored the formation of peat-bogs,
so frequent to-day in the north of France, and also the growth
of vast forests, inhabited by the stag, which extended over the
whole country.

The pebbles of Mas d'Azil are painted on one side with per-
oxide of iron, a deposit of which is found in the neighborhood of
the cave. The color, mixed in shells of Pecten, or in hollowed
pebbles or on flat stones, was applied either with the finger or
with a brush. The many enigmatic designs consist chiefly of
parallel bands, rows of discs or points, bands with scalloped
edges, cruciform designs, ladder-like patterns (scalariform) such
as are found in the 'Azilian' engravings and paintings of the
caverns, and undulating lines. These graphic combinations re-
semble certain syllabic and alphabetic characters of the iEgean,
Cypriote, Phoenician, and Greco-Latin inscriptions. However
curious these resemblances may be, they are not sufficient to
warrant any theory connecting the signs on the painted pebbles
of the Azilians with the alphabetic characters of the oldest known
systems of writing.3 Piette attempted to explain some of the
exceedingly crude designs on these pebbles as a system of nota-
tion, others as pictographs and religious symbols, and some few
as genuine alphabetical signs, and suggested that the cavern of
Mas d'Azil was an Upper Palaeolithic school where reading, reck-

(•) <S> cS^i> ^^

(J) I* Ol *mm

Fig. 248. Azilian gahls colories, flat, painted pebbles, from the type station of Mas

d'Azil. After Piette.

FERE-EN-TARDENOIS 465

oning, writing, and the symbols of the sun were learned and
taught. The very wide distribution of these symbolic pebbles
and the painting of similar designs on the walls of the caverns
certainly prove that they had some religious or economic signif-
icance, which may be revealed by subsequent research.

The Tardenoisian Type Station

Turning from the region of the Pyrenees in Azilian times, we
observe the region lying between the Seine and the Meuse in
northern France as the scene of a contemporary industry. At
the station of Fere-en-Tardenois, in the Department of the
Aisne, is found an especially large number of the pygmy flints f
these present various geometric forms, including the primitive
triangular, as well as the rhomboidal, trapezoidal, and semicir-
cular; together, they were designated by de Mortillet as Tar-
denoisian flints, and in 1896, in monographing this microlithic
flint industry, he traced them throughout France, Belgium, Eng-
land, Portugal, Spain, Italy, Germany, and Russia, also along
the southern Mediterranean through Algiers, Tunis, Egypt, and
eastward into Syria and even India.

These geometric flints were at first attributed to a primitive
invasion which was supposed to have occurred at the beginning
of Neolithic times; thus the Tardenoisian industry was con-
sidered as contemporaneous with that of the Campignian, which
is early Neolithic. It was further observed that the topograph-
ical location of the stations closely followed the borders of
ocean inlets, or of river courses, and when the food materials
found in the hearths were compared, it appeared that these
flints were used principally by fishermen or tribes subsisting
upon fish. From an examination of the flints, it would appear
that a very large number of them were adapted for insertion in
small harpoons, or that those of grooved form might even have
been used as fish-hooks. Thus the picture was drawn of a popu-
lation of fishermen. The Tardenoisian, therefore, was for a
long time regarded as contemporaneous with the early Neolithic

466 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

rather than with the close of Palaeolithic times, but as explora-
tion proceeded it was found that neither the remains of domestic
animals nor any traces of pottery occur in any of these Tarde-
noisian deposits, which consequently have nothing in common
with the true Neolithic culture.

The problem was finally solved in 1909, when the grotto of
Valle near Gibaja, Santander, in northern Spain, was discovered
by Breuil and Obermaier.5 Here was a classic Azilian deposit
containing all the well-known Azilian types of bone implements,
such as fine harpoons, carvings in deer horn, bone javelins, polish-
ers of deer bone, flint flakes resembling those of the late Magda-
lenian, also microlithic flints of typical geometric Tardenoisian
form. This discovery established the fact that the lower levels
of the Tardenoisian industry were not really to be distinguished
from the Azilian, for here beneath layers with painted pebbles
and harpoons of Azilian style were harpoons with single and
double rows of barbs of Magdalenian pattern, but cut in stag
horn instead of reindeer horn.

The mammalian life in this true Azilian-Tardenoisian layer
includes the chamois, roe-deer, wild boar, and urus, or wild cattle.
In a layer just below, which represents the close of the Magda-
lenian industrial period, there are found, although rarely, remains
of the reindeer, an animal hitherto unknown in this part of
Spain, also the wild boar, the bison, the ibex, and the lynx.
After this discovery it could no longer be questioned that the
Azilian and Tardenoisian were contemporary.

As to the relation of these two industries, Breuil remarks6
that the prolongation of the Tardenoisian types of flints is ob-
served in Italy and in Belgium, but neither the term 'Tarde-
noisian' nor the term 'Azilian' is sufficiently comprehensive to
embrace the totality of these little industries, which will finally
be distinguished clearly from each other. Of the two the Azilian
represents the prolongation of an ancient period of industry, the
progress of which was apparently from south to north, as we can
trace the distribution of the characteristic flat harpoons of deer
horn from the Cantabrian Mountains and the Pyrenees, through

AZILIAN-TARDENOISIAN CULTURE

467

southern and central France, to Belgium, England, and the
western coast of Scotland. The later industrial phase, the Tar-
denoisian, with its geometric trapeziform flints, originally ap-
pears along the southern Mediterranean in Tunis and to the

Fig. 249. Small geometric flints characteristic of the Tardenoisian industry. After de
Mortillet. 295 to 303, 321, 322, 326. From various sites in northern France. 311.
Uchaux, Vaucluse, France. 305, 315, 320. Valley of the Meuse, Belgium. 312,
313. Cabeco da Arruda, Portugal. 304, 314. Italy. 317, 318, 329. Tunis. 325.
Egypt. 306, 310, 324, 328. Kizil-Koba, Crimea. 307 to 309, 316, 319, 323, 327.
India. All one-half actual size.

eastward in the Crimea, while in France it represents a final
phase of the Palaeolithic, closely approaching the period of
the earliest Neolithic or pre-Campignian hearths common along
the Danube and observed in the vicinity of Liege. Thus the
most comprehensive term by which to designate the ensemble
of these implements, in Europe at least, would be Azilian-
Tardenoisian.

468 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

Environment and Mammalian Life

It appears that the chief geographic change during this period
was a subsidence of the northern coasts of Europe and an ad-
vance of the sea causing the circulation of warm oceanic currents
and a more humid climate favorable to reforestation.

To the north, in Belgium, the tundra fauna lingered during the
extension of the early Tardenoisian industry, for here we still
find remains of the reindeer, the arctic fox, and the arctic hare
mingled in the fire-hearths with flints of Tardenoisian type.
This, observes Obermaier, constitutes proof that the Tarde-
noisian, with the Azilian, must be placed at the very close of
Postglacial time and with the final stage of Upper Palaeolithic
industry.

To the south, in the region of Dordogne and the Pyrenees,
the tundra fauna had entirely disappeared, as well as that of the
steppes and of the alpine heights ; the prevailing animal in the
forests is the royal stag, adapted to forests of temperate type
and associated with the Eurasiatic forest and meadow fauna
which now dominated western Europe.

The only survivor of the great African- Asiatic fauna is the
lion, which appears in the late Palaeolithic stations in the region
of the Pyrenees; the arctic wolverene also gives the fauna a
Postglacial aspect, for, like the lion, it is never found in central
or western Europe after the close of Upper Palaeolithic times.
Other enemies of the herbivorous fauna were the wolf and the
brown bear.

Besides the red deer, or stag, the forests at this time were filled
with roe-deer. To the south in the Pyrenees the moose still sur-
vived, and to the north there were still found herds of reindeer
which survived in central Europe as late as the twelfth century.
Wild boars were numerous, and in the streams were found the
beaver and the otter. In the forest borders and in the meadows
hares and rabbits were abundant. Through the forests and
meadows of southern France and along the borders of the Danube
ranged the wild cattle (Bos primigenius) . It would appear from

MAMMALIAN LIFE 469

our limited knowledge of the life of Azilian-Tardenoisian times
that bison were found chiefly in the northern parts of Europe.
There is little direct evidence in regard to the wild horse, the re-
mains of which do not occur in the hearths of Azilian times.

Our knowledge of the life of the Spanish peninsula at a period
closely succeeding this is indirectly derived from the animal
frescos in certain caverns of northern Spain, which have been
attributed to the early Neolithic but are now referred rather
to the late Palaeolithic. Here are found representations of
the ibex, the stag, the fallow deer, the wild cattle, and also of
the wild horses. This would indicate that wild horses were still
roaming all over western Europe at the close of Upper Palae-
olithic times. The presence of the moose in late Palaeolithic
times at Alpera, on the high plateaus of Spain, has been deter-
mined ; this animal has also been found in the Pyrenees during
the Azilian stage.7

The great contrast between the mammalian life of Magda-
lenian and that of Azilian-Tardenoisian times is witnessed in
the stations along the upper Danube, as described by Koken.8
In Hohlefels, Schmiechenfels, and Propstfels, associated with
implements of the late Magdalenian industry, are found ten
types of animals belonging to the forests and four characteristic
of the forests and meadows, or fourteen species altogether.
With these are mingled two alpine forms, the ibex and the alpine
shrew; also two types of mammals belonging to the steppes,
and no less than six mammals and birds from the tundras, namely,
the reindeer, the arctic fox, the ermine, the arctic hare, the
banded lemming, and the arctic ptarmigan.

In wide contrast to this assemblage of late Magdalenian life
on the upper Danube, there appear in Azilian times along the
shores of the middle Danube in the stations of Of net and of
Istein the following characteristic forest forms : Sus scrofa ferus
(wild boar), Cervus elaphus (stag), Capreolus capreolus (roe-deer),
Bos (?) primigenius (urus), Lepus (rabbit or hare), Ursus arctos
(brown bear), Felis leo (lion), Gulo luscus (common wolverene),
Lynchus lynx (lynx), Vulpes (fox), Mustela martes (marten),

470 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

Castor fiber (European beaver), Mus (field-mouse), Turdus
(thrush). It thus appears that the alpine, the steppe, and the
tundra faunae had entirely disappeared from this region.

Origin and Distribution of the Azilian-Tardenoisian

Industry

This industry represents the last stage of the Old Stone Age.
The decline in the art of fashioning flints, begun in Magdalenian
times, appears to continue in the Azilian-Tardenoisian. As to
the tiny symmetrical flints which are characteristic of this period,
among the microliths of almost all the late Magdalenian stations
pre-Tardenoisian forms are found which may be regarded as
prototypes of the geometric Tardenoisian flints ; 9 this represents
a new fashion established in flint-making under influences com-
ing from the south.

There was also a natural or local Azilian evolution from the
Magdalenian types and technique. In general the flint imple-
ments which had so long prevailed in western Europe become
smaller in diameter and more carelessly retouched, showing
marked deterioration even from the late Magdalenian stages.
For the preparation of hides and the fashioning of bone we dis-
cover unsymmetrical planing tools (grattoirs), also small, well-
formed oval scrapers (racloirs), and microlithic scrapers. Borers
(perqoirs) with oblique ends and gravers (burins) made of small
flakes are the types of implements which most frequently occur,
but the great variety of borers, so characteristic of the Aurig-
nacian and the Magdalenian industries, had entirely disappeared
in Azilian times.

The marks of industrial degeneration are also conspicuous in
the bone implements, which show a very great deterioration in
number and quality as compared with the Magdalenian, and
which are principally confined to three types — the harpoons, the
awls (poinqons), and the smoothers (lissoirs), together with very
small bone borers (pcrqoirs). The distinctive feature of the
Azilian bone industry is the flat harpoon of stag horn ; it is known
that the use of stags' antlers for fashioning harpoons began in

AZILIAN-TARDENOISIAN INDUSTRY

471

the late Magdalenian, when most of them were still being fash-
ioned from reindeer horn. These flat Azilian harpoons succeed
the type of the double-rowed, cylindrical harpoons of the late
Magdalenian, and are found mainly where the rivers, lakes, or
pools offered favorable conditions for fishing. Thus the Azilian

Fig. 250. Geographic distribution of the principal Azilian and Tardenoisian industrial
stations in western Europe, also Campigny and Robenhausen.

bone-harpoon industry, like the Tardenoisian microlithic flint in-
dustry, was largely pursued by fisherfolk.

We may imagine that the gradual disappearance of the rein-
deer, an animal much more easily pursued and killed than the
stag, was one of the causes of the substitution of the various
arts of fishing for those of hunting.

It is to the excessively small or microlithic flints that the
name Tardenoisian especially applies, and it is the vast multi-
plication of these microliths and their wide distribution over the

472 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

whole area of the Mediterranean and of western Europe which
constitutes the most distinctive feature of this industrial stage.10
The triangular flint (Fig. 249) is certainly the most ancient
Tardenoisian type. It occurs in the Azilian stations of the
Cantabrian Mountains and of the Pyrenees, accompanied by
the painted pebbles and with other flints of Azilian type, but
without the graving-tools ; to the east it is found in the stations
of Savoy; and along the Danube it occurs at Of net, associated
with remains of the lion and the moose, also with ornamental
necklaces composed of the perforated teeth of the deer, identical
with those found in the type station of Mas d'Azil in the Pyrenees.
To the north this typical early Azilian culture extends to Istein,
in Baden, where it includes the microlithic flint flakes, the grav-
ers, and the little round scrapers associated here also with the
stag and the prehistoric forest and meadow fauna of western
Europe. Exactly the same stage of industrial development
occurs in the grotto of Hohlefels, near Nuremberg, and in the
shelter station of Sous Sac, Ain. We invariably find proofs of
the variety of these pygmy flints as well as of their continuity
from one station to another. All these facts compel us to assign
a very long period of time to the spread of these industrial types.
The question which arises as to the sources of this special
Tardenoisian industry again finds archaeologists divided.
Schmidt inclines to the autochthonous theory and regards the
microlithic flint industry as an outgrowth of tendencies already
well developed in the Magdalenian. Breuil, on the other hand,11
dwells strongly on the evidence for circum-Mediterranean sources.
In putting the questions, Who were the Azilians? Whence did
they come? What were their ancestors? he is disposed to give
the answer already quoted, that, whichever industry is exam-
ined, we are always obliged to look toward the south, toward
some point along the Mediterranean, for the origin of these
microlithic flints. In Italy, which he believes to have remained
in an Aurignacian industrial stage throughout all the long period
of Magdalenian time, he finds at Mentone a layer overlying the
Aurignacian and containing small flints recalling the geometric

AZILIAN-TARDENOISIAN INDUSTRY

473

forms of the Azilian, as well as a multitude of the small round
scrapers (racloirs) characteristic of Azilian times. The upper
layers at Mentone on the Riviera are paralleled by those ob-
served near Otranto, in Sicily. It is certain, he continues, that

1 1 1

£^> o

Q

10

11

Fig. 251. Azilian stone implements of types surviving from the Magdalenian and ear-
lier Palaeolithic times. After R. R. Schmidt. 1. Finely flaked point from the large
cave of Ofnet. 2, 3. Small Azilian grattoirs, or planing tools, from Istein. on the upper
Danube. 4. Slender blade from Kleinkems. 5. Borer from Wiiste Scheuer. 6. Poly-
hedral borer from Wiiste Scheuer. 7. Incurved scraper from Istein. 8, 9, 10. Gravers
or borers from Istein. n. Double graver or borer with points at the right and left
of the upper end. 1 to 4, actual size; 5 to 11, one-half actual size.

474

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

all around the Mediterranean there was a number of distinct
centres where microlithic implements of geometric form appeared,
and where the accompanying industries, in different stages of
development, were related to an Upper Palaeolithic culture con-
sisting of a continuous Aurignacian type.

The labors of de Morgan, Capitan, and
others have thrown great light on the Palaeo-
lithic of Tunis, where a flint culture was de-
veloped only slightly different from that of
the Azilian of Valle, Santander, of the Mas
d'Azil, Ariege, and of Bobache, Drome. A
resemblance is also found in Portugal; and
southern Spain, despite its poverty of typical
implements, shows a similar evolution. Near
Salamanca, northwest of Madrid, Spain, the
grottos contain schematic figures and colored
pebbles resembling the Azilian. In Portugal
the hearths of Mugem and Cabeco da Arruda
are distinguished by their triangular microliths
and are undoubtedly Pre-Neolithic, because
there is neither pottery nor any trace of domes-
ticated animals, excepting, possibly, the dog.

To the north of Europe the discoveries in
Belgium have especial importance, for typical
Azilian implements, including small round
scrapers, lateral gravers, elongated triangular
microliths, and knife flakes are found associated
with the remains of the reindeer in the grotto of Remouchamp
and at Zonhoven. It appears in Belgium, as in Italy, that the
use of the Tardenoisian microlithic flint types is prolonged into
a later time than that of the typical Azilian flint implements
— the scrapers, gravers, borers, and knife flakes — which, as we
have seen, appear at the end of the true Magdalenian.

On the other side of the English Channel we again find these
flints always unmingled with pottery and usually distributed
along the sea or river shores. The best-known stations are those

Fig. 252.

Azilian

double-rowed har-
poons of stag horn,
from Oban, on the
west coast of Scot-
land. After Boule.

THE BURIALS AT OFNET 475

of Hastings, directly across the Channel opposite Boulogne, and
of Seven Oaks, near London ; in Settle, Yorkshire, is the Victoria
Cave station. To the north, in Scotland, four Azilian stations
have been discovered around Oban, on the western coast near
the head of the Firth of Lome, while Azilian harpoons have also
been found on the Isle of Oronsay, at its entrance.

Thus the spread of the very small Tardenoisian flint imple-
ments in the final stages of the Palaeolithic precedes the southern
advent of the Neolithic.

In Germany only six Azilian-Tardenoisian stations have thus
far been discovered: two to the east of Dusseldorf, one in the
neighborhood of Weimar, two on the headwaters of the Rhine,
near Basle, and, by far the most important, the large and small
grottos of Ofnet, on a small tributary of the Danube northwest
of Munich. This last is exceptionally important because it is
the only station where skeletons have been found buried with
Azilian-Tardenoisian flints, thereby enabling us positively to
determine the contemporary human races.

Burials in Azilian-Tardenoisian Times

The strange interment which gives Ofnet its distinction be-
longs to the period of Azilian-Tardenoisian industry.12 This con-
clusion is not weakened by the absence of Azilian harpoons or
painted pebbles, because at this time the cave of Ofnet served
its frequenters only as a place of burial ; there are no hearths or
flint workshops to indicate continued residence, as during earlier
Upper Palaeolithic times.

This great ceremonial burial seems to afford the only positive
evidence to be found in all western Europe of the kind of people
who were pursuing the Azilian industry. The larger Ofnet grotto
opens toward the southwest and has a length of 39 feet and a
width of 36 feet. It was first entered in early Aurignacian
times and shows successive layers of Aurignacian, early Solu-
trean, and late Magdalenian cultures, above which lies a thick
deposit of the Azilian-Tardenoisian, in which is found the most
remarkable interment of all Palaeolithic times.

476

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

This is a ceremonial burial of thirty-three skulls of people
belonging to two distinct races: respectively, brachy cephalic and
dolichocephalic, and certainly not related in any way to the
Cro-Magnon race. In one group twenty-seven skulls were found
embedded in ochre and arranged in a sort of nest, with the faces
all looking westward. As the skulls in the centre were more

Fig. 253. Section across the entrance of the great grotto of Ofnet near the Danube,
occupied at various times from the beginning of the Upper Palaeolithic to the close of
the Bronze Age. After R. R. Schmidt. IX. Deposits of the Middle Ages and cf
the La Tene and Hallstatt cultures. VIII. Deposits of the Upper Neolithic. VII.
Azilian layer containing the great burial of 33 skulls. VI. Late Magdalenian layer
containing the banded lemmings of the tundras. V. Late Solutrean layer with typical
laurel-leaf spear points. IV, III. Deposits of late and early Aurignacian age, 777
containing arctic rodents. II. Dolomite sand with a few teeth of the mammoth and
bones of the woolly rhinoceros marked by the teeth of hyaenas.

closely pressed together and crushed than those on the outside,
it seems probable that these skulls were added one by one from
time to time, those on the outside being the most recent addi-
tions. About a yard distant a similar nest was found, contain-
ing six more skulls embedded and arranged in exactly the same
manner. The interment probably took place shortly after death
and certainly before the separate bones had been disintegrated
by decomposition, for not only the lower jaw but a number of
the neck vertebrae were found with each skull. The heads had

THE BURIALS AT OFNET

477

been severed from the necks by a sharp flint, the marks of which
are plainly visible on some of the vertebrae.

It is noteworthy that most of these skulls are those of women
and young children, there being only four adult male skulls. On
this account some advance the theory of cannibalism; others
that, being taken captive by a tribe of enemies, these unfortunate

Fig. 254.

Burial nest of six skulls, all facing westward, from the large grotto of Ofnet.
After R. R. Schmidt.

people were offered in sacrifice, in which case decapitation was
the means of death. But, then, how explain the abundant orna-
ments of stag teeth and snail shells (Helix nemoralis) with which
the skulls of the women and little children were decorated,
and the treasured implements of flint with which all save one of
the men and a few of the women and children were provided?
There are precedents for all these singular features of the
Ofnet interment in other Upper Palaeolithic burials, namely, the
embedding in ochre, the offerings of ornaments of teeth and of

THE NEW RACES 479

shells, the separate interment of the skull — all these were customs
more or less characteristic of the Upper Palaeolithic, but never
observed in Neolithic times.

It will be recalled that the custom of burying the entire body,
as well as that of embedding the body in ochre, is first observed
among the late Neanderthals and obtained throughout the en-
tire Upper Palaeolithic from the Aurignacian burials of Grimaldi
to the Azilian of Mas d'Azil. No other case, however, is known
of the westward turning of the face: in most of the Upper Pa-
laeolithic burials the face of the departed looks toward the open-
ing of the grotto; but, although the grotto of Of net opens toward
the southwest, the skulls, without exception, were facing exactly
to the west and looking toward the wall rather than toward the
entrance of the cavern.

The New Broad-Headed and Narrow-Headed Races of

Ofnet

The burials at Ofnet are the first observed in western Europe
which present a mingling of races. This in itself is a fact of
great interest ; it is a prelude to what characterizes all the popu-
lations of western Europe at the present time, namely, the pres-
ence of races widely separated in origin and in anatomical struc-
ture, but closely united by similar customs, industries, and
beliefs.

A second fact of even greater importance is the proof of
the arrival in western Europe toward the close of Palaeolithic
times of two entirely new human stocks ; one broad-headed, re-
sembling the modern Alpine or Celtic type; the other narrow-
headed, resembling the modern 'Mediterranean' type of Sergi.
Beside these pure types there are several blended forms which
are intermediate or mesaticephalic.

Of the eight brachycephalic heads, six are those of children ;
the two adult brachycephalic crania belong to young women
and are, therefore, not quite so characteristic as male skulls
would be, for in general racial type is more strongly marked in

480 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

men than in women ; the remaining skulls are either of a blended
form or purely dolichocephalic.

The relationship of the broad-headed race to other prehis-
toric and existing broad-headed races of western Europe is also
a matter of very great interest. The Ofnet brachycephals are
regarded by Schliz13 as closely similar to the type skull of the
so-called Grenelle race, which, in turn, is closely similar to the
Furfooz type. Thus the cephalic index of one (Fig. 255) of
these broad, flattened skulls of Ofnet is 83.33 Per cent; the face
is relatively narrow, the zygomatic index being low — 76.34 per
cent; the brain capacity of the female skulls does not exceed
1,320 c.cm. The skull is further described as small, smooth,
and delicately modelled, with a correspondingly feeble dentition,
the teeth being small; the processes of muscular attachment
are slightly developed, all of which characters indicate that the
skull belonged to a woman about twenty-five years of age. The
forehead is low, broad, and prominent. It is altogether typically
parallel to the ' skull of Grenelle,' as well as to the female ' skull
of Au vernier' described by Kollmann. The peculiarity of this
broad-headed race, like that of Grenelle and of Furfooz, is that,
while the forehead is of only moderate breadth, the posterior
part of the skull is extremely broad. The broad-headed people
of Ofnet are thus definitely considered by Schliz14 as members
of the Furfooz- Grenelle race.

The narrow-headed race of the Ofnet burials is distinct in
every respect and presents resemblances to the branch of the
1 Mediterranean' race found in the foreground of the Alpine re-
gions to-day, in which the head is of a pear-shaped type. The
best preserved of these dolichocephalic skulls (Fig. 255) presents
an index of 70.50 per cent, with a brain capacity in the male of
1,500 c.cm., while the smallest brain capacity is that found in
one of the female skulls with 1,100 c.cm. Among the five adult
purely dolichocephalic skulls the face is not in the least of the
broad or disharmonic Cro-Magnon type, but is in proportion
with the cranium, and is thus truly harmonic. The resemblance
of this narrow-headed Ofnet skull to that of the Briinn race,

THE NEW RACES 481

which we have described as occurring in Moravia in Solutrean
times, is only partial, and Schliz concludes that among the narrow-
headed people of Ofnet we have a form of dolichocephaly which
is not identical with any of the known early dolichocephalic forms
of western Europe, but which pursues an independent line of
development similar to the narrow-headed races in the borders
of the Alpine region of the present day. Thus this head type,
of a uniform elliptic contour, seems to have become a stable
racial element of the Alpine population, since we meet it again
in later prehistoric times in the region of the southern and west-
ern foreground of the Alps. Among the children's skulls, two
are of the narrow-headed, pear-shaped type similar to the Alpine
dolichocephals of to-day, that is, with a narrow forehead and very
broad posterior portions of the skull.

Central Origin of the Broad-Headed (Alpine?)

Races

The affinity of the broad-headed Azilian-Tardenoisian tribes
of the Danube to those found in the Upper Palaeolithic of north-
western Europe seems to be clearly established. The latter are
sometimes known as the Grenelle race and sometimes as the Fur-
fooz race. Boule15 observes in regard to the skeletal remains
of Grenelle which were found in the alluvium near Paris, in 1870,
that it is quite impossible now, forty years after their discovery,
to demonstrate their geologic antiquity. This is not the case
with the Furfooz broad-heads, the age of which we regard as
well established, but since the head type appears to be the
same in both cases, we may speak of this race as the Furfooz-
Grenelle.

In a cave near Furfooz, in the valley of the Lesse, Belgium,
sixteen skeletons were discovered by Dupont in 1867. With the
bones were found implements of reindeer horn and remains of
the late Pleistocene fauna of northern Europe.16 The reindeer
and the tundra fauna of Belgium were contemporaneous with the
early Tardenoisian culture and with the stag and forest fauna

482

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

Fig. 256. Broad-headed skull of uncertain archaeologic age, either Palaeolithic or Neo-
lithic, discovered at Grenelle, near Paris, in 1870. After de Quatrefages
and Hamy. One-quarter life size.

of southern France, so that the skeletons of Furfooz may safely
be referred to Azilian-Tardenoisian times.

Only two of the Furfooz skulls were preserved in good shape ;
they are of brachycephalic or sub-brachycephalic form, and, fol-

FiG. 257. Opening of the grotto of Furfooz on the Lesse, a tributary of the Meuse, near

Namur, Belgium, where the skeletal remains of 16 individuals and the type skulls

of the broad-headed Furfooz race were discovered in 1867. After Dupont.

THE NEW RACES

483

Fig. 258. Section of the grotto of Furfooz, showing the burial of 16 skeletons of

the Furfooz race and the entrance of the grotto blocked by a

, mass of stone. After Dupont.

lowing the suggestion of de Quatrefages and Hamy, these skulls
have been spoken of as belonging to the ' brachy cephalic Furfooz
race.' The men of this race may certainly be regarded as be-
longing to Upper Palaeolithic times, whereas the brachycephalic

Fig. 259. One of the type skulls of the broad-headed Furfooz race, from the burial
grotto of Furfooz, Belgium. After de Quatrefages and Hamy. One-
quarter life size.

484

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

"race found at Grenelle, near Paris, is probably Neolithic. This
by no means prevents the Furfooz and the Grenelle types belong-
ing to the same general brachy cephalic race ; it is altogether
probable that they do, and that with them may be included the
Ofnet broad-heads.

There are several opinions regarding the geographic centres
from which these broad-heads entered Europe; it is generally

Fig. 260. Restoration of the broad-headed man of Grenelle, modelled
by Mascre, under the direction of A. Rutot. This type of head is similar
to that of Ofnet.

believed that they came from the high plateaus of central Asia.
By Giuffrida-Ruggeri the Furfooz race is identified with the
existing broad-headed Alpine race {Homo sapiens alpinus), and
is mistakenly adduced as proof that the Alpine race originated
in Europe and is not in any way related to the Mongolian races
of central Asia. A more conservative view17 is that the recent
European broad-headed types commonly included under the
Alpine race cannot yet be traced back to the Furfooz- Grenelle
ancestors, because their connection is too problematical. Schliz,

THE NEW RACES 485

on the other hand, considers that the Furfooz-Grenelle race sur-
vived in northwestern Europe and corresponds with that which
became the builders of the megalithic dolmens of Neolithic times,
the latter being but slightly modified descendants of the original
Furfooz race ; he believes, moreover, that these broad-headed
peoples first occupied central Europe and then extended to west-
ern Europe, where they correspond to the Alpine race, at least in
part ; that they also migrated to the north and were the basis
of the broad-headed races now found in Holland and Denmark.

Southern Origin of the Narrow-Headed
(Mediterranean?) Races

While it seems probable that the broad-heads represent a cen-
tral migration from Eurasia, evidence of an industrial and cul-
tural character indicates that the narrow-heads came from the
south ; this is seen both in the south Mediterranean origin of
the Tardenoisian flint industry and in the new schematic influ-
ences on the decadent art of Upper Palaeolithic times.

It seems, observes Breuil, as if the schematic influences in
art during Upper Palaeolithic times always extend from the
south toward the north; they predominate entirely in the
painted rocks of Andalusia, in the Pyrenees, and in Dordogne.
In the grotto of Marsoulas, Haute-Garonne, the Azilian motifs
are clearly superposed upon the Magdalenian polychromes. This
purely schematic phase, which abruptly follows the figure art
of middle Magdalenian times, first made itself felt in the late
Magdalenian. There was a sudden loss of realism which does
not indicate affiliation but rather the infiltration of strange ele-
ments from the south ; the precursors of the destructive invasion
of the Azilian-Tardenoisian tribes who were driven from their
Mediterranean homes by the westward advance of the conquer-
ing Neolithic races. We imagine18 that in southern Spain there
dwelt in Upper Palaeolithic times a population differing from the
Magdalenians of France and of the Cantabrian Mountains in
their lower artistic tastes. It would therefore appear that the

486 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

schematic art had its home toward the south of the peninsula
of Spain about the time of the invasion of the Azilian culture in
France.

Northern Origin of the Baltic (Teutonic?) Races

For the first time the retreat of the Scandinavian ice-fields
and the less severe climate permitted a northern migration route
along the shores of the Baltic. This is the first known migra-
tion of any tribes along this route, which throughout all glacial
times had been blocked by the vicinity of the Scandinavian and
Baltic ice-fields, but which was now opened by the approach of
the more genial climate which succeeded the long Postglacial
Stage. Whether this Baltic invasion was the advance wave of
a northern long-headed Teutonic race is wholly a matter of
conjecture.

"Other peoples/' observes Breuil,19 "known at present only
from their industries, were advancing toward the close of the
Upper Palaeolithic along the northern and southern shores of the
Baltic and persisted for an appreciable time before the arrival of
the tribes introducing the early Neolithic Campignian culture
which accumulated in the kitchen-middens along the same shores.
Like the southern races of Azilian-Tardenoisian times, . these
northerly tribes were truly Pre-Neolithic, ignorant both of agri-
culture and of pottery; they brought with them no domesti-
cated animals excepting the dog, which is known at Mugem,
at Tourasse, and at Oban, in northwestern Scotland. In the use
of bone harpoons of elegant form and in the taste displayed in
fine decorations engraved upon bone, these tribes suggest the
culture of the Magdalenians, but a close examination shows that
it could not have been derived from the Magdalenian type.
The community of style with the painted and engraved figures
found in western Siberia and in the central Ural region and
north of the Altai Mountains denotes rather an Asiatic and
Siberian origin.

"The decorative designs of these Baltic peoples were very
different from those of the Cro-Magnons in Magdalenian times,

THE NEW RACES

487

and are not schematic ; the conception of the animal figures, al-
though naturalistic, is as crude as that of the early Aurignacian
figures, and is far inferior to that of the Magdalenian stage." "it
is probable," continues Breuil, "that in these northerly regions
the closing cultures of the Upper Palaeolithic developed along

Fig. 261. Implements and decorations showing the conventional and crude animal
designs of the art of the Baltic, from Maglemose, Denmark. After Reinecke and
Obermaier. The implements include bone harpoons, fish-hooks, horn chisels, awls,
spear points, and smoothers. About one-fifth actual size.

more or less parallel lines with those observed in the south in
giving rise to ethnographic elements which travelled along the
littoral regions of the northern seas."

This race and culture is described by Obermaier20 as follows:
When primitive man took possession of Denmark the sea-
coast was so remote that he could also reach southern Scandi-
navia. The station of Maglemose in the 'Great Moor,' discov-
ered and described by F. L. Sarauw, of Copenhagen, in 1900, is

488 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

near the harbor of Mullerup on the western coast of Zealand
and not far from the shore of an ancient freshwater lake forma-
tion. These people were lake-dwellers, living perhaps on rafts
but not on dwellings supported by piles. From these rafts it is
supposed the implements dropped into the lake. The 88 1 flint
implements found here include scrapers, borers, cleavers, and
knives, as well as microlithic flints. They show no trace of the
Neolithic art of polishing, merely suggesting certain chipped
styles observed in the 'kjoddenmoddings.' (See Figs. 263, 264,
and 265.) The influence of the Palaeolithic is much stronger,
especially in the case of the microlithic Tardenoisian types. In
the industrial culture of Maglemose, however, far more impor-
tant than stone are implements of horn and bone. These the
Maglemose folk obtained from the wild ox, moose, stag, and roe-
deer, fashioning them into tools of various types, some of which
are shown in Fig. 261. Many of these tools are ornamented
with conventional designs or very crude animal outlines on one
or both surfaces.

The forests of this time consisted of the characteristic north-
ern flora including numerous evergreens, the birch, aspen, hazel,
and elm, but without any trace of the oak. There is absolutely
no trace of pottery in the Maglemose deposits. Of great inter-
est is the fact that skeletal remains of the domestic dog are found
here.

The Maglemose culture of the Baltic region is regarded as
contemporary with the Azilian and Tardenoisian in the south.
It contains types, not of flint but of bone, which are prophetic of
the Neolithic. Traces of this culture have been found through-
out northern Germany, in Denmark, and in southern Sweden,
as well as to the east and in the Baltic provinces. Although no
human remains have as yet been discovered, it is highly prob-
able that these people belonged to the northern Teutonic races.

ANCESTRY OF EUROPEAN RACES 489

Conclusion as to the Relationships of the Paleolithic

Races

Thus in southern, central, and northern Europe the close of
Upper Palaeolithic times is marked by the invasion of new Eura-
siatic races, all in a Pre-Neolithic stage of industry and art. It
is not improbable that these races were advance waves from the
same geographic regions as the Neolithic tribes which followed
them.

From the earliest Palaeolithic to Neolithic times it does not
appear that western Europe was ever a centre of human evolu-
tion in the sense that it gave rise to a single new species of man.
The main racial evolution and the earlier and later branches of
the human family were established in the east and successively
found their way westward ; nor is there at present any ground
for believing that any very prolonged evolution or transforma-
tion of human types occurred in western Europe.

We should regard as wholly unproved the notion that either
of these Palaeolithic races of western Europe gave rise to others
which succeeded them in geologic time; the only sequence of
this sort to which some degree of probability may be attached is
that the Heidelberg race was ancestral to the Neanderthal race.

In most instances, such races as the Piltdown, the Cro-Magnon,
the Brunn, the Furfooz-Grenelle, and the Mediterranean arrived
fully formed, with all their mental and physical attributes and
tendencies very distinctly developed. There is some evidence,
but not of a very conclusive kind, that the modification of cer-
tain of these races in western Europe was partly in the nature of
a decline ; this was apparently the case both with the Neander-
thals and with the Cro-Magnons.

We may therefore imagine that the family tree or lines of
descent of the races of the Old Stone Age consisted of a number
of entirely separate branches, which had been completely formed
in the great Eurasiatic continent, a land mass infinitely larger
and more capable of producing a variety of races than the dimin-
utive peninsular area of western Europe.

490

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

A review of these races in descending order, in respect to
stature, the cephalic index, and brain capacity, is presented in
the following table :

Recent.
(H. sapiens).

European (average)

Upper Paleolithic.

Ofnet Race (brachyce-
phalic)

Ofnet Race (dolichoce-
phalic)

Cro-Magnon Race (old
man of Cro-Magnon

type)

Grimaldi (Cro-Ma-

gnons)

Chancelade

Aurignac

Grimaldi Race.

Grimaldi type (ne-
groid)

Briinn Race.

Briinn I

Lower Paleolithic.
Neanderthal Race (H.
Neanderlhalensis) .

La Chapelle

Spy II

Spy I

La Ferrassie I

La Ferrassie II

La Quina

Krapina D

Neanderthal

Gibraltar

Pre-Neanderthaloids
Piltdown Race.
Piltdown

Trinil Race (Pithecan-
thropus)

Anthropoid Apes.
Apes (maximum) ,

Frontal
Angle

90

75

65
67
57-5

66
62

66 or
73-74

52. 5
56

Height of
Skull

59

51.22

42.2
40.4
40

34-2

37-7

Cephalic
Index

86.21
70.50

73-76

.'63-

? 76.27
72.02
65.7

69.27

65 • 7 or
68.2

75

75-7

7o

?83.7
73-9
77-9

? 78 or
?79

73 -4 or

7o

Brain
Capacity

ccm.
1 400- 1 500

1400
1500

I590
1775-1880

1700

1580
I350

1626

? 1723
? 1562

1367
(approx.)

1408
1250 or
1296

? 1300
? 1500

850-1000
900

600

Height

ft. in.
5 7

6
5 ">#-

6 4%

4 11

5 3

5 1

5 3
5 3
5 4
5 5
4 103

5 4

5 7

Comparative

Length of Arm

and Leg

69.73'

66.05%-
69%

63.12'

?68%
68%

104%

(chimpanzee

minimum.)

The chief authorities for these
ward, Boule, Sollas, Sera, Klaatsch,

measurements are Schwalbe, Dubois, Keith, Smith Wood-
Fraipont, Makowsky, Verneau, Testut, and Broca.

RECENT

NEOLITHIC 2. l.'lo

If

If

%
t
%

\
%

— %_

1 Races b&lon&ini

t*

tgmg

{Existing Species of Mo
He

UJ

o

0£

*B* belbnginjt \

, . r .•*° * *-

ill* jExttyct Stfecles

\ ' l°ff

V

Cdmnvon Ancestors

of

Extinct anal Existing Species bj Man

lomo isatnens

$
t

0

$
/
/

Fig. 262. Tree showing the main theoretic lines of descent of the chief Pre-Neolithic
races discovered in western Europe. (The Grimaldi race is omitted on account of its
aberrant character. The northern Teutonic long-heads are also omitted.) The
Trinil, Heidelberg, and Neanderthal races are represented as offshoots of one great
branch. The Piltdown race is represented as an independent branch of quite unknown
relations to the other races. It is probable that the five or six branches of Homo sapiens
discovered in the Upper Palaeolithic separated from each other in Lower Palaeolithic
times in Asia. Of these the Briinn race is by far the most primitive.

492 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

The migration routes of invasion of the successive Lower
Palaeolithic races — the Piltdown, the Heidelberg, and the Nean-
derthal— are entirely unknown ; we can only infer from the wide
distribution of the Chellean and Acheulean cultures to the south,
along the northern African coast, as well as to the east, that
these races may have had a southerly or circum-Mediterranean
origin. This does not mean that either of these Lower Palaeolithic
races were of negroid or Ethiopian affinity, because the Neander-
thals show absolutely no negroid characters. In fact, through-
out all Palaeolithic time the solitary instance of the two Grimaldi
skeletons furnishes the sole anatomical evidence we possess of
the entrance of a negroid people into Europe, which contrasts
widely with the overwhelming evidence of the dominance in
western Europe first of the non-negroid Neanderthals, and then
of the Cro-Magnons who probably belonged to the Caucasian
stock.

The evidence as to the sources and migrations of the Upper
Palaeolithic races is also indirect. The theory of the Cro-Magnons
entering Europe by the southerly or Mediterranean route we
have seen to rest upon purely cultural or industrial grounds,
namely, the spread of the Aurignacian industry around the
Mediterranean shores. On the other hand, the succeeding cul-
ture, the Solutrean, and the succeeding race to enter Europe, the
Briinn, both appear to be of central or of direct easterly origin.
It is only toward the close of the Upper Palaeolithic that an-
other southerly or Mediterranean invasion occurs, bringing in
the microlithic Tardenoisian culture, which, although anatomical
evidence is wanting, would appear to be an advance wave of the
great invasion of the true 'Mediterranean' race. During the
Upper Palaeolithic Epoch another invasion apparently occurs
from the east along the central migration route, namely, that of
the broad-headed Furfooz-Grenelle races.

Thus in surveying the whole period of the Old Stone Age
we find that there is some evidence for the theory of an alterna-
tion of southerly, of easterly, and finally of northeasterly inva-
sions of races bringing in new industries and ideas.

TRANSITION TO THE NEOLITHIC

493

Transition to the Neolithic. The Campignian.
The Robenhausian

Apart from the special and somewhat debated question of
the place of the Campignian culture in the prehistory of Europe
we may close our survey of the Upper Palaeolithic by pointing
out some of its contrasts with the Neolithic.

The arrival of the Neolithic cultures and industries in
western Europe marks one of the most profound changes in all

Fig. 263. Stages in the manufacture of the Neolithic stone ax, or hache. After de Mor-
tillet. 534. Hache of flint, roughly flaked into shape, from Olendon, Calvados. 535.
Hache of flint from Oise, ready for polishing. It has been finely chipped to a shape
of perfect symmetry, with especial care to smooth out and reduce the large facets made
by the preliminary flaking. 536. Hache of flint after the first polishing, from Abbeville,
on the Somme. The cutting edge has been completely polished, but along the sides
the facets made by flaking are plainly visible. 537. Hache of flint completely polished,
from Le Vesinet, Seine-et-Oise. In this last stage one scarcely notices the faint traces
of facets which show that this hache has passed through all the preceding stages.
Two-ninths actual size.

prehistory and introduces us to a new period which must be
treated in an entirely different historic spirit. This new era
began between 7,000 to 10,000 years ago, or with the close of
the Daun stage, the last geologic feature of Postglacial times.

There are two theories regarding the close of Upper Palaeo-
lithic and the beginning of Neolithic times. The older theory,
which still has some adherents, is that the Upper Palaeolithic
races and industries suddenly gave way before the arrival of
new and superior races bringing in the Neolithic culture. The
newer theory is that there are evidences of gradual transfusions

494

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

from the Upper Palaeolithic into the Neolithic cultures and that
these are found in some of the oldest Neolithic sites.

In 1898 there appeared an ar-
ticle21 by Philippe Salmon, d'Ault
du Mesnil, and Capitan, entitled,
"Le Campignien," defending the
theory of an early and transitional
Neolithic stage, the Campignian.22
The type station of this early cul-
ture was pointed out by Salmon in
1886 ; it lies a little more than a
mile northwest of the village of
Bresle, on a site well
The remains of the

Fig. 264. Stone hatchet, or tranchet,
from the type station of Campigny,
after Salmon, d'Ault du Mesnil, and
Capitan. One-half actual size.

Blangy, on the River
placed for natural defense,
hut-dwellings of this camp and of various indus-
trial objects appear to indicate that this station
belongs to the earliest phase of the Neolithic
Period. These Campignians owe little to the
culture or industry of the races which previously
occupied this region of western Europe ; they
are entire strangers, purely Neolithic in type.

While this is the age of polished, as dis-
tinguished from chipped, stone, the axe (hache)
of polished stone is still very rare in the Cam-
pignian. There prevail flaked flint types com-
mon to all the previous stages of the Stone Age,
such as the knives (couteaux), planers (grattoirs),
and spear or dart heads (pointes de sagaie), but
we notice the appearance of two entirely new
flint implements : first, the triangular knife or
stone hatchet (tranchet), of the type (Fig. 264)
common in the Danish kitchen-middens ; this
knife has a broad, sharp cutting edge flaked on
one side; second (Fig. 265), there is a sort of
elongated axe or pick (pic) with chipped sides and an end more
or less conical in shape.23 These people also made use of large

Fig. 265. Stone
pick, or pic, from
the type station of
Campigny, after
Salmon, d'Ault du
Mesnil, and Capi-
tan. About one-
half actual size.

TRANSITION TO THE NEOLITHIC 495

flakes of flint. If we regard the Campignian as a prolonged
industrial stage in northern Europe, it certainly precedes the
appearance of abundant axe heads of polished flint. In France
it seems to appear occasionally as a local phase of the
Neolithic.

Fig. 266. Restoration of the Neolithic man of Spiennes, Belgium, modelled
by Mascre under the direction of A. Rutot.

The prevailing opinion at present is that the Campignian
distinctly precedes the typical Neolithic of the Swiss lake-
dwellings, a stage known as the Robenhausian. Thus the Neo-
lithic culture becomes fully established in the period of the
Swiss Lake Dwellings, remains of which are found at Moossee-
dorf, Wauwyl, Concise on Lake Neufchatel, and Robenhausen
on Lake Pfaefhkon. The latter is the Robenhausian type
station.

496 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

Distinctive Features of the Neolithic Epoch

The first of these is the presence of implements of polished
stone which find their way gradually into western Europe.
The neoliths at first are greatly outnumbered by chipped and
flaked implements, and some of the latter show a survival of
the familiar types of the Old Stone Age, while others belong to
entirely distinct types which had an independent development
in the far East.

The chief economic change is seen in the rudimentary knowl-
edge of agriculture and in the use of a variety of plants and seeds,
accompanied by the gradual appearance of implements for the
preparation of the soil and for harvesting the crops. This new
source of food supply leads to the establishment of permanent
stations and camps and more or less to the abandonment of
nomadic modes of life. Near the ancient camp sites and villages,
therefore, are found implements for the preparation of skins and
hides, because the chase was still maintained for purposes of
clothing as well as for food.

Still more distinctive of the Neolithic is the introduction of
pottery, which is at first used in the preparation of food. In
the hearths or kitchen-middens and in the refuse heaps of the
camps we no longer find evidence of the splitting of the jaws of
mammals and of the long and short bones of the limbs, or even
of the larger foot bones, in search of marrow, which is such a
universal feature of the Upper Palaeolithic deposits.

The artistic impulse of the north is very crude and natural-
istic. In the Spanish peninsula, accompanying and following the
schematic period described in the early part of this chapter, there
was a long stage of development in which men were painting on
rocks, mostly in the form of silhouettes, naturalistic figures of
animals and of people.24

The presence of the moose in these drawings concurs with
that of the two bison represented in the cavern of Cogul and
would tend to indicate that these paintings belong to Upper
Palaeolithic times, and it is now considered that they are

NEOLITHIC CULTURE

497

of late Palaeolithic age. The character of these animal designs
is totally different from that of the Magdalenian period in the
north and is analogous rather to that of the Bushmen of South
Africa. The authors of these frescos represent not only the
ibex, stag, and wild cattle but also the horse, moose, fallow deer,
wolf, and occasionally the birds. There are many features in
this art which show its absolute independence of origin from

Fig. 267. Fresco from the rock shelter of Alpera, Albacete, Spain, painted in dark red
and representing a stag hunt, the hunters being armed with bows and arrows. Attrib-
uted to southern races arriving in late Palaeolithic times. After Breuil and Obermaier.

that of the Magdalenian of the north, among them the fre-
quent presence of composition and the almost invariable pres-
ence of human figures.

The frescos in the Spanish caverns of Alpera and of Cogul
recall those of southern France but are almost always grouped
in series of the chase, of encampment, and perhaps of war. This
frequency of human figures, the representations of the bow and
arrow, and the presence of a small animal which may be recog-
nized as the domesticated dog are indications of an entirely dis-
tinct race coming from the south and bringing in a new spirit
in art which has no relation whatever to that of the Magdalenian.

498 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

Neolithic Mammalian Life

Even in the oldest Neolithic deposits no trace of the horse
as an object of food appears. The domestication of this animal
was introduced from the east, and thus it ceased to be an object
of the chase. The newly arriving tribes were undoubtedly at-
tracted by the abundance of horses, both of the forest and Celtic
types, which had survived from Upper Palaeolithic times. A
very distinctive feature of the modern horses, however, should
be mentioned, that is, the presence of a forelock covering the
face, no trace of which is indicated in any of the Upper Palaeo-
lithic carvings or engravings.

The wild animal life of western Europe at this time is a direct
survival of the great Eurasiatic forest and meadow fauna which
we have traced from the earliest Palaeolithic times. It includes
the bison, the long-horned urus, the stag, the roe-deer, the
moose, the wild boar, the forest horse, the Celtic horse, the
beaver, the hare, and the squirrel. The fallow deer (Cervus dama)
also appears more abundantly. Among the carnivora are the
brown bear, the badger, the marten, the otter, the wolf, the
fox, the wildcat, and the wolverene. The lion has disappeared
entirely from western Europe. The reindeer survives only in
the north.

As observed above, two of these wild animals were early
chosen by the invaders for domestication, namely, the plateau
or Celtic horse and the forest horse. The former type is found
in the Neolithic deposits of Essex, England. The wild urus (Bos
primigenius) was hunted but was not domesticated.

Two new varieties of domestic cattle appear, neither of which
has been previously observed in western Europe. The first of
these is the 'Celtic shorthorn' (Bos hmgijrons), the probable
ancestor of the small breeds of British short-horned and horn-
less cattle. The second is the 'longhorn' (Bos taurus), which
shows some points of resemblance to the ' urus ' (Bos primigenius)
but is not directly related to it. Direct wild ancestors of this
latter animal are said to occur in the Pleistocene of Italy. A

NEOLITHIC FAUNA

499

new type of pig also appears, the so-called turf pig (Sus scrofa
palustris) .

The Neolithic invaders, or men of the New Stone Age, thus
brought with them, or domesticated from among the animals
which they found in the forests of western Europe, a great variety
of the same types of animals as those domesticated to-day,
namely, cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, horses, and dogs.

Fig. 268. Map showing the geographic distribution of the three principal cranial types
of man inhabiting western Europe at the present time. Prepared after Ripley's maps
in his Races of Europe. Also the restricted area neighboring the Vezere valley, where
the supposed descendants of the disharmonic type of the Cro-Magnons are still to be
found. Other small Cro-Magnon colonies are not represented. The heavy-faced lines
show those districts where the race indicated is most numerous and found in the greatest
perfection of type.

The Prehistoric and Historic Races of Europe

Before the close of Neolithic times all the direct ancestors
of the modern races of Europe had not only established them-

500

MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

selves, but had begun to separate into those larger and smaller
colonies which now mark out the great anthropological divisions
of western Europe. It is therefore interesting to glance at the
cranial distinctions of the men who successively entered western
Europe in Upper Palaeolithic and Neolithic times. The upper
part of the table corresponds with that of Ripley.25

Type

Head

Face

Hair

Eyes

Stature

Nose

Cephalic

Index
Average
per cent

VI.

Teutonic
(? Baltic).

Long,
narrow.

High,
narrow.

Very
light,

Blue.

Tall.

Narrow,
aquiline.

75

V.

Mediter-
ranean
(POfnet).

Long,
narrow.

High,
narrow.

Dark
brown or
black.

Dark.

Medium,
slender.

Rather
broad.

75

IV.

Alpine,
Celtic
(POfnet).

Round.

Broad.

Light
chestnut.

Hazel-
gray.

Medium,
stocky.

Varia-
ble;
rather
broad;
heavy.

87

III.

Ftjrfooz-
Grenelle

(POfnet).

Broad.

Medium.

?

?

?

?

79-85

II.

Brunn-
Predmost

(Moravia).

Long.

Low,
medium.

?

?

?

?

68.2

or

65.7

I.

Cr5-

Magnon.

Long.

Low and
broad.

?

?

Tall to
medium.

Narrow,
aquiline.

?63-
? 76.27

MODERN, NEOLITHIC, AND UPPER PALEOLITHIC EUROPEAN RACES
OF THE EXISTING SPECIES OF MAN {HOMO SAPIENS)

It would appear that five out of these six great racial types
had entered Europe before the close of Upper Palaeolithic times,
namely, I to V in the above table.

How about the sixth type ; the narrow-headed, light-haired
people of the north, the modern Teutonic type? This question
cannot be answered at present We have, however, high au-

CONCLUSIONS 501

thority for the invasion of a new northern race, which may
have been of the Teutonic type, as occurring before the close
of Palaeolithic times. These were the people described above,
migrating along the shores of the Baltic with a new northern
Maglemose culture and crude naturalistic art.

Conclusions as to the Old Stone Age

The above outline of the beginnings of the Neolithic Age
shows that the Palaeolithic represents a complete cycle of human
development ; we have traced its rise, its perfection, its decline.
During this dawning period of the long prehistory of Europe
the dominant features are the very great antiquity of the spirit
of man and the fundamental similarity between the great steps
of prehistory and of history.

The rise of the spirit of man through the Old Stone Age can-
not be traced continuously in a single race because the races
were changing ; as at the present time, one race replaced another,
or two races dwelt side by side. The sudden appearance in Eu-
rope at least 25,000 years ago of a human race with a high
order of brain power and ability was not a leap forward but
the effect of a long process of evolution elsewhere. When the
prehistoric archaeology of eastern Europe and of Asia has been
investigated we may obtain some light on this antecedent de-
velopment.

During this age the rudiments of all the modern economic
powers of man were developed : the guidance of the hand by the
mind, manifested in his creative industry ; his inventive faculty ;
the currency or spread of his inventions; the adaptation of
means to ends in utensils, in weapons, and in clothing. The
same is true of the aesthetic powers, of close observation, of the
sense of form, of proportion, of symmetry, the appreciation of
beauty of animal form and the beauty of line, color, and form
in modelling and sculpture. Finally, the schematic representa-
tion and notation of ideas so far as we can perceive was alpha-
betic rather than pictographic. Of the musical sense we have
at present no evidence. The religious sense, the appreciation of

502 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE

some power or powers behind the great phenomena of nature,
is evidenced in the reverence for the dead, in burials apparently
related to notions of a future existence of the dead, and espe-
cially in the mysteries of the art of the caverns.

All these steps indicate the possession of certain generic facul-
ties of mind similar to our own. That this mind of the Upper
Palaeolithic races was of a kind capable of a high degree of edu-
cation we entertain no doubt whatever because of the very ad-
vanced order of brain which is developed in the higher members
of these ancient races ; in fact, it may be fairly assumed from
experiences in the education of existing races of much lower
brain capacity, such as the Eskimo or Fuegian. The emer-
gence of such a mind from the mode of life of the Old Stone Age
is one of the greatest mysteries of psychology and of history.

The rise and fall of cultures and of industries, which is at
this very day the outstanding feature of the history of western
Europe, was fully typified in the very ancient contests with
stone weapons which were waged along the borders of the Somme,
the Marne, the Seine, and the Danube. No doubt, each inva-
sion, each conquest, each substitution of an industry or a cul-
ture had within it the impelling contest of the spirit and will of
man, the intelligence directing various industrial and warlike
implements, the superiority either of force or of mind.

(i) Cartailhac, 1903. 1, pp. 330, 331. (13) Schliz, 1912.1, pp. 242-244.

(2) Dechelette, 1908. 1, vol. I, pp. (14) Op. cit., p. 252.

314-320. (15) Boule, 1913.1, p. 210.

(3) Op. cit., p. 320. (16) Dupont, 1871.1.

(4) Op. cit., pp. 505-510. (17) Fischer, 1913.1, p. 356.

(5) Breuil, 1912.6, pp. 2-6. (18) Breuil, 1912.5.

(6) Ibid., 1912.7, pp. 232, 233. (19) Ibid., 1912.7, PP- 235, 236.

(7) Ibid., 191 2.6, p. 20. (20) Obermaier, 191 2.1, pp. 467-469.

(8) Koken, 1912.1, pp. 172, 173, 176- (21) Salmon, 1898. 1.

178, 180, 181, 201. (22) Munro, 1912.1, pp. 275-277.

(9) Schmidt, 1912.1, p. 40. (23) Dechelette, iqoS.i, vol. I, p. 326.

(10) Breuil, 191 2.7, p. 225. (24) Breuil, 1912.5, p. 560.

(11) Op. cit., p. 233. (25) Ripley, 1899. 1, p. 121.

(12) Schmidt, 1912.1, p. 41.

APPENDIX

NOTE I

LUCRETIUS AND BOSSUET ON THE EARLY EVOLUTION OF MAN

Lucretius's conception* of the gradual development of human culture
undoubtedly came from Greek sources beginning with Empedocles. His
indebtedness is beautifully expressed in the opening lines of Book III of
his De Rerum Natura :

"0 Glory of the Greeks! who first didst chase
The mind's dread darkness with celestial day,
The worth illustrating of human life —
Thee, glad, I follow — with firm foot resolved
To tread the path imprinted by thy steps;
Not urged by competition, but, alone,
Studious thy toils to copy; for, in powers,
How can the swallow with the swan contend?
Or the young kid, all tremulous of limb,
Strive with the strength, the fleetness of the horse;
Thou, sire of science ! with paternal truths
Thy sons enrichest: from thy peerless page,
Illustrious chief ! as from the flowery field
Th' industrious bee culls honey, we alike
Cull many a golden precept — golden each —
And each most worthy everlasting life.

For as the doctrines of thy godlike mind
Prove into birth how nature first uprose,
All terrors vanish; the blue walls of heaven
Fly instant — and the boundless void throughout
Teems with created things."

The same conceptionf of the early periods in the development of human-
ity is found in the Histoire universelle of Bossuet, in a curious passage un-
doubtedly suggested by Lucretius:

"Tout commence: il n'y a point d'histoire ancienne ou il ne paraisse,
non seulement dans ces premiers temps, mais encore longtemps apres, des
vestiges manifestes de la nouveaute du monde. On voit les lois s'etablir,

* Lucretius, On the Nature of Things, metrical version by J. M. Good. Bohn's Classical
Library, London, 1890.

f Bossuet, Jacques Benigne, Discours sur V Histoire universelle (first published in 168 1),
pp. 9, 10. Edition conforme a celle de 1700, troisieme et derniere edition revue par l'au-
teur. Paris, Librairie de Firmin Didot Freres, 1845.

503

504 APPENDIX

les mceurs se polir, et les empires se former: le genre humain sort peu a,
peu de l'ignorance; l'experience l'instruit, et les arts sont inventes ou per-
fectionnes. A mesure que les hommes se multiplient, la terre se peuple
de proche en proche: on passe les montagnes et les precipices; on traverse
les fleuves et enfin les mers, et on etablit de nouvelles habitations. La terre,
qui n'etait au commencement qu'une foret immense, prend une autre forme;
les bois abattus font place aux champs, aux paturages, aux hameaux, aux
bourgades, et enfin aux villes. On s'instruit a prendre certains animaux,
a apprivoiser les autres, et a les accoutumer au service. On eut d'abord
a combattre les betes farouches: les premiers heros se signalerent dans ces
guerres; elles firent in venter les armes, que les hommes tournerent apres
contre leurs semblables. Nemrod, le premier guerrier et le premier con-
querant, est appele dans Fecriture un fort chasseur. Avec les animaux,
l'homme sut encore adoucir les fruits et les plantes; il plia jusqu'aux metaux
a son usage, et peu a peu il y fit servir toute la nature."

NOTE II

HORACE ON THE EARLY EVOLUTION OF MAN

Horace* also adopted the Greek conception of the natural evolution
of human culture:

"Your men of words, who rate all crimes alike,
Collapse and founder, when on fact they strike:
Sense, custom, all, cry out against the thing,
And high expedience, right's perennial spring.
When men first crept from out earth's womb, like worms,
Dumb speechless creatures, with scarce human forms,
With nails or doubled fists they used to fight
For acorns or for sleeping-holes at night;
Clubs followed next; at last to arms they came,
Which growing practice taught them how to frame,
Till words and names were found, wherewith to mould
The sounds they uttered, and their thoughts unfold;
Thenceforth they left off fighting, and began
To build them cities, guarding man from man,
And set up laws as barriers against strife
That threatened person, property, or wife.
'Twas fear of wrong gave birth to right, you'll find,
If you but search the records of mankind.
Nature knows good and evil, joy and grief,
But just and unjust are beyond her brief:
Nor can philosophy, though finely spun,
By stress of logic prove the two things one,
To strip your neighbor's garden of a flower
And rob a shrine at midnight's solemn hour."

*The Satires, Epistles and Ars Poetica of Horace, the Latin Text with Conington's
Translation, pp. 29, 31. George Bell & Sons, London, 1904.

APPENDIX 505

NOTE III

.ESCHYLUS ON THE EARLY EVOLUTION OF MAN

iEschylus, in Prometheus Bound,* presents one of the earliest known as
well as one of the noblest conceptions of the natural development of the
human faculties:

"And let me tell you — not as taunting men,
But teaching you the intention of my gifts,
How, first beholding, they beheld in vain,
And hearing, heard not, but, like shapes in dreams,
Mixed all things wildly down the tedious time,
Nor knew to build a house against the sun
With wicketed sides, nor any woodwork knew,
But lived, like silly ants, beneath the ground
In hollow caves unsunned. There came to them
No steadfast sign of winter, nor of spring
Flower-perfumed, nor of summer full of fruit,
But blindly and lawlessly they did all things,
Until I taught them how the stars do rise
And set in mystery, and devised for them
Number, the inducer of philosophies,
The synthesis of Letters, and, beside,
The artificer of all things, Memory
That sweet Muse-mother."

NOTE IV

'UROCHS,' OR ' AUEROCHS,' AND ' WISENT '

Kobeltf discusses the habits of the wild cattle and of the bison as fol-
lows:

"One is inclined to consider the ancient wild cattle of Europe, the
Urochs, or Auerochs, as the inhabitants of boggy forests. The Auerochs
survived to the seventeenth century in the forests of Poland and then be-
came extinct. It is described as of a black color with a light stripe along
the back.

" The bison, or Wisent, is generally regarded as the inhabitant of the
open steppe, or at least of dryer, opener woods; it differs so little from the
American bison that both can be considered only as races of one species,
the Bison priscus of Pleistocene times, which spread over the temperate zone
of both hemispheres. The American bison has always avoided the woods
and roamed the prairies in countless herds. But all reliable historic records
describe the Wisent as a forest animal, and its few remaining survivors are

* iEschylus, Prometheus Bound. Elizabeth Barrett Browning. Poetical Works of
Elizabeth Barrett Browning, pp. 148, 149- Oxford edition, 1906. Henry Frowde, London,
Edinburgh, Glasgow, New York, and Toronto.

f Kobelt, W., Die Verbreitung der Tierwelt, pp. 403-7. C. H. Tauchnitz, Leipsic, 1902.

506 APPENDIX

entirely limited to the forests. Apparently it was never so widely and gen-
erally distributed as the Auerochs and reached western Europe later, for
it is not found in the north, and never in conjunction with the mammoth
and rhinoceros. Remains of the bison have also been found in Asia Minor.
In Lithuania the bison lives together in herds, resenting the approach of
all strangers. In the Caucasus it lives wild in certain high valleys and here
it is a true mountain animal, its favorite haunts being the forests of beech,
hornbeam, and evergreens from 4,000 to 8,000 feet above sea-level. Only
in winter does it descend to lower levels. It is uncertain whether the
Wisent does not also occur in Siberia. Kohn and Andree assert positively
that it is found in large numbers in the wooded mountains of Sajan, in
Siberia (1895)."

According to Kobelt, much confusion in the nomenclature of these
animals has resulted from the fact that, after the extinction of the
'Urochs,' or 'Auerochs,' in the seventeenth century, the term 'Auerochs'
was frequently used by writers as synonymous with ' Wisent,' or bison, an
entirely different animal.

NOTE V

"In the museums of the Grand Canary, Teneriffe, and Palma a con-
siderable number of prehistoric vessels are preserved. Anthropologists are
agreed that the natives of the archipelago at the time of its conquest, in
the fifteenth century, were a composite people made up of at least three
stocks: a Cro-Magnon type, a Hamitic or Berber type, and a brachyce-
phalic type. These natives were in a Neolithic stage of civilization. Their
arms were slings, clubs, and spears. Most of the people went naked, ex-
cept for a girdle round the loins, and there was no intercommunication be-
tween the islands. Their stone implements were of obsidian or of basalt.
Only four polished axes are known from the Grand Canary and one from
Gomera. The axes are of chloromelanite, and of a type contemporary
with megalithic structures in France. The first colonists probably brought
the knowledge of making pottery with them, but each island developed an
individuality of its own. Even the painted ware of the Grand Canary
appears to be of local origin and not due to external influence. Although
undoubted Lybian inscriptions in the Grand Canary and lava querns of
Iron Age type prove that the archipelago was visited before its conquest
by the Spaniards without affecting the general civilization of its inhabitants."

* Abercromby, Hon. John, The Prehistoric Pottery of the Canary Islands and Its
Makers. Royal Anthropological Institute, November 17, 1914. Nature, December 3,
1914, p. 383;

APPENDIX 507

GUANCHE CHARACTERISTICS RESEMBLING CRO-MAGNON*

The following excerpts are quoted from the account given by the dis-
tinguished anthropologist, Dr. Rene Verneau, of his observations during
a five years' residence in the Canary Islands.

Page 22.

" Without doubt the race that has played the most important role in
the Canaries is the Guanche. They were settled in all the islands, and in
Teneriffe they preserved their distinctive characteristics and customs
until the conquest by Spain in the fifteenth century.

"The Guanches, who at that time were described as giants, were of
great stature. The minimum measure of the men was 1.70 m. (5 ft. 7 in.).

"I myself met a number of men in the various islands who measured
over 1.80 m. (5 ft. 11 in.). Some attained a height of 2 m. (6 ft. 62 in.).
At Fortaventure the average height of the men was 1.84 m. (6 ft. i3o in.),
perhaps the greatest known in any people.

"It is a curious fact that the women who gave birth to such men were
comparatively small — I observed a difference of about 20 cm. (8 in.) in
che heights of the two sexes.

"Their skin was light colored — if we may believe the poet Viana — ■
and sometimes even absolutely white. Dacil, the daughter of the last
Guanche chief of Teneriffe, the valiant Bencomo, who struggled so heroi-
cally for the independence of his country, had a very white complexion and
her face was quite freckled. The hair of the true Guanche should be blond
or light chestnut, and the eyes blue.

"The most striking characteristic of the Guanche race was the shape
of the head and the features of the face. The long skull gave shape to a
beautiful forehead, well developed in every way. Behind, above the
occipital, one notices a large plane contrasting strongly with the marked
prominence of the occipital itself. In addition, the parietal eminences,
placed very high and very distinct from each other, combined to give the
head a pentagonal j or m."

Page 29.

"The Guanche chiefs were much respected. At Teneriffe the corona-
tion of the chief took place in an enclosure surrounded with stones (the
Togaror), in the presence of nobles and people. One of his nearest kins-
men brought him the insignia of power. According to Viera y Clavijo,
this was the humerus of one of his ancestors, carefully preserved in a case
of leather; according to Viana, it was the skull of one of his predecessors.

"The chief (Menceg) placed the relic on his head, pronouncing the
sacramental formula: 'I swear upon the bone of him who has borne this
royal crown, that I will imitate his acts and work for the happiness of my

* Verneau, Dr. R., Cinq annees de sejour aux ties Canaries. (Ouvrage couronne par
PAcademie des sciences, 1801.)

508 APPENDIX

subjects.' Each noble, in turn, then received the bone from the hands of
the chief, placed it upon his shoulder and swore fidelity to his sovereign. . . .
These chiefs led a very simple life: their food was like that of the people,
their apparel but little more elaborate, and their dwellings — like those of
their subjects — consisted of caves, only theirs were a little larger than those
of the common people. They did not disdain to inspect their flocks or
their harvests in person, and were, indeed, no richer than the average
mortal."

Page 31.

"Above all, the ancient Canarians sought to develop strength and
agility in their children. From an early age the boys devoted themselves
to games of skill in order to fit them to become redoubtable warriors. The
men delighted in all bodily exercises and, above all, in wrestling. At
Gran Canaria (Grande Canarie) they often held veritable tourneys, which
were attended by an immense number of people. These could not take
place without the consent of the nobles and of the high priest.

" Permission obtained, the combatants presented themselves at the
place of meeting. This was a circular or rectangular enclosure, surrounded
by a very low wall, allowing free view of the details of the combat. Each
warrior took his place upon a stone of about 40 cm. diameter (15! in.).
His offensive weapons consisted of three stones, a club, and several knives
of obsidian: his defensive weapon was a simple lance. The skill of de-
fense consisted in evading the stones by movements of the body, or parry-
ing the blows with the lance, without moving from the stone on which
stand had been taken. These combats often resulted fatally for one of
the combatants."

Page 34.

"The Guanche understood the use of the sword, and although it was
of wood (pine), it could cut, they say, as if it were of steel.

"To parry blows, they used a lance, as mentioned above, but they
also had shields made of a round of the dragon-tree (Draccena draco).

"The Guanches were, essentially shepherds. While their flocks pas-
tured they played the flute, singing songs of love or of the prowess of
their ancestors. Those songs which have come down to us show them
to have been by no means devoid of poetic inspiration.

"When the care of their stock permitted, they employed their leisure
in fishing. For this they employed various means — sometimes nets,
sometimes fish-hooks, sometimes a simple stick."

Page 47.

"The Guanches were above all troglodytes — that is to say, they lived
in caves. There is no lack of large, well-sheltered caves in the Canary
Islands. The slopes of the mountains and the walls of their ravines are
honeycombed with them. The islanders may have their choice.

APPENDIX 509

"The caves are almost never further excavated. They are used just
as they are.

" Here is a description of one of these caves, the Grotto of Goldar:
"The interior is almost square — 5 m. (16 ft. 4 in.) along the left side,
5.50 m. (18 ft.) along the right. The width at the back is 4.80 m. (15 ft.
6 in.). A second cave, much smaller, opens from the right wall. All
these walls are decorated with paintings. The ceiling is covered with a
uniform coat of red ochre, while the walls are decorated with various
geometric designs in red, black, gray, or white. High up runs a sort of
cornice painted red, and on this background, in white, are groups of two
concentric circles, whose centre is also indicated by a white spot. On
the rear wall the cornice is interrupted by triangles and stripes of red."

Page 61.

"The Guanches never polished their stone weapons."

Page 168.

"Inhabited caves are very numerous at Forta venture. The popula-
tion in certain parts — Mascona, for example — must be quite numerous to
judge by the number of these caves. At a little distance, in the place
known as Hoya de Corralejo, one may still see the Togaror, or tribal meet-
ing place. It is an almost circular enclosure about 40 m. (131 ft. 2 in.) in
diameter, surrounded by a low wall of stones. Six huts, from 2.50 to 4 m.
(8 ft. 2\ in. — 13 ft. ii in.) in diameter, designed no doubt for the sacred
animals, stood near the Togaror."

Page 245.

"A great number of Canarians still live in caves. Near Caldera de
Bandama (Gran Canaria) there is a whole village of cave dwellers."

Page 264.

At Teneriffe Dr. Verneau received hospitality in a cabin worthy of the
Palaeolithic Age.

"I had no need to make any great effort to imagine myself with a
descendant of those brave shepherds of earlier times. My host was an
example of the type — even though the costume was lacking — and his
dwelling completed the illusion. The walls, which gave free access to the
wind, supported a roof composed of unstripped tree trunks covered with
branches. Stones piled on top prevented the wind from tearing it off.

"Hung up on poles to dry were goatskins, destined to serve as sacks
for the gofio (a kind of millet), bottles for water, and shoes for the family.
A reed partition shut off a small corner where the children lay stretched
out pell mell on skins of animals. For furniture, a chest, a hollowed-out
stone which served as a lamp, shells which served the same purpose, a water
jar, three stones forming a hearth in one corner, and that was all."

(And this host was the most important personage in the place.)

510 APPENDIX

Page 289.

Another time, also at Teneriffe, Dr. Verneau had a similar experience.

"An old shepherd invited me to his house and offered me some milk.
What was my surprise on seeing the furnishing of his hut ! In one corner
was a bed of fern, near by a Guanche mill and a large jar, in all points
similar to those used by the ancient islanders. A reed flute, a wooden bowl
and a goatskin sack full of gofio completed the appointments of his home.
I could scarcely believe my eyes on examining the jar and the mill. See-
ing my astonishment, the old man explained that he had found them in
a cave where 'the Guanches' lived, and that he had used them for many
years. I could not persuade him to part with these curiosities. To my
offers of money he answered that he needed none for the short time he had
still to live."

NOTE VI

THE LENGTH OE POSTGLACIAL TIME AND THE ANTIQUITY OF THE AURIGNA-

CIAN CULTURE

The most recent discussion on the length of Postglacial time was that
held at the Twelfth International Congress of Geology, in Ottawa, in 1913
(Congres Geologique International, Compte-rendu de la XII Session, Canada,
1913, pp. 426-537). The notes abstracted by Dr. Chester A. Reeds from
the various papers are as follows:

" American estimates of Postglacial time have been made chiefly from the
recession of waterfalls since the final retreat of the great ice-fields in North
America. The retreat of the Falls of St. Anthony, Minnesota, has been
estimated by Winchell at 8,000 years and by Sardeson at 30,000 years.
The retreat of the Falls of Niagara has been estimated as requiring from
7,000 to 40,000 years; it has proved a very uncertain chronometer, because
of the great variation in the volume of water at different stages in its his-
tory. The recession of Scarboro Heights and other changes due to wave
action on Lake Ontario have been estimated by Coleman as requiring from
24,000 to 27,000 years. Fairchild has estimated that 30,000 years have
elapsed since the ice left the Lake Ontario region of New York.

" In Europe the most accurate chronology is that of Baron de Geer on
the terminal moraines and related marine clays of northern Sweden. For
the retreat of the ice northward over a distance of 370 miles in Sweden
5,000 years were allowed; for the time since the disappearance of the ice
in Sweden, 7,000 years; for the retreat of the ice from Germany across the
Baltic, 12,000 years; giving a total of 24,000 years as compared with a
total of between 30,000 and 50,000 years allowed by Penck for the retreat
of the ice-fields of the Alps."

APPENDIX 511

NOTE VII

THE MOST RECENT DISCOVERIES OF ANTHROPOID APES AND SUPPOSED
ANCESTORS OF MAN IN INDIA

It is possible that within the next decade one or more of the Tertiary
ancestors of man may be discovered in northern India among the foot-hills
known as the Siwaliks. Such discoveries have been heralded, but none have
thus far been actually made. Yet Asia will probably prove to be the
centre of the human race. We have now discovered in southern Asia prim-
itive representatives or relatives of the four existing types of anthropoid
apes, namely, the gibbon, the orang, the chimpanzee, and the gorilla,
and since the extinct Indian apes are related to those of Africa and of
Europe, it appears probable that southern Asia is near the centre of the
evolution of the higher primates and that we may look there for the ances-
tors not only of prehuman stages like the Trinil race but of the higher and
truly human types.

As early as 1886 several kinds of extinct Old World primates, including
two anthropoid apes related to the orang and to the chimpanzee, were re-
ported from the Siwalik hills in northern India, and recently Dr. Pilgrim,
of the Geological Survey, has described three new species of Siwalik apes
resembling Dryopithecus of the Upper Miocene of Europe, also an anthro-
poid which he has named Sivapithecus and regards as actually related to
the direct ancestors of man, a conclusion which may or may not prove to
be correct. Another extinct Indian ape, Palceopithecus, is of very general-
ized type and is related to all the anthropoid apes.

NOTE VIII

ANTHROPOID APES DISCOVERED BY CARTHAGINIAN NAVIGATORS*

The Periplus of Hanno purports to be a Greek translation of a Cartha-
ginian inscription on a tablet in the "temple of Chronos" (Moloch) at
Carthage, dedicated by Hanno, a Carthaginian navigator, in commemora-
tion of a voyage which he made southward from the Strait of Gibraltar
along the western coast of Africa as far as the inlet now known as Sherboro
Sound, the next opening beyond Sierra Leone.

Hanno is a very common Carthaginian name, but recent writers think
it not improbable that this Hanno was either the father or the son of that
Hamilcar who led the great Carthaginian expedition to Sicily in 480 B. C.
In the former case the Periplus might be assigned to a date about 520 B. C;
in the latter, some fifty years later.

The narrative was certainly extant at an early period, for it is cited in
the work on Marvellous Narratives ascribed to Aristotle, which belongs to

*Bunbury, E. H. History of Ancient Geography, vol. I, pp. 3^~333- Jonn Murray,
London, 1879.

512 APPENDIX

the third century B.C., and Pliny also expressly refers to it. The authen-
ticity of the work is now generally conceded.

According to the narrative the farthest limit of Hanno's voyage, which
was undertaken for purposes of colonization, brought him and his com-
panions to an island containing a lake with another island in it which was
full of wild men and women with hairy bodies, called by the interpreters
gorillas. The Carthaginians were unable to catch any of the men, but they
caught three of the women, whom they killed, and brought their skins back
with them to Carthage. " Pliny, indeed, adds that the skins in question
were dedicated by Hanno in the temple of Juno at Carthage, and continued
to be visible there till the destruction of the city. There can be no diffi-
culty in supposing these 'wild men and women' to have been really large
apes of the family of the chimpanzee, or pongo, several species of which are
in fact found wild in western Africa, and some of them, as is now well
known, attain a stature fully equal to that of man."

NOTE IX

THE JAW AND SKULL OF THE PILTDOWN MAN

The skull and jaw fragments, as described on pages 130-144, on which
were founded the new genus and species of the human race, Eoanthropus
dawsoni, have aroused a wide difference of opinion among anatomists
which is still (February, 19 18) unsettled.

Many anatomists questioned the association of the Piltdown jaw with
the Piltdown skull. Some anatomists held that the jaw is not prehuman
and does not belong with the skull at all. After reconsidering the origi-
nal discovery and subsequent geological and anatomical evidence, Dr. A.
Smith Woodward still (letter of January 27, 1917) feels convinced that the
jaw and skull fragments are prehuman and belong to a single individual
of the Piltdown race. His opinion is supported by W. P. Pycraft, D. M.
S. Watson, and other British anatomists who have made a very careful
investigation and comparison of the original Piltdown specimens with
similar bones of anthropoid apes.

On the other hand, Gerrit S. Miller, Jr.,* from a careful comparative
study of a cast of the Piltdown jaw with the jaws of various types of chim-
panzee, still maintains that the portions of the Piltdown jaw preserved,
including the upper eye-tooth, or canine, are generically identical with
those of an adult chimpanzee. This new species of chimpanzee, which
Miller believes to be characteristic of the European Pleistocene, he names
Pan veins. If Miller's theory be correct it would deprive the Piltdown
specimen of its jaw and incline us to refer the Piltdown skull to the genus
Homo rather than to the supposed more ancient genus Eoanthropus.

* Miller, Gerrit S., Jr., The Jaw of the Piltdown Man. Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, November 24, [915.

APPENDIX

513

Miller's theory, however, has not been strengthened by the recent re-
searches of the British Museum above alluded to, nor by the additional
excavations of Smith Woodward near the locality where the jaw was
found, both of which are said to confirm the original opinion of Dawson
and Smith Woodward that the jaw belongs with the skull.

EAST

3miles

Fig. 269. Geologic section of the valley of the Ouse River at Piltdown, England, show-
ing earlier (1, 2) and present (3) river levels. The cross indicates the location of the
Piltdown quarry and theoretic former level of the River Ouse which has since cut a
deep valley nearly 100 ft. below its level when the Piltdown skull was deposited.
Drawn by C. A. Reeds.

As to the geological age of the Piltdown race, if confirmed by future
discovery, the presence in Germany near Taubach, Weimar, of teeth
similar to those in the Piltdown jaw, found in Sussex, England, would tend
to confirm the opinion expressed in the first edition of this work that the
Piltdown race belongs to Third Interglacial times.

NOTE X

FAMILY SEPULTURE OF LA FERRASSIE, FRANCE

The only instance of the knee-flexed burial position known in the Lower
Palaeolithic is the unique family sepulture at the Mousterian station of La
Ferrassie, in Dordogne, discovered by D. Peyrony in the years 1909-1911.
It includes the remains of two adults and two children. One of the adult
skeletons lay upon its back with the legs strongly flexed. The body lay
upon the floor of the cave without any sign of a cavity to contain it. The
head and shoulders had been protected and surrounded by slabs of stone,
while the rest of the body may have been covered by pelts or woven
branches. The second skeleton was that of a woman with the arms folded
upon the breast, while the legs were pressed against the body, indicating
that they were bound with cords or thongs. Two children were interred
in shallow graves.

This sepulture, like that of Spy, Belgium, of late Mousterian times,
was apparently a case of genuine burial, testifying to the ancient reverence
for the dead, joined, perhaps, with the belief in a life after death. In the
Ferrassie burial, close to the children's remains, there was a grave filled

514 APPENDIX

with ashes and bones of the wild ox. Similarly, in the interment at La
Chapelle-aux-Saints there was a cavity containing a bison horn and a
second cavity where large bones of the same animal were found, indicating
possibly the remains of sacrificial offerings or funeral feasts.

NOTE XI

PALAEOLITHIC HISTORY OF NORTHWESTERN AFRICA AND SOUTHERN

SPAIN

The flint workers of Lower and Upper Palaeolithic times who inhabited
the existing geographic regions of Morocco, Algeria, and Tunis sought the
flint-bearing limestones for the manufacture of their implements and fash-
ioned them into forms which are closely similar to those found in Spain
and France. As a result of the explorations of J. de Morgan, L. Capitan,
and P. Boudy between 1907 and 1909* it appears that Palaeolithic man in
Africa became acquainted with fewer types of implements than his contem-
poraries in Europe. It is true that we find the Lower Palaeolithic repre-
sented by typical Chellean coups de poing, and there were also true
Acheulean implements and true Mousterian implements marking the
close of Lower Palaeolithic time.

As to the great antiquity of man in these regions, it appears likely that
there was a kind of pre-Chellean industry at Gafsa, as at St. Acheul in
France, with flakes roughly adapted to the functions of racloirs, points,
knives, etc. It is, in fact, very possible so to interpret the very coarse
flakes found by Boudy in such abundance in the lower deposits of hill 328
at Gafsa. The Chellean and then the Acheulean culture would have
succeeded to this earliest stage, being characterized by an industry strik-
ingly similar for these two epochs. The Mousterian, with its predomi-
nance of racloirs, points, and discs, appears in Tunis to have been only a
modality, a stage of the great Chelleo-Mousterian period, just as it was
in Europe.

Then follows the Aurignacian, the first stage of the Upper Palaeolithic
cultures, in which the forms of the flints are, in the opinion of Capitan,
extremely similar to those of the Lower Aurignacian of northern Spain and
of France. It was at this time, it is believed, that the great wave of indus-
trial migration and perhaps the men of the Cro-Magnon race passed from
these northwestern African stations into Spain and France; for it has
been noted that the Lower Aurignacian of western Europe comes from the
south and not from the east of Europe. The flint-making stations during
the long Lower Palaeolithic are widely distributed, as indicated by the
black dots of the accompanying map (Fig. 270).

* J. de Morgan, L. Capitan, and P. Boudy, "Stations pn'historiques du sud Tunisien,"
Rev. VEcole d'Anthr., 1910, pp. 105-136, 206-221, 267-286, 335-347; 1911, pp. 217-228.

APPENDIX

515

But now a very important change occurs, as indicated in the stations
marked by a crossed circle, in the genesis of new modes of fashioning the
flints which are for a long time peculiar to this region and which — centring

Fig. 270. Extension of the Early Palaeolithic and Capsian industries throughout Spain
and northwest Africa. It is supposed that at this time there was a land connection
across the Straits of Gibraltar. Stations too closely grouped to be shown separately
are as follows:

Africa. — At Mostaganem (8) are the eight stations of Aboukir , Aiin-bou-Brahim , Karouba,
Ouled Zerifa, Ain-el-Bahr, Oued Melah, Oued Ria, and Mazouna. Near Mascara
are the sites of Ain-Hadjar, Ain-Ksibia, Palikao, and Ain-Harca.
Spain. — At Velez Blanco are the three stations of Ambrosio, Cueva Chiquita de los
Treinta, and Fuente de los Molinos; at the Cuevas de Vera are the three caves known
as Serron, Zajara, and Humosa; while the figure 8 marks the eight caves of Palo-
marico, Las Pemeras, Bermeja, Las Palomas, Tazona, Ahumada, Cueva de los
Tollos, and Cueva del Tesoro. Only the Capsian stations of Spain are named here.
For the names of others see Fig. 272, p. 519.

■receive

the

in the stations crowded around Gafsa in the heart of Tunis
name of CAPSIAN.

The explanation of the life and art of the Capsian is probably that of a
climatic change in this region of Africa from a moist and semiforested con-
dition favorable to the larger kinds of game to an arid condition in which

516 APPENDIX

the larger kinds of game became less numerous and the chase was aban-
doned. This is Capitan's opinion, that the Capsian corresponds to new
climatic conditions in northern Africa; for in the depths of the limestone
caves it appears that men's food partly consisted of the animals of the
chase, but more commonly of edible land snails belonging to species still
existing in this region and occurring in great abundance during the winter
and spring rains. This change of climate came after the close of Mous-
terian time, namely, the period which we estimated (p. 281) at about
25,000 years B. C. on the theory that the Fourth Glaciation closed not less
than 25,000 years ago (p. 41).

LOWER PALEOLITHIC OF AFRICA

When we consider that the genuine Chellean industry is completely
lacking in central Europe* we are driven to the conclusion that this in-
dustry came to France and England not from the east but from Africa in
the south. Therefore it becomes clear why, in passing to the aforesaid
countries from northern Africa, this industry was more widely distributed in
Spain than in Italy. Without doubt the same conditions of migration pre-
vailed throughout the entire Lower Palaeolithic, The Acheulean and
Mousterian industries followed the same route, for both are typically rep-
resented in northern Africa and there is no convincing evidence of these
industries having followed any different course.

THE CAPSIAN — UPPER AND LOWER

The succeeding Aurignacian industry of the Mediterranean also had
its centre of dispersion in the northwestern part of Africa — a centre known
through the labors of de Morgan, Capitan, and Boudy, and, more recently,
through those of Pallary, Gobert, and Breuil. Obermaier regards the
Lower Capsian as presenting an industry containing only the Lower Aurig-
nacian (types of Chatelperron) and Upper Aurignacian (types of La Gra-
vette) and considers that the Middle Aurignacian is wanting in northern
Africa. This Middle Aurignacian culture is regarded as of French origin,
having apparently extended southward only in the Cantabrian region,
where it is typically represented at Castillo, Hornos de la Pena, and the
Cueva del Conde.

The Upper Capsian, then, is regarded as extending from Post-Aurig-
nacian time through the entire epoch of the Solutrean and the Magdalenian
of western Europe. Thus for a very long period of time there was no
contact whatever between the industry of northwestern Africa and of
southwestern Europe. During this period the Capsian itself developed

* Obermaier, Hugo, El 1 1 ombre fusil, 1916, p. 203.

APPENDIX

517

its peculiar forms, and toward the close of the Upper Palaeolithic this
industry spread into Spain as indicated by the dotted area and arrows in
the accompanying map (Fig. 271, B).

In the development of the Capsian itself* it is found that the in-
dustry varies according to the sites, each with its own evolution of types.
For example, at the rock shelter of El Mekta flint knives with blunted
backs were of large size, probably because they were used to cut the flesh
of game. At Sidi-Mansour, on the contrary, the dwellers, being snail-
eaters, used only blades as fine as needles and of a type found also at El
Mekta, but fewer in number. This, then, is the origin of the microlithic
flints which were first discovered at the station of Fere-en-Tardenois, in

Capsiense superior;

fer^y-TyVj Solutreo-Magdaleniense.

Capsiense final-Tardenoisiense.

23 Aziliense.

Fig. 271. Maps showing the supposed migration routes into Spain of the:

A. Solutrean and Magdalenian industries from France.

B. Late Capsian (Tardenoisian) industry from Africa. After Obermaier.

France, and hence received the name of Tardenoisian. If the conclusions
of de Morgan, Capitan, and Boudy are well founded, the Upper Capsian
industry of Africa is the true parent of the Tardenoisian of France.

On the other hand, the identity of the Lower Capsian with the Aurig-
nacian in Europe is strongly insisted upon by the same authors. The
Lower Capsian is a Tunisian phase of the Aurignacian of Europe and ab-
solutely identical with it. The forms from the rock shelters of Redeyef,
Foum-el-Maza, and, above all, El Mekta are absolutely typical. In the
latter station occur, moreover, forms closely paralleling those distinctive
of the Aurignacian of Europe, Lower, Middle, and Upper — the great picks;
the large flakes finely retouched; the long, fine blades retouched on one or
both sides, often curved, with blunted backs; the notched blades; the

* Obermaier, Hugo, El Hombre fosil, 1916, pp. 346, 347.

518

APPENDIX

nuclei with edges worked into grattoirs; and, above all, the blades with
square-edged grattoirs across the ends, often presenting a lateral burin,
so characteristic of the Aurignacian. Thus these authors conclude that
human evolution and probably the human stock in Tunis was uniform
with that of Europe throughout all Aurignacian time until its very close,
and that, following this, an independent evolution in North Africa took place.
Little is known of the anatomy of these Lower Capsian workmen. In
an abri about two kilometres from Redeyef, and associated with a flint in-
dustry characteristic of the Lower Capsian, there were found numerous
fragments of human bones much altered, friable, and with very irregular
surfaces. Recognizable among this skeletal debris were a decidedly thick
cranial vault, and portions of two large thigh-bones (femora) and of shin-
bones (tibias) which are also thick and very much flattened (platycnaemic).
It is interesting to recall that the abundant skeletal remains found at
Grimaldi were chiefly of the well-known Cro-Magnon type with markedly
platycnaemic tibias, and were associated with flint implements characteristic
of the Aurignacian culture, which Capitan considers identical with the Lower
Capsian.

INDUSTRIES OF NORTH AFRICA GEOGRAPHIC CONDITIONS

INDUSTRIES OF EUROPE

Upper Capsian

(Late Upper Palaeolithic)
(final phase of Capsian =
Tardenoisian)

Reunion with Spain and Close of the Upper Palaeo-
France lithic

Tardenoisian and Azilian
Stages

(Middle Upper Palaeolithic)

Separation from Spain Solutrean and Magdalenian
and France Stages

Lower Capsian

(Beginning of the Upper
Palaeolithic)

Union with Spain Aurignacian Stage
and France

Lower Palaeolithic

Mousterian, Acheulcan, and
Chellean Stages

Union with Spain and Lower Palaeolithic

France Mousterian, Acheulean,

and Chellean Stages

PALAEOLITHIC HISTORY OF SPAIN

Having now considered northern Africa, it is interesting to look at
Spain as influenced by Africa on the south, by the industrial and artistic
life of France on the north, and as having an important independent evo-
lution of its own. These conditions are fully described in Hugo Ober-
maier's recent work, El II ombre fosil* to which the reader is referred.
Over eighty Palaeolithic stations have been discovered in Spain. Spain
shares with the greater part of Africa (including Egypt), with Syria, Meso-
potamia, and parts of India, the extraordinarily wide distribution of in-

* Obermaier, Hugo, /:/ II ombre fosil, 1916.

APPENDIX

519

Fig. 272. Upper and Lower Palaeolithic stations of Spain and Portugal. Stations too
closely grouped to be shown separately on this map are as follows:
North. — 5, Cueva del Conde, Cueva del Rio, Coilubil, Viesca, La Cuevona; 4, Cueto
de la Mina, Balmori, Arnero, Fonfria; 14 (also marked 'Castillo'), four symbols
represent the fourteen closely grouped stations of Castillo, Altamira, Homos de la
Pefia, Camargo, Cueva del Mar, Truchiro, Astillero, Nuestra Sefiora de Loreto,
Villanueva, Pendo, Cobalejos, San Felices de Buelna, Pefia de Carranceja. and El
Cuco. A little west of Fuente del Frances is San Vitores.
West. — At Oporto are the three stations of Pacos, Ervilha, and Castello do Queijo.
In or near Lisbon are the fifteen stations of Agonia, Alto do Duque, Amoreira, Bica,
Boticaria, Casal da Serra, Casal das Osgas, Casal do Monte, Estrada de Aguda-
Queluz, Leiria, Moinho das Cruzes, Pedreiras, Pefias Alvas, Rabicha, and Serra de
Monsanto.
Southeast. — At Velez Blanco are the three stations of Ambrosio, Cueva Chiquita de los
Treinta, and Fuente de los Molinos; at the Cuevas de Vera are the three caves known
as Serron, Zajara, and Humosa; while between the two sites marked 8 are the eight
caves of Palomarico, Las Perneras, Bermeja, Las Palomas, Tazona, Ahumada,
Cueva de los Tollos, and Cueva del Tesoro.

dustries resembling those of the three Lower Palaeolithic stages — the
Chellean, the Acheulean, and the Mousterian.

By what types of man these industries were pursued in these different
countries it would be premature to say. At the beginning of the Upper
Palaeolithic a profound change occurs, for in the Aurignacian industry we
have to do with a Mediterraneo-European culture exhibiting advances in
technique which are not developed elsewhere.

5^0

APPENDIX

IMPORTANT PALEOLITHIC SITES IX SPAIN AND PORTUGAL

Provinces and Stations

SPAIN

GUIPUZCOA

Altzbitarte (Landarbaso)

YIZCAYA

Armina

Balzola

SANTANDER

Miron, El

Valle

Otero

Salitre

Rascafio

Fuente del Frances

Astillero

Nuestra Sefiora de Loreto

Castillo

Pendo, Cueva del (San Pantaleon) . .

Cobalejos (Puente Arce)

Camargo

Hornos de la Pena

Altamira

OVIEDO

Panes

Cueto de la Mina"

Conde, Cueva del

Paloma, Cueva de la

SORIA

Torralba

MADRID

San Isidro

CORDOBA

Posadas-Almodovar del Rio

JAEN

Campos de Olivar de Puente Mocho.

CADIZ

Laguna de la Janda

BARCELONA

Abrich Romanl

GERONA

Scrinya

I.I.KIDA

Cogul

almeri'a

\elcz Blanco (three stations).

MURCIA

Benneja, Cueva de la

VLBACETE

Alpera

VALENCl \

Parpallo, Cueva del

Maravillas, Cueva de la

'I rue he (Tun he), .\l>ri.u'<> de la

POK I l (. \L
Mugem, in the valley of the Tagus (four stations

Purninha

Lisbon and environs (fifteen stations)

Paleolithic Cultures

Lower

Upper

+■

+ I +

+:

+

+

+?

+
+
+
+
+

+
+
+
+
+
+
+

+o

+
+

+

r-y-i

+?

Capsian
f

+

+

APPENDIX 521

At the close of Upper Aurignacian time the community of culture
ceases in Spain itself, and this country divides sharply into two regions,
namely, northern and southern.

In the northern region we observe a close similarity with the industrial
evolution of France during the entire period of Solutreo-Magdalenian time.
The true Solutrean extended from France throughout the northern part
of the Iberian Peninsula. In Cantabria, Early Solutrean is represented by
laurel-leaf points found at Castillo, Hornos de la Pena, and elsewhere;
while Late Solutrean types — shouldered points, and laurel-leaf and willow-
leaf points with concave base — appear at Altamira, Camargo, and the
Cueva del Conde. True Solutrean strata have not yet been discovered in
the east of Spain, although the discovery — made by H. Breuil — of a willow-
leaf point at El Arabi would seem to indicate that there may have been
some slight infiltration of the Solutrean along the seacoast. Implements
suggesting the Solutrean found in Almeria (Cueva Chiquita de los Treinta)
and Murcia (Cueva de las Perneras) are doubtful, as it is very possible
that they represent Neolithic types. The true Magdalenian appears also
to be an intrusion restricted to the northern part of the peninsula. It
is found in the east in the provinces of Gerona and Barcelona, but occurs
chiefly in the Whole Cantabrian region. The homogeneity of the Mag-
dalenian in these parts with that of France is very marked, not only in the
stratification and types of Palaeolithic implements but also in the objects
of mobiliary art.

SOUTHERN AND EASTERN SPAIN — THE CAPSIAN

At the same time the southern and eastern regions of Spain were com-
pletely under the influence of the Upper Capsian industry of northern
Africa and in these regions the typical forms of the Lower Capsian ( =
Lower and Upper Aurignacian) tend to become reduced in size and to
evolve toward the geometric forms until they finally acquire the aspect
of the Tardenoisian microliths. Thus we find that in the Upper Capsian
of eastern and southern Spain, as in northern Africa, true Solutrean and
Magdalenian implements are unknown. These implements are replaced
by the microlithic industry, chiefly characterized by trapezoidal forms which
can be traced eastward along the coast of Africa to Egypt, Phoenicia, and
even to the Crimea. A notable part of this industry found its way also
into Sicily.

The final phase of the Upper Capsian of Spain is essentially identical
with the Tardenoisian of France. Certain discoveries have been made in
Guadalajara, in Murcia, and in Albacete (Alpera). To these must be added
other Azilio-Tardenoisian stations no less important found in Portugal
in the valley of the Tagus. At Mugem and at other stations heaps of
sea-shells of a great variety of species prove that when the Upper Capsian
men were living they sought the same kinds of food in Spain as in northern

5W APPENDIX

Africa. In these heaps the trapezoidal forms of implements predominate,
closely similar to those of the Tardenoisian. The animal life of these de-
posits does not include any sort of domestic animal except the dog.

Of great interest are the numerous burials — chiefly of women and chil-
dren, more rarely of men — in which the skeletons occur most often in the
folded position. The human type has not been determined, but long-
headed (dolichocephalic) skulls greatly predominate, while short-headed
(brachycephalic) skulls occur but rarely. It is probable, therefore, that
these people belonged to the small, long-headed, dark-skinned Mediter-
rean race.

Inasmuch as the origins of the Tardenoisian of France are found in
the final Capsian stage of Spain, reinforced by African elements, Ober-
maier regards the Spanish Tardenoisian as somewhat older than the French.

CAPSIAN AND AZILIO-TARDENOISIAN ART

Obermaier observes that it is as yet impossible to determine the period
of the commencement of this peculiar art of central and southern Spain,
but considers that a transition from the naturalistic art of the Quaternary
to the conventionalized schematic art was effected by almost impercept-
ible degrees. This would imply that no sudden changes took place at
this time in the population of Spain, but that the tribes of Upper Capsian
culture evolved in situ into the Azilio-Tardenoisian stage, and eventually,
owing to the influence of exterior civilizations, into the Neolithic. Final
phases of this schematic art contain idols and representations of faces which
coincide absolutely with Neolithic idols in the collections of L. Siret, F.
de Motos, and others. Moreover, they present similarities to certain designs
from the dolmens of the final Neolithic.

This art is characterized by its numerous reproductions of the human
figure. In almost all the important rock shelters of the eastern region
(Alpera) it has been possible to distinguish layers of more recent designs
painted over the classic Quaternary paintings, and classified — on account
of their superposition — as "Post-Palaeolithic." Of these a small portion
are .figures still retaining the naturalistic style — representations of animals
and men — but poor in conception, stiff and lifeless, in most cases bearing
no comparison with the vigor and abandon of the figures of Alpera. The
greater part of these designs consist of geometric or conventionalized signs
or figures.

Still purer in style and more abundant are the instances of this con-
ventionalized mural art in southern Spain, where M. de Gongora, Vilanova,
Jimenez de la Espada, Gonzalez de Linares, M. Gomez Moreno, F. de
Motos, H. Breuil, J. Cabre, and E. Hernandez-Pacheco have devoted
themselves sedulously to its study. Numerous painted rock shelters are
known, but almost all without the slightest trace of Palaeolithic art and
with numerous conventionalized (schematic) petroglyphs, in Andalusia

APPENDIX 523

(Velez Blanco, Ronda, and Tarifa) and throughout the Sierra Morena
(Fuencaliente). In many cases it would be difficult to guess the deriva-
tion of these designs of human or animal figures, were it not for the exist-
ence of gradations in conventionalization from the naturalistic design to
the final geometric scheme. With these, arranged in a regular manner,
there occur further a great number of ramiform, pectiniform, stelliform,
serpentine, and alphabet-like signs, with designs in zigzags, circles, and dots.
Another important centre is found in western Spain (Estremadura)
the notable designs of which are mentioned by Lope de Vega in 1597 —

Fig. 273. Detail from the Late Palaeolithic designs painted on the sides of two natural
recesses in the rock shelter of Alpera. After Obermaier.

doubtless referring to the paintings of Canchal de las Cabras in Las
Batuecas.

Slight infiltrations of the same art have been recognized in northern
Spain at Castillo, Santander, and at the open station of Pena Tu, near
Vidiago, Oviedo. As a notable exception to the naturalistic art prevail-
ing north of the Pyrenees we may mention the paintings in this same geo-
metric style found in the cave of La Vache, near Tarascon, Ariege, in south-
ern France.

524

APPENDIX

Of equally great interest is the explanation which this art affords of
the remarkable painted pebbles of Mas d'Azil which are now seen to be
partly pictographic in origin, chiefly schematized representations of the
human figure which gradually begin to assume shapes closely resembling
those of the Phoenician alphabet. As early as 191 2 Henri Breuil was con-
sidering this pictographic theory and beginning to refer to the 'Azilian
signs' at Las Batuecas as reminiscent both of the painted pebbles of Mas
dAzil and of the mural paintings of Andalusia. But chiefly he made clear
the importance of the "dotted lines, ramiform, pectiniform, and stelli-
form signs, zigzags, circles, and figures vaguely resembling alphabetic
forms." A very ingenious study of these schematic Azilian signs has been
made by Obermaier in El Hombre fosil, where he endeavors to trace the
conventionalized descendants of the human figure of the ancient natural-
istic style as shown in Fig. 274. The demonstration of this theory may in

ffei/ftS^ft^

f

M. d. A.

Fig. 274. Figures from Piedra Escrita (a-e) and from Cimbarillo de Maria Antonia (/),
compared with a design occurring on the painted pebbles of Mas d'Azil, showing a
progressive conventionalization of the human figure. After Obermaier.

good time make possible a logical interpretation of a great part of these
same painted pebbles of the Azilian. Obermaier feels confident that they
should be considered as religious symbols, and that these petroglyphs of
Spain will supply a proof that many of the designs on these pebbles plainly
show conventionalized human figures.

Some years ago A. B. Cook drew attention to the fact that a native
tribe in central Australia, the Arunta, is distinguished by each clan having
a deposit of ' churingas' in a cave. There the churinga of each individual
of the clan, be it man or woman, is the object of vigilant protection. They
are made of wood or stone, and in the latter case show a striking resem-
blance in form and decoration to the Azilian pebbles. The Australian sees
in each churinga the incarnation of one of his ancestors, whose spirit has
passed to him and whose qualities he has inherited. It is noteworthy that,
according to Australian beliefs, they can acquire the gift of speech by
means of the 'bull-roarer,' an amulet of stone or bone.

By analogy with the preceding, it is possible that some of the Azilian
pebbles represent such 'stones of the ancestors,' an incarnation of mas-
culine or feminine forefathers whose symbols were the objects of an es-
pecial cult. F. Sarasin found in the cave of Birseck, near Arlesheim,
Switzerland, a typical Azilian deposit with painted pebbles which had all

APPENDIX

515

been intentionally broken, without exception. He advanced the not im-
probable theory that this evidenced an act of the extremest hostility
against the sanctuary of a tribe, performed in order to despoil its members
forever of the protection of their ancestors, seeking in this way to subju-
gate or annihilate them.

In the Capsian silhouettes there is little likeness to the naturalistic
art of the Cro-Magnons in the north of Spain and in France. We are re-
minded rather of the rock paintings of the Bushmen and of the hunting-
scenes depicted by North American Indians, but on the whole there is
greater tendency to grouping and composition of standing figures, mascu-
line and feminine, in ceremonies and in the chase. The male figures are
mostly nude, and occasionally have head ornaments of feathers; while the

Fig. 275. Various types of bows and arrows shown in the paintings of the'Cueva de la
Vieja ' at Alpera. After J. Cabre.

female figures are represented with kirtles, head-dresses, and ornaments
on the body, arms, and ankles. Masculine figures in the chase are ac-
companied by hunting-dogs and exhibit the bow and arrow. If these
drawings are correctly assigned to the close of the Upper Palaeolithic, this
is the most ancient representation of this primitive weapon of the chase
of which we have record. The arrow seems to be single-barbed, as shown
in the accompanying cut from Alpera. It may have been pointed with
flint fastened on one side to the shaft. We recall that double-barbed
arrow-heads were in use in Magdalenian times, as shown in the cavern
of Niaux.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A

Agassiz, L.

1 83 7. i Discours prononce a l'ouverture des seances de la Societe Helvetique
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Agassiz, President. Actes, Soc. Helvetique, Sci. nat., 22^ Sess. ,
1837, pp. v-xxxii.

1 840. 1 Etudes sur les glaciers. Ouvrage accompagne d'un atlas de 32

planches. 8vo. Neuchatel, 1840.

1840.2 On Glaciers and Boulders in Switzerland. Rept. 10th Meeting, Brit.

Assoc. Adv. Sci., Glasgow, 1840, pp. 113, 114 (Trans. Sections).

Alcalde del Rio, H.

191 2. 1 Les cavernes de la region cantabrique (Espagne). (With Breuil and

Sierra.) See Breuil, H., 1912.2.
1913.1 La Pasiega. (With Breuil and Obermaier.) See Breuil, H., 1913.1.

Anthony, R.

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INDEX

INDEX*

Abbeville, 109, 116, 124, 125, 127, 149, 152,

156, 166, 167, 244, 331
Abri Audit, 245, 246, 248, 255, 269, 277,

305, 3o7, 309, 3ii5 3i4
Abri Dufaure, 471
Abri Mege, 435, 442
Abris, see Rock Shelters
Achenheim, 30, 160, 161, 167, 176, 195, 284,

3i4

Achenschwankung, see Postglacial Stage

Acheulean, 14-16, 18, 30; chronology, 33,
41, 89; climate, 112, 117, 118, 165, 166,
173, 174, 175-177, 186; fauna, 144-148,
165; geography (physical), 166; human
fossils, 24, 181-185; industry, 14, 16,
18, 41, 108, 113, 122-124, 169-173, 177-
180, 270, 280, 362; stations, 151, 158-
162, 166-169; see Origin

iEschylus, on the prehistory of man, 3, 505

Aggsbach, 29, 435, 448

Agriculture, 2, 486, 496

Aiguille, needle, 271, 310, 313, 387, 388,
391, 392, 440, 443-445, 449, 46i, 462

Alactaga jaculus, 373, 374; see Jerboa

Alces, 187, 287, 369; latifrons, 70, see Moose

Alento, 167

Alpera, 469, 497

Alpine fauna, see Fauna

Alpine race, 278, 458, 479, 480, 481, 484,
485, 49i, 499, 5oo

Alpine vole, 371, see Arvicola nivalis

Altamira, 17, 319, 321, 331, 332, 346, 368,
385, 394, 395, 399, 408, 415, 416, 422-427,
434, 435, PL VIII

Ancestry of Man, see Man

Ancona, 167

Andernach, 160, 195, 279, 372, 378, 435

Anthropoid Apes, 3, 21; ancestry, 49-61;
brain, 52-60; compared with Grimaldi,
266, with Neanderthal, 9, 217, 230-233,
237-240, with Piltdown, 140, 141, with
Pithecanthropus, 9, 77-79; known to
Carthaginians, 511, 512; recent dis-
coveries, 511

Anthropology, rise of, 3-10

A.itilope saiga, see Saiga antelope

Anvils, bone, 211, 253, 256, 271; see Com-
presseur

Apes, see Anthropoid

Arboreal life, effects of, 56, 57

Archaeology, rise of, 10-18

Archer, 329

Arctomys marmotta, 182, 370; see Marmot

Arcy-sur-Cure, 214, 219, 435

Argali sheep, 46, 285, 287, 37 rf see Ovis
argaloides

Arrow, 214, 258, 270, 272, 344, 353, 354, 410,
45o, 497

Art, 13, 14, 17, 21, 315-330, 332, 347-350,
392-434, 449, see Aurignacian, Magda-
l^nian, Solutrean, Engraving, Painting,
Sculpture, Industry; implements used in,

270, 309-312, 321, 329, 330, 385, 396, 415,
463; means of dating, 317-320

Arudy, 435, 436

Arvicola, amphibius, 147; gregalis, 373;

nivalis, 370, 371
Ascoli Piceno, 167
Ass, wild (kiang), see Horse
Aurensan, 435, 438, 471
Aurignac, 5, 13, 14, 16, 275, 279, 290, 294,

3i4
Aurignacian, 14-16, 18, 275, 276; art, 315-
330, 403, 404, 408; burial customs, 302-
305; chronology, 33, 41, 35 1 5 climate, 123,
281-286; fauna, 285-289; human fossils,
289-305; industry, 16, 18, 41, 108, 269-

271, 275-277, 280, 305-313, 329, 330,
362; stations, 275, 283, 284, 289, 307,
313-315; see Origin

Aurignacian race, see Combe-Capelle man
Aurochs, see Bos primigenius and Cattle
Australian head type, 136, 228, 232, 234
Awl, see Poinqon
Axe, 493, 494

Azilian, see Azilian-Tardenoisian
Azilian-Tardenoisian, 16, 275, 451, 456;
art, 456; burial customs, 475-479; chro-
nology, 275, 456, 459; climate, 463, 468;
fauna, 463, 466, 468-470, 471, 472, 474;

: Authors' names are given in the bibliography and in the reference lists at the end of each chapter.

549

550

INDEX

human fossils, 461, 475-485; industry
(Azilian), 15, 16, 18, 270, 271, 275, 276,
456, 459-465, 466, 470-475, (Tardenoi-
sian) 16, 18, 270, 271, 450, 456, 465-468,
470-472, (painted pebbles) 394,456,461,
463-465; stations, 459, 463, 466, 467,
472-475; see Origin

B

Badegoule, 279, 331, 336, 435

Badger, 165, 201, 343, 367, 447, 498; see

Meles taxus
Ballahohle, 279, 331, 336
Baltic race, 458, 486, 500; see Maglemose
Balverhohle, 471

Baousse Rousse, see Grimaldi, Grottes de
Baousso da Torre, see Grimaldi, Grottes de
Barma Grande, see Grimaldi, Grottes de
Baton de commandement, 271, 311, 312, 345,

358, 359, 388, 391, 432, 443-445, 449
Baumannshohle, 160, 195, 245, 247, 248,

439

Bear, 43, 44, 62, 95, 96, 165, 213, 245, 264,
287, 288, 333, 343, 348, 367, 378, 430, 441,
447, 461, 468, 498; see Cave-bear and
Ursus

Beaver, 63, 95, 134, 165, 182, 288, 348, 367,
447,461,468, 498, see Castor; giant, in,
155, see Trogontherium

Bernifal, 321, 395, 396, 435

Billancourt, 109, 149, 152

Bison, Wisent, 13, 43, 44, 69, 71, 95, 98, 106,
125, 147, 165, 192, 194, 196, 202, 206, 211,
223, 287, 288, 317, 321, 333, 348, 353, 356,
364, 368, 372, 385, 403, 405, 406, 410, 414,
420, 421, 423-428, 430, 431, 449, 466, 469,
496, 498, 505, 506, Pis. VII and VIII; see
Bison

Bison, antiquus, 69; prisons, 71, 95, 148, 368,
see Bison

Blade, see Couteau and Lame

Bleville, 167

Boar, wild, 2, 3, 43, 44, 76, 95, 264, 265, 421,
426, 447, 461, 466, 468, 498; see Sus

Bockstein, 285, 314, 435, 442

Bois Colombes, 109, 149, 152

Borer, drill, see Per coir

Bos, 71, 369, 405; longifrons, 498; primi-
genius, 71, 94, 222, 368, 413, 468, 469,
498; taurus, 447, 498; see Cattle

Bossuet, on the prehistory of man, 503, 504

Brachycephaly, 7, 8, 78, 183, 457, 458, 478-

485
Brain, anthropoid, 51, 52, 56, 59; Briinn,
334, 490; Combe-Capelle, 236, 302, 490;

Cro-Magnon, 272, 292, 294, 299, 490;
evolution of, 8, 9, 56-60; Grimaldi, 269,
490; Modern, 56-59, 83, 84, 140, 235,
303, 490; Neanderthal, 9, 58, 59, 235-
237, 490; Ofnet, 480, 490; Piltdown, 58,
59, i39_I4i, 236, 490; Pithecanthropus
9, 58, 59, 83, 84, 490
Brassempouy, 14, 279, 314, 322, 331, 347,

355, 393, 395, 433~435, 438
Brive, 307, 314

Bronze Age, 12, 18, 21, 202, 267, 460, 461,
. 476

Bruniquel, 279, 348, 388, 427, 435, 436
Briinn, 279, 315, 322, 331, 334~337, 395, PL

II; race, 23, 257, 276, 278, 302, 331, 333,

334-338, 480, 489-491, 500; see Briix,

Galley Hill, Pfedmost, Human fossils,

and Origin
Briix, 334; see Briinn race
Buchenloch, 245, 314, 435
Buffon, G. L. L., 3
Biihl, see Postglacial Stage
Burial customs, 24, 215, 221-223, 27°, 271,

302, 303-305, 337, 376-380, 475-479
Burin, graver, 270, 306-308, 310, 386, 389,

470

Cabeco da Arruda, 467, 471, 474
Camargo, 279, 294, 314, 331, 435
Campignian, 493"495
Campigny, 471; see Campignian
Camps, open, 29, 30, 176, 283, 284, 314,

334, 337, 341-343, 442, 448
Canary Islands, 453, 454, 506-510
Canis, lagopus, 193, 206, see Fox, arctic;
neschersensis, 333; suessi, 147; see Dog,
Jackal, and Wolf
Cannibalism, 184, 477
Cannstatt, 10, 105, 218, 220, 331
Cap-Blanc, 317, 395, 428, 431, 435
Capreolus, 70, 147, 367, 469; see Deer,

roe-
Capri, 167, 168
Caramanico, 167

Castillo, 33, 150, 162-165, 167, 245, 246,
279, 3X4, 319, 320, 324, 325, 331, 342, 349,
395, 402, 408, 435, 436, 459, 460, 471
Castor, 69; fiber, 147, 183, 470; see Beaver
Cattle, wild (Aurochs, Urochs, urus), 43, 44,
62, 66, 76, 95, 98, 106, 119, 125, 148, 165,
182, 192, 206, 211, 214, 245, 265, 284, 288,
325, 333, 348, 356, 368, 372, 392, 405, 413,
461, 466, 468, 469, 497, 498, 505, 506; see
Bos and Leptobos

INDEX

551

Cave-bear, 10, n, 13, 182, 194, 197, 201,

202, 206, 210, 211, 212, 213, 218, 287, 401,

413; see Ursus spelceus
Cave-hyaena, 11, 212, 218, 265, 287, 288;

see Hycena crocuta spclcea
Cave-leopard, 206, 287; see Felis pardus

spelcea
Cave-lion, 201, 206, 265, 287; see Felis leo

spelcBa
Caverns, 24; formation of, 30-33, 212; life

in, 2, 30, 32, 211-213, 457
Cavillon, Grotte de, see Grimaldi, Grottes

de
Cazelle, 435

Cephalic index, 8, 480, 490
Ceppagna, 167
Cergy, 109, 149, 152
Cervus,camutomm, ji',dama,4g8;dicranius,

71; elaphus, 70, 94, 147, 367, 392, 426,

461, 469; maral, 367, 447; sedgwicki, 69,

71; see Deer and Stag
Chaflaud, Grotte du, 396, 404, 435, 438
Chaleux, Trou de, 435
Chamois, Rupicapra, 44, 46, 201, 264, 265,

357, 365, 366, 369, 37i, 466
Champs, 435, 436
Champs Blancs, 331, 348, 435
Chancelade, 279, 376-378, 382, 435
Chapelle-aux-Saints, La, 7, 9, 203, 214, 222-

224, 226-232, 235-238, 241-243, 245, 246
Chatelperron, 305, 307, 314; see Points
Chellean, 14-16, 18; chronology, 33, 34,

113-115, 120; climate, 117, 118; fauna,

144-148; geography (physical), 115, 116,

I54-I575 industry, 12, 14, 16, 18, 41, 108,

114, 148-154, 270, 280, 362; stations, 149,

152, 154-158; see Origin
Chelles, 16, 109, m, 116, 149, 152, 154,

167, 244
Chimpanzee, 3, 8, 49, 52-56, 58, 59, 78, 140,

227, 231, 235, 490, 511, 512
Chipping, see Flint
Chisel, see Ciseau
Chronology, 10, 12-14, I0\ 18-24, 41, 510;

tables, 18, 21, 22, 23, 33, 41, 43, 54, 108,

280, 362, 395, 491; means of estimating,
19, 20, 22-24, 317-320

Ciseau, chisel, 270, 271, 388, 392, 444

Climate, effect on fauna, 46, 47, 192, 194,

205, 284-287; effect on man, 33, 297, 332,

372, 382; glacial, 20, 29, 34, 37-43, 64-66,

89, 104, 105, 114, 117, 188-194, 202, 205,

281, 285; interglacial, 20, 29, 30, 33, 34,
37-41, 43, 67, 90, 91, 95, 103, 112, 117,
118, 186-188; Pliocene, 63; Postglacial,
23, 41, 43, 276, 281-284, 361-363

Clothing, 2, 178, 186, 213, 388, 392, 496

Cogul, 394, 497

Colombes, 109, 149, 152

Combarelles, 319, 395~397, 399~40i, 435

Combe-a-Roland, 331

Combe- Capelle, 167, 192, 196, 197, 199, 211,

245, 248, 249, 252, 253, 255, 279, 314;

man {Homo aurignacensis) , 302, 303, 338
Combo-Negro, 435, 436
Compresseur, 271; see Anvils
Continental outline, 19, 34-37, 64, 65, 71,

86, 92, 105, 115, 116, 155, 156, 166, i89,(

190, 281, 282, 288, 362
Cotte de St. Brelade, La, 214, 225, 245
Cottes, Les, 213, 314
Coup de poing, 113, 114, 121, 129, 130, 152-

154, 169-173, 177-180, 222, 251-254, 256,

270
Couteau (knife, blade), 130, 172, 177, 180,

270, 306, 308, 310, 386, 389, 488, 494
Crayford, 198, 245
Creteil, 109, 149, 152
Cricetus phceus, 373, 374; see Hamster
Cro-Magnon, 279, 291, 314, 331, 437, PL

II; man, 7, 273, 279, 291-294, 300, 301;

race, 7, 23, 54, 240, 257, 258, 260, 261,

263, 265-276, 278, 280-282, 284, 289-

305, 336, 35i, 358, 376-382, 434, 44o,

443, 449-454, 457-459, 489-492, 499, 5oo,

506-510, PL VII
Cromer, Forest Bed of, 64, 67, 68, 71
Crosle Biscot, 435
Crouzade, 331, 341, 435, 437
Culture, see Industry
Cyon alpinus fossilis, 201

Dart-thrower, see Propulseur

Daun, see Postglacial Stage

Deer, 44, 125, 134, 245, 265, 356, 426, see
Cervus; Axis, 62, 71, 76, 102; fallow, 265,
469, 497, see Cervus dama; giant, 43, 94,
96, 165, 187, 206, 211, 213, 288, 335,
see Mcgaceros; polycladine, 63, 102, see
Cervus dicranius and sedgwicki; red, 44,
287, 426, 447, see Cervus elaphus and
Stag; roe-, 44, 94, 95, 165, 264, 265, 287,
404, 447, 466, 468, 488, 498, see Capre-
olus; rusa, 76

Dicerorhinus (R.), antiquitatis, 46, 106, 285,
see Rhinoceros, woolly; etruscus, 41, 63,
69, see Rhinoceros, Etruscan; merckii,
41, 92-94, 117, 148, 263, see Rhinoceros,
Merck's

Dog, domestic, 474, 486, 488, 497, 499

552

INDEX

Dolichocephaly, 7, 8, 78, 220, 230, 231, 266,

268, 334, 336, 338, 457, 478-481
Domestic Animals, 447, 466, 474, 486, 488,

497-499
Drill, see Ferqoir
Dryopithecus, 6, 49, 50, 511
Durnten, 20, 117, 119
Durntenian, 107, 119
Duruthy, see Sorde

E

Ehringsdorf, 167, 181, 214
Elasmothere, E. sibiricum, 46, 286, 373
Elephant, 38, 43, 44, 47, 72, 76, 86, 91-95,
102, 117, 119, 123, 124, 147, 148, 155, 157,
161, 174, 177, 186, 187, 192, 205, 245, 264;
see Elephas
Elephas, antiquus, 27, 41, 47, 72, 76, 92-94,
96, 117, 123, 125, 148, 165, 263; hysudri-
cus, 76; meridionalis , 26, 27, 41, 62, 69, 72,
92, 125; planifrons, 62; primigenius, 26,
46, 106, 285; trogontherii, 41, 93, 102, 117;
see Elephant and Mammoth
Elevation, see Continental outline
Enfants, Grotte des, see Grimaldi, Grottes

de, and Grimaldi race
Engis, 435, 453
Engraving, 317, 319-324, 326, 348, 349, 353,

355, 356, 358, 392-407
Eoanthropus dawsoni, 138, see Piltdown
Eolith, n, 68, 84-86, 135
Eolithic, Era, 17, 18; industry, 17
Equus, caballus celticus, 367-369, 400, 408,
412, 419, 431, 432, 498; przewalski, 194,
367, 373, 408, 410, 419; stcnonis, 27, 62,
63, 69, 72; see Horse
Erect attitude, 4, 57-60, 73, 74, 82, 241-244
Ermine, Mustela erminia, 46, 207, 370, 447,

469
Etruscan rhinoceros, see Rhinoceros
Eyzies, Les, 13, 249, 279, 331, 378, 388, 394,
435

F

Fate, Grotte delle, 245, 247

Fauna, 19-21, 38-47, 61-64, 66, 69, 108;
Achculean, 117, 147, 148, 165, 177, 182;
African-Asiatic, 43, 44, 47, 62, 63, 71, 72,
86, 91-94, 205, 206, 287; alpine, 44, 46,
206, 287; Aurignacian, 284-289; Azilian-
Tardenoisian, 466, 468-470, 472; Chel-
lean, 117, 125, 144-148; forest, 44, 71,
206, 287; glacial, 105, 106, 117, 190-194,
196, 197, 205-214, 265; interglacial, 69-

72, 91-98, 101-103, 108-112, 117, 119,
123-125, 186-188, 265; Magdalenian,
364-376, 385, 397-434, 449, 466, 469;
meadow, 44, 71, 206, 287; Mousterian,
117, 186-188, 190-194, 196, 197, 199-
214, 218, 221-223, 225, 263, 264; Plio-
cene, 54, 61-64, 144; Postglacial, 281,
364, 468, 469, 498, 499; Pre-Chellean,
108-112, 117, 125; Siwalik, 76; Solu-
trean, 332, 333, 343, 348; steppe, 44, 46,
194, 206, 281, 287, 362-366, 373-376,
449, 450; tundra, 44, 46, 190-194, 206-
211, 281, 285, 287, 348, 361, 362-366,
370-373; migrations of, 19, 34-37, 62-
64, 71, 72, 202, 205-210, 287; represented
in Palaeolithic art (list), 366; see Climate,
for effect of, and Faunal lists

Faunal lists, 95, 125, 147, 206, 207, 287,
366

Faune chaude, 39, 91, 192; see Mousterian
fauna

Faune froide, see Mousterian fauna

Faustkeil, see Coup de poing

Fees, Grotte des, 279, 435

Felis, leo, 72, 92, 469; leo antiqua, 147; leo
spelcsa, 47, 188; manul, 447; pardus
spelcea, 201; see Cave-leopard, Cave-
lion, Leopard, Lion, and Wildcat

Femur (thigh-bone), 73, 74, 77,80, 237-241,
266, 298, 376, 380

Fere-en-Tardenois, 16, 465, 471

Ferrassie, La, 7, 214, 216, 219, 224, 232, 237,
245, 246, 269

Fire, use of, 2, 165, 212, 213

First Glacial Stage, see Glacial Epoch

First Interglacial Stage, see Glacial Epoch

Fishing, 355, 385, 390, 450, 465, 471

Flake, see Levallois

Flaking, see Flint

Flint, chipping, 170; cleavage, 171; flaking,
169

Floors, Mousterian, 198, 199

Flora, 20; Acheulean, 117, 118, 174, 175;
Chellean, 117, 118; glacial, 65, 108, 117-
119, 191, 192, 202, 208; interglacial, 20,
67, 90, 91, 117-119; Mousterian, 199;
Pliocene, 61, 63; Postglacial, 361, 372,
375, 463, 488; Pre-Chellean, 117, 118;
Pre-Neolithic, 488

Font-de-Gaume, 283, 314, 318, 319, 321,
325, 33i, 349, 356, 358, 365, 372, 395-
397, 399, 406-409, 412, 414-424, 435,

449
Font Robert, 277, 311, 314, 331, 340, 344
Forcsti;ui, Upper, 362; Lower, 282
Forests, see Flora

INDEX

553

Foro, 167

Fourth Glacial Stage, see Glacial Epoch

Fox, 43, 63, 71, 206, 265, 287, 333, 343, 348,

366, 447, 498, see Vulpes.; arctic, 44, 46,

193, 207, 287, 289, 348, 370, 447, 468,

469, see Canis lagopus.
Freudenthal, 279, 435 .

Frileuse, 167
Frontal, Trou de, 435
Fuente del Frances, 435
Furfooz, 7, 279, 481-483, PL Horace, 278,

458, 480, 482-485, 489, 491, 492, 500; see

Grenelle, Ofnet, and Origin
Furninha, 167, 168

Galley Hill, 28, 302, 337, 338; see Briinn
race

Gansersfelsen, 435

Garenne, 435, 440

Gargano, 167

Gargas, 31, 307, 314, 317, 325, 327, 349, 394,
395

Germolles, 307, 314

Gibbon, 49-54, 58,61,63,77, 511; seeHylob-
ates

Gibraltar skull, 7, 9, 140, 214, 215, 216, 219,
226, 228, 232, 233, 236

Glacial Epoch, 18-23, 33, 40, 41, 43, 54;
chronology, 18-23, 4°, 41, IQ8, 188, 280,
362; see Climate, Continental outline,
Fauna, Glaciers; First Glacial Stage
(Giinz), 23, 25, 26, 37, 38, 41, 43, 64-66;
Second Glacial Stage (Mindel), 23, 25,
26, 33, 37, 38, 41, 43, 65, 86-90; Third
Glacial Stage (Riss), 23, 25, 26, 33, 37-

39, 41, 43, 94, 104-106, 115; Fourth
Glacial Stage (Wiirm), 18, 22, 23, 25, 26,
30, 32, 33, 36-38, 41, 43, 107, 108, 117,
160, 188-195, 205, 206, 280, 281, 284, 285,
362, Lanfenschwankung, 41, 108, 280, 362;
First Interglacial Stage (Gunz-Mindel or
Norfolkian), 23, 26, 29, 33-35, 38, 41, 43,
66-72, 84, 95, 115; Second Interglacial
Stage (Mindel-Riss), 23, 25, 29, 33, 38,

40, 41, 43, 69, 90-95, 109-111, 114, 115;
Third Interglacial Stage (Riss-Wlirm),
23, 25, 29, 33, 34, 36, 38-41, 43, 69, 94,
107, 108, 112, 113, 115-119, 186-188, 280,
362; Postglacial Stage, 18-23, 29, 32, 33,
36, 41, 43, 108, 280-284, 362, 468, 510,
Buhl, 23, 25, 26, 41, 108, 276, 280, 281,
361, 362, 370, 372, 446, 447, 449, Gschnitz,
23, 41, 108, 276, 280, 281, 362, 363,372,
449, 450, Daun, 23, 41, 108, 276, 280, 281,

362, 363, Achenschwankung, 25, 26, 281,

282, 284
Glaciers, 64-66, 89, 90, 94, 104-106, 118,

189, 190, 361-363
Glutton, see Gulo luscus and Wolverene
Gobelsburg, 435, 448
Goccianello, 167, 168
Gorge d'Enfer, 331, 435
Gorilla, 49, 52, 54-56, 511, 512
Goulaine, 435, 438
Gourdan, 214, 279, 331, 341, 369, 388, 392,

435, 438
Goyet, 435
Grattoir, 129, 130, 177, 254, 270, 306-310,

386, 390, 470, 473, 494; carene, 308, 309,

463

Graver, see Burin

Gravette, etching tool, 270

Gravette, La, 277, 311, 314

Gray's Thurrock, 28, 109, 116, 128, 149,
152, 156, 157

Greek conception of nature and of the pre-
history of man, 1-3

Grenelle, 279, 481, 482, 484; race, see
Furfooz

Greze, La, 314, 317, 327, 331, 395, 396

Grimaldi, Grottes de (Baousse Rousse), 245,
247, 262-265, 279, 294, 295, 312-314, 321,
323, 380; Baousso da Torre, 263, 294;
Barma Grande, 263, 294; Cavillon,
Grotte de, 263, 294; Enfants, Grotte
des, 263-265, 292, 294-297, see Grimaldi
race; Prince, Grotte du, 262, 263

Grimaldi race, 7, 19, 245, 260, 262-269,
278, 279, 294, 301, 314, 490-492

Gschnitz, see Postglacial Stage

Guanches, 453-455, 5°7-510

Gudenushohle, 245, 248, 279, 307, 314, 435,
448

Gulo luscus, 469; borealis, 193; see Wol-
verene

Giinz, see Glacial Epoch

Hachette (tranchette, chopper, cleaver), 270,
488, 494

Hammer-stone, see Percuteur

Hamster, 46, 63, 147, 165, 287, 362, 364,
374

Hand-axe, see Coup de poing

Hand-stone, see Coup de poing

Hare, 289, 333, 368, 447, 468, 498, see
Lepus (timidus); arctic, 46, 207, 287,
348, 370, 447, 468, 469, see Lepus vari-
abilis; tailless, see Lagomys and Pika

554

INDEX

Harpoons, 355, 383-385, 387, 388, 390, 391,
440, 443-445, 449, 450, 456, 460-462, 465,
466, 470, 474, 486, 487

Hastings, 471, 475

Heidelberg man, Mauer, 7, 23, 24, 40, 41,
53, 54, 90, 95-iQi, 114, 138, 143, 144, 214,
228, 229, 489, 491, 492, PL II

Heidelberg race, see Heidelberg man and
Origin

Helin, 109, 116, 127, 128, 149, 152, 166, 167

Helvetian, see Durntenian

Hermida, La, 435

Hippopotamus, H. major, 38, 39, 41, 43, 44,
47, 69, 71, 86, 91, 92-94, 102, 117, 123-
125, 134, 147, 148, 155, 157, 165, 174, 177,
186, 192, 199, 263, 264

Hohlefels bei Hutten, 435, 442

Hohlefels bei Schelklingen, 435, 442

Hohlestein, 314, 435

Hommes, Grotte des, 279, 435

Homo, aurignacensis , see Combe-Capelle
man; heidelbergensis, see Heidelberg man;
mousteriensis, see Neanderthal race;
neanderthalensis , see Neanderthal race;
sapiens, 7, 9, 10, 54, 230-234, 257, 260,
261, 278, 334, 484, 490, 491, 500

Horace, on the prehistory of man, 3, 504

Hornos de la Pefia, 245-247, 314, 331, 395,
435, 436

Horse,. 45, 165, 182, 192, 225, 284, 355, 385,
392, 404, 405, 407, 408, 410, 412-414, 431,
432, 469, 498; Desert, Plateau or Celtic,
see Equus caballus celticus; Forest or Nor-
dic, 95, 147, 288, 289, 367, 369, 400, 498;
Hipparion, 63; kiang or wild ass, 194,
285-287, 366, 367, 372-374, 400, 447;
Solutre, 288, 289, 414; Steno's, 34, 96,
no, in, 125, see Equus stenonis ; Steppe,
see Equus przewalski

Hoteaux, Les, 279, 378, 379, 435

Hoxne, 158

Human figures, 317, 321-323, 328, 329, 337,
357, 393, 395, 399, 433, 434, 497

Human fossils, 4, n; distribution of, 214,
279; tables of, 7, 219, 294, 336, 378, 490;
see Lists

Human races, see Lists and Origin

Hunting, 2, n, 166, 202, 211-214, 283, 372,
456, 47i, 496, 497

Hyaena, 43, 62, 76, no, 147, 148, 155, 165,
188,214, 245,265,317,356, 476; see Cave-
hyaena and Hycena

Hycena, brevirostris, 125; crocuta, 102, 147;
crocuta spelcea, 47, 102, 188; striata, 92,
102; see Hyaena

Hylobates, 6; see Gibbon

Ibex, Ibex priscus, 44, 46, 201, 206, 264, 265,
287, 289, 321, 348, 357, 369, 37i, 39i, 401,
405, 433, 447, 466, 469, 497

Ice Age, see Glacial Epoch

Ice-fields, 19, 22; see Glaciers

Implements, 11, 27-30, 130, 270, 271; art,
270, 329, 330; see Eolith, Flint, Industry,
Lists, Neolith, Palaeolith

Industry, 4,11,1 2-14, 19, 33, see Acheulean,
Aurignacian, Azilian-Tardenoisian, Chel-
lean, Campignian, Magdalenian, Mous-
terian, Neolithic, Pre-Chellean, Solu-
trean; see Lists and Implements

Interglacial Stages, see Glacial Epoch

Iron Age, 12, 18, 21, 202, 267

Irpfelhohle, 245, 248

Istein, 469, 471-473

Isturitz, 347, 395

J

Jackal, 43, 44; see Canis neschersensis

Javelin point, see Sagaie

Jerboa, 46, 194, 287, 364; see Alactaga ja-

culus

K
Karlich, 314

Kartstein, 245, 248, 314, 435
Kastlhang, 370, 435, 442
Kent's Hole, 10, 152, 244, 245, 435, 440
Kesslerloch, 279, 286, 355, 361, 364, 378,

383, 435, 436, 44i, 442, 444-446, 449
Kiang, wild ass, see Horse
Kleinkems, 471

Knife, blade, see Couteau and Lame
Knight, Charles R., see Restorations
Kostelik, 435, 448
Krapina, 7, 162, 167, 181-185, 214, 219, 220,

228, 229, 256
Krems, 119, 248, 289, 307, 314, 435, 448

Lacave, 279, 331, 340, 345, 347, 391 ^
Lagomys, 63; pusillus, 202, 370, see Pika
Lagopus, see Ptarmigan
Lamarck, on man, 4
Lame, blade, 271
Lampe, lamp, 270, 401, 402
Laufenschwankung, see Glacial Epoch
Laugerie Basse, 13, 14, 275, 279, 331, 348,
376-378, 385, 388, 392, 407r434, 435, 47i
Laugerie Haute, 13, 14, 279, 294, 296, 314,

33i, 346, 352, 435
Laussel, 245, 246, 249, 275, 313, 314, 317,
326-329, 331, 352, 395, 435

INDEX

555

Lauterach, 314

Lemming, 46, 191, 193, 194, 202, 207, 281,

287, 333, 348, 361, 364, 37o, 469, 476;

see Myodes
Leopard, 265, 348; see Cave-leopard and

Felis pardus spelcea
Leptobos, 71; elatus, 62; etruscus, 63; see

Cattle
Lepus, 469; cuniculus, 364, see Rabbit;

timidus, 364, see Hare ; variabilis, 206,

see Hare, arctic
Levallois, 167, 179
Levallois flake, 167, 168, 179, 180, 199, 250,

Limeuil, 279, 435

Lion, 43, 86, 94-96, 98, 148, 165, 188, 281,
317, 348, 356, 365, 378, 400, 407, 446, 468,
472, 498; see Cave-lion and Felis leo

Lissoir, polisher, smoother, 270, 271, 380,
388, 392, 456, 463, 466, 470

Lists and Tables, chronology, 18, 21, 22, 23,
33,41,54,108,280, 362; climatic changes,
38, 39, 4i, 43, "7, 191, 192, 275, 281, 284,
361-364; fauna, 21, 41, 43, 54, 62, 95,
125, 147, 206, 207, 287; human fossils, 7,
9, 219, 236, 237, 239, 266, 294, 295, 336,
378, 490; human races, 41, 54, 108, 278,
280, 362, 458, 490, 491, 499, 500; indus-
tries, divisions of, 18, 113, 114, 248, 249,
252, 340, 389, succession of, 12, 13, 14, 16,
17, 18, 33, 41, IQ8, 280, 362; implements,
130, 172, 254, 270, 271, 306, 308, 310

Liveyre, 331, 435

Loam, 5, 24, 27, 28

Loess, 5, 23-25, 29, 30, 36, 38, 46, 97, 103,
112, 115, 117-119, 122-124, 151, 159, 161,
162, 174, 176, 181, 252, 281, 282, 284, 286,
314, 334, 337, 364, 376, 442,448; stations,
see Camps, open

Longueroche, 435, 471

Lorthet, 406, 407, 435, 438, 471

Lourdes, 279, 388, 432, 435, 436, 438, 471

Lower Rodent Layer, see Rodent Layers

Lucretius on the prehistory of man, 1, 2, 503

Lussac, 279, 435

Lutra vulgaris, 147; see Otter

Lynchus lynx, 469; see Lynx

Lynx, 43, 63, 206, 287, 367, 466; see Lyn-
chus lynx

M

Macaque, 54, 61, 63, 69, 76
Macerata, 167

Machcsrodus, 41, 69, 244; see Sabre-tooth
tiger

Madeleine, La, 13, 16, 279, 351, 383-389,

398, 435, 443, 445, 449, 47*
Magdalenian, 14-16, 18, 276, 277, 351-360;
art, 351-357, 365, 366, 393, 395-434; bur-
ial customs, 376-380; chronology, 18, 33,
41, 108, 276, 280, 281, 351, 361-364; cli-
mate, 276, 360-364, 370-376, 443, 447,
449, 45°; fauna, 361-376, 443, 445-447,
449, 450; human fossils, 376-382; indus-
try, 14-16, 270, 271, 275, 276, 351-356,
358, 382-392, 436, 440, 443-450; stations,
351, 434-449; see Origin and Rodent
Layers
Maglemose, 458, 471, 487,488, 501
Magrite, Trou, 314, 331, 344, 435
Mairie, Grotte de la, 317, 395, 400, 405, 412,

413, 435, 442
Malarnaud, 214, 219

Mammoth, 10, 43, 102, 109, 117, 134, 147,
148, 177, 187, 194, 200, 202, 205, 206, 213,
218, 281, 288, 289, 316, 317, 321, 324-326,
333, 337, 348-350, 356, 364, 372, 385, 401,
403, 420, 421, 427, 429, 449, 450, 476, see
Elephas; woolly, 13, 40, 41, 43, 106, 117,
174, 187, 190-192, 196, 205, 207, 208, 210,
218, 221, 285-289, 334, 335, 363, 370, 372,

384, 397, 398, 420, 427, 446, see Elephas
primigenius

Man, ancestry of, 3-7, 49-64, 491, 511

Mantes-la- Ville, 167

Marcilly-sur-Eure, 214

Mare-au-Clercs, La, 167

Marignac, 109, 126, 149, 152

Markkleeberg, 167

Marmot, Arctomys marmotta, 182, 201, 206,

265, 37o
Marsoulas, 314, 319, 321, 328, 373, 394, 395,

396, 399, 403, 405, 4i5, 4i6, 435, 471, 485
Marten, 71^ 165, 201, 265, 367, 380, 447,

498; see Mustela martes
Martinshohle, 435, 471
Mas d'Azil, 15, 16, 279, 319, 357, 375, 380,

385, 388, 391-396, 432, 433, 435, 437, 449,
458-465, 47i, 472, 474

Massat, 437, 471

Mastodon, 62, 70, 134

Maszycka, 435, 436, 449

Mauer, see Heidelberg man

McGregor, J. Howard, see Restorations

Mediterranean race, 261, 278, 457, 458,

479, 480, 485, 489, 491, 492, 499, 500
Megaceros, 45, 68, 70, 106, 147, 182, 196,

287, 367; see Deer, giant
Meles taxus, 147; see Badger
Mentone, 247, 322, 395, 472, 473; see Gri-

maldi, Grottes de

556

INDEX

Merck's Rhinoceros, see Dicerorhinus and

Rhinoceros
Mesaticephaly, 8, 479
Metternich, 284, 314
Micoque, La, 113, 167, 168, 179, 192, 196,

245, 246, 248, 249
Microlith, see Microlithique
Microlithique, microlith, 270, 306, 308, 310,

388, 396, 450, 470-472
Migration, of fauna, see Fauna; of human

races and industries, see Origin
Mindel, see Glacial Epoch
Miskolcz, 245, 248, 331
Mommenheim, 245, 247, 248
Monkeys, 54, 61-63
Montconfort, 279, 331, 435
Montfort, 341, 471
Monthaud, 331, 346
Montieres, 109, 127, 149, 152, 186, 244, 245,

283, 3i4, 33i
Moose, 44, 94, 96, 265, 281, 348, 366, 468,

469, 472, 488, 496-498; see Alces
Moulin de-Laussel, 331
Mousterian, 14-16, 18, 30, 186-188, 248-

250; burial customs, 222, 223, 271;

chronology, 18, 33, 41, 108, 280, 362;

climate, 117, 123, 188-199, 202, 205, 207;

fauna, 117, 190-194, 196, 199-214; flora,

199; human fossils, 218-226; industry,

14-16, 113, 248-256, 270, 271; stations,

194-202, 244-248; see Caverns, life in,

Floors, and Origin
Moustier, Le, 13, 16, 196-199, 214, 245, 246,

251, 253, 255; man, 7, 196, 214, 221-223,

226, 228, frontispiece
Mouthe, La, 17, 246, 279, 314, 317, 320,
• 321, 394, 395, 398, 399, 401
Mugem, 471, 474, 486
Munzingen, 160, 195, 435, 439, 442, 443
Murals, see Painting
Musk-ox, 42-44, 46, 65, 66, 187, 191, 193,

207, 285, 287, 289, 348, 362, 366, 370;

see Ovibos moschatus
Mustela, erminea, see Ermine; martes, 147,

469, see Marten.
Myodes, lemmus, 210; obensis, 206,285,370;

torquatus, 193, 202, 206, 285, 370, 441,

446, 447; see Lemming

Narbonne, 435, 437

Naulette, La, 7, 214, 221, 228

Neanderthal, cave, 31, 214, 216, 217, PI.
1 1 ; burial customs, see Mousterian; man,
5, 7, 9, 56, 181, 216-219, 490; race, fron-

tispiece, 5-7, 9, 23, 40, 41, 54, 136, 182,
191, 196, 211-244, 256, 258, 263, 272,491,
492, anatomical features, 53-56, 183, 184,
203, 219-223, 226-244, 490, chronology,
41, 108, 257, 262, 280, 491, compared
with Cro-Magnon, 297, 298, discoveries,
181-185, 215-226, distribution of, 214,
219; see Origin

Necklace, 302, 304, 376, 378, 437, 472

Needle, see Aiguille

Negroid race, 261, 262, 266-269, 278, 301,
302, 321, 492

Neolith, 11, 496

Neolithic, New Stone Age, 10, 13, 18, 19, 21,
41, 108, 280, 362, 447, 482, 484-486, 488,

493-50I
Neopithecus, 49
Neschers, 245, 435, 438
Niaux, 314, 319, 353, 373, 391, 394, 395, 400,

406, 409-411, 412, 429, 435
Niedernau, 370, 435
Norfolkian, see First Interglacial Stage

and Forest Bed of Cromer
Nutons, Trou des, 435

Oban, 474, 475, 486

Obercassel, man, 7, 279, 353, 378, 380-382,

435, 443

Oberlarg, 435

Ochos, 214, 219, 221, 228, 245, 248

Ofnet, 279, 285, 314, 331, 370, 435, 469, 471,
473, 475-48i; races, 442, 457~46o, 480,
481, 490, 491, 500; see Furfooz race and
Origin

Ojcow, 331, 436, 449

Ondratitz, 331

Orang, 3, 49, 52-54, 56, 77, 5"

Origin, of industries, Acheulean, 261, 492,
Aurignacian, 261, 289, 305-307, 322, 492,
Azilian-Tardenoisian, 457, 470-472, 492,
Chellean, 126, 261, 492, Magdalenian,
35I-353, 3%3j Mousterian, 261, Pre-
Chellean, 126. Solutrean, 330, 331, 340,
353, 492; of human races, Alpine, 458,
484, 485, Briinn, 331, 492, Cro-Magnon,

261, 322, 492, Furfooz, 492, Grimaldi,

262, Heidelberg, 492, Mediterranean, 492,
Neanderthal, 492, Ofnet, 457, 484, 485,
Piltdown, 492, Teutonic, 486

Otter, 63, 71, 76, 165, 201, 287, 468, 498;

see Lutra vulgaris
Ovibos, 376; mnschatus, 193, 445, 447, see

M usk-ox
Ovis argaloides, 369; see Argali sheep

INDEX

551

Painted Pebbles, see Azilian-Tardenoisian
industry

Painting, 305, 316-318, 320, 321, 324, 325,
327, 328, 330, 358, 365, 394-396, 404-406,
408-429, 464, 465, 474, 496, 497

Pair-non-Pair, 279, 307, 314, 317, 320-322,
33i, 336, 394-396

Palaeolith, 11, 24, 84, 85, 109, in, 158, 389

Palaeolithic, Old Stone Age, 13, 16, 18, 19,
21, 28, 33, 41, 108, 160, 280, 362; Lower
Palaeolithic, 14^ 41, 108,' 11,3, 114, 214,
280, 362, 490, 491; Upper Palaeolithic,

14, 41, 108, 214, 275, 276, 278, 280, 362,
395, 396, 490, 491, 500; chronology, 18,
41, 108, 280, 362, 456

Palceopithecus, 49, 511

Parietal Art, see Painting

Pasiega, La, 319, 395, 402-405

Pataud, 245, 246, 331

Paviland, 279, 289, 290, 294, 314, 440

Pech de l'Aze, 214, 219, 245

Percoir, drill, borer, 130, 135, 153, 172, 179,

253, 254, 270, 306, 308, 310, 311, 344,

346, 385, 386, 388, 390, 392, 470, 473,

488
Percuteur, hammer-stone, 130, 254, 270,

3°6
Pescara, 167

Petit Puymoyen, 214, 245, 246
Pic, pick, 494
Pierre de jet, throwing stone, 130, 172, 213,

. 254, 270, 306
Pika, 46, 362, 447; see Lagomys (pusillus)
Piltdown, 109, 116, 128, 130-135, 149, 152,

214, PL II; industry, 127, 128, 133-135;

man (Eoanthropus) , 7, 23, 24, 40, 50, 53,

54, 56, 130-145, 214, 489-491; race, see

Piltdown man and Origin
Pindal, 314-316, 325, 349, 394, 395
Pithecanthropus, Trinil race, 7, 23, 24, 40,

53, 54, 86, 491, 511, PL II; anatomical

features, 9, 10, 53, 56, 74, 77-84, 233, 234,

240, 490; discovery, 73-77
Placard, 279, 331, 333, 334, 340, 345~348,

352, 353, 355, 378-380, 383, 385, 389, 435,

436, 438
Planing tool, see Grattoir
Pleistocene, see Glacial Epoch
Pliohylobates , 49, 54
Pliopithecus, 49, 54

Poignard, dagger, poniard, 271, 392, 432
Poincon, awl, 271, 308, 346, 392, 470
Pointe, point, knife, lance head, spear head,

15, 113, 153, 172, i77, i79, 248-255, 270,

306,308,310, 311,473; Chatelperron, 306,

307, 311; pointe a cran, shouldered, 270,

308, 310, 313, 334, 340, 342, 345, 346, 352;
pointe a face plane, 341; pointe de lance,
271, 306; pointe de laurier, laurel leaf, 15,

270, 310-312, 334, 337, 339-341, 344, 345,
347, 348, 352; pointe de sagaie, javelin
point, 271, 308, 340, 346, 354, 355, 361,
364, 37o, 383, 387; 39°, 442, 449, 462, 494;
pointe de saule, willow leaf, 340, 344, 347;
pointe a soie, 270, 310, 311, 313, 340,

345

Polisher, see Lissoir

Portel, Le, 319, 394, 411, 412

Postglacial Stage, see Glacial Epoch

Pottery, 461, 466, 474, 486, 488, 496

Praule, Trou de, 435

Pre-Chellean, 16, 18, 36, 41; chronology,
18, 33, 40, 41, 90, 107-115, 280, 362;
climate, 108, 112, 114, 117, 118, 123;
fauna, 108-112, 117, 124, 125; industry,
40. 114, 120-130, 270; stations, 109, 116,
122-128, 149, 150-152, 158, see Conti-
nental outline and Origin

Pfedmost, 257, 279, 331, 341, 345, 348, 349,
366, 395, 427; see Briinn race; mam-
moth hunters, 279, 337

Primates, 3-10, 40, 49-64, 73-84, 86, 140,
141, 217, 219, 227, 231, 233-235, 237-240,
490, 491

Prince, Grotte du, see Grimaldi, Grottes de

Pro pliopithecus, 49, 54

Propstfels, 372, 435, 442, 469

Propulseur, spear thrower, dart thrower,

271, 355, 39i, 432, 433, 436, 445, 449
Ptarmigan, Lagopus, 44, 206, 207, 287, 289,

37o, 37i, 375, 469

Quartz, 166

Quartzite, 163, 164, 265

Quina, La, 9, 113, 211, 213, 214, 245, 246.

248, 253-256; man, 7, 9, 214, 216, 217,

219, 221, 225, 236, 237, 248

Rabbit, 265, 343, 368, 468; see Lepus

cuniculus
Racloir, scraper, 113, 114, 130, 135, 172, 178,

209, 248, 250, 251, 253-255, 270, 306, 387,

388, 470, 472, 473, 488
Rangifer tarandus, 193, 209, 210, 285; see

Reindeer
Rauberhohle, 245, 247, 248, 314

558

INDEX

Raymonden, 340, 376, 388, 435

Reilhac, 331, 471

Reindeer, 13, 41, 43, 44, 46, 102, 103, 187,
191-194, 196, 197, 202, 205, 206, 209,
210-212, 214, 221, 223, 225, 284, 285,
286-289, 314, 317, 332, 333, 365, 366,
37o, 372, 385, 392, 399, 405, 407, 411-
413, 415, 419-421, 429, 433, 440, 441,
445, 447, 461, 462, 468, 469, 47i, 474,
481, 498; see Rangifer

Reindeer Epoch, Period, 13, 14, 102, 192,
275, 286, 363, 375, 392, 438, 456, 459

Religion, 272, 358-360, 463, 465, 501

Remouchamp, 471, 474

Ressaulier, 435, 436

Restorations, Knight, Charles R., frontis-
piece, 358; McGregor, J. Howard, 9,
79-82, 87, 137, 140, 142, 143, 145, 203,
242, 243, 273, 293, 300, 301; Rutot-
Mascre, 73, 101, 484, 495

Retouch, 169-172, 248, 269, 306, 308, 3IOj
33i, 332, 338, 339, 358, 389

Key, 331

Rhens, 284, 314

Rhinoceros, 38, 39, 43, 44, 62, 76, 123, 221,
245, 289, 337, 356, 365, see Dicer or hinus ;
Etruscan, 34, 95-97, 101, 109, 110-112,
117, 125, 134, 144, see D. etruscus;
Merck's (broad-nosed), 27, 43, 47, 93,
94, 97, 102, 109, 119, 124, 125, 134, 147,
148, 151, 155, 157, 161, 164, 165, 177,
182, 186, 187, 192, 205, 263-265, see D.
merckii; woolly, n, 13, 40, 41, 117, 148,
174, 187, 190, 191, 196, 199, 205, 206,
208-210, 213, 218, 223, 225, 281, 285-288,
314, 319, 324-326, 348, 363, 366, 372,
400, 409, see D. antiqidtatis

Riss, see Glacial Epoch

River-drifts, 5, n, 12, 23; formation, 24-
27, 90, 119, 154-157, 186; stations, 114-
116, 1 19-124, 154-156; terraces, 20, 23,
24-28, 34, 85, 90, 104, 154-157, 162

Robenhausen, 471, 495

Roccamorice, 167

Roche au Loup, 307, 314

Rochette, La, 245, 246

Rock Shelters, 32, 33

Rodent Layers, 447; Lower, 206, 207,
211, 281, 314; Upper, 281, 361, 363,
446

Romanelli, 306, 314

Riiderbach, 167

Riidersheim, 167

Rupicapra, see Chamois

Ruth, Le, 314, 331, 435

Rutot-Mascre, see Restorations

Sablon, 162, 167

Sabre-tooth tiger, 34, 43, 62, 69, 70, 72, 94,

102, 110-112, 117, 125, 144, 147; see

Machcerodus
Sagaie, javelin point, see Pointe de sagaie
Saiga antelope, 44, 46, 194, 287, 289, 333,

357, 362, 366, 373, 374, 376, 449
Saiga tartarica, see Saiga antelope
Salitre, 435
Saint Acheul, 5, 14, 16, 109, 116, 1 19-124,

127-129, 149-152, 155, 162, 163, 166, 167,

170, 244, 245, 249, 283, 314, 331, 435, 440
Saint Lizier, 435
Saint Martin d'Excideuil, 331
Saint Prest, 17, 67-69
San Isidro, 109, 126, 149, 152, 167, 245, 246
Sciurus vulgaris, 367; see Squirrel
Schmiechcnfels, 372, 435, 469
Schussenquelle, 372, 435, 442
Schussenried, 435, 441; see Schussenquelle
Schweizersbild, 286, 361, 364, 370, 435, 441,

442, 444-447, 449, 460
Scraper, see Racloir
Sculpture, 317, 320-323, 328, 329, 347~349,

356-358, 392, 393, 395, 396, 427-434
Second Glacial Stage, see Glacial Epoch
Second Interglacial Stage, see Glacial Epoch
Seven Oaks, 471, 475
Shelters, abris, see Rock Shelters
Sipka, 214, 219, 221, 228, 245, 247, 248, 435,

449
Sireuil, 314, 322, 395
Sirgenstein, 201, 202, 245, 248, 285, 314,

33i, 37o, 372, 435, 44i, 460
Sivapithecus , 511
Siwalik, see Fauna
Solutre, 16, 279, 283, 286, 288, 294, 314, 330,

33i, 341-345, 373, 435, 436, 438

Solutrean, 14-16, 18, 41, 270, 271, 276, 278,
280; art, 347-350, 357; burial customs,
332; chronology, 18, 33, 41, 108, 280, 362;
climate, 41, 108, 276, 280, 281, 332, 333;
fauna, 332-334, 343, 348, 366; human
fossils, 279, 334-337; industry, 275-278,
330-332, 334, 338-348, 351, 352, 354, 358;
stations, 326-328, 331, 337, 340-348, see
Origin

Somme River, 12, no, 112, 114-117, 119,
i2o, 122-125, 127, 162, 252, 276

Sorde, 279, 378, 435, 438

Souzy, 435

Spermophilus rnfescens, 194, 373; see Sus-
lik

Spear-point, see Pointe

INDEX

559

Speech, power of, 4, 58, 60, 139, 140

Spiennes, 127, 128, 495

Spy, 162, 214, 244, 245, 311, 314, 331; man,
7, 181, 214, 218-220, 226, 228, 229, 231-
233, 235-237, 244, 256, 257, 490

Squirrel, 447, 498; see Sciurus vulgaris

Stag, 43, 44, 95, 106, 119, 187, 201, 202, 264,
265, 288, 333, 364, 367, 370, 372, 405, 426,
429, 456, 461, 463, 468, 469, 481, 488, 497,
498; see Cervus elaphus and Deer, red

Stegodon, 76, 134

Strassberg, 435

Stratification of Castillo, 164; Enfants,
Grotte des, 265; Heidelberg, 97; Made-
leine, La, 385; Mas d'Azil, 461; Ofnet,
476; Piltdown, 133; Placard, 333~334;
Saint Acheul, 122, 123, 150; Schweizers-
bild, 447; Slrgenstein, 202

Subsidence, see Continental outline

Sureau, Trou du, 435

Sus, arvernensis, 63; scrofa, 71; scrofa
ferus, 147, 165, 368, 469; scrofa palustris,
499; see Boar

Suslik, 206, 289, 447; see Spermophilus
rufesce is

Tables, see Lists

Tardenoisian, see Azilian-Tardenoisian

Tasmanian compared with Neanderthal,

232, 233; see Neanderthal
Taubach, 119, 167, 214
Tectiforms, 283, 284, 403, 404
Terraces, see River-drifts
Teutonic race, 458, 486, 488, 499-501
Teyjat, 388, 394, 396, 435; see Mairie,

Grotte de la, and Abri Mege
Thiede, 314

Third Glacial Stage, see Glacial Epoch
Third Interglacial Stage, see Glacial Epoch
Throwing stone, see Pierre de jet
Thumb, opposable, 55, 58, 60, 240
Tibia, shin-bone 237-239, 241, 266, 298
Tilloux, 109, 149, 152, 167
Torralba, 109, 126, 149, 152
Tourasse, La, 471, 486
Trilobite, Grotte du, 314, 324, 326, 331, 340,

341, 344, 347, 440
Trinil race, see Pithecanthropus
Trogontherium, 45, 69, 94; see Beaver, giant

Tuc d'Audoubert, 32, 395, 396, 406, 427-

43i, 435
Tundra, see Climate, glacial; see Fauna
Turbarian, Lower, 361; Upper, 363

Upper drift, 191

Upper Rodent Layer, see Rodent Layers

Urochs, Aurochs, see Bos primigenius and
Cattle

Ursus, arctos, 102, 147, 211, 469; arvemen-
sis, 63,94, 102; deningeri, 102; spel<zus,4$,
183, 210, 211, 369; see Bear and Cave-
bear

Vache, Grotte de la, 435, 437, 471
Valle, 435, 466, 471, 474
Venosa, 167
Villejuif, 30, 167, 176
Volgu, 331, 339, 345
Volklinshofen, 284, 314
Vulpes, 469; see Fox

W

Warm fauna, see Faune chaude

Weimar, 167

Wierschowie, 245, 248, 331

Wildcat, Felis catus, 43, 63, 95, 287, 498

Wildhaus, 314, 435

Wildkirchli, 200, 201, 245, 247, 256

Wildscheuer, 286, 314, 370, 435, 442, 444

Willendorf, 30, 279, 311-315, 322, 395

Winterlingen, 435

Wisent, see Bison

Wolf, 43, 44, 71, 95, 147, 165, 187, 206,

264, 265, 287, 288, 333, 343, 348, 356,

366, 441, 447, 468, 498; see Canis suessi

and Cyon alpinus fossilis
Wolvercote, 167
Wolverene, glutton, 44, 46, 71, 193, 287,

289, 348, 370, 447, 468, 498; see Gulo

luscus
Wiirm, see Glacial Epoch
Wiiste Scheuer, 471

Zonhoven, 471, 474
Zuffenhausen, 314

Pala* of Italy, France, and Spain.

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