THE

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

ELEVENTH EDITION

FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 1768 — 1771.

SECOND ten 1777—1784.

THIRD eighteen 1788—1797.

FOURTH twenty 1801 — 1810.

FIFTH twenty 1815—1817.

SIXTH twenty 1823 — 1824.

SEVENTH twenty-one 1830—1842.

EIGHTH twenty-two 1853—1860.

NINTH twenty-five 1875—1889.

TENTH ninth edition and eleven

supplementary volumes, 1902 — 1903.

ELEVENTH „ published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 — 1911 =

COPYRIGHT

in all countries subscribing to the
Bern Convention

by
THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS

of the f

«

UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE <

All rights reserved

THE

ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA

DICTIONARY

OF

ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL

INFORMATION

.

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME XXI

PAYN to POLKA

Cambridge, England:

at the University Press

New York, 35 West 32nd Street
191 1

Copyright, in the United States of America, 1911,

by
The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company.

INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XXI. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL

CONTRIBUTORS,1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE

ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.

A. B. R.
A. F. P.

A. G.
A. G. T.
A. H.*

A. H. C.
A. H. H.

A. H.-S.

A. H. S.
A. J. G.

A. J. H.

A. J. L.
A. Ma.

A. N.

ALFRED BARTON RENDLE, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S.

Keeper, Department of Botany, British Museum. Author of Text Book on Classi- '
fication of Flowering Plants ; &c.

ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HiST.S.

Professor of English History in the University of London. Fellow of All Souls'
College, Oxford. Assistant Editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1893-"
1901. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1892; Arnold Prizeman, 1898. Author of
England under the Protector Somerset; Henry VIII.; Life of Thomas Cranmer; &c.

MAJOR ARTHUR GEORGE FREDERICK GRIFFITHS (d. 1908). J

H.M. Inspector of Prisons, 1878-1896. Author of The Chronicles of Newgate;] Police.
Secrets of the Prison House ; &c.

Plants: Classification.

•

"erne, Andrew.

ARTHUR GEORGE TANSLEY, M.A., F.L.S.

Lecturer in Botany in the University of Cambridge.
of Botany, University College, London.

Formerly Assistant Professor 1 Plants: Anatomy.

ALBERT HAUCK, D.Tn., D.Pn.

Professor of Church History in the University of Leipzig, and Director of the Museum

of Ecclesiastical Archaeology. Geheimer Kirchenrat of the Kingdom of Saxony. ,

Member of the Royal Saxon Academy ot Sciences and Corresponding Member of ") Pilgrimage.

the Academies of Berlin and Munich. Author of Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands;

&c. Editor of the new edition of Herzog's Realencyklopddie fur protestantische

Theologie und Kirche.

SIR ARTHUR HERBERT CHURCH, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.S.A. f

Professor of Chemistry, Royal Academy of Arts, London. Author of Chemistry \ Pigments.
of Paints and Painting ; English Earthenware ; English Porcelain ; &c.

Photography: Pictorial.

|" Persia: Geography and
\ Statistics.

\ Persepolis (in part).

ARTHUR HORSLEY HINTON (1863-1008).

Editor of The Amateur Photographer, 1897-1908, and the Photographic Trades
Gazette, 1904-1908. Author of Practical Pictorial Photography; &c.

SlR A. HOUTUM-SCHINDLER, C.I.E.

General in the Persian Army. Author of Eastern Persian Irak.

REV. ARCHIBALD HENRY SAYCE, D.D., LL.D., LITT.D.
See the biographical article : SAYCE, A. H.

REV. ALEXANDER JAMES GRIEVE, M.A., B.D. r

Professor of New Testament and Church History, Yorkshire United Independent J „, / • \

College, Bradford. Sometime Registrar of Madras University, and Member of] p'ymoutn Brethren (in part).

Mysore Educational Service.
ALFRED J. HIPKINS, F.S.A. (1826-1903). r

Formerly Member of Council and Hon. Curator of the Royal College of Music, Pianoforte (in part)'

' Pitch, Musical.

London. Member of Committee of the Inventions and Music Exhibition, 1885;
of the Vienna Exhibition, 1892; and of the Paris Exhibition, 1900. Author of
Musical Instruments; &c.

ANDREW JACKSON LAMOUREUX.

Librarian, College of Agriculture, Cornell University.
(Rio de Janeiro), 1879-1901.

Editor of the Rio News ] Peru: Geography and Statistics.

ALEXANDER MACALISTER, M.A., LL.D., M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. f Phrenology;

Professor of Anatomy in the University of Cambridge, and Fellow of St John's ~{ Phveino-nnmv
College. Author of Text Book of Human Anatomy; &c.

Peacock; Pelican;
Penguin; Petrel;
Pheasant; Pigeon;
Pipit; Pitta;
Plover; Pochard.
1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume.

ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S.

See the biographical article: NEWTON, ALFRED.

1990

VI

A. Se.*

A. SI.
A. S. P.-P.

A. S. Wo.

A. T. I.

B. R.

C. Bi.

C. E.*
C. E. A.

C. E. M.
C. G. K.

C. L. K.
C. M.
C. Pf.
C. P. J.

C. R. M.
C. S. P.

C.T.*

C. W. R.

D. G. H.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

.ADAM SEDGWICK, M.A., F.R.S.

Professor of Zoology at the Imperial College of Science and Technology, London.
Fellow, and formerly Tutor, of Trinity College, Cambridge. Professor of Zoology
in the University of Cambridge, 1907-1909.

ARTHUR SHADWELL, M.A., M.D., LL.D.

Member of Council of Epidemiplogical Society. Author of The London Water-
Supply; Industrial Efficiency; Drink, Temperance and Legislation.

ANDREW SETH PRINGLE-PATTISON, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L.

Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh. Gifford
Lecturer in the University of Aberdeen, 1911. Fellow of the British Academy.
Author of Man's Place in the Cosmos; The Philosophical Radicals; &c.

ARTHUR SMITH WOODWARD, LL.D., F.R.S.

Keeper of Geology, Natural History Museum, South Kensington,
the Geological Society of London.

ALEXANDER TAYLOR INNES, M.A., LL.D.

Scotch Advocate. Author of John Knox; Law of Creeds in Scotland; Studies in
Scottish History ; &c.

SIR BOVERTON REDWOOD, D.Sc., F.R.S. (Edin.), F.I.C., Assoc.lNST.C.E.,

M.lNST.M.E.

Adviser on Petroleum to the Admiralty, Home Office, India Office, Corporation of
London, and Port of London Authorty. President of the Society of Chemical
Industry. Member of the Council of the Chemical Society. Member of Council of
Institute of Chemistry. Author of "Cantor" Lectures on Petroleum; Petroleum
and its Products ; Chemical Technology ; &c.

REV. CHARLES BIGG, M.A., D.D. (1840-1908).

Regius Professor of Ecclesiastical History in the University of Oxford, and Canon
of Christ Church, 1901-1908. Formerly Senior Student and Tutor of Christ Church.
Headmaster of Brighton College. Author of The Christian Platonists of Alexandria;
•&c.

CHARLES EVERITT, M.A., F.C.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S.
Sometime Scholar of Magdalen College, Oxford.

Secretary of-j Plesiosaurus.

Pilate, Pontius.

Petroleum.

Philo (in part).

-; Phosphates.

CHARLES EDWARD AKERS. r

Formerly Times Correspondent in Buenos Aires. Author of A History of South J Peru: History (in part)
America, 1854-1904. ^

CHARLES EDWARD Moss, D.Sc.
Emmanuel College, Cambridge.

Curator of the University Herbarium.

Plants: Ecology.

Photometry.

CARGILL GILSTON KNOTT, D.Sc.

Lecturer on Applied Mathematics, Edinburgh University. Professor of Physics,
Imperial University of Japan, Tokyo, 1883—1891. Author of Electricity and'
Magnetism ; Physics ; &c. [

CHARLES LETHBRIDGE KINGSFORD, M.A., F.R.HiST.S., F.S.A. [~

Assistant Secretary to the Board of Education. Author of Life of Henry V. Editor J Payne, Peter,
of Chronicles of London and Stow's Survey of London.

CARL THEODOR MIRBT, D.Tn.

Professor of Church History in the University of Marburg. Author of Publizistik-
im Zeitalter Gregor VII. ; Quellen zur Geschichte des Papstthums ; &c.

Pius IX.;

Poissy, Colloquy of.

CHRISTIAN PFISTER, D. ES. L. r

Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of \ Pippin I.-III.
Etudes sur le rkgne de Robert le Pieux.

CHARLES PIERPOINT JOHNSON (1791-1880). r

Lecturer on Botany, Guy's Hospital, London, 1830-1873. Editor of J. A. Sowerby's ^ Pine.
English Botany ; &c. Author of Ferns of Great Britain ; &c.

SIR CLEMENT? ROBERT MARKHAM, K.C.B., F.R.S.

See the biographical article: MARKHAM, SIR CLEMENTS ROBERT.

J Peru: History (in part).

THE RT. HON. CHARLES STUART PARKER, LL.D., D.C.L. (1829-1910).

M.P. for Perthshire, 1868-1874; M.P. for Perth City, 1878-1892. Honorary Fellow, i D

formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. Author of Life of Sir Robert Peel;^ * Bel» & '"•

&c.

REV. CHARLES TAYLOR, M.A., D.D., LL.D. (1840-1908).

Master of St John's College, Cambridge, 1881-1908. Vice-Chancellor, 1887-1888. J Pirke Aboth.
Author of Geometrical Conies ; &c. 1

MAJOR-GENERAL CHARLES WALKER ROBINSON, C.B., D.C.L. r

Assistant Military Secretary, Headquarters of the Army, 1890-1892. Lieut.- Ponincniir War
Governor and Secretary, Royal Military Hospital, Chelsea, 1895-1898. Author of 1

Strategy of the Peninsular War ; &c.

DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A. r

Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Perga;
Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naucratis, 1899^ Pergamunr
and 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British School at
Athens. 1897-1000. Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

vn

D. H.

E. A. J.

E. A. So.

E. Br.

E. G.
E. Gr.
E. J. D.

Ed. M.

E. M. H.
E.G.*

E. O'N.
E. Pr.

E. R. B.
E. S.*

E. Tn.

F. A. P.
F. G. P.

F. J. G.
F. LI. G.

F.N.
F. W. Ga.

DAVID HANNAY.

Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona.

Navy; Life of Emilia Castelar; &c. :

Author of Short History of the Royal •

E. ALFRED JONES.

Author of Old English Gold Plate; Old Church Plate of the Isle of Man; Old Silver
Sacramental Vessels of Foreign Protestant Churches in England ; Illustrated Cata- •<
Leopold de Rothschild's Collection of Old Plate; A Private Catalogue of the

Penn, Admiral; Pepys;
Pescara, Marquis of;
Peter I.-IV. of Aragon;
Peter of Castile;
Pirate and Piracy: History;
Poe, Edgar Allan;
Poland: History (in part).

Plate (in part).

I

Plautus.

logue of .

Royal Plate at Windsor Castle ; &c.

EDWARD ADOLF SONNENSCHEIN, M.A., Lrrr.D.

Professor of Greek and Latin in the University of Birmingham. Hon. Secretary J j
of the Classical Association. Professor of Greek and Latin in Mason College,
Birmingham, 1883-1900. Editor of several of the plays of Plautus.

ERNEST BARKER, M.A. J

Fellow and Lecturer in Modern History, St John's College, Oxford. Formerly "\ "6ter the Hermit.
Fellow and Tutor of Merton College. Craven Scholar, 1895.

EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D., D.C.L.

See the biographical article: GOSSE, EDMUND.

ERNEST ARTHUR GARDNER, M.A.

See the biographical article : GARDNER, PERCY.

EDWARD JOSEPH DENT, M.A., MUS.BAC.

Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge.

Pindarics.
| Phigalia.

- Pergolesi.

{PerSz;
Persia* Ancient History-
D ; ' n. •"

rersis, rnarnaoazus,
Phraates; Phraortes.

EDWARD MORELL HOLMES.

Curator of the Museum of the Pharmaceutical Society, London.

f Pharmacopoeia;
1 Pharmacy.

EDMUND OWEN, F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc. f Ppritnni-«,.

Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital, J L:*1
Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Late Examiner 1 rnaryngltis;
in Surgery at the Universities of Cambridge, London and Durham. Author of A Phlebitis.

Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students.

ELIZABETH O'NEILL, M.A. (MRS H. 0. O'NEILL). /Peckham, John.

Formerly University Fellow and Jones Fellow of Manchester University. \

EDGAR PRESTAGE. r

Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of Manchester. Ex-
aminer in Portuguese in the Universities of London, Manchester, &c. Com- J Pma, Ruy de;
mendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon j Pinto, Fernao Mendes.
Royal Academy of Sciences, Lisbon Geographical Society; &c. Editor of Letters
of a Portuguese Nun ; Azurara's Chronicle of Guinea ; &c.

EDWYN ROBERT BEVAN, M.A.

New College, Oxford. Author of The House of Seleucus; Jerusalem under the-
High Priests.

EMIL SCHURER, D.PH. (1844-1910).

Formerly Professor of New Testament Exegesis in the Universities of Giessen,
Kiel and Gottingen. Author of Geschichte des jiidischen' Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu '
Chris ti; &c.

REV. ETHELRED LUKE TAUNTON (d. 1907).

Author of The English Black Monks of St Benedict ; History of the Jesuits in England.

Perdiceas;
Philip I., II., and V. of Mace-
donia.

Philo (in part).

Pole, Cardinal.

J Plutarch (in part).

FREDERICK APTHORP PALEY, LL.D.

See the biographical article, PALEY, F. A.
FREDERICK GYMER PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.ANTHROP.INST.

Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on I Pharynx;

Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women, H Placenta.

London. Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons.

MAJOR-GENERAL SIR FREDERIC JOHN GOLDSMID.
See the biographical article : GOLDSMID (family).

FRANCIS LLEWELLYN GRIFFITH, M.A., PH.D., F.S.A.

Reader in Egyptology, Oxford' University. Editor of the Archaeological Survey Pelusium;

and Archaeological Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial J Pharaoh;

German Archaeological Institute. Formerly Assistant Professor of Egyptology ~\ pnjlae'
in University College, London. Author of Stories of the High Priests of Memphis ;

I "itiioni.

J Persia: History, 1405-1884 (in
\ part).

&c.

FRIDTJOF NANSEN.

See the biographical article: NANSEN, FRIDTJOF.

Polar Regions (in part).

FREDERICK WILLIAM GAMBLE, D.Sc., M.Sc., F.R.S. r „,__.._,.,-.,..

Professor of Zoology, Birmingham University. Formerly Assistant Director of the J "*
Zoological Laboratories, and Lecturer in Zoology, University of Manchester. 1 Platyelmia.
Author of Animal Life. Editor of Marshall and Hurst's Practical Zoology; &c. I

Vlll

F. W. R.*

G. A. C.*
G. A. Gr.

X

G. Ch.
G. C. W.

G.E.

G. E.*

G. E. C.
G. G. P.*
G. H. Bo.

G. H. Fo.

G. W. R.
H. Bi.

H. Cl.

H. De.
H.E.

H. F. G.

H. G. de W.
H. H. T.

H. L. H.

H. M. W.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S. f Peridot; Phosphates:

Curator and Librarian of the Museum °f Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902. H Mineral Phosphates (in part).
President of the Geologists Association, 1887-1889.

REV. GEORGE ALBERT COOKE, D.D.

Oriel Professor of the Interpretation of Holy Scripture, Oxford, and Fellow of I Petra;
Oriel College. Canon of Rochester. Hon. Canon of St Mary's Cathedral,] Phoenicia.
Edinburgh. Author of Text Book of North Semitic Inscriptions; &c.

GEORGE ABRAHAM GRIERSON, .
Indian Civil Service, 1873-190
1902. Gold Medallist, Ro
Asiatic Society. Formerly
of India ; &c.

GEORGE CHRYSTAL, M.A., LL.D. f

Professor of Mathematics and Dean of the Faculty of Arts, Edinburgh University. -( Perpetual Motion.
Hon. Fellow and formerly Fellow and Lecturer, Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. L

,, f Petitot, Jean; Petitot, J. Louis;

GEORGE CHARLES WILLIAMSON, LITT.D. Pinwpll rpnnra Inhn-

Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of Portrait Miniatures ; Life of Richard \ ™ eii, ueo e jonn,
Cosway, R.A.; George Engleheart; Portrait Drawings; &c. Editor of New Edition! rumer, Andrew;
of Bryan's Dictionary of Painters and Engravers. Plimer, Nathaniel;

I Plumbago Drawings.

-1903. In charge of Linguistic Survey of India, 1898-

>yal Asiatic Society, 1909. Vice-President of the Royal 4 Pisaca Languages

Fellow of Calcutta University. Author of The Languages

Ford's Lecturer, 1909.
Member, Netherlands

Pensionary;

Peru: History (in part).

Joint-editor of English \ Peerage.

I

Plata, Rio de la.

Phylactery (in part).

f Petersburg Campaign:

I (1864-1865).

REV. GEORGE EDMUNDSON, M.A., F.R.HisT.S.

Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford.
Hon. Member, Dutch Historical Society; and Foreign
Association of Literature.

ROBERT GEOFFREY ELLIS.

Peterhouse, Cambridge. Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple.
Reports. Author of Peerage Law and History.

GEORGE EARL CHURCH.

See the biographical article: CHURCH, G. E.

GEORGE GRENVILLE PHILLIMORE, M.A., B.C.L. /Pilot (in •hart)

Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. \ r

REV. GEORGE HERBERT Box, M.A.

Rector of Sutton Sandy, Beds. Formerly Hebrew Master, Merchant Taylors'
School, London. Lecturer in Faculty of Theology, University of Oxford, 1908- '
1909. Author of Translation of Book of Isaiah; &c.

GEORGE HERBERT FOWLER, F.Z.S., F.L.S., PH.D.

Formerly Berkeley Research Fellow, Owens College, Manchester, and Assistant j Plankton.
Professor of Zoology at University College, London.

GEORGE WILLIAM REDWAY.

Author of The War oj Secession, 1861-1862; Fredericksburg: a Study in War.

HIRAM BINGHAM, A.M., PH.D. r

Assistant Professor of Latin-American History, Yale University. Albert Shaw J pv,jijDDjnp
Lecturer on Diplomatic History, Johns Hopkins University. Author of Journal']
of an Expedition across Venezuela and Colombia ; &c.

SIR HUGH CHARLES CLIFFORD, K.C.M.G.

Colonial Secretary, Ceylon. Fellow of the Royal Colonial Institute. Formerly
Resident, Pahang. Colonial Secretary, Trinidad and Tobago, 1903-1907. Author-^ Penang.
of Studies in Brown Humanity; Further India; &c. Joint-author of A Dictionary
of the Malay Language.

HIPPOLYTE DELEHAYE, SJ.

Assistant in the compilation of the Bollandist publications: Analecta Bollandiana -< Pelagia, St.
and A eta Sanctorum. (

KARL HERMANN ETHE, M.A., PH.D. f

Professor of Oriental Languages, University College, Aberystwyth (University of I persja.
Wales). Author of Catalogue of Persian Manuscripts in the India Office Library, ]
London (Clarendon Press) ; &c. L

HANS FRIEDRICH GADOW, F.R.S., PH.D. [

Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of Cambridge. J Phororhacos.
Author of " Amphibia and Reptiles " in the Cambridge Natural History.

HERMANN G. DE WATTEVILLE.

Instructor, Staff College, Camberley, Surrey.

HERBERT HALL TURNER, M.A., D.Sc., D.C.L., F.R.S.

Savilian Professor of Astronomy in the University of Oxford and Fellow of New J Photography, Celestial;
College. President of the Royal Astronomical Society, 1903-1904. Author ofl Photometry, Celestial.
Modern Astronomy; &c. t

r Pharmacology: Terminology;

/Plymouth (England).

.TT,r,T,TTT,r,CT
HARRIET L. HENNESSY, M.D. (Brux.), L.R.C.P.I., L.R.C.S.I.

plague

HARRY MARSHALL WARD, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (d. 1905). f

Formerly Professor of Botany, University of Cambridge, and Fellow of Sidney
Sussex College. President of the British Mycological Society. Author of Timber J Plants: Pathology.
and Some of its Diseases; The Oak; Sack's Lectures on the Physiology of Plants;
Diseases in Plants ; &c.

J. Ga.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES ix

H. R. H. HARRY REGINALD HOLLAND HALL, M.A. f

Assistant in the Department of Egyptian and Assyrian Antiquities, British Museum. ~{ Plate (in part).
Author of The Oldest Civilization of Greece ; &c. I

H. R. K. HARRY ROBERT KEMPE, M.lNST.C.E. f

Electrician to the General Post Office, London. Author of The Engineer's Year"] Pneumatic Despatch.

Book ; &c. I

H. R. M. HUGH ROBERT MILL, D.Sc., LL.D. i

Director of British Rainfall Organization. Editor of British Rainfall. President
of the Royal Meteorological Society, 1907-1908. Hon. Member of Vienna Gep- J p0Iar Regions
graphical Society. Hon. Corresponding Member of Geographical Societies of Paris,
Berlin, Budapest, St Petersburg, Amsterdam, &c. Author of The Realm of Nature;
The International Geography; &c.

H. R. T. HENRY RICHARD TEDDER, F.S.A. f perj0(jjcais

Secretary and Librarian of the Athenaeum Club, London. \

H. Sc. HENRY SCHERREN, F.Z.S. f

Assistant Natural History Editor of The Field. Author of Popular History of\ Platypus (in part).
Animals for Young People; Pond, and Rock Pools; &c.

H. Sw. HENRY SWEET, M.A., PH.D., LL.D. f

University Reader in Phonetics, Oxford. Corresponding Member of the Academies J pj,nnpf,,c
of Munich, Berlin, Copenhagen and Helsingfors. Author of A History of English 1
Sounds since the Earliest Period ; A Primer of Phonetics ; &c.

H. S.-K. SIR HENRY SETON-KARR, C.M.G., M.A. /Pistol

M.P. for St Helen's, 1885-1906. Author of My Sporting Holidays; &c. \

H. S. J. HENRY STUART JONES, M.A. f

Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Trinity College, Oxford, and Director of the British J p, t ,. . ,\
School at Rome. Member of the German Imperial Archaeological Institute. 1 a e ^n Pan>-
Author of The Roman Empire ; &c. I

H. W.* HAROLD W. T. WAGER, F.R.S. f

H.M. Inspector of Secondary Schools, Board of Education, London. President, J Plants: Cytology.
Botanical Section, British Association, 1905. Author of Memoirs on the Structure j
of the Fungi ; &c.

H. W. C. D. HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A. f _

Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford, 1 Peter des R°ches.
1895-1902. Author of England under the Normans and Angevins; Charlemagne.

I. A. ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A.

Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of Cambridge. J Perles Joseph.
Formerly President, Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Short j
History of Jewish Literature; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages; Judaism; &c.

I. G. ISRAEL GOLLANCZ, M.A., Lrrr.D.

Professor of English Language and Literature, King's College, London, and Dean J ppa,i rr,u
of the Faculty of Arts, University of London. Fellow and Secretary of the British 1 '

Academy. Editor of The Pearl ; The " Temple " Shakespeare ; &c. I

J. A. H. JOHN ALLAN HOWE, B.Sc. I" Permian;

Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. Author of 1 Pleistocene;
The Geology of Building Stones. [ Pliocene.

J. A. S. JOHN ADDINGTON SYMONDS, LL.D., D.C.L. J Petrarch; Poggio;

See the biographical article: SYMONDS, J. A. j Politian.

J. Bt. JAMES BARTLETT. r

Lecturer on Construction, Architecture, Sanitation, Quantities, &c., at King's] pi.-for u/nrt
College, London. Member of Society of Architects. Member of Institute of Junior I rlasMr~worK-
Engineers. Author of Quantities.

3. D. B. JAMES DAVID BOURCHIER, M.A., F.R.G.S. r

King's College, Cambridge. Correspondent of The Times in South-Eastern Europe. J phjlinnj
Commander of the Orders of Prince Danilo of Montenegro and of the Saviour of ]
Greece, and Officer of the Order of St Alexander of Bulgaria. t.

J. E. S.* JOHN EDWIN SANDYS, M.A. , Lrrr.D., LL.D. f Pliny the Elder;

Public Orator in the University of Cambridge, and Fellow of St John's College. 4 niinu *i,.
Fellow of the British Academy. Author of History of Classical Scholarship; &c.

J. F.-K. JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLY, LITT.D., F.R.HiST.S. r ,

Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool University. Pereda, Jose Maria de;
Norman McColl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow of the British Academy. 4 Perez Galdos, Benito;
Member of the Royal Spanish Academy. Knight Commander of the Order of Picaresque Novel The.
Alphonso XII. Author of A History of Spanish Literature; &c.

J. F. P. JOSEPH FRANK PAYNE, M.D., F.R.C.P. (1840-1910). r

Formerly Harveian Librarian, Royal College of Physicians. Hon. Fellow of J _, ,. •,

Magdalen College, Oxford. Fellow of University of London. Author of Lectures 1 Plague (in part),
on Anglo-Saxon Medicine; &c.

JAMES GAIRDNER, C.B., LL.D. Jr>.,, . /•„„.•;., (;„ i,n.f\

See the biographical article: GAIRDNER, JAMES. \ *«"*• /om/? »• Pari>

J. G. C. A. JOHN GEORGE CLARK ANDERSON, M.A. f Po.c-_..c

Student, Censor and Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford. Formerly Fellow of Lincoln 1
College. Craven Fellow (Oxford), 1896. Conington Prizeman, 1893.

X

J. G. FT.

J. H. A. H.
J. H. M.

J. H. R.
J. H. V. C.

J. L. M.

J. L. W.

J. Mt.

J. M. M.
J. P. P.

J. R. C.
J. R. Gr.

J. S. F.

J. T. Be.
J. T. C.

J. W.
J.Wa.

J. Wai.*
J. W. D.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

JAMES GEORGE FRAZER, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., Lirr.D.

Professor of Social Anthropology, Liverpool University, and Fellow of Trinity -
College, Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of The Golden
Bough; &c.

JOHN HENRY ARTHUR HART, M.A.

Fellow, Theological Lecturer and Librarian, St John's College, Cambridge.

Penates (in part).

Pharisees.

JOHN HENRY MIDDLETON, M.A., LITT.D., F.S.A., D.C.L. (1846-1896). r

Slade Professor of Fine Art in the University of Cambridge, 1886-1895. Director phi<ralia c;« y,/,»
of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, 1889-1892. Art Director of the South \ L. f . ±. fa"
Kensington Museum, 1892-1896. ^Author of The^ Engraved Gems of Classical rintunccnio.
'--'"' • , •.»•,. , m- ^

Times; Illuminated Manuscripts in Classical and Mediaeval Times.

JOHN HORACE ROUND, M.A., LL.D.

Balliol College, Oxford. Author of Feudal England; Studies in Peerage and Family
History ; Peerage and Pedigree.

JOHN HENRY VERRINDER CROWE.

Lieut. -Colonel, Royal Artillery. Commandant of the Royal Military College of
Canada. Formerly Chief Instructor in Military Topography and Military History
and Tactics at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich. Author of Epitome of the
Russo-Turkish War, 1877-1878; &c.

JOHN LINTON MYRES, M.A., F.S.A., F.R.G.S

Percy: family (in part);
Plantagenet.

f

in University of Oxford, and Student and Tutor of Christ Church.
A History of Rome ; &c.

JESSIE LAIDLAY WESTON.

Author of Arthurian Romances unrepresented in Malory.

JAMES MOFFATT, M.A., D.D.

Minister of the United Free Church of Scotland.
ment; &c.

Author "of

Author of Historical New Testa-

Plevna.

Pelasgians.

Perceval.

J Philemon;

"j Philippians, Epistle to the.

Peisistratus;

Peloponnesian War;

Persia: History (Transition

Period) ;
Plutarch (in part).

JOHN MALCOLM MITCHELL.

Sometime Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London
College (University of London). Joint-editor of Grote's History of Greece.

JOHN PERCIVAL POSTGATE, M.A., LITT.D.

Professor of Latin in the University of Liverpool. Fellow of Trinity College,
Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Editor of the Classical Quarterly. '
Editor-in-chiet of the Corpus Poetarum Latinorum ; &c. |_

JOSEPH ROGERSON COTTER, M.A. r

Assistant to the Professor of Natural and Experimental Philosophy, Trinity College, •< Phosphorescence.
Dublin. Editor of 2nd edition of Preston's Theory of Heat.

JOSEPH REYNOLDS GREEN, M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S., F.R.S. r

Fellow, Lecturer and Librarian of Downing College, Cambridge. Formerly Hartley J piantc.
Lecturer on Plant Physiology, University of Liverpool. Author of History of 1
Botany; &c.

JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.Sc., F.G.S.

Petrographer to the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom. Formerly Lecturer
on Petrology in Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of
Edinburgh. Bigsby Medallist of the Geological Society of London.

f Pegmatite; Peridotite;
Perlite; Petrology; Phonolite;
Phosphates: Mineral Phos-
phates (in part); Phylllte;
Picrite; Pitchstone;
Pneumatolysls.

JOHN THOMAS BEALBY. rPerm (in part);

Joint-author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly Editor of the Scottish Geographical I Podolla (in part) ;
Magazine. Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet; &c: I Poland, Russian (in part).

JOSEPH THOMAS CUNNINGHAM, M.A., F.Z.S. f

Lecturer on Zoology at the South-Western Polytechnic, London. Formerly Fellow I Pear'>
of University College, Oxford. Assistant Professor of Natural History in the 1 Pilchard.
University of Edinburgh. Naturalist to the Marine Biological Association. L

JAMES WILLIAMS, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D.

All Souls' Reader in Roman Law in the University of Oxford, and Fellow of Lincoln •{ Personal Property.
College. Barrister of Lincoln's Inn. Author of Wills and Succession; &c.

JAMES WATERHOUSE.

Major-General, Indian Army (retired). Assistant Surveyor-General of India in

charge of Photographic and Lithographic Branch, Calcutta, 1866-1897. President -! Photography: Apparatus.

of the Royal Photographic Society, 1905—1906. Author of The Preparation of I

Drawings for Photographic Purposes ; &c. I

JAMES WALKER, M.A. f

Christ Church, Oxford. Demonstrator in the Clarendon Laboratory. Formerly J Polarization of Light

Vice-President of the Physical Society. Author of The Analytical Theory of Light; }

&c.

J. WHTT'LY DIXON. M

Captain, R.N. Nautical Assessor to the Court of Appeal.

/Pilot dn part).

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

xi

K. G.

K. L.

K. S.

Persia: Language.

L. C.

L. F. V.-H.

L. J. S.

M.

M. Be.
M. D.
M. N. T.

M. 0. B. C.
M. V.

N. D. M.
N. M.

N. V.

N. W. T.
0. A.

0. Ba.
0. C. W.
O.K.

P. A. K.

KARL FRIEDRICH GELDNER, PH.D.

Professor of Sanskrit and Comparative Philology in the University of Marburg.
Author of Vedische Studien ; &c.

REV. KIRSOPP LAKE, M.A.

Lincoln College, Oxford. Professor of Early Christian Literature and New Testa- J Peter, Saint;
ment Exegesis in the University of Leiden. Author of The Text of the New Testa- I Peter, Epistles Of
ment ; The Historical Evidence for the Resurrection of Jesus Christ ; &c.

Pedal Clarinet;

KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER.

Editor of the Portfolio of Musical Archaeology. Author of The Instruments of the
Orchestra.

COUNT LtJTzow, Lnr.D., PH.D., F.R.G.S.

Chamberlain of H.M. the Emperor of Austria, King of Bohemia. Hon. Member
of the Royal Society of Literature. Member of the Bohemian Academy, &c. Author •
of Bohemia, a Historical Sketch; The Historians of Bohemia (Ilchester Lecture,
Oxford, 1904) ; The Life and Times of John Hus; &c.

REV. LEWIS CAMPBELL, D.C.L., LL.D.

See the biographical article: CAMPBELL, LEWIS.

LEVESON FRANCIS VERNON-HARCOURT, M.A., M.lNST.C.E. (1830-1907).

Professor of Civil Engineering at University College, London, 1882-1905. Author
of Rivers and Canals ; Harbours and Docks ; Civil Engineering as applied in Con- '
struction; &c.

LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A.

Assistant in Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar of
Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the Miner-
alogical Magazine.

LORD MACAULAY.

See the biographical article: MACAULAY, THOMAS BABINGTON MACAULAY, BARON.

MALCOLM BELL.

Author of Pewter Plate ; &c.

REV. MARCUS DODS, D.D.

See the biographical article : DODS, MARCUS.

MARCUS NIEBUHR TOD, M.A.

Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in Epigraphy.
Joint-author of Catalogue of the Sparta Museum.

Philomel; Physharmonica;
Pianoforte (in part);
Piccolo; Pipe and Tabor;
Platerspiel.

Podebrad, George Of.

Plato.

pjer

r Perovskite; Petalite;

PharmaeosidpritP-
f,"8
1 Pnenaeite; PhllllpSlte;

\ Phlogopite; Phosgenite;
' Pitchblende; Plagioclase.

/
\

Pewter.

Pela_ius

\

r
4 Perioeci.

Lecturer in Greek at Birmingham •

Pelopidas; Periander;

Pericles; Phocion;

Phocis; Plataea.
MAX VERWORN, D.Sc., M.D., PH.D.

Professor of Physiology and Director of the Physiological Institute in the University -< Physiology.
of Bonn. Author of Allgemeine Physiologie; &c.

MAXIMILIAN OTTO BISMARCK CASPARI, M.A.

Reader in Ancient History at London University.
University, 1905-1908. '

f Philippine Islands:

\ Geography and Statistics -

NEWTON DENNISON MERENESS, A.M., PH.D.
Author of Maryland as a Proprietary Province.

NORMAN MCLEAN, M.A.

Lecturer in Aramaic, Cambridge University. Fellow and Hebrew Lecturer, Christ's - Philoxenus.
College, Cambridge. Joint-editor of the larger Cambridge Septuagint. •

JOSEPH MARIE NOEL VALOIS. f

Member of Acad^mie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, Paris. Honorary Archivist
at the Archives Nationales. Formerly President of the Societe de 1'Histoire de J Pisa, Council of.
France and the Soci6t6 de 1'Ecole des Chartes. Author of La France et le grand I
schisme d' Occident ; &c.

NORTHCOTE WHITRIDGE THOMAS, M.A.

Government Anthropologist to Southern Nigeria. Corresponding Member of the _,

Soci6t6 d'Anthropolpgie of Paris. Author of Thought Transference; Kinship and] Physical Phenomena.

Marriage in A ustralia ; &c.

OSMUND AIRY, M.A., LL.D. r

H.M. Inspector of Schools and Inspector of Training Colleges, Board of J pfinn William
Education, London. Author of Louis XIV. and the English Restoration; Charles'] '

II. ; &c. Editor of the Lauderdale Papers ; &c. [

OSWALD BARRON, F.S.A. f .

Editor of The Ancestor, 1902-1905. Hon. Genealogist to Standing Council of the < rote family).
Honourable Society of the Baronetage. [

REV. OWEN CHARLES WHITEHOUSE, M.A., D.D. f

Senior Theological Tutor and Lecturer in Hebrew, Cheshunt College, Cambridge. -J Pentecost.
Principal of the Countess of Huntingdon's College, Cheshunt, 1895-1905. [_

OLAUS MAGNUS FRIEDRICH HENRICI, PH.D., LL.D., F.R.S. [

Professor of Mechanics and Mathematics in the Central Technical College of the I Perspective
City and Guilds of London Institute. Author of Vectors and Rotors; Congruent 1
Figures; &c.

PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVITCH KROPOTKIN.

See the biographical article: KROPOTKIN, PRINCE P. A.

I

[ Perm (*n

Podolia (in part);
[ Poland, Russian (in part).

xii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

P. A. T. P. A. TIELE. f

Formerly Librarian, Utrecht University. Author of Biographical and Historical i Plantin.
Memoir on the Voyages of the Dutch Navigators ; &c. L

P. C. M. PETER CHALMERS MITCHELL, M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S., D.Sc., LL.D. f

Secretary of the Zoological Society of London. University Demonstrator in J Phosphorescence: in Zoology.
Comparative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor at Oxford, 1888-1891.
Author of Outlines of Biology ; &c.

P. G. PERCY GARDNER, LL.D., F.S.A., D.LITT. / Pheidicis.

See the biographical article : GARDNER, PERCY. I

P. Gi. PETER GILES, M.A., LL.D., Lrrr.D. f

Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University J Philology (in part)

Reader in Comparative Philology. Formerly Secretary of the Cambridge Philological i

Society.

P. La. PHILIP LAKE, M.A., F.G.S. I"

Lecturer on Physical and Regional Geography in Cambridge University. Formerly J persja- Ceoloev

of the Geological Survey of India. Author of Monograph of British Cambrian ]
Trilobites. Translator and Editor of Keyser's Comparative Geology. L

P. Sm. PRESERVED SMITH, Pn.D. f pius j an(j jj

Rufus B. Kellogg University Fellow, Amherst College, U S.A. \

P. V. • PASQUALE VILLARI. f pisa

See the biographical article: VILLARI, PASQUALE. \

R. C. J. SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE JEBB, LL.D D.C.L. f pj d ({ A

See the biographical article: JEBB, SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE. \ rl

R. G. RICHARD GARNETT, LL.D. / Peacock, Thomas Love.

See the biographical article: GARNETT, RICHARD. \

i

R. I. P. REGINALD INNES POCOCK, F.Z.S. f p-dinaini. ppr,tastnmida

Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London. \ Pedlpalpl, atastomida.

R. K. D. SIR ROBERT KENNAWAY DOUGLAS. r

Formerly Professor of Chinese, King's College, London. Keeper of Oriental Printed
Books and MSS. at British Museum, 1892-1907. Member of the Chinese Consular J Peking.
Service, 1858-1865. Author of The Language and Literature of China; China;
Europe and the Far East ; &c. I

Peccary; Pecora;

R. L.* RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., F.Z.S., F.G.S. Pere David's Deer;

Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of J Perissodactyla*
Catalogues of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in the British Museum; The} „,.„ „..*„,

Deer of all Lands ;&c. ^halal^e,r> ™enacodus,

[ Pica; Polecat.

R. N. B. ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909). f *»™>*ny; Pecljlin;

Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia; the °e'e !• ant* *"• °' Russia;
Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900; The First Romanovs, J Petofl, Alexander Philaret;
1613-1725; Slavonic Europe: The Political History of Poland and Russia from pjper, Carl;
1460 to 1706; &c. I Poland: History (in part).

R. Po. RENE POUPARDIN, D. ES L. Cm.-!' *». i>

Secretary of the Ecole des Chartes. Honorary Librarian at the Bibliotheque I B010;

Nationale, Paris. Author of Le Royaume de Provence sous les Carolingiens; Recueil\ Philip the Good.
des chartes de Saint-Germain ; &c.

R. P. S. R. PHENE SPIERS, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A.

Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy, London. Past

President of Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow of King's College, J Pier (in architecture).

London. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson's |

History of Architecture. Author of Architecture: East and West; &c. [

R. S.* RALPH STOCKMAN, M.D., F.R.S.(Edin.), F.R.C.P.(Edin.). /Pharmacology.

Professor of Materia Medica and Therapeutics in the University of Glasgow. 1

R. S. C. ROBERT SEYMOUR CONWAY, M.A., D.LITT. r

Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the University of Manchester. J pjcenum (in Part).
Formerly Professor of Latin in University College, Cardiff, and Fellow of Gonville 1
and Caius College, Cambridge. Author of The Italic Dialects. [

R. W. ROBERT WALLACE, F.R.S.(Edin.), F.L.S.

Professor of Agriculture and Rural Economy at Edinburgh University, and Garton I

Lecturer on Colonial and Indian Agriculture. Professor of Agriculture, R.A.C., ,. ..

Cirencester, 1882-1885. Author of Farm Live Stock of Great Britain; The Agri-\ PIS U» fo.rt).

culture and Rural Economy of Australia and New Zealand; Farming Industries of

Cape Colony; &c.

S. A. C. STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A.

Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College,
Cambridge. Editor for the Palestine Exploration Fund. Examiner in Hebrew and J Philistines.
Aramaic, London University, 1904—1908. Author of Glossary of Aramaic In-
scriptions; The Law of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi; Critical Notes on Old
Testament History; Religion of Ancient Palestine; &c.

S. F. H. SIDNEY FREDERIC HARMER, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.Z.S.

Keeper of Zoology, Natural History Department, British Museum. Fellow, I phorinidea
formerly Tutor and Lecturer, King's College, Cambridge. Joint-editor of The j
Cambridge Natural History. I

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xiii

S. H. V.* SYDNEY HOWARD VINES, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.

Sherardian Professor of Botany, University of Oxford and Fellow of Magdalen

College. Fellow of the University of London. President of the Linnean Society, ,

1900-1904. Formerly Reader in Botany in the University of Cambridge and ] Plants: Morphology.

Fellow and Lecturer of Christ's College. Author of A Student's Textbook of Botany;

&c.

S. N. SIMON NEWCOMB, D.Sc., LL.D. /Planet;

See the biographical article : NEWCOMB, SIMON. \ Planets, Minor.

T. As. THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.Lrrr. f

Director of British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly Scholar of Christ Perugia;
Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897. Conington Prizeman, 1906. Member of 4 Pjeenum (in part)'
the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Author of The Classical Topo- pirnTnn
graphy of the Roman Campagna.

T. Ba. SIR THOMAS BARCLAY. f peace-

Member of the Institute of International Law. Officer of the Legion of Honour. J D ' r .

Author of Problems of International Practice and Diplomacy; &c. M.P. for!

Blackburn, 1910. [Pirate and Piracy: Law.

T. F. C. THEODORE FREYLINGHUYSEN COLLIER, Pn.D. J" D. IIT .„ . „

Assistant Professor of History, Williams College, Williamstown, Mass., U.S.A. I rlllS 1U'» 1V* an° V>

T. G. Br. THOMAS GREGOR BRODIE, M.D., F.R.S.

Professor Superintendent, Brown Animal Sanatory Institution, University of

London. Professor of Physiology, Royal Veterinary College, London. Lecturer-^ Phagocytosis.

on Physiology, London School of Medicine for Women. Fellow of King's College,

London. Author of Essentials of Experimental Physiology.

T. M. L. REV. THOMAS MARTIN LINDSAY, LL.D., D.D. f

Principal of the United Free Church College, Glasgow. Formerly Assistant to the J Plymouth Brethren (in part)
Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh. Author of j
History of the Reformation ; Life of Luther; &c. L

Th. N. THEODOR NOLDEKE, PH.D. /Persepolis (in part).

See the biographical article : NOLDEKE, THEODOR. I

T. S.* SIR THOMAS STEVENSON, M.D., F.R.C.P. (1838-1908). f

Formerly Senior Scientific Analyst to the Home Office. Lecturer on Chemistry -J Poison,
and Forensic Medicine at Guy's Hospital, London.

T. W.-D. WALTER THEODORE WATTS-DUNTON. f Ponfrv

See the biographical article: WATTS-DUNTON, WALTER THEODORE. \

T. W. H. THOMAS WENTWORTH HIGGINSON, A.M., LL.D. f Vh,n{..

Author of Atlantic Essays; Cheerful Yesterdays; History of the United States; &c. \ P '

T. \V. R. D. THOMAS WILLIAM RHYS DAVIDS, LL.D., PH.D. f

Professor of Comparative Religion, Manchester University. President of the
Pali Text Society. Fellow of the British Academy. Secretary and Librarian of -j Piprawa.
Royal Asiatic Society, 1885-1902. Author of Buddhism; Sacred Books of the
Buddhists ; Early Buddhism ; Buddhist India ; Dialogues of the Buddha ; &c.

W. C. Su. WALTER COVENTRY SUMMERS, M.A. r

Professor of Latin in the University of Sheffield. Formerly Fellow of St John's J Persius;

College, Cambridge. Craven Scholar, 1890. Chancellor's Medallist, 1892. Author 1 PetronillS (in part).

of A Study of Valerius Flaccus ; &c.

W. D. C. V.'ILLIAM DOUGLAS CAROE, M.A., F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A.

Trinity College, Cambridge. Architect to the Ecclesiastical Commission and the -| Pearson, John Loughborough.
Charity Commission, London

W. D. W. WILLIAM DWIGHT WHITNEY. / _ . . ,

See the biographical article: WHITNEY, WILLIAM DWIGHT. -^Philology (in part).

W. de W. A. SIR WILLIAM DE WIVELESLIE ABNEY, K.C.B., D.C.L., D.Sc., F.R.S.

Adviser in Science to the Board of Education for England. Member of the

Advisory Council for Education to the War Office. Formerly President of Royal -j Photography.

Astronomical Society, Physical Society and Royal Photographic Society. Author

of Instruction in Photography ; Colour Vision ; &c. L

W. E. G. F. WILLIAM EDWARD GARRETT FISHER, M.A.

LLIAM EDWARD GARRETT FISHER, M.A. f

Author of The Transvaal and the Boers. \ Phylloxera.

W. Fr. WILLIAM FREAM, LL.D. (d. 1906). f

Formerly Lecturer on Agricultural Entomology, University of Edinburgh, and -< Pig (in part).
Agricultural Correspondent of The Times.

W. F. C. WILLIAM FEILDEN CRAIES, M.A. f

Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple and Lecturer on Criminal Law, King's College, -s Pleading.
London. Editor of Archbold's Criminal Pleading (2yd edition).

W. Ga. WALTER GARSTANG, M.A., D.Sc.

Professor of Zoology in the University of Leeds. Formerly Fellow of Lincoln

College, Oxford. Scientific Adviser to H.M. Delegates on the International Council "j Pisciculture.

for the Exploration of the Sea, 1901-1907. Author of The Impoverishment of the

Sea; &c.

W. Hi. WHEELTON HIND, M.D., F.R.C.S., F.G.S. f

Surgeon, North Staffs Infirmary. Lyell Medallist, Geological Society, 1902. Author 4 Pendleside Series,
of British Carboniferous Lambellibranchiata; &c. I

W. H. F. SIR WILLIAM HENRY FLOWER, F.R.S. f Platypus (in part).

See the biographical article: FLOWER, SIR W. H. 1

XIV

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

W. M. R. WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI.

See the biographical article : ROSSETTI, DANTE G.

W. M. Ra. SIR WILLIAM MITCHELL RAMSAY, LL.D., D.C.L., D.Lrrr.
See the biographical article: RAMSAY, SIR W. M.

W. P. C. WILLIAM PRIDEAUX COURTNEY.

See the article: COURTNEY, Baron.

W. R. M. WILLIAM RICHARD MORFILL, M.A. (d. 1910).

Formerly Professor of Russian and the other Slavonic Languages in the University
of Oxford. Curator of the Taylorian Institution, Oxford. Author of Russia;
Slavonic Literature; &c.

W. R. S. WILLIAM ROBERTSON SMITH, LL.D.

See the biographical article: SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON.

W. R. S.* WILLIAM ROY SMITH, M.A., PH.D.

Associate Professor of History, Bryn Mawr College, Pennsylvania. Author of
Sectionalism in Pennsylvania during the Revolution ; &c.

W. S. R. WILLIAM SMYTH ROCKSTRO.

Author of A Great History of Music from the Infancy of the Greek Drama to the
Present Period ; and other works on the history of music.

W. T. T.-D. SIR WILLIAM TURNER THISELTON-DYER, F.R.S., K.C.M.G., C.I.E., D.Sc., LL.D.,

PH.D., F.L.S.

Hon. Student of Christ Church, Oxford. Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew,
1885-1905. Botanical Adviser to Secretary of State for Colonies, 1902-1906.
Joint-author of Flora of Middlesex.

W. W. R.* WILLIAM WALKER ROCKWELL, D.Pn.

Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York.

W. Y. S. WILLIAM YOUNG SELLAR, LL.D.

See the biographical article: SELLAR, W. Y.

/Perino del Vaga;
\ Perugino, Pietro.

-} Phrygia; Pisidla.

/Peterborough and Monmouth,
1 Earl of.

Literature.

\ Poland: Lit,

| Phylactery (in part).
Polk, James Knox.

Plain Song.

Plants: Distribution.

Pius VI., VII., and VIII.

J Petronius (in part).

Pea.

Pepper.

Peach.

Peppermint.

Pear.

Perfumery.

Peat.

Perier.

Peeblesshire.

Perigueux.

Pembroke, Earls of.

Peripatetics.

Pembroke.

Perjury.

Pembrokeshire.

Pernambueo.

Pen.

Perrault.

Pencil.

Perrot.

Penitential.

Personality.

Pennine Chain.

Perth (N.B.).

Pennsylvania.

Perthshire.

Pennsylvania, University of.

Pessimism.

Pensacola.

Peterborough.

Pension.

Petition.

Penzance.

Philadelphia.

Peoria.

Philately.

PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES,

Philostratus.

Phonograph.

Phormium.

Phosphorus.

Photius.

Photochemistry.

Physiocratic School.

Physiologus.

Piacenza.

Picardy.

Piceolomini.

Pichegru.

Pietism.

Pigeon-flying.

Pilgrim.

Pin.

Pink.

Pipe.

Piquet.

Pistoia.

Pitcher Plants.

Pittsburg.

Plantation.

Platinum.

Pleurisy.

Pleuro-Pneumonia.

Plock.

Plough and Ploughing.

Plum.

Plymouth (U.S.A.).

Pneumatic Gun.

Pneumonia.

Pnom-Penh.

Poitiers.

Poker.

Pola.

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME XXI

PAYN, JAMES (1830-1898), English novelist, was born at
Cheltenham, on the 28th of February 1830, his father being
clerk to the Thames Commissioners and treasurer to the county
of Berkshire. He was educated at Eton, and afterwards
entered the Military Academy at Woolwich ; but his health was
not equal to the demands of a military career, and he proceeded
in 1847 to Trinity College, Cambridge. He was among the
most popular men of his time, and served as president of the
Union. Before going to Cambridge he had published some
verses in Leigh Hunt's Journal, and while still an undergraduate
put forth a volume of Stories from Boccaccio in 1852, and in
1853 a volume of Poems. In the same year he left Cambridge,
and shortly afterwards married Miss Louisa Adelaide Edlin,
sister of Sir Peter Edlin. He then settled down in the Lake
district to a literary career and contributed regularly to Household
Words and Chambers' s Journal. In 1858 he removed to Edin-
burgh to act as joint-editor of the latter periodical. He became
sole editor in 1859, and conducted the magazine with much
success for fifteen years. He removed to London in 1861. In
the pages of the Journal he published in 1864 his most popular
story, Lost Sir Massingberd. From this time he was always
engaged in novel-writing, among the most popular of his
productions being Married Beneath Him (1865), Carlyon's Year
(1868), By Proxy (1878), and The Talk of the Town (1885). In
1883 he succeeded Leslie Stephen as editor of the Cornhill
Magazine and continued in the post until the breakdown of his
health in 1896. He was also literary adviser to Messrs Smith,
Elder & Company. His publications included a Handbook
to the English Lakes (1859), and various volumes of occasional
essays, Maxims by a Man of the World (1869), Some Private
Views (1881), Some Literary Recollections (1884). A posthumous
work, The Backwater of Life (1899), revealed much of his own
personality in a mood of kindly, sensible reflection upon familiar
topics. He died in London, on the 25th of March 1898.

A biographical introduction to The Backwater of Life was furnished
by Sir Leslie Stephen.

PAYNE, PETER (c. 1380-1455), English Lollard and Taborite,
the son of a Frenchman by an English wife, was born at Hough-
on-the-Hill near Grantham, about 1380. He was educated at
Oxford, where he adopted Lollard opinions, and had graduated
as a master of arts before the 6th of October 1406, when he was
concerned in the irregular proceedings through which a letter
declaring the sympathy of the university was addressed to the
Bohemian reformers. From 1410 to 1414 Payne was principal
of St Edmund Hall, and during these years was engaged in
controversy with Thomas Netter of Walden, the Carmelite
defender of Catholic doctrine. In 1414 he was compelled to
leave Oxford and taught for a time in London. Ultimately

XXI. I

he had to flee from England, and took refuge in Bohemia, where
he was received by the university of Prague on the i3th of
February 1417, and soon became a leader of the reformers.
He joined the sect of the " Orphans," and had a prominent part
in the discussions and conferences of the ten years from 1420
to 1430. When the Bohemians agreed to send representatives
to the Council of Basel, Payne was naturally chosen to be one
of their delegates. He arrived at Basel, on the 4th of January
1433, and his unyielding temper and bitter words probably
did much to prevent a settlement. The Bohemians left Basel
in April. The party of the nobles, who had been ready to make
terms, were attacked in the Diet at Prague, by the Orphans
and Taborites. Next year the dispute led to open war. The
nobles were victorious at Lipau on the 29th of May 1434, and
it was reported in England that Payne was killed. When soon
afterwards the majority of the Orphans joined the moderate
party, Payne allied himself with the more extreme Taborites.
Nevertheless his reputation was so great that he was accepted
as an arbitrator in doctrinal disputes amongst the reformers.
In February 1437 the pope desired the emperor Sigismund
to send Payne to be tried for heresy at Basel. Payne had to
leave his pastorate at Saas, and took refuge with Peter Chelcicky,
the Bohemian author. Two years later he was captured and
imprisoned at Gutenstein, but was ransomed by his Taborite
friends. Payne took part in the conferences of the Bohemian
parties in 1443-1444, and again in 1452. He died at Prague in
1455. He was a learned and eloquent controversialist, and a
faithful adherent to Wycliffe's doctrine. Payne was also known
as Clerk at Oxford, as Peter English in Bohemia, and as Freyng,
after his French father, and Hough from his birth place.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The chief facts of Payne's English career are
given in the Loci e libra veritatum of T. Gascoigne (ed. Thorold
Rogers, Oxford, 1881). For his later life the principal sources are
contained in the Monumenta • conciliorum generalium saeculi ».,
Saeculi xv., or saeculi quintodecimi, vols. i.— iii. (Vienna, 1857—1894).
For modern authorities consult Palacky, Geschichte von Bohmen,
vii.-ix., and Creighton's History of the Papacy. The biography
by James Baker, A Forgotten Great Englishman (London, 1894)
is too partial. (C. L. K.)

PAYNTER (or PAINTER), WILLIAM (c. 1540-1594), English
author, was a native of Kent. He matriculated at St John's
College, Cambridge, in 1554. In 1561 he became clerk of the
ordnance in the Tower of London, a position in which he
appears to have amassed a fortune out of the public funds. In
1586 he confessed that he owed the government a thousand
pounds, and in the next year further charges of peculation were
brought against him. In 1591 his son Anthony owned that
he and his father had abused their trust, but Paynter retained
his office until his death. This event probably followed

PAYSANDU— PEA

immediately upon his will, which was nuncupative and was
dated the i4th of February 1594. The first volume of his Palace
of Pleasure appeared in 1566, and was dedicated to the earl of
Warwick. It included sixty tales, and was followed in the next
year by a second volume containing thirty-four new ones. A
second improved edition in 1575 contained seven new stories.
Paynter borrows from Herodotus, Plutarch, Aulus Gcllius,
Aelian, Livy, Tacitus, Quintus Curtius; from Giraldi Cinthio,
Matteo Bandello, Ser Giovanni Fiorentino, Straparola, Queen
Margaret of Navarre and others. To the vogue of this and
similar collections we owe the Italian setting of so large a pro-
portion of the Elizabethan drama. The early tragedies of
A p plus and Virginia, and Tancred and Gismund were taken
from The Palace of Pleasure; and among better-known plays
derived from the book are the Shakespearian Timon of Athens,
All's Well that Ends Well (from Giletta of Narbonne), Beaumont
and Fletcher's Triumph of Death and Shirley's Love's Cruelty.

The Palace of Pleasure was edited by Joseph Haslewood in 1813.
This edition was collated (1890) with the British Museum copy of
!575 by Mr Joseph Jacobs, who added further prefatory matter,
including an introduction dealing with the importance of Italian
novelle in Elizabethan drama.

PAYSANDtJ, or PAISANDU, a town and river port of Uruguay
and capital of a department of the same name, on the left bank
of the Uruguay River about 214 m. N.W. of Montevideo, with
which it is connected by rail. Pop. (1908 estimate), 15,000. It
has railway connexion with Rio Negro and Montevideo to the
south-east, and with Salto and Santa Rosa, on the Brazilian
frontier, on the north; it is at the head of low water navigation
on the Uruguay River, and is in regular steamer communication
with Montevideo and Buenos Aires.

There are some good public buildings, including two churches,
a hospital, a theatre and the government offices. Paysandii
exports cattle and sheep and salted meats, hides, ox
tongues, wool and other animal products. There is a meat-
curing establishment (saladero) at Guaviyu, in the vicinity.
The town was named in honour of Pay, or Pai (Father) Sandu,
a priest who settled there in 1772. It has suffered severely
from revolutionary outbreaks, was bombarded by Rivera
in 1846, and was partly destroyed in 1865 by a Brazilian
bombardment, after which its gallant defenders, Leandro
Gomez and his companions, were butchered in cold blood.

The department of Paysandu — area 5117 sq. m.; pop. (1907,
estimate), 54,097 — is one of the richest stock-raising regions
of the republic.

PAYSON, EDWARD (1783-1827), American Congregational
preacher, was born on the 25th of July 1783 at Rindge, New
Hampshire, where his father, Seth Payson (1758-1820), was
pastor of the Congregational Church. His uncle, Phillips Payson
(1736-1801), pastor of a church in Chelsea, Massachusetts,
was a physicist and astronomer. Edward Payson graduated
at Harvard in 1803, was then principal of a school at Portland,
Maine, and in 1807 became junior pastor of the Congregational
Church at Portland, where he remained, after 1811, as senior
pastor, until his death on the 22nd of October 1827.

The most complete collection of his sermons, with a memoir by
Asa Cummings originally published in 1828, is the Memoir, Select
Thoughts and Sermons of the late Rev. Edward Payson (3 vols., Port-
land, 1846; Philadelphia, 1859). "Based on this is the volume,
Mementos of Edward Payson (New York, 1873), by the Rev. E. L.
Janes of the Methodist Episcopal Church.

PAZMANY, PESTER (1570-1637), Hungarian cardinal and
statesman, was born at Nagyvarad on the 4th of October 1570,
and educated at Nagyvarad and Kolozsvar, at which latter
place he quitted the Calvinist confession for the Roman com-
munion (1583). In 1587 he entered the Jesuit order. Pazmany
went through his probation at Cracow, took his degree at
Vienna, and studied theology at Rome, and finally completed his
academic course at the Jesuit college at Graz. In 1601 he was
sent to the order's establishment at Sellye, where his eloquence
and dialectic won back hundreds to Rome, including many
of the noblest families. Prince Nicholas Esterhazy and Paul
Rakoczy were among his converts. In 1607 he was attached

to the archbishop of Esztergom, and in the following year
attracted attention by his denunciation, in the Diet, of the 8th
point of the peace of Vienna, which prohibited the Jesuits from
acquiring landed property in Hungary. At about the same
time the pope, on the petition of the emperor Matthias II.,
released Pazmany from his monkish vows. On the 25th of
April 1616 he was made dean of Turocz, and on the 28th of
September became primate of Hungary. He received the red
hat from Urban VIII. in 1629. Pazmany was the soul of the
Roman Catholic reaction in Hungary. Particularly remarkable
is his Igazsdgra vezeto Kalauz (Guide to Truth), which appeared
in 1613. This manual united all the advantages of scientific
depth, methodical arrangement and popular style. As the chief
pastor of the Hungarian church Pazmany used every means
in his power, short of absolute contravention of the laws, to
obstruct and weaken Protestantism, which had risen during
the i6th century. In 1619 he founded a seminary for theological
candidates at Nagyszombat, and in 1623 laid the foundations
of a similar institution at Vienna, the still famous Pazmanaeum,
at a cost of 200,000 florins. In 1635 he contributed 100,000
florins towards the foundation of a Hungarian university.
He also built Jesuit colleges and schools at Pressburg, and
Franciscan monasteries at Ersekujvar and Kormoczbanya.
In politics he played a considerable part. It was chiefly due
to him that the diet of 1618 elected the archduke Ferdinand
to succeed the childless Matthias II. He also repeatedly
thwarted the martial ambitions of Gabriel Bethlen, and prevented
George Rakoczy I., over whom he had a great influence, from
combining with the Turks and the Protestants. But Pazmany's
most unforgetable service to his country was his creation of the
Hungarian literary language. As an orator he well deserved
the epithet of " the Hungarian purple Cicero." Of his numerous
works the chief are: The Four Books of Thomas d Kempis
on the imitation of Christ (Hung., 1603), of which there are
many editions; Diatribe theologica de msibili Christi in terris
ecclesia (Graz, 1615); Vindiciae ecclesiasticae (Vienna, 1620);
Sermons for every Sunday in the Year (Hung., Pressburg, 1636);
The Triumph of Truth (Hung., Pressburg, 1614).

See Vilmos Fraknoi, Peter Pdzmdny and his Times (Hung. Pest,
1868-1872); Correspondence of Pazmany (Hung.and Latin), published
by the Hungarian Academy (Pest, 1873). (R. N. B.)

PAZ SOLDAN, MARIANO FELIPE (1821-1886), Peruvian
historian and geographer, was born at Arequipa, on the 22nd
of August 1821. He studied law, and after holding some minor
judicial offices, was minister to New Granada in 1853. After his
return he occupied himself with plans for the establishment
of a model penitentiary at Lima, which he was enabled to
accomplish through the support of General Castilla. In 1860
Castilla made him director of public works, in which capacity
he superintended the erection of the Lima statue of Bolivar.
He was also concerned in the reform of the currency by the
withdrawal of the debased Bolivian coins. In 1861 he published
his great atlas of the republic of Peru, and in 1868 the first
volume of his history of Peru after the acquisition of her inde-
pendence. A second volume followed, and a third, bringing
the history down to 1839, was published after his death by his
son. In 1870 he was minister of justice and worship under
President Balta, but shortly afterwards retired from public
life to devote himself to his great geographical dictionary of
Peru, which was published in 1877. During the disastrous
war with Chile he sought refuge at Buenos Aires, where he was
made professor in the National College, and where he wrote
and published a history of the war (1884). He died on the
3ist of December 1886.

PEA (Pisum), a genus of the order Leguminosae, consisting
of herbs with compound pinnate leaves ending in tendrils, by
means of which the weak stems are enabled to support themselves,
and with large leafy stipules at the base. The flowers (fig. i)
are typically " papilionaceous," with a " standard " or large
petal above, two side petals or wings, and two front petals
below forming the keel. The stamens are ten — nine united,
the tenth usually free or only slightly joined to the others.

PEABODY, A. P.

St.

'-car

FIG. i. — Flower of Pea.
c, Calyx.
st, Standard,
a, Alae, or wings.
car, Carina, or Keel.

This separation allows approach to the honey which is secreted
at the base of the staminal tube. The ovary is prolonged
into a long, thick, bent style, com-
pressed from side to side at the tip
and fringed with hairs. The fruit is
a characteristic " legume " or pod
(fig. 2), bursting when ripe into halves,
which bear the large globular seeds
(peas) on their edges. These seeds
are on short stalks, the upper ex-
tremity of which is dilated into a
shallow cup (aril); the two seed-leaves
(cotyledons) are thick and fleshy, with
a radicle bent along their edges on
one side. The genus is exceedingly close to Lalhyrus, being
only distinguished technically by the style, which in the latter
genus is compressed from above downwards and not thick.
It is not surprising, therefore, that under
the general name " pea " species both of
Pisum and of Lalhyrus are included. The
common field pea with tan-coloured or
compressed mottled seeds and two to four
leaflets is Pisum arvense, which is culti-
vated in all temperate parts of the globe,
but which, according to the Italian
botanists, is truly a native of central and
southern' Italy: it has purple flowers.
The garden pea, P. sativum, which has
white flowers, is more tender than the
preceding, and its origin is not known.
It has not been found in a wild state
anywhere, and it is considered that it
may be a form of P. arvense, having,
however, from four to six leaflets to
From vine's student each leaf and globular seeds of uniform

Text-book of Botany, by colour.
permission of Swan, Son-
nenschein & Co.

pIG- 2_ _ The

r, The dorsal suture.
6, The ventral.
c, Calyx.
s, Seeds.

P. sativum was known to Theophrastus ;
and De Candolle (Origin of Cultivated Plants,

(legume) of the Pea. P- 3.29) points out that the word " pison "
or its equivalent occurs in the Albanian
tongue as well as in Latin, whence he con-
cludes that the pea was known to the Aryans,
and was perhaps brought by them into
Greece and Italy. Peas have been found
in the Swiss lake-dwellings of the bronze period. The garden
peas differ considerably in size, shape of pod, degree of productive-
ness, form and colour of seed, &c. The sugar peas are those in which
the inner lining of the pod is very thin instead of being somewhat
horny, so that the whole pod can be eaten. Unlike most papilion-
aceous plants, peaflowers are perfectly fertile without the aid of
insects, and thus do not intercross so freely as most similar plants do.
On the other hand, a case is known wherein the pollen from a purple-
podded pea applied to the stigma of one of the green-podded sugar
peas produced a purple pod, showing that not only the ovule but even
the ovary was affected by the cross. The numerous varieties of
peas in cultivation have been obtained by cross-fertilization, but
chiefly by selection. Peas constitute a highly nutritious article of
diet from the large quantity of nitrogenous materials they contain
in addition to starchy and saccharine matters.

The sweet pea, cultivated for the beauty and fragrance of its
flowers, is a species of the allied genus Lathyrus (L. odoratus), a
native of southern Europe. The chick pea (q.v.) (Cicer arieti-
num), not cultivated in England, is still farther removed from
the true peas. The everlasting pea of gardens is a species of
Lathyrus (L. latifolius) with very deep fleshy roots, bold foliage,
and beautiful but scentless flowers; the field pea (Pisum arvense)
is better adapted than the bean to light soils, and is best culti-
vated in rows of such a width as to admit of horse-hoeing.
The early stage at which the plants fall over, and forbid further
culture, renders it even more needful than in the case of beans
to sow them only on land already clean. If annual weeds can
be kept in check until the peas once get a close cover, they then
occupy the ground so completely that nothing else can live
under them; and the ground, after their removal, is found in
the choicest condition. A thin crop of peas should never be
allowed to stand, as the land is sure to get perfectly wild. The

difficulty of getting this crop well harvested renders it peculiarly
advisable to sow only the early varieties.

The pea prefers a friable calcareous loam, deeply worked, and well
enriched with good hotbed or farm-yard manure. The early crops
require a warm sheltered situation, but the later are better grown
6 or 8 ft. apart, or more, in the open quarters, dwarf crops being in-
troduced between the rows. The dwarf or early sorts may be sown
3 or 4 ft. apart. The deep working of the soil is of importance,
lest the plants should suffer in hot dry weather from mildew or
arrest of growth. The first sowing may be made about the beginning
or middle of November, in front of a south wall, the plants being
defended by spruce fir branches or other spray throughout the winter.
In February sowings are sometimes made in private gardens, in flower-
pots or boxes, and the young plants afterwards planted out. The
main crop should be sown towards the end of February, and moder-
ate sowings should be made twice a month afterwards, up to the
beginning of July for the north, and about the third week in July
for warmer districts. During dry hot weather late peas derive
great benefit from mulching and watering. The latest sowings,
at the middle or end of August, should consist of the best early sorts,
as they are not so long in producing pods as the larger and finer
sorts, and by this means the supply may be prolonged till October
or November. As they grow the earth is drawn up to the stems,
which are also supported by stakes, a practice which in a well-kept
garden is always advisable, although it is said that the early varieties
arrive sooner at maturity when recumbent.

Peas grown late in autumn are subject to mildew, to obviate
which it has been proposed to dig over the ground in the usual way,
and to soak the spaces to be occupied by the rows of peas thoroughly
with water — the earth on each side to be then collected so as to
form ridges 7 or 8 in. high, these ridges being well watered, and the
seed sown on them in single rows. If dry weather at any time S'.-t
in, water should be supplied profusely once a week.

To produce very early crops the French market-gardeners used to
sow early in November, in frames, on a border having a good aspect,
the seeds being covered very slightly. The young plants are trans-
planted into other frames in December, the ground inside being
dug out so as to be 18 or 20 in. below the sashes, and the earth thus
removed placed against the outside of the frames. The young
plants, when 3 or 4 in. high, are planted in patches of three or
four, 8 in. asunder, in four longitudinal rows. The sashes are covered
at night with straw mats, and opened whenever the weather is
sufficiently mild. When 8 or 10 in. high the stems are inclined
towards the back of the frame, a little earth being drawn to their
base, and when the plants come into blossom the tops are pinched out
above the third or fourth flower to force them into bearing. As
soon as they begin to pod, the soil may have a gentle watering,
whenever sufficiently warmed by the sun, but a too vigorous growth
at an earlier period would be detrimental. Thus treated the plants
bear pods fit for gathering in the first fortnight in April.

A very convenient means of obtaining an early crop is to sow in
5-in. pots, a few seeds in each, the plants to be ultimately planted
out on a warm border. Peas may also be obtained early if gently
forced in frames, in the same way as kidney beans, the dwarfest
varieties being preferable.

For the very early peas the rows should range east and west,
but for the main crops north and south. The average depth of the
drills should be about 2 in. for small sorts, and a trifle more for
the larger kinds. The drills should be made wide and flat at bottom
so that the seeds may be better separated in sowing. The large
sorts are the better for being sown 3 in. apart. Chopped furze
may be advantageously scattered in the drill before covering in,
to check the depredations of mice, and before levelling the surface
the soil should be gently trodden down over the seeds.

A good selection of sorts may be made from the following : —

Early.— William Hurst; Chelsea Gem; Sutton's Bountiful and
Excelsior; Gradus.

Second Early. — Stratagem ; Telephone ; Telegraph ; Carter's Daisy ;
Duke of York; Veitch's Autocrat.

Late.— Veitch's Perfection; Ne Plus Ultra, the finest of all late
peas, but a little delicate in cold wet soils and seasons ; British Queen ;
Champion of England ; Duke of Albany.

PEABODY, ANDREW PRESTON (1811-1893), American
clergyman and author, was born in Beverly, Massachusetts,
on the i Qth of March 1811, and was descended from Lieut.
Francis Peabody of St Albans, who emigrated to Massachusetts
in 1635. He learned to read before he was three years old,
entered Harvard College at the age of twelve, and graduated
in 1826, with the single exception of Paul Dudley (class of 1690)
the youngest graduate of Harvard. In 1833 he became assistant
pastor of the South Parish (Unitarian) of Portsmouth, New
Hampshire; the senior pastor died before Peabody had been
preaching a month, and he succeeded to the charge of the church,
which he held until 1860. In 1852-1860 he was proprietor and
editor of the North American Review. He was preacher to

PEABODY, E. P.— PEACE

Harvard University and Plummer professor of Christian morals
from 1860 to 1 88 1, and was professor emeritus from 1881 until
his death in Boston, Massachusetts, on the loth of March 1893.
On the walls of Appleton Chapel, Cambridge, U.S.A., is a bronze
tablet to his memory.

Besides many brief memoirs and articles, he wrote: Christianity
the Religion of Nature (2 id ed., 1864), Lowell Institute Lectures;
Reminiscences of European Travel (1868); A Manual of Moral
Philosophy (1873); Christian Belief and Life (1875), and Harvard
Reminiscences (1888). See the Memoir (Cambridge, 1896) by
Edward J. Young.

PEABODY, ELIZABETH PALMER (1804-1894), American
educationist, was born at Billerica, Massachusetts, on the i6th
of May 1804. Early in life she was assistant in A. Bronson
Alcott's school in Boston, Mass., the best account of which is
probably her Record of Mr Alcott's School (1835). She had been
instructed in Greek by Emerson at Concord when she was
eighteen years old. She became interested in the educational
methods of Froebel, and in 1860 opened in Boston a small school
resembling a kindergarten. In 1867 she visited Germany for
the purpose of studying Froebel's methods. It was largely
through her efforts that the first public kindergarten in the
United States was established in Boston in 1870. She died at
Jamaica Plain, Boston, on the 3rd of January 1894. She was
the sister-in-law of Nathaniel Hawthorne and of Horace Mann.

Among her publications are: Kindergarten in Italy (1872);
Reminiscences of William Ellery Channing (1880); Lectures in the
Training Schools for Kinder gar tners (1888); and Last Evening with
Allslon, and other Papers (1886).

PEABODY, GEORGE (1795-1869), American philanthropist,
was descended from an old yeoman family of Hertfordshire,
England, named Pabody or Pebody. He was born in the part
of Danvers which is now Peabody, Mass., on the i8th of February
1795. When eleven years old he became apprentice at a
grocery store. At the end of four years he became assistant to
his brother, and a year afterwards to his uncle, who had a
business in Georgetown, District of Columbia. After serving as a
volunteer at Fort Warburton, Maryland, in the War of 1812, he
became partner with Elisha Riggs in a dry goods store at George-
town, Riggs furnishing the capital, while Peabody was manager.
Through his energy and skill the business increased with astound-
ing rapidity, and on the retirement of Riggs about 1830 Peabody
found himself at the head of one of the largest mercantile con-
cerns in the world. About 1837 he established himself in London
as merchant and money-broker at Wanford Court, in the city,
and in 1843 he withdrew from the American business. The
number of his benefactions to public objects was very large.
He gave £50,000 for educational purposes at Danvers; £200,000
to found and endow a scientific Institute in Baltimore; various
sums to Harvard University; £700,000 to the trustees of the
Peabody Educational Fund to promote education in the
southern states; and £500,000 for the erection of dwelling-houses
for the working-classes in London. He received from Queen
Victoria the offer of a baronetcy, but declined it. In 1867 the
United States Congress awarded him a special vote of thanks.
He died in London on the 4th of November 1869; his body
was carried to America in a British warship, and was buried
in his native town.

See the Life (Boston, 1870) by Phebe A. Hanaford.

PEABODY, a township of Essex county, Massachusetts,
U.S.A., in the eastern part of the state, 2 m. N.W. of Salem.
Pop. (1905) 13,098; (1910) 15,721. It is served by the Boston &
Maine railroad. The township covers an area of 17 sq. m. Its
principal village is also known as Peabody. It contains the
Peabody institute (1852), a gift of George Peabody ; in 1909 the
institute had a library of 43,200 vols., and in connexion with it is
the Eben Dale Sutton reference library, containing 4100 vols.
in 1909. In the institute is the portrait of Queen Victoria given
by her to Mr Peabody. Among the places of interest in the
township are the birthplace of George Peabody, the home of
Rufus Choate (who lived here from 1823 to 1828), and the old
burying-ground, where many soldiers of the War of Indepen-
dence are buried; and the town has a Lexington monument,

dedicated in 1835, and a soldiers' monument, dedicated in 1881.
Manufacturing is the principal industry, and leather is the
principal product; among other manufactures are shoes, gloves,
glue and carriages. The value of the factory products in
1905 was $10,236,669, an increase of 47-4% over that for 1900,
and of the total the leather product represented 77-3%.

Peabody was originally a part of the township of Salem. In
1752 the district of Danvers was created, and in 1757 this district
was made a separate township. In 1855 the township was divided
into Danvers and South Danvers, and in 1868 the name of South
Danvers was changed to Peabody, in honour of George Peabody.

See Old Naumkeag (Salem, 1877), by C. H. Webber and W. H.
Nevins.

PEACE, a river of western Canada. It rises in the Rocky
Mountains near 55° N., and breaking through the mountains,
flows N.E. into Slave River, near lake Athabasca. The district
between 56° 40' and 60° N., and between 112° W. and the Rocky
Mountains is usually known as the Peace River district.

PEACE (Lat. pax; FT. paix; Ger. Friede), the contrary of
war, conflict or turmoil, and the condition which follows their
cessation. Its sense in international law is the condition of
not being at war. The word is also used as an abridgment for
a treaty of peace, in such cases as the Peace of Utrecht (1713)
and the Peace of Amiens (1802).

Introduction. — Peace until quite recently was merely the
political condition which prevailed in the intervals between
wars. It was a purely negative condition. Even Grotius, who
reduced the tendencies existing in his time to a sort of orderly
expression, addressed himself to the law of war as the positive
part of international jurisprudence and dealt only with peace
as its negative alternative. The very name of his historic
treatise, De jure belli ac pads (1625), shows the subordination
of peace to the main subject of war. In our own time peace has
attained a higher status. It is now customary among writers
on international law to give peace at any rate a volume to itself.
Peace in fact has become a separate branch of the subject. The
rise of arbitration as a method of settling international difficulties
has carried it a step further, and now the Hague Peace Con-
ventions have given pacific methods a standing apart from war.
and the preservation of peace has become an object of direct
political effort. The methods for ensuring such preservation
are now almost as precise as the methods of war. However
reluctant some states may be to bind themselves to any rules
excluding recourse to brute force when diplomatic negotiations
have failed, they have nevertheless unanimously at the Hague
Conference of 1907 declared their " firm determination to co-
operate in the maintenance of general peace " (la ferme volontt
de concourir au mainlien de la paix gfnfrale)1, and their resolution
" to favour with all their efforts the amicable settlement of
international conflicts " (preamble to Peace Convention). The
offer of mediation by independent powers is provided for (Peace
Convention: art. 3), and it is specifically agreed that in matters
of a " legal character " such as " questions of interpretation and
application " of international conventions, arbitration is the
" most efficacious and at the same time most equitable method "
of settling differences which have not been solved by diplomacy
(Peace Convention: art. 38). In the final act, the conference
went farther in agreeing to the " principle of compulsory arbi-
tration," declaring that " certain disputes, in particular those
relating to the interpretation and application of the provisions
of international agreements, are suitable (susceptible) to be
submitted to compulsory arbitration without any restriction."

These declarations were obviously a concession to the wide-
spread feeling, among civilized nations, that peace is an object
in itself, an international political condition requiring its code of
methods and laws just as much as the domestic political conditions
of nations require their codes of methods and laws. In other
words peace among nations has now become, or is fast becoming,
a positive subject of international regulation, while war is

1 This has been incorrectly rendered in the English official trans-
lation as " the sincere desire to work for the maintenance of general
peace."

PEACE

coming, among progressive peoples, to be regarded merely as an
accidental disturbance of that harmony and concord among
mankind which nations require for the fostering of their
domestic welfare.

Though the idea of preserving peace by general international
regulation has had several exponents in the course of ages, no
deliberate plan has ever yet been carried into effect. Indirectly,
however, there have been many agencies which have operated
towards this end. The earliest, known to history, is the Amphi-
ctyonic Council (q.v.) which grew out of the common worship
of the Hellenes. It was not so much a political as a religious
body. " If it had any claim," says Freeman,1 " to the title of a
general council of Greece, it was wholly in the sense in which we
speak of general councils in modern Europe. The Amphictyonic
Council represented Greece as an ecclesiastical synod repre-
sented western Christendom. Its primary business was to
regulate the concerns of the temple of Apollo at Delphi. The
Amphictyonic Council which met at Delphi was only the most
famous of several bodies of the same kind." " It is easy,
however," adds Freeman, " to understand how the religious
functions of such a body might assume a political character.
Thus the old Amphictyonic oath forbade certain extreme
measures of hostility against any city sharing in the common
Amphictyonic worship, and it was forbidden to raze any Amphi-
ctyonic city or to cut off its water. As the only deliberative
body in which most Greek communities were represented, its
decisions were those of the bulk of the Hellenic people. It sank
eventually into a mere political tool in the hands first of Thebes,
and then under Philip of Macedonia."

The so-called pax romana was merely peace within an
empire governed from a central authority, the constituent
parts of which were held together by a network of centralized
authority.

The feudal system again was a system of offence and defence,
and its object was efficiency for war, not the organized regulation
of peace. Yet it had elements of federation within the bonds of
its hierarchy.

The spiritual influence of the Church again was exerted to
preserve relative peace among feudal princes. The " Truce of
God " was established by the clergy (originally in Guyenne in
1031) to take advantage of holy days and festivals for the purpose
of restricting the time available for bloodshed.

The " grand design " of Henry IV. (France), which some
historians regard merely as the fantastic idea of a visionary, was
probably a scheme of his great minister Sully to avert by a
federation the conflict which he probably foresaw would break
out sooner or later between Catholic and Protestant Europe,
and which, in fact, broke out some fifteen years later in the
Thirty Years' War.

The Holy Roman Empire itself was in some respects an agent
for the preservation of peace among its constituent states. In
the same way the federation of Swiss cantons, of the states of the
North American Union and of the present German Empire have
served as means of reducing the number of possible parties to war,
and consequently that of its possible occasions.

Not only the number of possible war-making states but also
the territorial area over which war can be made has been
reduced in recent times by the creation of neutralized states such
as Switzerland, Belgium, Luxemburg and Norway, and areas
such as the Congo basin, the American lakes and the Suez Canal.

The " balance of power," which has played in the history of
modern Europe such an important part, is inherent in the
notion of the independence and stability of states. Just as in
Italy the common weal of the different republics which were
crowded within the limited area of the peninsula required that
no one of them should become so powerful as to threaten the
independence of the others, so western Europe had a similar
danger to counteract. France, Spain and the Empire were
competing with each other in power to the detriment of smaller
states. Great Britain and the Netherlands, Prussia and Russia,

1 History of Federal Government in Greece and Italy (2nd ed.,
London, 1893), p. 97.

had interests in the preservation of the status quo, and wars were
waged and treaties concluded to adjust the strength of states in
the common interest of preventing any one of them from obtain-
ing undue predominance. Then came the break up of what
remained of feudal Europe and a readjustment under Napoleon,
which left the western world with five fairly balanced homo-
geneous nations. These now took the place of the old hetero-
geneous areas, governed by their respective sovereigns without
reference to any idea of nationality or of national representation.
The leading nations assumed the hegemony of the west, and in
more recent times this combination has become known as the
" concert of Europe." This concert of the great powers, as
its name implies, in contradistinction to the " balance of
power," was essentially a factor for the preservation of peace.
For a century back it has played the part of an upper council in
the management of Europe. In all matters affecting the Near
East, it considers itself supreme. In matters of general interest
it has frequently called conferences to which the minor states
have been invited, such as the West African Conference in Berlin
in 1885, and the Anti-Slavery Conference at Brussels in 1889-
1890, and the Conference of Algeciras in 1906. Meanwhile the
concert has admitted among its members first in 1856 Turkey,
later in 1878 at the Congress of Berlin the United States, and
now undoubtedly Japan will expect to be included as a great
power in this controlling body. The essential feature of the
concert has been recognition of the advantage to all the great
powers of common action in reference to territorial changes in
the Near East, of meeting together as a council, in preference
to unconcerted negotiation by the powers acting severally.

A departure of more recent origin has been the calling together
of the smaller powers for the settlement of matters of general
administrative interest, conferences such as those which led to
the conclusion of the conventions creating the Postal Union,
the Copyright and Industrial Property Unions, &c.

These conferences of all the powers serve in practice as a sort
of common council in the community of states, just as the
concert of the great powers acts as a kind of senate. We have
thus the nucleus of that international parliament which idealist
peacemakers have dreamt of since the time of Henry IV. 's
" grand design."

This brings us down to the greatest deliberate effort ever made
to secure the peace of the world by a general convention. It
was due to the initiative of the young tsar Nicolas II., who,
in his famous rescript of the 24th of August 1898, stated that
he thought that the then moment was " very favourable for
seeking, by means of international discussion, the most effectual
means of assuring to all peoples the benefits of a real and durable
peace." " In the course of the last twenty years," added the
rescript, " the preservation of peace had become an object of
international policy." Economic crises, due in great part to the
existing system of excessive armaments, were transforming
armed peace into a crushing burden, which peoples had more and
more difficulty in bearing. He therefore proposed that there
should be an international conference for the purpose of focusing
the efforts of all states which were " sincerely seeking to make
the great idea of universal peace triumph over the elements
of trouble and discord." The first conference was held in 1899,
and another followed it in 1907: at the earlier one twenty-six
powers were represented; at that of 1907 there were forty-four,
this time practically the whole world. The conventions drawn
up at the second conference were a deliberate codification of
many branches of international law. By them a written law
has been substituted for that unwritten law which nations had
been wont to construe with a latitude more or less corre-
sponding to their power. At the conference of 1899, moreover,
a court of arbitration was instituted for the purpose of dealing
judicially with such matters in dispute as the powers agreed to
submit to it.

In the interval between the two Hague Conferences, Great
Britain and France concluded the first treaty applicable to
future difficulties, as distinguished from the treaties which had
preceded it, treaties which related in all cases to difficulties already

PEACE

existing and confined to them. This treaty made arbitration
applicable to all matters not affecting " national honour or vital
interests." Since then a network of similar treaties, adopted
by different nations with each other and based on the Anglo-
French model, has made reference to the Hague Court of Arbitra-
tion practically compulsory for all matters which can be settled by
an award of damages or do not affect any vital national interest.

The third Hague Conference is timed to be held in 1917.
Meanwhile a conference of the maritime powers was held in
London in 1908-1909 for the elaboration of a code of international
maritime law in time of war, to be applied in the international
Court of Prize, which had been proposed in a convention signed
ad referendum at the Hague Conference of 1907.

A further development in the common efforts which have
been made by different powers to assure the reign of justice
and judicial methods among the states of the world was the pro-
posal of Secretary Knox of the United States to insert in the
instrument of ratification of the International Prize Court
Convention (adopted at the Hague in 1897) a clause stating
that the International Prize Court shall be invested with the
duties and functions of a court of arbitral justice, such as
recommended by the first Voeu of the Final Act of the con-
ference. The object of this proposal was to give effect to the
idea that the existing " permanent " court lacked the essential
characteristics of national courts of justice in not being ready
at all times to hear cases, and in needing to be specially con-
stituted for every case submitted to it. The new court would
be permanently in session at the Hague, the full panel of
judges to assemble in ordinary or extraordinary session once
a year.

Thus, while armaments are increasing, and wars are being
fought out in the press and in public discussion, the great
powers are steadily working out a system of written law and
establishing a judiciary to adjust their differences in accordance
with it.1

The Current Grouping of Mankiitd and Nation-making. —
In the consolidation of peace one of the most important
factors is unquestionably the grouping of mankind in accordance
with the final territorial and racial limitations of their apparent
destiny. Language has played a vital part in the formation
of Germany and Italy. The language question still disturbs
the tranquillity of the Near East. The Hungarian government
is regarded by the Slav, Ruman and German inhabitants
of the monarchy as an oppressor for endeavouring to force every-
body within the realm to learn the Magyar language. The
" Young Turkish " government has problems to face which will
be equally difficult, if it insists on endeavouring to institute
centralized government in Turkey on the French model.

Whereas during the igth century states were being cut out
to suit the existing distribution of language, in the 2oth the
tendency seems to be to avoid further rearrangement of boun-
daries, and to complete the homogeneity, thus far attained, by
the artificial method of forcing reluctant populations to adopt
the language of the predominant or governing race. In the
United States this artificial method has become a necessity, to
prevent the upgrowth of alien communities, which might at some
later date cause domestic trouble of a perilous character. For
example, when a community of French Canadians, discontented
with British rule, many years ago migrated and settled in
Massachusetts, they found none of the tolerance they had
been enjoying in Canada for their French schools and the
French language they wished to preserve. In Alsace-Lorraine
German-speaking immigrants are gradually displacing, under

1 Schemes of thinkers, like William Penn's European Parliament
(1693); the Abb6 St Pierre's elaboration (c. 1700) of Henry IV.'s
"grand design" (see supra); Jeremy Bentham's International
Tribunal (1786-1789); Kant's Permanent Congress of Nations and
Perpetual Peace (1796); John Stuart Mill's Federal Supreme Court;
Seeley's, Bluntschli's, David Dudley Field's, Professor Leone Levi's,
Sir Edmund Hornby's co-operative schemes for promoting law and
order among nations, have all contributed to popularizing in
different countries the idea of a federation of mankind for the
preservation of peace.

government encouragement, the French-speaking population.
Poland is another case of the difficulty of managing a population
which speaks a language not that of the governing majority, and
Russia, in trying to solve one problem by absorbing Finland
into the national system, is burdening herself with another
which may work out in centuries of unrest, if not in domestic
violence. Not very long ago Pan-Germans were paying much
attention to the German settlers in the Brazilian province of
Rio Grande do Sul, where large villages spoke nothing but German,
and German, as the only language known on the spot, had become
the tongue in which municipal business was transacted. The
Brazilian government, in view of the danger to which such a
state of things might give rise, followed the example of the
United States in dealing with the language question.

Thus while in the one case homogeneity of language within
state boundaries seems to be one of the conditions making for
peace, the avoidance of interference with a well-marked homo-
geneous area like Finland would seem to contribute equally to
the 'same end.

Meanwhile the difficulties in the way of contemporary nation-
making are fostered by many extraneous influences, as well as
by dogged resistance of the races in question. Not the least
important of these influences is the sentimental sympathy felt
for those who are supposed to be deprived of the use of their
mother-tongue, and who are subjected to the hardship of learning
an alien one. The hardship inflicted on those who have to
learn a second language is very easily exaggerated, though it
is to be regretted that in the case of Hungary the second language
is not .one more useful for international purposes.

Contemporary Statecraft. — Nation-making has hitherto been
more or less unconscious — the outcome of necessity, a natural
growth due to the play of circumstance and events. But in
our own age conscious statecraft is also at work, as in Canada,
where the genius of statesmen is gradually endowing that
dominion with all the attributes of independence and power.
Australia has not learnt the lesson of Canada in vain. Whatever
value may attach to the consolidation of the British Empire
itself as a factor in spreading the peace which reigns within it,
it is also a great contribution to the peace of the world that the
British race should have founded practically independent states
like the Dominion of Canada, the Commonwealth of Australia,
the South African Union and the Dominion of New Zealand.
These self-governing colonies with their spheres of influence,
with vast areas still unpeopled, have a future before them
which is dissociated from the methods of an over-peopled
Europe, and among them the preservation of peace is
the direct object and condition of their progressive develop-
ment. Like the United States, they have or will have their
Monroe doctrine. Colonized by the steady industrial peoples
of northern Europe, there is no danger of the turbulence
of the industrially indolent but more passionate peoples of
Central and South America. As in Europe, these northern
peoples will hold the power which intelligent democracies are
consciously absorbing, and the British faculty for statecraft is
gradually welding new nations on the British model, without the
obsolete traditions and without that human sediment which too
frequently chokes the currents of national vitality in the older
communities of Europe.

Militarism. — It is often stated, as if it were incontrovertible,
that conscription and large standing armies are a menace to
peace, and yet, although throughout the civilized world, except
in the British Empire and the United States, conscription is
the system employed for the recruiting of the national forces
of both defence and offence, few of these countries show any
particular disposition to make war. The exceptional position
of the United States, with a population about equal to that of
the rest of the American continent, and of Great Britain, an
island state but little exposed to military invasion, places both
beyond absolute need of large standing armies, and renders an
enlisting system feasible which would be quite inadequate for
the recruitment of armies on the French or German scale. Demo-
cratic progress on the Continent has, however, absorbed

PEACE

7

conscription as a feature in the equalization of the citizen's rights
and liabilities. Just as in Anglo-Saxon lands a national ideal
is gradually materializing in the principle of the equalization of
chances for all citizens, so in continental Europe, along with
this equalization of chances, has still more rapidly developed
the ideal of an equalization of obligations, which in turn leads to
the claim for an enlargement of political rights co-extensive
with the obligations. Thus universal conscription and universal
suffrage tend to become in continental political development
complementary conditions of the citizen's political being. In
Germany, moreover, the military service is designed not only to
make the recruit a good soldier, but also to give him a healthy
physical, moral and mental training. German statesmen, under
the powerful stimulus of the emperor William II., have, in the
eyes of some cntics, carried this secondary object of conscript
training to such excess as to be detrimental to military efficiency.
To put it shortly, the Germans have taught their soldiers to
think, and not merely to obey. The French, who naturally
looked to German methods for inspiration, have come to apply
them more particularly in the development of their cavalry and
artillery, especially in that of the former, which has taken in the
French army an ever higher place as its observing and thinking
organ.

Militarism on the Continent has thus become allied with the
very factors which made for the reign of reason. No agitation
for the development of national defences, no beating of drums
to awaken the military spirit, no anti-foreign clamour or
invasion panic, no parading of uniforms and futile clash of
arms, are necessary to entice the groundling and the bumpkin
into the service. In Germany patriotic waving of the flag, as a
political method, is directed more especially to the strengthen-
ing of imperial, as distinguished from local, patriotism. Where
conscription has existed for any appreciable time it has sunk
into the national economy, and men do their military service
with as little concern as if it were a civil apprenticeship.

As implied above, military training under conscription does
not by any means necessarily tend to the promotion of the
military spirit. In France, so far from taking this direction,
it has resulted, under democratic government and universal
suffrage, in a widespread abhorrence of war, and, in fact, has
converted the French people from being the most militant
into being the most pacific nation in Europe. The fact that
every family throughout the land is a contributory to the
military forces of the country has made peace a family, and
hence a national, ideal. Paradoxical as it may seem, it is the
logical conclusion of such comparisons that militarism only
exists in countries where there are no citizen armies, and that,
where there are citizen armies, they are one of the elements
which make for permanent peace.

Normal Nature of Peace. — America has been the pioneer of
the view that peace is the normal condition of mankind, and
that, when the causes of war arc eliminated, war ceases to have
a raison d'etre. The objects and causes of war are of many kinds.
War for fighting's sake, although in the popular mind there may
be, during most wars, only the excitement and the emotion of
a great gamble, has no conscious place among the motives of
those who determine the destinies of peoples. Apart, however,
from self-defence, the main causes of war are four: (i) The
desire for territorial expansion, due to the overgrowth of
population, and insufficiency of the available food-supply; if
the necessary territory cannot be obtained by negotiation,
conquest becomes the only alternative to emigration to foreign
lands. (2) The prompting of national ambition or a desire to
wipe out the record of a humiliating defeat. (3) Ambitious
potentates again may seek to deflect popular tendencies into
channels more satisfactory for their dynasty. (4) Nations, on
the other hand, may grow jealous of each other's commercial
success or material power. In many cases the apparent cause
may be of a nobler character, but historians have seldom been
content to accept the allegations of those who have claimed to
carry on war from disinterested motives.

On the American continent South and Central American

states have had many wars, and the disastrous effects of them
not only in retarding their own development, but in impair-
ing their national credit, have led to earnest endeavours on
the part of their leading statesmen to arrive at such an under-
standing as will banish from their international polity all
excuses for resorting to armed conflicts. In 1881 Mr Elaine,
then U.S. secretary of state, addressed an instruction to the
ministers of the United States of America accredited to
the various Central and South American nations, directing
them to invite the governments of these countries to par-
ticipate in a congress, to be held at Washington in 1882,
" for the purpose of considering and discussing the methods
of preventing war between the nations of America." Owing
to different circumstances the conference was delayed till the
autumn of 1889. At this conference a plan of arbitration
was drawn up, under which arbitration was made obligatory
in all controversies whatever their origin, with the single
exception that it should not apply where, in the judgment of
any one of the nations involved in the controversy, its national
independence was imperilled, and even in this case arbitration,
though optional for the nation so judging, was to be obligatory
for the adversary power. At the second International Confer-
ence of American States, which sat in the city of Mexico from
the 22nd of October 1901 to the 3ist of January 1902, the same
subject was again discussed, and a scheme was finally adopted as
a compromise which conferred authority on the government of
Mexico to ascertain the views of the different governments
represented in the conference, regarding the most advanced
form in which a general arbitration convention could be drawn
up that would meet with the approval and secure ratification
by all the countries represented, and afterwards to prepare a
plan for such a general treaty. The third Pan-American
Conference was held in the months of July and August 1906,
and was attended by the United States, Argentina, Bolivia,
Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, the Dominican
Republic, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua,
Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Salvador and Uruguay. Only
Haiti and Venezuela were absent. The conference, being held
only a year before the time fixed for the second Hague Conference,
applied itself mainly to the question of the extent to which
force might be used for the collection of pecuniary claims against
defaulting governments, and the forwarding of the principle
of arbitration under the Hague Conventions. The possible
causes of war on the American continent had meanwhile been
considerably reduced. Different states had adjusted their
frontiers, Great Britain in British Guiana had settled an out-
standing question with Venezuela, France in French Guiana
another with Brazil, Great Britain in Newfoundland had re-
moved time-honoured grievances with France, Great Britain in
Canada others with the United States of America, and now the
most difficult kind of international questions which can arise,
so far as the American continent is concerned, have been removed
from among existing dangers to peace. Among the Southern
Republics Argentina and Chile concluded in 1902 a treaty of
arbitration, for the settlement of all difficulties without dis-
tinction, combined with a disarmament agreement of the
same date, to which more ample reference will be made
hereafter. Thus in America progress is being rapidly made
towards the realization of the idea that war can be super-
annuated by elimination of its causes and the development of
positive methods for the preservation of peace (see PAN-
AMERICAN CONFERENCES).

With the American precedent to inspire him, the emperor
Nicolas II. of Russia in 1898 issued his invitation to the powers
to hold a similar conference of European states, with a more or
less similar object. In 1899 twenty-six states met at the Hague
and began the work, which was continued at the second con-
ference in 1907, and furthered by the Maritime Conference
of London of 1908-1909. The creation of the Hague Court and
of a code of law to be applied by it have further eliminated
causes of difference.

These efforts in the two hemispheres are based on the idea

8

PEACE

that international differences can be adjusted without war,
where the parties are honestly aggrieved. With this adjust-
ment of existing cases the number of possible pretexts for the
employment of force is being rapidly diminished.

Peace Procedure under the Hague Conventions. — The Hague
Peace Convention of 1907, which re-enacts the essential parts of
the earlier one of 1899, sets out five ways of adjusting inter-
national conflicts without recourse to war. Firstly, the signatory
powers have undertaken to use their best efforts to ensure the
pacific settlement of international difficulties. This is a general
declaration of intention to lend themselves to the peaceable
adjustment of difficulties and employ their diplomacy to this
end. Secondly, in case of serious disagreement, diplomacy
having failed, they agree to have recourse, as far as circumstances
allow, to the good offices or mediation of one or more friendly
powers. Thirdly, the signatory powers agree that it shall not
be regarded as an unfriendly act if one or more powers, strangers
to the dispute, on their own initiative offer their good offices or
mediation to the states in disagreement, or even during hostili-
ties, if war has already broken out. Fourthly, the convention
recommends that in disputes of an international nature, involving
neither national honour nor vital interests, and arising from a
difference of opinion on points of fact, the parties who have not
been able to come to an agreement by means of diplomacy
should institute an international commission of inquiry to
facilitate a solution of these disputes by an investigation of the
facts. Lastly, the high contracting parties have agreed that
in questions of a legal nature, and especially in interpretation
or application of international conventions, arbitration is recog-
nized as the most effective, and at the same time the most
equitable, means of settling disputes which diplomacy has failed
to adjust.

Down to 1910 no suggestion of mediation had actually been
carried out, but a number of cases of arbitration had been tried
by the Hague Court, created by the Hague Peace Convention
(see ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL), and one case, viz. that of the
Dogger Bank incident, was submitted to a commission of inquiry,
which sat in January 1905. '

If Secretary Knox's proposal (see supra) to convert the
International Prize Court into a permanently sitting court of
arbitration is adopted, a detailed procedure and jurisprudence
will no doubt grow out of a continuity which is lacking in the
present system, under which the court is recruited from a large
panel for each special case. Secretary Knox's idea, as expressed
in the identical circular note addressed by him on the i8th of
October 1909 to the powers, was to invest the International Prize
Court, proposed to be established by the convention of the i8th
of October 1907, with the functions of a " court of arbitral
justice." The court contemplated by the convention was a
court of appeal for reviewing prize decisions of national courts
both as to facts and as to the law applied, and, in the exercise
of its judicial discretion, not only to confirm in whole or in part the
national decision or the contrary, but also to certify its judgment
to the national court for enforcement thereof. The adoption of
this jurisdiction would have involved a revision of the judicial
systems of probably every country accepting it. The United
States government therefore proposed that the signatories should
insert in the act of ratification a reservation to the effect that
resort to the International Prize Court, in respect of decisions of
their national tribunals, should take the form of a direct claim
for compensation. This in any case would remove the United
States' constitutional objection to the establishment of the
proposed court. In connexion with this enabling clause Mr

'The procedure adopted by the commission was afterwards
incorporated in the convention of 1907. Under the rules adopted,
the examination of witnesses is conducted by the president in
accordance with the system prevailing in most continental countries ;
members of the commission may only put questions to witnesses for
the eliciting of further information; and they may not interrupt
the witness when he is in course of making his statement, but they
may ask the president to put any additional questions. This
seems likely to become the procedure also in cases before the Hague
Court, where witnesses are examined.

Secretary Knox also proposed that a further enabling clause be
inserted providing that the International Court of Prize be
competent to accept jurisdiction in all matters, arising between
signatories, submitted to it, the Court to sit at fixed periods
every year and to be composed according to the panel which
was drawn up at the Hague. This court, which the American
government proposed to call a " Court of Arbitral Justice,"
would take the place of that which it was proposed to institute
under Vau No. i of the Final Act of the conference of 1907.
The intention of the Hague draft annexed to the Vceu was to
create a permanent court as distinguished from that established
in 1899, which, though called permanent, was not so, having to
be put together ad hoc as the occasion arose. The new court, if
adopted, would hold regular and continuous sessions, consist of
the same judges, and pay due heed to the precedents created by
its prior decisions. The two courts would have separate spheres
of activity, and litigants would practically have the option of
submitting their differences to a judicial court which would regard
itself as being bound by the letter of the law and by judicial
methods or to a special court created ad hoc with a purely
arbitrative character.

The Place of Diplomacy. — The utility of the diplomatic service
has been considerably diminished through the increasing
efficiency of the public press as a medium of information. It is
not too much to say that at the present day an experienced
journalist, in a place like Vienna or Berlin, can give more
information to an ambassador than the ambassador can give to
him. It is even true to say that an ambassador is practically
debarred from coming into actual touch with currents of public
feeling and the passing influences which, in this age of democracy,
determine the course of events in the political life of peoples.
The diplomatist has therefore lost one of his chief functions as
an informant of the accrediting government. The other chief
function of diplomacy is to be the courteous medium of conveying
messages from one government to another. Even this function
is losing its significance. The ciphered telegram leaves little
discretion to the envoy, and written notes are exchanged which
are practically a mere transcription of the deciphered telegram
or draft prepared at the instructing foreign office. Neverthe-
less, the personality of an ambassador can play a great part, if he
possesses charm, breadth of understanding and interest in the
social, intellectual and industrial life of the country to which he
is accredited. There are several instances of such men in Europe
and America, but they are so rare that some reformers consider
them as hardly justifying the large expenditure necessary to
maintain the existing system. On the other hand, the utility
of the consular service has concurrently increased. Adminis-
trative indifference to the eminently useful officials forming the
service has led, in many cases, to diminishing instead of increas-
ing their number and their salaries, but it is obvious that the
extension of their duties and a corresponding raising of their
status would be much more in accordance with the national
interest. The French, with that practical sense which distin-
guishes so much of their recent administrative work, have
connected the two services. A consul-general can be promoted
to a diplomatic post, and take with him to his higher office the
practical experience a consul gains of the material interests of
the country to which he belongs.

There is thus still good work for diplomacy to do, and if, in the
selection of diplomatic representatives, states followed on the
one hand the above-mentioned French example, and on the
other hand the American example of selecting for the heads of
diplomatic missions men who are not necessarily de la carriere,
diplomacy might obtain a new lease of activity, and become once
more an extremely useful part of the administrative machinery
by which states maintain good business relations as well as
friendly political intercourse with one another.

International Regulation by Treaty. — It seems a truism to say
that among the agencies which most effectively tend to the
preservation of peace are treaties which regulate the relations
of states in their intercourse with other states. Such treaties,
however, are of quite recent origin. The first of a comprehensive

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character was the general act adopted at the South African
Conference at Berlin in 1885, which laid down the principle,
which has since become of still wider application, that " any
Power which henceforth takes possession of a tract of land on
the coast of the African continent outside of its present pos-
sessions or which, being hitherto without such possessions, shall
acquire them . . . shall accompany the act relating to it with a
notification thereof, addressed to the other Signatory Powers
of the present act, in order to enable them, if need be, to make
good any claims of their own," and, furthermore, that " the
Signatory Powers of the present act recognize the obligation
to ensure the establishment of authority in the regions occupied
by them on the coasts of the African continent sufficient to
protect existing rights, and, as the case may be, freedom of trade
and transit under the conditions agreed upon." Under these
articles occupation of unoccupied territory to be legal had to be
effective. This led to the creation and determination of spheres
of influence. By fixing the areas of these spheres of influence
rival states in western and central Africa avoided conflicts and
preserved their rights until they were able to take a more
effective part in their development. The idea of " spheres of
influence " has in turn been applied even to more settled and
civilized countries, such as China and Persia.

Other cases of regulation by treaty are certain contractual
engagements which have been entered into by states for the
preservation of the status quo of other states and territories.

The Anglo- Japanese Treaty of the i2th of August 1905 sets
out its objects as follows: —

a. " The consolidation and maintenance of the general peace
in the regions of Eastern Asia and India;

6. " The preservation of the common interests of the Powers in
China, of insuring the independence and the integrity of the Chinese
empire, and the principle of equal opportunities for the commerce
ana industry of all nations in China ;

c. " The maintenance of the territorial rights of the high con-
tracting parties in the regions of Eastern Asia and of India, and
the defence of their special interests in such regions."

It is a treaty for the maintenance of the status quo in certain
parts of Asia in which the parties to it have dominant interests.
The same principle underlies different other self-denying arrange-
ments and declarations made by the powers with reference to
Chinese integrity.

The Treaty of Algeciras is essentially a generalization of the
Franco-German agreement of the 28th of September 1905. By it
all the powers represented agree to respect the territorial integrity
of Morocco, subject to a possible intervention limited to the
purpose of preserving order within it.

Differing from these general acts in not being contractual is
the Monroe doctrine, which is a policy of ensuring the mainte-
nance of the territorial status quo as regards non-American
powers throughout the American continent. If necessary, the
leading republics of South and Central America would no doubt,
however, further ensure respect for it by treaty.

With these precedents and current instances of tendency to
place the territorial relations of the powers on a permanent
footing of respect for the existing status quo, it seems possible
to go beyond the mere enunciation of principles, and to take
a step towards their practical realization, by agreeing to respect
the territorial status quo throughout still larger tracts of the world,
neutralize them, and thus place them outside the area of possible
wars.

A third contractual method of avoiding conflicts of interest
has been the signing of agreements for the maintenance of the
" open-door." The discussion on the question of the " open-
door " in connexion with the Morocco difficulty was useful
in calling general public attention once more to the undesir-
ability of allowing any single power to exclude other nations
from trading on territory over which it may be called to exercise
a protectorate, especially if equality of treatment of foreign
trade had been practised by the authority ruling over the
territory in question before its practical annexation under the
name of protectorate. The habitable parts of the world are a
limited area, exclusion from any of which is a diminution of

the available markets of the nations excluded. Every power,
is, therefore, rightfully interested in the prevention of such
exclusion.

The United States government in 1899 called attention to
the subject as regards China, without, however, going into any
question of principle. It thought that danger of international
irritation might be removed by each power making a declaration
respecting the " sphere of interest " in China to which it laid
claim. Lord Salisbury informed Mr Choate that H.M. govern-
ment were prepared to make a declaration in the sense desired.
All the powers concerned eventually subscribed to the declara-
tion proposed by the United States government.

The principle of the " open-door " in fact has already been
consistently applied in connexion with certain non-European
areas. As these areas are practically the only areas which of
late years have come within the scope of European regulation,
the time seems to be approaching when the principle may be
declared to be of general application. From the point of view
of diminishing the possible causes of conflict among nations,
the adoption of this principle as one of international contractual
obligation would be of great utility. While putting an end
to the injustice of exclusion, it would obviously reduce the danger
of nations seeking colonial aggrandizement with a view to im-
posing exclusion, and thus one of the chief temptations to
colonial adventure would be eliminated.

In the fourth place, there is the self-denying ordinance against
employment of arms for the enforcement of contractual obliga-
tions adopted at the Hague Conference of 1907. Under it the
high contracting powers have agreed not to have recourse to
armed force for the recovery of contractual debts claimed from
the government of one country by the government of another
country as due to its subjects. The only qualification admitted
under the new convention is that it shall not apply when the
debtor-state refuses or leaves unanswered an offer of arbitration,
or in case of acceptance renders the settlement of the terms of
arbitration impossible, or, after arbitration, fails to comply with
the award. The theory on which this convention is based is
known as the Drago theory, having taken a practical form during
the administration of Dr L. M. Drago, when he filled the post
of Argentine minister of foreign affairs. The doctrine, however,
is not new, having already been enunciated a century before
by Alexander Hamilton and reiterated since then by several
American statesmen, such as Albert Gallatin, William L. Marcy
and F. T. Frelinghuysen, as the view prevailing at Washington
during their respective periods of office.

Limitations of Disarmament. — Disarmament, or to speak
more correctly, the contractual limitation of armaments, has
become, of late years, as much an economic as a humanitarian
peace-securing object.

" The maintenance of universal peace and a possible reduction
of the excessive armaments which weigh upon all nations,
represent, in the present condition of affairs all over the world,
the ideal towards which the efforts of all governments should
be directed," were the opening words of the Note which the
Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs, Count Mouraviev, handed
to the diplomatic representatives of the different powers
suggesting the first Hague Conference.

" The ever-increasing financial burdens," the Note went on,
" strike at the root of public prosperity. The physical and
intellectual forces of the people, labour and capital, are diverted
for the greater part from their natural application and wasted
unproductively. Hundreds of millions are spent in acquiring
terrible engines of destruction, which are regarded to-day as
the latest inventions of science, but are destined to-morrow to
be rendered obsolete by some new discovery. National culture,
economic progress and the production of wealth are either
paralysed or developed in a wrong direction. Therefore the
more the armaments of each power increase the less they answer
to the objects aimed at by the governments. Economic dis-
turbances are caused in great measure by this system of excessive
armaments; and the constant danger involved in this accumula-
tion of war material renders the armed peace of to-day a crushing

IO

PEACE

burden more and more difficult for nations to bear. It conse-
quently seems evident that if this situation be prolonged it will
inevitably result in the very disaster it is sought to avoid, and
the thought of the horrors of which makes every humane mind
shudder. It is the supreme duty, therefore, of all states to place
some limit on these increasing armaments, and find some means
of averting the calamities which threaten the whole world."

A further Note submitting the programme proposed gave
more precision to this item, which thereupon took the following
form: " An understanding not to increase for a fixed period
the present effectives of the armed military and naval forces,
and at the same time not to increase the budgets pertaining
thereto; and a preliminary examination of the means by which
even a reduction might be effected in future in the forces and
budgets above mentioned."

When the subject came on for discussion at the conference
the German military delegate stated his view that the question
of effectives could not be discussed by itself, as there were many
others to which it was in some measure subordinated, such,
for instance, as the length of service, the number of cadres
whether existing in peace or made ready for war, the amount
of training received by reserves, the situation of the country
itself, its railway system, and the number and position of its
fortresses. In a modern army all these questions went together,
and national defence included them all. In Germany, moreover,
the military system " did not provide for fixed numbers annually,
but increased the numbers each year."

After many expressions of regret at finding no method of
giving effect to the. proposal, the commission confined itself to
recording its opinion that " a further examination of the question
by the Powers would prove a great benefit to humanity."

The Conference, however, were unanimous in the adoption
of the following resolution: —

" The Conference is of opinion that the restriction of military
budgets, which are at present a heavy burden on the world, is
extremely desirable for the increase of the material and moral
welfare of mankind;"

and it passed also the following vceu : —

" That governments, taking into account the proposals made at
the Conference, should examine the possibility of an understanding
concerning the limitation of military and naval armaments, and
of war budgets."

The general public, more particularly in Great Britain and
France, shows an ever-increasing distrust of the rapid growth
of armaments as a possible cause of grave economic troubles.
A high state of military preparedness of any one state obliges
all the others to endeavour to be prepared on the same level.
This process of emulation, very appropriately called by the late
Sir H. Campbell-Bannerman " a policy of huge armaments,"
unfortunately is a policy from which it is impossible for any
country to extricate itself without the co-operation, direct or
indirect, of other nations.

The subject was brought forward in view of the second Hague
Conference in both the French and Italian parliaments.

The declaration of the French government stated that: —

" France hoped that other nations would grow, as she had done,
more and more attached to solutions of international difficulties
based upon the respect of justice, and she trusted that the progress
of universal opinion in this direction would enable nations to
regard the lessening of the present military budgets, declared by
the states represented at the Hague to be greatly desirable for the
benefit of the material and moral state of humanity, as a practical
possibility." (Chamber of Deputies, June 12, 1906.)

In the Italian Chamber of Deputies, an interpellation was
addressed to the minister of foreign affairs about the same time
asking " whether the Government had knowledge of the motion
approved by the British House of Commons, and of the under-
taking of the British government that, in the programme of the
coming Hague Conference, the question of the reduction of
armaments should be inserted, and in what spirit the Italian
government had taken or proposed to take the propositions of
the British government, and what instructions it would give to
the Italian representatives at the conference."

The minister of foreign affairs, M Tittoni, in reply expressed
the adhesion of the Italian government to the humanitarian
ideas which had met with such enthusiasm in the historic
House of Parliament at Westminster. " I have always believed,"
he said, " that, as far as we are concerned, it would be a national
crime to weaken our own armaments while we are surrounded
by strongly armed European nations who look upon the improve-
ment of armaments as a guarantee of peace. Nevertheless, I
should consider it a crime against humanity not to sincerely
co-operate in an initiative having for object a simultaneous
reduction of armaments of the great powers. Italian practice
has always aimed at the maintenance of peace; therefore, I am
happy to be able to say that our delegates at the coming
Hague Conference will be instructed to further the English
initiative."

The only existing case of contractual reduction of armaments
is that of the Disarmament Agreement of the 28th of May igoa
between the Chilian and Argentine republics, adopted " owing
to the initiative and good offices of His Britannic Majesty,"
which is as follows: —

Art. I. — In order to remove all cause of fear and distrust between
the two countries, the governments of Chile and of the Argentine
Republic agree not to take possession of the warships which they
are having built, or for the present to make any other acquisitions.
The two governments furthermore agree to reduce their respective
fleets, according to an arrangement establishing a reasonable
proportion between the two fleets. This reduction to be made
within one year from the date at which the present agreement shall
be ratified.

Art. II. — The two governments respectively promise not to
increase their maritime armaments during five years, unless the
one who shall wish to increase them shall give the other eighteen
months' notice in advance. This agreement does not include any
armaments for the purpose of protecting the shore and ports, and
each party will be at liberty to acquire any vessels (maquina flotante)
intended for the protection thereof, such as submarines, &c.

Art. III. — The reductions (i.e. ships disposed of) resulting from
this agreement will not be parted with to countries having any
dispute with either of the two contracting parties.

Art. IV. — In order to facilitate the transfer of the pending orders
the two governments agree to increase by two months the time
stipulated for the beginning of the construction of the respective
ships. They will give instructions accordingly.

An agreement of this kind is obviously more feasible as among
states whose navies are small and of comparatively recent
origin than among states whose navies are composed of vessels
of many and widely different ages. It may be difficult to agree in
the latter case on a principle for assessment of the proportionate
fighting value of the respective fleets. The break-up or
sale of obsolete warships is a diminution of the paper effective
of a navy, and their purchase by another state a paper increase
of theirs. Even comparatively slight differences in the ages of
ships may make great differences in their fighting value. It
would be a hard, though probably not insurmountable, task to
establish " a reasonable proportion," such as provided for in
Art. II. of the Chile-Argentina Agreement, as between large
and old-standing navies like those of Europe.

On the other hand, as regards military power, it seems some-
times forgotten in the discussion of the question of armaments,
that the conditions of the present age differ entirely from those of
the time of the Napoleonic wars. With conscription a national
army corresponds more or less numerically to the proportion of
males in the national population. Great Britain, without con-
scription, has no means of raising troops in any such proportion.
Thus, so long as she refrains from adopting conscription, she
can only carry on defensive warfare. The object of her navy is
therefore necessarily defensive, unless it act in co-operation
with a foreign conscript army. As there are practically only
three great armies available for the purpose of a war of aggression,
the negotiation of contingent arrangements does not seem too
remote for achievement by skilful and really well-meaning
negotiation. The Hague Conference of 1907, owing to difficulties
which occurred in the course of the preliminary negotiations
for the conference, did not deal with the subject.

Principle and Capabilities of Neutralization. — Among the
different methods which have grown up practically in our own

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1 1

time for the exclusion of war is neutralization. We have been
dealing hitherto with the elimination of the causes of war;
neutralization is a curtailment of the areas of war and of the
factors in warfare, of territory on the one hand and states on the
other. The neutralization of territory belonging to states
which are not otherwise neutralized includes the neutralization
of waterways such as the Suez and Panama canals.

Under the General Act of Berlin of the 26th of February 1885,
" in case a power exercising rights of sovereignty or protec-
torate " in any of the regions forming the basin of the Congo
and its affluents, including Lake Tanganyika, and extending away
to the Indian Ocean, should be involved in a war, the parties
to the General Act bound themselves to lend their good offices
in order that the territories belonging to this power be placed
during the war " under the rule of neutrality and considered
as belonging to a neutral state, the belligerents thenceforth
abstaining from extending hostilities to the territories thus
neutralized, and from using them as a basis for warlike
operations " (art. 2).

Neutralization is not necessarily of general application.
Thus two states can agree to neutralize specific territory as
between them. For example between Costa Rica and Nicaragua
by a treaty of the i5th of April 1858 the parties agreed that " on
no account whatever, not even in case of war," should " any
act of hostility be allowed between them in the port of San
Juan del Norte nor on the river of that name nor on Lake
Nicaragua " (art. 2).1

Again, the Straits of Magellan are neutralized as between
Argentina and Chile under a treaty of the 23rd of July 1881.
Article 5 provides that they are " neutralized for ever and their
free navigation is guaranteed to the flags of all nations. To
ensure this neutrality and freedom it is agreed that no fortifica-
tions or military defences which might interfere therewith shall
be erected."

Luxemburg was declared by the Treaty of London of the nth
of May 1867 (art. i) to be a perpetually neutral state under the
guarantee of Great Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia. Swit-
zerland, by a declaration confirmed by the Treaty of Vienna, of
1815 (art. 84), likewise enjoys perpetual neutrality. And now
Norway has placed herself under a neutral regime of a similar
character.

A neutralized state does not mean a state which is forbidden
to have fortifications or an army; in this it differs from neu-
tralized territory of a state not otherwise neutralized. Thus
Belgium, which is a neutralized state, not only has an army but
has fortifications, although by the treaties of 1831 and 1839
she was recognized as a " perpetually neutral state, bound to
observe the same neutrality with reference to other states."

Of waterways, international rivers have been the chief subject
of neutralization. It has long been an established principle
in the intercourse of nations, that where the navigable parts of
a river pass through different countries their navigation is free
to all. The rivers Scheldt and Meuse were opened up in this
way to riparian states by a decree of the French Convention of
the i6th of November 1792. By the treaty of Vienna of the gth of
June 1815, the powers whose territories were separated or traversed
by the same navigable river, undertook to regulate by common
consent all that regarded its navigation, and for this purpose to
name commissioners who should adopt as the bases of their
proceedings the principle that the navigation of such rivers
along their whole course " from the point where each of them
becomes navigable to its mouth, shall be entirely free, and shall
not in respect of commerce be prohibited to anyone." The only
case in Europe in which this internationalization of rivers has
been maintained is that of the Danube. On the other hand
neutralization has made progress in respect of waterways,

1 Under the treaty of the 2gth of March 1864, the courts of
Great Britain, France and Russia in their character of guaranteeing
powers of Greece declared with the assent of the courts of Austria
and Prussia that the islands of Corfu and Paxo as well as their
dependencies should, after their union to the Hellenic kingdom, enjoy
the advantages of perpetual neutrality, and the king of the Hellenes
undertook on his part to maintain such neutrality. (Art. 2).

natural as well as artificial. Thus the Bosporus and Dardanelles
under the Treaty of Paris of 1856 and by the Treaty of London
1871 were and remain closed to the passage of foreign armed
vessels in time of war, though the Porte may permit their passage
in time of peace in certain cases. The Suez and the Panama
canals have been permanently neutralized, the former by a
convention among the great powers, and the latter by a treaty
between Great Britain and the United States.

Alongside this neutralization has grown up a collateral
institution, the purpose of which is in some respects similar.
We refer to "buffer" zones. "Buffer" zones are of quite
recent origin as a political creation,2 i.e. where their object is
to establish upon the territory of two contiguous states a strip
or zone on either side of the frontier which the respective states
agree to regard as neutral, on which the parties undertake to
erect no fortifications, and maintain no armed forces but those
necessary to enforce the ordinary respect of government. The
word " neutral " does not correctly describe the character of the
zone. It is not neutral in the sense of being recognized as such
by any third state, and it necessarily ceases to be neutral in
case of war between the states concerned. The word " buffer "
comes nearest to the object, but even this term implies more than
is meant. Between Spain and Morocco a treaty of the 5th of March
1894 established between the Camp of Melilla and Moroccan
territory a zone within which no new roads were to be made,
no herds to be allowed to graze, no land to be cultivated, no
troops of either party, or even private persons carrying arms,
to set foot, no inhabitants to dwell, and all habitations to be
razed. The zone between Burma and Siam, established by an
agreement between Great Britain and France dated the I5th of
January 1896, declared " the portion of Siam which is comprised
within the drainage basin of the Menam, and of the coast streams .
of a corresponding longitude," neutral as between them. Within
this area the two powers undertook not to " operate by their
military or naval forces, except in so far as they might do so in
concert for any purpose requisite for maintaining the indepen-
dence of Siam." They also undertook not to acquire within
that area any privileges or commercial facilities not extended
to both of them.

" Buffer " zones might fulfil a useful purpose even in Europe.
They would obviously react against the feeling known as
" esprit de frontiere," and diminish the danger of incidents
arising out of this feeling, and might attenuate the rivalry of
neighbouring counter-armaments.

These considerations no doubt led the Swedish and Norwegian
governments, in their settlement of September 1905, to establish
a " buffer " zone of 15 kilometres on either side of the frontier
between the two states in question. Within these 30 kilometres
all existing fortresses are dismantled,3 no new ones are to be
erected, and no armed troops to be maintained; any question
between the two states relative to the provisions respecting
the " buffer " zone to be decided by arbitration.

A rather special case of neutralization of a territorial area

2 The institution of " buffer " zones in a more strictly correct
sense of the term is of very ancient origin. One is mentioned in the
annals of China two centuries before our era, between the terri-
tories of the Huns in the west and those of the Tunguses in the
east — a vast area of some 300. to 400 m., on the opposite margin
of which the two peoples kept watch. In Europe, bands of territory
from time to time have been made desert to better establish sepa-
ration. The Romans and Germans protected themselves in this
way. In the middle ages the Teutonic Order established a frontier
belt on the side of Lithuania. Later, Austria dealt in the same
way in her policy in regard to Turkey in the organization of a
" military frontier." See Nys, Droit International (Brussels, 1904),
i. 418.

3 It was stipulated that the dismantling should be controlled
by a technical commission of three officers of foreign nationality,
to be chosen, one by each of the contracting powers and the third
by the two officers thus appointed, or, in default of an agreement
on their part, by the president of the Swiss Confederation. The
dismantling of the forts in question has now been carried out. The
Commission was composed on the part of Sweden of an engineer
on the staff of the Austrian afrmy, and on the part of Norway of
a colonel in the German army, and, by agreement of these, of a
colonel in the Dutch army.

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PEACE

is that of the practical neutralization of the Great Lakes in
America. In 1817, at the instance of John Quincy Adams, the
United States and Great Britain entered into a compact wherebj
the Great Lakes, and the waterways from them to the ocean by
the St Lawrence river, which divide the United States from th<
Dominion of Canada, were practically excluded from any
possible hostilities. Through a simple agreement, " conditions
which make for peace and prosperity, and the absence of those
which so often lead to disastrous war, have for nearly a century
reigned over these great inland waters, whose commerce, con-
ducted for the benefit of the states and nations of Europe anc
America, rivals that which passes through the Suez Canal or
over the Mediterranean Sea, and with a result foreshadowed
in these words of President Monroe in his communication to the
Senate commending the proposed agreement: ' In order to
avoid collision and save expense.' Forts which had been erected
at salient points on either side of the lakes and rivers dividing
the United States from Canada, which but for this agreement
would, in the natural course of events, have been enlarged,
increasingly garrisoned, and provided with modern implements
of destruction, at large expense, have remained substantially
as when the agreement was made, or now constitute but inter-
esting or picturesque ruins; and the great cost of constructing
and maintaining, through a long series of years, naval armaments
of ever-increasing power has been avoided." 1

As we have already said, the Monroe doctrine is a means of
excluding European warfare from the American continent and
therefore is in the nature of a form of neutralization. A sort of
Monroe doctrine is growing into popular favour also throughout
the Australian Commonwealth, where it is felt that a continent
so far removed from European rivalries ought not to be exposed
to complications on account of them.

From time to time questions of adding to existing neutralized
areas are raised. When it was announced in 1905 that a British
fleet was about to manoeuvre in the Baltic Sea, several German
newspapers suggested that Germany should combine with other
Baltic powers to assure its neutralization.2 No official observa-
tion on the subject, however, was made on the part of any
Baltic power. The Baltic is still an open sea for the whole
world, without restriction of any kind; and even hostilities
between any two non-Baltic powers could be carried on in the
Baltic, as elsewhere on the high sea, under the existing practice.
When the Dogger Bank incident occurred, the possibility
of operations of war being carried on within a few miles of
British home ports, and amid the busy traffic of the North Sea,
was brought vividly home to British minds.

A movement set on foot at the instance of Edward Atkinson,
the well-known Boston economist, and warmly supported by
the Massachusetts State Board of Trade, seeks to establish by
treaty neutral zones from the ports of North America to the
ports of Great Britain and Ireland and the continent of Europe,
within which zones steamship and sailing vessels in the conduct
of lawful commerce should be free to pass without seizure or
interruption in time of war. There is however no precedent of
neutralization of any such area of the high sea, and international
rivers, ocean canals and neutralized states are obviously no
criterion in discussing a proposal to neutralize a strip of the
ocean, which may be defined accurately enough on the map
and which skilful navigators could approximately determine,
but which might be violated without any practical means of
detection by a belligerent commander whenever he misread,
or it suited him to misread, his bearings.

Connected with the principle of neutralization is that of
guaranteeing the integrity of states. Several such guarantees
have been given in quite recent times. In November 1907 a
treaty was concluded between France, Germany, Great Britain
and Russia on the one part and Norway on the other, for the
maintenance of the integrity of Norway. This treaty differed

1 Memoir of Massachusetts State Board of Trade (Feb. 13, 1905).

This was merely reviving an idea which had come and gone
many times before. See Barclay, Problems of International Practice
and Diplomacy (1907).

from the older one of 1855 in which France and Great Britain
guaranteed the integrity of Norway and Sweden, in the fact that
whereas the older treaty was for the protection of these two
states against Russia, the new treaty is intended, if it is to serve
at all as a protection against invasion, to protect Norway against
Sweden.

Another such guarantee of a vaguer character is that which
the North Sea powers recently entered into for the maintenance
of the status quo of their respective North Sea territories; and
the similar one entered into by the Mediterranean powers for
the same objects in the Mediterranean. Lastly in the same
order of ideas Austria-Hungary and Russia are said to have
concluded an arrangement between them for the maintenance
of the status quo in the Balkans.

The future has no doubt still other extensions of the principle
of neutralization in store for us. Not the least interesting of
existing possibilities is the limitation of the area of visit and search
in time of war itself, as a restriction of belligerent right. It seems
contrary to common sense that neutral ships should be exposed
to being detained, taken out of their course, and overhauled
on mere suspicion of carrying contraband, when they are so far
from the seat of war that there can be no presumption as to their
destination. Neutrals have a right to carry on their ordinary
business unmolested in so far as they do nothing to assist either
belligerent. When they are beyond a certain distance from the
seat of war it seems reasonable that the presumption that they
are merely carrying on their legitimate business should be
considered absolute. Such a limitation of the area of hostilities
is not only feasible, but it was actually put in practice by the
British government during the Boer War.3

In the course of the Russo-Japanese War the question came
up again, being raised this time by Great Britain. Lord Lans-
downe called the attention of the Russian foreign office to the
extreme inconvenience to neutral commerce of the Russian
search for contraband not only in the proximity of the scene of war,
but over all the world, and especially at places at which neutral
commerce could be most effectually intercepted. H.M. Govern-
ment had become aware that a large addition was likely to be
made to the number of Russian cruisers employed in this manner,
and they had, therefore, to contemplate the possibility that
such vessels would shortly be found patrolling the narrow seas
which lie on the route from Great Britain to Japan in such a
manner as to render it virtually impossible for any neutral
vessel to escape their attention. The effect of such interference
with neutral trade, he said, would be disastrous to legitimate
commerce passing from a British port in the United Kingdom
:o a British port in the Far East. The British government
lad no desire to place obstacles in the way of a belligerent
desiring to take reasonable precautions in order to prevent the
enemy from receiving supplies, but they insisted that the right
of taking such precautions did not imply a " consequential right
o intercept at any distance from the scene of operations and
without proof that the supplies in question were really destined
or use of the enemy's forces, any articles which that belligerent
might determine to regard as contraband of war."

1 In January 1900 it was reported that the British government
lad issued instructions to British naval commanders not to stop
>r search German merchant vessels at any places not in the vicinity
if the seat of war. There is no proper statement of the British
xjsition on this subject, the only official information having been
;iven by the German chancellor in a speech to the Reichstag.

According to this information, the area was ultimately limited as
lorth of Aden, and afterwards it was agreed that the immunity
rom search should be extended to all places beyond a distance
rom the seat of war equal to the distance from it of Aden. This

was substantially correct, though the telegrams sent by the Admiralty
an hardly be said to have fixed any precise area. As a fact, the
ommanders-in-chief on the East Indies and Cape of Good Hope
tations were instructed that in consequence of the great practical
lifficulty of proving — at ports so remote from the scene of war
perations as Aden and Perim — the real destination of contraband
if war carried by vessels visiting those parts, directions were to be
[iven to the officers concerned to cease to search such vessels, and
o merely report to the commander-in-chief at the Cape the names
)f ships suspected of carrying contraband, and the date of clearance.

PEACE

The position thus assumed is not clear. On the one hand
the British claim did not, it is seen, go the length of the
restriction Great Britain consented to place on her own
right of search during the Boer War, seeming to apply only
to the case of ships carrying conditional contraband. On the
other, the complaint is based on the " interference " with
neutral trade, which means the stoppage and search of vessels
to ascertain whether they have contraband of any kind on
board or not.

It must not be forgotten in this connexion that restriction
of the rights of the belligerent necessarily entails extension of
the duties of the neutral. The belligerent has an unquestioned
right to " interfere " with all neutral vessels navigating in
the direction of the seat of war, for the purpose of ascertaining
whether they are carrying any kind of contraband or not.
Under the Declaration of London of the 26th of February 1909
it is provided under arts. 32 and 35 that a ship's papers are
conclusive proof as to the voyage on which she is engaged
unless she is clearly out of the course indicated by her papers
and is unable to give adequate reasons to justify her deviation.
Thus the interference, if the declaration is ratified, will be
confined to an examination of the ship's papers where the ship
is not bound for a belligerent port (cf. art. 30 of the same
convention).

Standing Peace Agreements. — Foremost among standing peace
agreements are, of course, the International Hague Conventions
relating directly to peace, agreements which have not only created
a special peace jurisdiction for the settlement of international
difficulties by judicial methods but also a written law to apply
within the scope of this jurisdiction.

Alongside the Hague Peace Conventions and more or less
connected with them are standing treaties of arbitration which
have been entered into by different nations for terms of years
separately. The first of what may be called a new series was
that between Great Britain and France. It has now been followed
by over a hundred others forming a network of international
relationships which shows that, at any rate, the wish for peace
is universal among mankind.1

1 The following list of standing arbitration treaties concluded
after the signing of the Anglo-French treaty of October I4th 1903
is as complete as possible down to June 1910: —

Argentina-Brazil, September 7, 1905.
„ Portugal, August 27, 1909.
Austria-Hungary-Switzerland, December 3, 1904.
Belgium-Denmark, April 26, 1905.
Greece, May 2, 1905.
Norway and Sweden, November 30, 1904.
Rumania, May 27, 1905.
Russia, October 30, 1904.
Spain, January 23, 1905.
Switzerland, November 15, 1904.
Brazil-Portugal, March 25, 1909.

„ Spain, April 8, 1909.

„ Mexico, April II, 1909.

,, Honduras, April 26, 1909.

,, Venezuela, April 30, 1909.

,, Panama, May I, 1909.

„ Ecuador, May 13, 1909.

„ Costa Rica, May 18, 1909.

,, Cuba, June 19, 1909.

„ Bolivia, June 25, 1909.

„ Nicaragua, June 28, 1909.

,, Norway, July 13, 1909.

,, China, August 3, 1909.

„ Salvador, September 3, 1909.

„ Peru, December 7, 1909.

,, Sweden, December 14, 1909.
Colombia-Peru, September 12, 1905.

,, France, December 16, 1908.

Denmark— France, September 15, 1905.

„ Italy, December 16, 1905.

„ Netherlands, February 12, 1904.

„ Russia, March I, 1905.

,, Spain, December I, 1905.

„ Norway, October 8, 1908.

France-Italy, December 26, 1903.

,, Netherlands, April 6, 1904.

,, Norway and Sweden, July 9, 1904.

,, Spain, February 26, 1904.

There are, however, a large number of conventions which,
although not concluded with the direct object of assuring peace
where difficulties have arisen, tend in a very practical manner
to contract the area of possible difficulties. These are conventions
for the regulation of intercourse between the subjects and citizens
of different states. Such conventions obviously remove occasions
for friction and are therefore among the most effective agencies
contributing to the preservation of peace among civilized
peoples. In most cases such conventions have created inter-
national unions of states for all matters which lend themselves
to international co-operation. The first in order of date was
the postal union. The system it inaugurated has now extended
its scope to telegraphs, copyright, industrial property, railway
traffic, the publication of customs tariffs, metric measures,
monetary systems and agriculture. Berne, being the capital
of the most central of the neutral European states, is the adminis-
trative centre of most of these unions. Customs tariffs and
the monetary unions, however, are centralized at Brussels,

France— Sweden and Norway, July 9, 1904.
Switzerland, December 14, 1904.
Brazil, April 7, 1909.
Great Britain— France, October 14, 1903.
Germany, July 12, 1904.
Italy, February i, 1907.
Austria-Hungary, January II, 1905.
Netherlands, February 15, 1905.
Colombia, December 30, 1908.
Sweden and Norway, August n, 1904.
Denmark, October 25, 1904.
Portugal, November 16, 1904.
Spain, February 27, 1904.
Switzerland, November 16, 1904.
United States, April 4, 1908.
Brazil, June 18, 1909.
Honduras-Spain, May 13, 1905.
Italy— Argentine, September 18, 1907.
Mexico, October i, 1907.
Peru, April 18, 1907.
Portugal, May II, 1905.
Switzerland, November 23, 1904.
Netherlands, November 21, 1909.
Netherlands-Portugal, October 26, 1905.
Norway— Sweden, October 26, 1905.
Norway and Sweden-Russia, December 9, 1904.
„ „ Spain, January 23, 1905.

,, „ Switzerland, December 17, 1904.

Portugal-Spain, May 31, 1904.

Austria-Hungary, February 13, 1906.

Denmark, March 20, 1907.

France, June 29, 1906.

Italy, May n, 1905.

Netherlands, October I, 1904.

Norway and Sweden, May 6, 1905. (Suspended for

Norway by a new one dated December 8, 1908.)
Spain, May 31, 1904.
Switzerland, August 18, 1905.
Nicaragua, July 17, 1909.

Russia— Norway and Sweden, November 26, 1904.
Spain-Greece, December 3-16, 1909.

Switzerland, May 14, 1907.
United States-Spain, April 20, 1908.

Denmark, May 18, 1908.
Italy, March 28, 1908.
Japan, May 5, 1908.
Netherlands, May 2, 1908.
Portugal, April 6, 1908.
Sweden, May 2, 1908.
Switzerland, February 29, 1908.
Argentina, December 23, 1908.
Peru, December 3, 1908.
Salvador, December 21, 1908.
Norway, April 4, 1908.
Mexico, March 24, 1908.
France, February 2, 1908.
Ecuador, January 7, 1909.
Bolivia, January 7, 1909.
Haiti, January 7, 1909.
Uruguay, January 9, 1909.
Chile, January 13, 1909.
Costa Rica, January 13, 1909.
Austria-Hungary, January 15, 1909.
Brazil, January 23, 1909.
Paraguay, March 13, 1909.
China, October 8, 1908.

PEACE

the weights and measures union in Paris and the agricultural
institute at Rome.

The general postal union was c-eated by a convention signed
at Berne in 1874. A convention for a similar union for telegraphs
was signed in Paris in 1875 (revised at St Petersburg and replaced
by another the same year). Both unions issue monthly bulletins
and other publications giving useful information about these
two services.1

The international bureau of weights and measures at Paris
was created by a convention signed there in 1875, for the purpose
of comparing and verifying weights and measures on the metric
system, and preserving their identity for the contracting states.

The double-standard Latin union monetary system was
founded by a convention of 1865, between Belgium, France,
Italy and Switzerland. In 1868 it was joined by Greece. A
single standard union exists between Sweden, Norway and
Denmark under a convention of 1873.

The copyright union was created by an international con-
vention signed in 1874. The official bureau of the union is
at Berne. It issues a periodical publication called Le Droit
d'auteur giving information respecting the laws of different
states relating to published matter of all kinds.

The term " industrial property " covers patents, trade marks,
merchandise marks, trade names, designs and models. The
convention dealing with them signed in 1883 created a union
with its central office at Berne. It, too, issues a bulletin and
other publications which help to prevent misunderstandings.

The railway traffic union was formed by a convention of
1890. The central bureau at Berne issues a monthly bulletin.
A subsequent convention was signed at Berne in 1886 relating
to matters of technical unification.

1 A subsidiary convention not quite falling within the scope of
the above convention is the submarine telegraphs convention,
which was signed in 1884. It applies outside territorial waters
to all legally established submarine cables landed on the territories,
colonies or possessions of one or more of the high contracting
parties. Under its provisions it is a punishable offence " to break
or injure a submarine cable wilfully or by culpable negligence in
such manner as might interrupt or obstruct telegraphic communi-
cation either wholly or partially, such punishment being without
prejudice to any civil action for damages. It also provides that: — •

" Vessels engaged in laying or repairing submarine cables shall
conform to the regulations as to signals which have been, or may
be, adopted by mutual agreement among the high contracting
parties with the view of preventing collisions at sea. When a
ship engaged in repairing a cable exhibits the said signals, other
vessels which see them or are able to see them shall withdraw to
or keep beyond a distance of one nautical mile at least from the
ship in question so as not to interfere with her operations " (art. 5).
" Owners of ships or vessels who can prove that they have sacrificed
an anchor, a net or other fishing-gear in order to avoid injuring a
submarine cable shall receive compensation from the owner of the
cable," and " in order to establish a claim to such compensation
a statement supported by the evidence of the crew should whenever
possible be drawn up immediately after the occurrence and the
master must within twenty-four hours after his return to or next
putting into port make a declaration to the proper authorities "
(art. 7). " The tribunals competent to take cognizance of infractions
of the present convention are those of the country -to which the
vessel on board of which the offence was committed belongs "
(art. 8). By art. 15 it is provided that the stipulations of the con-
vention do not in any way restrict the action of belligerents. It
may be remarked that the British representative at the time of
signing the convention declared that his government understood
that in the time of war a belligerent would be free to act in regard
to submarine cables as though the convention did not exist. The
act to carry into effect the above convention is the Submarine
Telegraph Act 1885 (48 & 49 Viet. c. 49) which was slightly
modified by 50 Viet. c. 3. Section 3 of the earlier act provides that
a person who injures the cable either wilfully or by culpable negli-
gence is " guilty of a misdemeanour and on conviction: (a) if he
acted wilfully, shall be liable to penal servitude for a term not
exceeding five years, or to imprisonment with or without hard
abour for a term not exceeding two years, and to a fine either in
lieu of or in addition to such penal servitude or imprisonment;
and (ft) if he acted by culpable negligence shall be liable to im-
prisonment for a term not exceeding three months without hard
labour, and to a fine not exceeding £100 either in lieu of or in addition
to such imprisonment."

See Board of Trade Correspondence on Protection of Submarine
Cables, printed on the 24th of July 1882; and Parliamentary Paper
C. 5910: 1890.

Under the convention creating the customs tariffs union,
signed in 1890, thirty states, including Great Britain and
most British colonies, are associated for the purpose of prompt
publication of custom tariffs and their modifications.

The agricultural institute, created by a convention of 1905
w;th its seat at Rome, as the ktest in date is perhaps the most
interesting of the series. It shows how deep and widespread
the sense of the utility of international state co-operation has
become. The convention sets out the scope and objects of the
institute, which a recent British official publication states has
been joined by 38 states, including Great Britain and all other
great powers, as follows:-

Whilst limiting its action to international questions, it shall be
the duty of the institute: (a) To collect, elaborate and publish,
with as little delay as possible, statistical, technical, or economic
information regarding the cultivation of the soil, its productions,
whether animal or vegetable, the trade in agricultural products,
and the prices obtained on the various markets. (6) To communi-
cate to interested parties, also without delay, full information of
the nature above mentioned, (c) To indicate the wages of rural
labour, (d) To notify all new diseases of plants which may appear
in any part of the world, indicating the districts affected, the spread
of the disease, and, if possible, the efficacious means of resistance.
(e) To consider questions relating to agricultural co-operation,
insurance and credit, in all their forms, collecting and publishing
information which may be useful in the various countries for the
organization of undertakings relating to agricultural co-operation,
insurance and credit, (f) To present, if expedient, to the govern-
ments, for their approval, measures for the protection of the common
interests of agriculturists and for the improvement of their con-
dition, after having previously taken every means of obtaining
the necessary information, e.g. resolutions passed by international
congresses or other congresses relating to agriculture or to sciences
applied to agriculture, agricultural societies, academies, learned
societies, &c.

All questions relating to the economic interests, the legislation
and administration of any particular state, must be excluded from
the sphere of the institute. (Art. 9).

Lastly, there is a class of difficulties which might arise from
preferential treatment of trade from different countries. To
obviate them statesmen have been led to adopt the principle
of the " most-favoured-nation-clause " — that is to say, a clause
providing that if any reductions of tariff or other advantages are
granted by either contracting state to any third state, the others
shall have the benefit of it. In Europe this clause has been
uniformly treated as applying to all reductions of tariff without
distinction. The United States interpretation, on the other
hand, distinguishes between reductions of a general character
and reductions made specifically in return for reductions by
some other state. The latter do not come within the operation
of the clause, and a co-contracting state is only entitled to
obtain extension of them to itself on granting similar concessions.
In other words, concessions to any co-contracting state are
only allowed gratuitously to a third co-contracting state when
nothing has been given for them, the clause not covering advan-
tages granted in return for advantages. It is to be hoped that
this special view of the meaning of the clause will be met in the
future, as in some recent treaties, by specifically dealing with the
exceptions.2

The Utility of Popular Effort.— Until quite recently'it had been
a distinctive mark of practical wisdom to treat private efforts for
the improvement of international relations for the preservation
of peace, with the patronizing tolerance courteous people of the
world extend to half-crazy idealists. Since the opening of the
century, an immense change has taken place in the attitude of
the leaders of popular opinion towards the advocacy of peace.
This new attitude has been contemporary with the greater
interest displayed by the mercantile classes of England and the
United States in the improvement of their political relations with
their neighbours. It may be said to have begun with the visit
of the Association of British Chambers of Commerce to Paris
in 1900, at a time when France was still smarting from the
humiliation of the Fashoda affair, and the Boer War was exciting
hostile demonstrations against Great Britain throughout the conti-
nent of Europe. That some four hundred British manufacturers

J See Barclay, Problems of International Practice and Diplomacy
(1907), p. 137 seq.

PEACE

and merchants, representing about eighty chambers of commerce
of the United Kingdom, should have swept aside all political
objections and have boldly trusted to the efficacy of friendly
advances as between man and man, appealed to the French
people. It seems to have been the first great popular effort
ever made deliberately by a representative body of the middle
class of a nation for the promotion of international friendship
without the aid of diplomacy and without official assistance or
even countenance of any kind.

Otherwise, private agencies of a standing character which
contribute towards the promotion of peace may be divided into
four classes, viz. (i) those which, without having peace for their
direct object, promote friendship among men of different races
and nationalities; (2) those which directly address themselves
to the promoting of friendship and goodwill among peoples;
(3) those which regarding peace as the immediate object of their
efforts, endeavour to educate democracy in this sense 5(4) those
which endeavour to remove the causes of international friction
by the codification of International law and the promotion of the
international regulation of common interests. Lastly, there are
two agencies which cannot be classed among the foregoing;
one is the International Parliamentary Union and the other the
Nobel Prize Committee.

1. Agencies which are indirectly making for peace are of
many kinds. Science and medicine now bring men of all nations
together in periodical congresses. Technology, electricity,
mining, railways, navigation and many other subjects are now
dealt with in international congresses. International exhibitions
are always used as an occasion for holding many such meetings.

2. One of the most notable efforts directed to the deliberate
cementing of friendship has been the interchange of official
visits by municipal bodies. In the course of the Anglo-French
agitation which culminated in March 1903 with the visit of King
Edward to Paris, the French municipal councils passed many
resolutions in favour of the entente. After the conclusion of the
Anglo-French standing treaty of arbitration (Oct. 14, 1903)
and the arrangements for the general settlement of outstanding
difficulties with France (April 8, 1904), the municipal bodies in
France were prepared to go a step farther, and in 1906 the Muni-
cipal Council of Paris was invited by the London County Council
to pay an official visit to England. This visit was followed by
a return visit to Paris and a similar exchange of visits between
the London City Corporation and the Paris Municipal Council,
exchange visits of the city corporations of Manchester, Glasgow
and Edinbuigh and Lyons, and a visit of the Manchester Corpora-
tion to Dusseldorf, Barmen and Cologne. A society, numbering
many thousands of working men among its members, which has
set itself the more special task of promoting the interchange of
visits between working men of different nations, is called the
" International Brotherhood Alliance," or, after the initials of its
motto, Fraternitas inter gentes, the F.I.G. Another agency,
called the " American Association for International Concili-
ation," seeks by the publication of essays on the different aspects
of international friendship to promote the same cause.

3. The " peace societies," which are scattered over the whole
world, number several hundreds.1 Their first International
Congress was held in London at the suggestion of Joseph Sturge
in 1843. In J848 a second congress was held at Brussels. The
third in 1849 took place in Paris, and was presided over by Victor
Hugo. Other congresses were held at Frankfurt, again in London,
and in 1853 at Manchester, where Richard Cobden and John
Bright took part in the discussions. Then followed an interval
of wars during which the Pacifists were unable to raise their
voices. At length in 1878 a congress was held at the Paris
International Exhibition of that year, but it was not till the next
Paris International Exhibition of 1889 that these international
peace congresses became periodical. Since then numerous con-
gresses have been held, the seventeenth having sat in London
in 1908, and the eighteenth at Stockholm in 1910. These
congresses have been supplemented by national congresses in

1 See Annuaire du mouvement pacifiste pour Vannee iQio, published
by the Bureau International de la Paix, at Bern.

both Great Britain and France. Such congresses are doing
admirable work in the popularizing of thought upon the
numerous questions which are discussed at the meetings,
such as compulsory arbitration, the restriction of armaments,
private property at sea in time of war, the position of subject
races, airships in war, &c.2

4. First among the bodies which try to remove the causes
of international friction is the Institute of International Law.
This is a body of international lawyers, consisting of sixty mem-
bers and sixty associates recruited by election — the members from
those who " have rendered services to international law in the
domain of theory or practice," and associates from those " whose
knowledge may be useful to the Institute." It was formed
in 1873, chiefly through the efforts of M. Rolin-Jaequemyns.
The official language of the Institute is French, and its annual
meetings are held wherever the members at the previous meeting
decide to assemble. Its mode of operation is to work out tht
matters it deals with during the intervals between the sessions,
in permanent commissions, among which the whole domain of
international law is divided up. The commissions, under the
direction of their rapporteurs or conveners, prepare reports
and proposals, which are printed and distributed among the
members some time before the plenary sittings at which they
are to be discussed. If the members are not agreed, the subject
is adjourned to another session, and still another, until they do
agree. Thus the resolutions of the Institute have the authority
attaching to a mature expression of the views of the leading
international jurists of Europe. Another body having a more or
less similar purpose is the International Law Association, which
was founded in 1873 as the " Association for the Reform and
Codification of the Law of Nations," with practically the same
objects as those which led to the constitution of the Institute
of International Law. It also meets in different countries, but
it differs from the Institute in the number of its members being
unlimited and in all respectable persons being eligible for mem-
berchip. A report is published after each meeting. There are now
numerous volumes of such reports, many of them containing most
valuable materials for international jurists. In 1895 the name
was changed to International Law Association.

A new society was recently (1906) formed in America called the
American Society of International Law, " to foster the study of
international law and piomote the establishment of international
relations on the basis of law and justice." " Membership in the
society is not restricted to lawyers, and any man of good moral
character interested in the objects of the society may be admitted
to membership." The publications of this society have already
taken an important place among the literature of international
law.

Still more recently yet another society came into being in
Switzerland with objects which seem to be similar to those of the
Institute of International Law.

The Inter-Parliamentary Union, which dates back to 1887,
owes its origin to the initiative of the late Sir W. R. Cremer.
It is composed of groups of the different parliaments of the
world, who meet periodically to " bring about the acceptance
in their respective countries, by votes in parliament and by means
of arbitration treaties, of the principle that differences between
nations should be submitted to arbitration and to consider
other questions of international importance."3 The sixteenth
conference was held at Brussels in August-September, 1910.

2 At the third congress of the new series, held at Rome in 1891,
was created the Bureau International de la Paix. This most useful
institution, which has its office at Bern, serves as a means of bringing
and keeping together all the known peace societies. Its Corre-
spondance bimensuelle and Annuaire du mouvement pacifiste are well
known, and its obliging hon. secretary, Dr A. Gobat, is always ready
to supply information from the now considerable archives of the
Bureau. In this connexion we may mention that the secretary
of the London Peace Society, Dr Evans Darby, has edited an
exhaustive collection of materials called International Tribunals.
His statements every two years on the progress of arbitration at
the International Law Association meetings also form an excellent'
source of materials for reference.

3 Art. I of Statutes revised Sept. 1908.

1 6 PEACE, BREACH OF THE-PEACE CONFERENCES

The Nobel Committee owes its existence to the will of the
late Alfred B. Nobel (1833-1896), the inventor of dynamite, who
left a considerable fortune for the encouragement of men who
work for the benefit of humanity. The interest of this money
was to be divided into five equal parts, to be distributed every
year as rewards to the persons who had deserved best of mankind
in five departments of human activity. The clauses of the will
governing the distribution of these prizes are as follows:-

" The entire sum shall be divided into five equal parts, one to
go to the man who shall have made the most important discovery
or invention in the domain of physical science; another to the man
who shall have made the most important discovery or introduced
the greatest improvement in chemistry; the third to the author
of the most important discovery in the domain of physiology or
medicine; the fourth to the man who shall have produced the
most remarkable work of an idealistic nature; and, finally, t
fifth to the man who shall have done the most or best work for the
fraternity of nations, the suppression or reduction of standing
armies, and the formation and propagation of peace congresses.
The prizes shall be awarded as follows: For physical science and
chemistry, by the Swedish Academy of Sciences; for physiological
or medical work, by the Caroline Institutional Stockholm; for litera-
ture, by the Stockholm Academy, and for peace work, by a com-
mittee of five members elected by the Norwegian Storthing. It
is my express desire that, in awarding the prizes, no account shall
be taken of nationality, in order that the prize may fall to the lot
of the most deserving, whether he be Scandinavian or not.

Peace v. War. — Peace is the ultimate object of all statecraft
— peace in the development of the domestic activities of the
nation administered, and peace in the relations of states with
one another. For the purpose of ensuring peace an expensive
diplomacy is maintained by all states, and to perpetuate it
treaties are entered into by states with one another. Even war
has no other avowed purpose than that of placing specific
international relations on a definite footing. Ultimate peace
is uniformly proclaimed by every dictator at home, by every
conqueror abroad, as the goal to which he is directing his efforts.
And yet dissentient voices are sometimes heard defending war
as if it were an end in itself. Without going back to the well-
known reply of Count Moltke to Professor Bluntschli respecting
the Manual of the Laws of War drawn up by the Institute of
International Law in iSSo,1 we need only quote that highly
up-to-date philosopher, Nietzsche : " It is mere illusion and pretty
sentiment," he observes, " to expect much (even anything at
all) from mankind if it forgets how to make war. As yet no
means are known which call so much into action as a great war,
that rough energy born of the camp, that deep impersonality
born of hatred, that conscience born of murder and cold-blooded-
ness, that fervour born of effort in the annihilation of the enemy,
that proud indifference to loss, to one's own existence, to that
of one's fellows, to that earthquake-like soul-shaking which a
people needs when it is losing its vitality." 2

It is pleasant to contrast this neurotic joy of one onlooker
with the matter-of-fact reflexions of another, the late W. E. H.
Lecky. " War " he says " is not, and never can be a mere
passionless discharge of a painful duty. It is in its essence,
and it is a main condition of its success, to kindle into fierce
exercise among great masses of men the destructive and com-
bative passions — passions as fierce and as malevolent as that
with which the hound hunts the fox to its death or the tiger
springs upon its prey. Destruction is one of its chief ends.
Deception is one of its chief means, and one -of the great arts
of skilful generalship is to deceive in order to destroy. Whatever
other elements may mingle with and dignify war, this at least
is never absent; and however reluctantly men may enter into
war, however conscientiously they may endeavour to avoid it,
they must know that when the scene of carnage has once opened,
these things must be not only accepted and condoned, but
stimulated, encouraged and applauded. It would be difficult
to conceive a disposition more remote from the morals of
ordinary life, not to speak of Christian ideals, than that with
" Perpetual peace," he said, " is a dream, and it is not even
a beautiful dream. War is an element in the order of the world
ordained by God . . . Without war the world would stagnate
and lose itself in materialism."

2 Menschliches, AttzumensMiches, No. 477.

which the soldiers most animated with the fire and passion that
lead to victory rush forward to bayonet the foe. ... It is allow-
able to deceive an enemy by fabricated despatches purporting
;o come from his own side; by tampering with telegraph mes-
sages; by spreading false intelligence in newspapers; by sending
pretended spies and deserters to give him untrue reports of the
lumbers or movements of the troops; by employing false signals
.o lure him into an ambuscade. On the use of the flag and
uniform of an enemy for purposes of deception there has been
some controversy, but it is supported by high military authority.
Hardly any one will be so confident of the virtue of his
rulers as to believe that every war which his country wages in
very part of its dominions with uncivilized as well as civilized
Deputations, is just and necessary, and it is certainly prima
acie not in accordance with an ideal morality that men should
jind themselves absolutely for life or for a term of years to kill
without question, at the command of their superiors, those who
lave personally done them no -wrong." 3

Surely with all the existing activity in the removal of causes
of war, in the reduction to precise expression of the rules of law
governing the relations of states with one another, in the creation
of international judicatures for the application of these rules, in
the concluding of treaties specifically framed to facilitate the
Dacific settlement of difficulties diplomacy may have failed to
adjust, in the promotion of democratic civilian armies with
everything to lose by war, and all the other agencies which have
seen described above, the hope seems warranted that, in
no distant future, life among nations will become still more
closely assimilated to life among citizens of the same nation,
with legislation, administration, reform all tending to the one
real object of law, order and peace among men. (T. BA.)

PEACE, BREACH OF THE. Theoretically all criminal offences
cognizable by English law involve a breach of the king's peace,
and all indictments whether for offences against the common
law or by statute conclude " against the peace of our lord the
king, his crown and dignity." Historically this phrase, now
legally superfluous, represents the last trace of the process by
which the royal courts assume jurisdiction over all offences, and
gradually extruded the jurisdiction of the sheriff and of lords
of manors and franchises, making crime a matter of national
concern as distinguished from civil wrongs or infractions of the
rights of local magnates, or of the rights of the tribal chiefs of
the Teutonic conquerors of Britain. The peace of the king was
sworn on his accession or full recognition, and the jurisdiction of
his courts to punish all violations of that peace was gradually
asserted. The completion of this process is marked by the
institution of the office of justice of the peace.

In modern times the expression "breach of the peace" is usually
limited to offences involving actual tumult, disturbances or dis-
order. As regards such offences, although they do not fall into
the class of grave crimes described as felonies, officers of police
and even private persons have larger powers and duties, as to
immediate arrest without waiting for judicial warrant, than they
possess as to other minor offences (see ARREST). Justices of the
peace have under early statutes and the commission of the
peace power to take sureties of the peace from persons who are
threatening to commit a breach of the peace, and it is within
the power of any court on conviction of any misdemeanour
and of many felonies to require the offender to enter into a
recognizance (q.t>.) to keep the peace.

PEACE CONFERENCES, the official title of the two inter-
national conferences held at the Hague in 1899 and 1907. Both
were organized at the instance of the emperor Nicholas II. of
Russia. The chief object of the first conference, as set out in the
note of Count Mouraviev, the Russian minister of foreign affairs
(Jan. n, 1899), was to arrive at an "understanding not
to increase for a fixed period the present effectives of the
armed military and naval forces, and at the same time not to
increase the budgets pertaining thereto; and a preliminary
examination of the means by which even a reduction
might be effected in future in the forces and budgets above
3 The Map of Life, 1902, pp. 92-97.

PEACH, C. W.

mentioned."1 The conference, which was attended by repre-
sentatives of 26 states, sat from the i8th of May to the 2pth
of July 1899.

When the subject of excessive armaments came up for dis-
cussion, the objections of the German military delegate led to
its abandonment. Other very important matters, however, were
dealt with, and three momentous conventions were adopted, viz. —

I. A convention for the pacific settlement of international
disputes.

II. A convention relating to the laws and customs of war by land.

III. A convention for the adaptation to maritime warfare of the
principles of the Geneva Convention of the 22nd of August 1864.

Three declarations on the following matters were also adopted : —

a. Prohibition of the launching of projectiles and explosives from

balloons or by other similar new methods.2

b. Prohibition of the use of projectiles the only object of which

is the diffusion of asphyxiating or deleterious gases.

c. Prohibition of the use of bullets which expand or flatten easily

in the human body, such as bullets with a hard envelope, of
which the envelope does not entirely cover the corej or is
pierced with incisions.

The conference furthermore passed the following resolutions: —

" The Conference is of opinion that the restriction of military
budgets, which are at present a heavy burden on the world, is
extremely desirable for the increase of the material and moral welfare
of mankind."

" The Conference, taking into consideration the preliminary
steps taken by the Swiss Federal Government for the revision of
the Geneva Convention, expresses the wish that steps may be shortly
taken for the assembling of a special Conference, having for its
object the revision of that Convention."

The following vasux were adopted, but not unanimously: —

" I. The Conference expresses the wish that the question of the
rights and duties of neutrals may be inserted in the programme of a
conference in the near future.

" 2. The Conference expresses the wish that the questions with
regard to rifles and naval guns, as considered by it, may be studied
by the Governments with the object of coming to an agreement
respecting the employment of new types and calibres.

3. The Conference expresses the wish that the Governments,
taking into consideration the proposals made at the Conference,
may examine the possibility of an agreement as to the limitation of
armed forces by land and sea, and of war budgets.

" 4. The Conference expresses the wish that the proposals which
contemplate the declaration of the inviolability of private property
in naval warfare may be referred to a subsequent conference for
consideration.

" 5. The Conference expresses the wish that the proposal to settle
the question of the bombardment of ports, towns and villages by
naval forces may be referred to a subsequent conference for
consideration."

Great Britain signed and became a party to the three
Conventions, but not to all the declarations, &c.

The Conference of 1907, which was attended by representatives
of forty-four states, sat from the isth of June to the i8th of
October. Again, in spite of the resolution and vceu on arma-
ments handed down from the Conference of 1899 this subject
was waived, but still more important conventions than in 1899
were adopted on other matters. These were as follows: —

I. Convention for the pacific settlement of international
disputes.3

II. Convention respecting the limitation of the employment of
force for the recovery of contract debts.

III. Convention relative to the commencement of hostilities.

IV. Conventions concerning the laws and customs of war on
land.'

V. Convention respecting the rights and duties of neutral powers
and persons in war on land.

VI. Convention relative to the status of enemy merchant-ships
at the outbreak of hostilities.

1 At the Conference the Russian government, further developing
the proposal, submitted the following details: —

" I. Establishment of an international understanding for a term
of five years, stipulating non-increase of the present figures of the
peace effective of the troops kept up for home use.

" 2. Fixation, in case of this understanding being arrived at,
and, if possible, of the figures of the peace effective of all the powers
excepting colonial troops.

" 3. Maintenance for a like term of five years of the amount of
the military budgets at present in force."

3 This Conference was held at Geneva in June-July 1906. The
revised Convention, composed of 33 articles, is dated July 6, 1906.

3 This is an amended edition of that of 1899.

VII. Convention relative to the conversion of merchant-ships
into war-ships.

VIII. Convention relative to the laying of automatic submarine
contact mines.

IX. Convention respecting bombardment by naval forces in
time of war.

X. Conventions for the adaptation of the principles of the Geneva
Convention to maritime war.4

XI. Convention relative to certain restrictions on the exercise
of the right of capture in maritime war.4

XII. Convention relative to the establishment of an international
prize court.

XIII. Convention respecting the rights and duties of neutral
powers in maritime war.

XIV. Declaration prohibiting discharge of projectiles, &c., from
balloons.6

A draft Convention relative to the creation of a judicial
arbitration court was also drawn up in connexion with the first
of the four following vosux: —

I. The Conference calls the attention of the signatory powers
to the advisability of adopting the annexed draft convention for
the creation of a judicial arbitration court, and of bringing it into
force as soon as an agreement has been reached respecting the selec-
tion of the judges and the constitution of the court.

2. The Conference expresses the opinion that, in case of war, the
responsible authorities, civil as well as military, should make it
their special duty to ensure and safeguard the maintenance of pacific
relations, more especially of the commercial and industrial relations
between the inhabitants of the belligerent states and neutral
countries.

3. The Conference expresses the opinion that the powers should
regulate, by special treaties, the position, as regards military charges,
of foreigners residing within their territories.

4. The Conference expresses the opinion that the preparation
of regulations relative to the laws and customs of naval war should
figure in the programme of the next conference,6 and that in any
case the powers may apply, as far as possible, to war by sea the
principles of the Convention relative to the laws and customs of
war on land.

Finally, the Conference recommended to the powers the
assembly of a Third Peace Conference, and it called their atten-
tion to the necessity of preparing the programme of this Third
Conference a sufficient time in advance to ensure its deliberations
being conducted with the necessary authority and expedition.

In order to attain this object the Conference considered that it
" would be very desirable that, some two years before the probable
date of the meeting, a preparatory committee should be charged
by the governments with the task of collecting the various
proposals to be submitted to the Conference, of ascertaining what
subjects are ripe for embodiment in an international regulation,
and of preparing a programme which the governments should
decide upon in sufficient time to enable it to be carefully examined
by the countries interested," and that this committee should
further be entrusted with the task of proposing a system of
organization and procedure for the Conference itself. (T. BA.)

PEACH, CHARLES WILLIAM (1800-1886), British naturalist
and geologist, was born on the 3oth of September 1800 at Wans-
ford in Northamptonshire; his father at the time was a saddler
and harness-maker, and afterwards became an innkeeper
farming about 80 acres of land. He received an elementary
education at Wansford and at Folkingham in Lincolnshire; and
assisted for several years in the inn and farm. In 1824 he was
appointed riding officer in the Revenue Coast-guard at Weybourn
in Norfolk. Sea-weeds and other marine organisms now
attracted his attention, and these he zealously collected. His
duties during the next few years led him to remove successively
to Sheringharrf, Hasboro (Happisburgh), Cromer and Cley, all in
Norfolk. In the course of his rambles he met the Rev. James
Layton, curate at Catfield, who lent him books and assisted in
laying the foundations of accurate knowledge About the year
1830 he was transferred to Charmouth in Dorset, thence to Beer,
and Paignton in Devon, and to Gorran Haven near Mevagissey
in Cornwall. Here he continued to pursue his zoological studies

4 This is an amended edition of that of 1899.

6 This was practically a re-enactment of that of 1899.

6 This has since been done to a large extent by the Conference of
London (1908-1909). See BLOCKADE, CONTRABAND, INTERNATIONAL
LAW PEACE.

i8

PEACH

and supplied many specimens to G. Johnston, who was then
preparing his History of the British Zoophytes (1838). It was
here too that he first found fossils in some of the older rocks
previously regarded as unfossiliferous — the discovery of which
proved the presence of Bala Beds (Ordovician or Lower Silurian)
in the neighbourhood of Gorran Haven. In 1841 he read a paper
before the British Association at Plymouth " On the Fossil
Organic Remains found on the south-east coast of Cornwall,"
and in 1843 he brought before the Royal Geological Society of
Cornwall an account of his discovery of fish remains in the Devo-
nian slates near Polperro. Peach was transferred for a time
to Fowey; and in 1849 to Scotland, first to Peterhead and then to
Wick (1853), where he made acquaintance with Robert Dick of
Thurso. He collected the old red Sandstone fishes; and during
a sojourn at Durness he first found fossils in the Cambrian
limestone (1854). Peach retired from the government service in
1 86 1, and died at Edinburgh on the a8th of February 1886.

Biographical notice, with portrait, in S. Smiles's Robert Dick,
Baker, of Thurso, Geologist and Botanist (1878).

PEACH, the name of a fruit tree which is included by Bentham
and Hooker (Genera plantarum, i. 610) under the genus Prunus
(Prunus persica); its resemblance to the plum is indeed obvious.
Others have classed it with the almond as a distinct genus,
Amygdalus; while others again have considered it sufficiently
distinct to constitute a separate genus, Persica.

In general terms the peach may be said to be a medium-sized
tree, with lanceolate, stipulate leaves, borne on long, slender,
relatively unbranched shoots, and with
the flowers arranged singly, or in groups
of two or more, at intervals along the
shoots of the previous year's growth.
The flowers have a hollow tube at the
base bearing at its free edge five sepals,
an equal number of petals, usually con-
cave or spoon-shaped, pink or white,
and a great number of stamens. The
pistil consists of a single carpel with its

ovary, style, stigma and solitary ovule
Qr twin ^^ Thfi fmit jg & drupe

(fig. i) having a thin outer skin (epi-
carp) enclosing the flesh of the peach

Stone or endpcarp, (mesocarp) , the inner layers of the carpel
within which is the becoming woody to form the stone,
while the ovule ripens into the kernel
or seed. This is exactly the structure of
the plum or apricot, and differs from that of the almond, which is
identical in the first instance, only in the circumstance that the
fleshy part of the latter eventually becomes dry and leathery and
cracks open along a line called the suture.

The nectarine is a variation from the peach, mainly charac-
terized by the circumstance that, while the skin of the ripe
fruit is downy in the peach, it is shining and destitute of hairs in
the nectarine. That there is no essential difference between the
two is, however, shown by the facts that the seeds of the peach
will produce nectarines, and vice versa, and that it is not very
uncommon, though still exceptional, to see peaches and
nectarines on the same branch, and fruits which combine in them-
selves the characteristics of both nectarines and peaches. The
blossoms of the peach are formed the autumn previous to their
expansion, and this fact, together with the peculiarities of their
form and position, requires to be borne in mind by the gardener
i n his pruning and training operations. The only point of practical
interest requiring mention here is the very singular fact attested
by all peach-growers, that, while certain peaches are liable to the
attacks of mildew, others are not. In the case of the peach this
peculiarity is in some way connected with the presence of small
glandular outgrowths on the stalk, or at the base of the leaf.
Some peaches have globular, others reniform glands, others none
at all, and these latter trees are much more subject to mildew
than are those provided with glands.

The history of the peach, almond and nectarine is interesting
and important as regards the question of the origin of species and

FIG. I. — Fruit (drupe)
of Peach cut lengthwise.
e, Skin or cpicarp.
wz.Flesh or mesocarp.

seed or kernel,
(f nat. size.)

the production and perpetuation of varieties. As to the origin of
the peach two views are held, that of Alphonse de Candolle, who
attributes all cultivated varieties to a distinct species, probably of
Chinese origin, and that adopted by many naturalists, but more
especially by Darwin, who looks upon the peach as a modification
of the almond.

In the first place, the peach as we now know it has been nowhere
recognized in the wild state. In the few instances where it is said
to have been found wild the probabilities are that the tree was an
escape from cultivation. Aitchison, however, gathered in the
Hazardarakht ravine in Afghanistan a form with different-shaped
fruit from that of ^he almond, being larger and flatter. " The
surface of the fruit," he observes, " resembles that of the peach in
texture and colour; and the nut is quite distinct from that of the
wild almond. The whole shrub resembles more 'what one might
consider a wild form of the peach than that of the almond." It is
admitted, however, by all competent botanists that the almond
is wild in the hotter and drier parts of the Mediterranean and Levan-
tine regions. Aitchison also mentions the almond as wild in some
parts of Afghanistan, where it is known to the natives as " bedam,"
the same word that they apply to the cultivated almond. The
branches of the tree are carried by the priests in religious ceremonies.
It is not known as a wild plant in China or Japan. As to the necta-
rine, of its origin as a variation from the peach there is abundant
evidence, as has already been mentioned ; it is only requisite to add
the very important fact that the seeds of the nectarine, even when
that nectarine has been produced by bud-variation from a peach,
will generally produce nectarines, or, as gardeners say, " come
true. Darwin brings together the records ofseveral cases, not only
of gradations between peaches and nectarines, but also of inter-
mediate forms between the peach and the almond. So far as we
know, however, no case has yet been recorded of a peach or a necta-
rine producing an almond, or vice versa, although if all have had a
common origin such an event might be expected. Thus the botanical
evidence seems to indicate that the wild almond is the source of
cultivated almonds, peaches and nectarines, and consequently that
the peach was introduced from Asia Minor or Persia, whence the
name Persica given to the peach; and Aitchison's discovery in
Afghanistan of a form which reminded him of a wild peach lends
additional force to this view.

On the other hand, Alphonse de Candolle, from philological and
other considerations, considers the peach to be of Chinese origin.
The peach has not, it is true, been found wild in China, but it has
been cultivated there from time immemorial ; it has entered into
the literature and folk-lore of the people; and it is designated by
a distinct name, " to " or " tao," a word found in the writings of
Confucius five centuries before Christ, and even in other writings
dating from the loth century before the Christian era. Though now
cultivated in India, and almost wild in some parts of the north-
west, and, as we have seen, probably also in Afghanistan, it has no
Sanskrit name; it is not mentioned in the Hebrew text of the
Scriptures, nor in the earliest Greek times. Xenophon makes no
mention of the peach, though the Ten Thousand must have traversed
the country where, according to some, the peach is native; but
Theophrastus, a hundred years later, does speak of it as a Persian
fruit, and De Candolle suggests that it might have been introduced
into Greece by Alexander. According to his view, the seeds of the
peach, cultivated for ages in China, might have been carried by the
Chinese into Kashmir, Bokhara, and Persia between the period of
the Sanskrit emigration and the Graeco-Persian period. Once
established, its cultivation would readily extend westward, or, on
the other hand, by Cabul to north-western India, where its cultiva-
tion is not ancient. While the peach has been cultivated in China
for thousands of years, the almond does not grow wild in that country
and its introduction is supposed not to go back farther than the
Christian era.

On the whole, greater weight is due to the evidence from botanical
sources than to that derived from philology, particularly since the
discovery both of the wild almond and of a form like a wild peach
in Afghanistan. It may, however, well be that both peach and
almond are derived from some pre-existing and now extinct form
whose descendants have spread over the whole geographic area
mentioned ; but this is a mere speculation, though indirect evidence
in its support might be obtained from the nectarine, of which no
mention is made in ancient literature, and which, as we have
seen, originates from the peach and reproduces itself by seed, thus
offering the characteristics of a species in the act of developing
itself.

The treatment in horticulture of the peach and nectarine is the
same in every respect. To perpetuate and multiply the choicer
varieties, peaches and nectarines are budded upon plum or
almond stocks. For dry situations almond stocks are preferable,
but they are not long-lived, while for damp or clayey loams it is
better to use certain kinds of plums. Double-working is some-
times beneficial ; thus an almond budded on a plum stock may be
rebudded with a tender peach, greatly to the advantage of the
latter. The peach border should be composed of turfy mellow

PEACH

loam, such as is suitable for the vine and the fig; this should be
used in as rough a state as possible, or not broken small and fine.
The bottom should slope towards the outer edge, where a drain
should be cut, with an outlet, and on this sloping bottom should
be laid a thickness of from 9 in. to 12 in. of rough materials,
such as broken bricks or mortar rubbish, over which should be
placed a layer of rough turf with the grassy side downwards, and
then the good loamy soil to form the border, which should have a
depth of about 2 ft. 6 in. The peach-tree is most productive
when the roots are kept near the surface, and the borders, which
should be from 8 ft. to 12 ft. wide, should not be cropped heavily
with culinary vegetables, as deep trenching is very injurious.
Sickly and unfruitful trees may often be revived by bringing up
their roots within 5 or 6 in. of the surface. It is questionable
whether it is not better, in cold soils and bleak situations, to
abandon outdoor peach culture, and to cover the walls with a
casing of glass, so that the trees may be under shelter during the
uncongenial spring weather.

The fruit of the peach is produced on the ripened shoots of the
preceding year. If these be too luxuriant, they yield nothing but
leaves; and if too weak, they are incapable of developing flower
buds. To furnish young shoots in sufficient abundance, and of
requisite strength, is the great object of peach training and pruning.
Trees of slender-growing, twiggy habit naturally fall most readily
into the fan form of training, and accordingly this has generally been

adopted in the culture of
peaches and nectarines (fig.
2). The young tree is, in
many cases, procured when
it has been trained for
two or three years in the
nursery; but it is gener-
ally better to begin with a
maiden plant — that is, a
plant of the first year after
it has been budded. It is

FIG. 2.— Montreuil Fan Training. £he" j.n °rdinary practice

headed down to five or

six buds, and in the following summer from two to four shoots,
according to the vigour of the plant, are trained in, the laterals
from which, if any, are thinned out and nailed to the wall. If there
are four branches, the two central ones are shortened back at the
subsequent winter pruning so as to produce others, the two lower
ones being laid in nearly at full length. In the following season
additional shoots are sent forth ; and the process is repeated till
eight or ten principal limbs or mother branches are obtained, forming,
as it were, the frame-work of the future tree. The branches may be
depressed or elevated, so as to check or encourage them, as occasion
may arise; and it is highly advantageous to keep them thin, without
their becoming in any part deficient of young shoots. Sometimes
a more rapid mode of formation is now adopted, the main shoots
being from the first laid in nearly at full length, instead of being
shortened. The pruning for fruit consists in shortening back the
laterals which had been nailed in at the disbudding, or summer
pruning, their length depending on their individual vigour and the
luxuriance of the tree. In well-developed shoots the buds are
generally double, or rather triple, a wood bud growing between two
fruit buds; the shoot must be cut back to one of these, or else
to a wood bud alone, so that a young shoot may be produced to
draw up the sap beyond the fruit, this being generally desirable
to secure its proper swelling. The point of this leading shoot
is subsequently pinched off, that it may not draw away too
much of the sap. If the fruit sets too abundantly, it must be
thinned, first when as large as peas, reducing the clusters, and then
when as large as nuts to distribute the crop equally; the ex-
tent of the thinning must depend on the vigour of the tree,
but one or two fruits ultimately left to each square foot of wall
is a full average crop. The final thinning should take place after
stoning.

The best-placed healthy young shoot produced from the wood
buds at the base of the bearing branch is to be carefully preserved and
in due time nailed to the wall. In the following winter this will
take the place of the branch which has just borne, and which is to
be cut put. If there be no young shoot below, and the bearing
branch is short, the shoot at the point of the latter may sometimes
be preserved as a fruit bearer, though if the bearing branch be long
it is better to cut it back for young wood. It is the neglect of this
which constitutes the principal fault in carrying out the English
fan system, as it is usually practised. Several times during summer
the trees ought to be regularly examined, and the young shoots
respectively topped or thinned out; those that remain are to be
nailed to the wall, or braced in with pieces of slender twigs, and the
trees ought occasionally to be washed with the garden engine or
thoroughly syringed, especially during very hot summers. After
gathering the fruit all the wood not needed for extending the tree

or for fruit bearing next season should be cut out so as to give the
shoots left full exposure to air and light.

The Montreuil form of training is represented by fig. 2. The
principal feature is the suppression of the direct channel of the sap,
and the substitution of four, or more commonly two, mother branches,
so laid to the wall that the central angle contains about 90°. The
other branches are all treated as subordinate members. This form
is open to the objection that, if the under branch should die, the
upper one cannot be brought down into its place.

The form a la Dumoutier (fig. 3), so called from its inventor, is
merely a refinement on the Montreuil method. The formation

FlG. 3. — Dumoutier's Fan Training.

of the tree begins with the inferior limbs and proceeds towards
the centre, the branches being lowered from time to time as the
tree acquires strength. What is most worthy of notice in. this
method is the management of the
subordinates in the pruning for
fruit. When a shoot promises
blossom, it is generally at some
distance from the point of insertion
into the old wood, and the inter-
mediate space is covered with wood
buds. All the latter, therefore,
which are between the old wood a
and the blossoms c in fig. 4, except
the lowest b, are carefully removed
by rubbing them off with the
finger. This never fails to produce
a shoot d, the growth of which is
favoured by destroying the useless spray e above the blossoms, and
pinching off the points of those which are necessary to perfect the
fruit. A replacing shoot is thus obtained, to which the whole is
invariably shortened at the end of the year.

Seymour's form (fig. 5) approaches more nearly to the French
method than any other practised in England ; but the direct channel

FIG. 4. — Pruning a la
Dumoutier.

FIG. 5. — Seymour's Fan Training.

of the sap is not suppressed, and this results in the production of
branches of unequal vigour, which is very undesirable.

For cold and late situations, Thomas Andrew Knight recommended
the encouragement of spurs on the young wood, as such spurs, when
close to the wall, generate the best organized and most vigorous
blossoms, and generally ensure a crop of fruit. They may be pro-
duced, by taking care, during the summer pruning or disbudding,
to preserve a number of the little shoots emitted by the yearly
wood, only pinching off the minute succulent points. On the spurs
thus formed blossom buds will be developed early in the following
season. This practice is well adapted to cold situations. Peach-
trees require protection, especially at the period of blossoming,
particularly in the north of England and in Scotland. Canvas or
bunting screens are most effectual. By applying these early in the
season, great benefit may be derived from retarding the blossom
till the frosty nights of spring have passed. Wooden and glass
copings are also very useful in warding off frosts. Care must be
taken that the roots always have a sufficient supply of moisture
and that the soil is moist wherever the roots run.

Forcing. — The pruning and training of the trees in the peach
house do not differ materially from the methods practised out of
doors. It may also be stated here that when occasion arises peach-
trees well furnished with buds may be transplanted and forced
immediately without risking the crop of fruit, a matter of some
importance when, as sometimes happens, a tree may accidentally
fail. In the forcing of peaches fire heat is commonly applied about
December or January ; but it may, where there is a demand, begin
a month sooner. The trees must be got to start growth very

.20

gradually, and at first the house should be merely kept closed at a
temperature of about 45°- but the heat should gradually increase , to
10° at night by the time the trees are in flower, and to 60 when the
fruit is set, after which the house should be kept moist by sprinkling
the walls and paths, or by placing water troughs on the return pipes,
and the temperature should range from 65° 'by day to 70 or more
with sun heat. After the fruit has set, the foliage should be refreshed
and cleansed by the daily use of the syringe or garden engine.
When the fruit has stoned— that is, as soon as the kernels have b
formed— the temperature should be raised to about 65 as a minimum,
and to 70°, with 75° by sun heat, as a maximum. Water must now
be copiously supplied to the border, and air admitted in abundance,
but cold draughts which favour the attack of mildew must be
avoided. After the end of April little fire heat is required. When
the fruit begins to ripen, syringing must be discontinued till the
crop is gathered, after which the syringe must be again occasionally
used If the leaves should happen to shade the fruit, not only
during the ripening process but at any time after the stoning
period, they should be gently turned aside, for, in order that the
fruit may acquire good colour and flavour, it should be freely
exposed to light and air when ripening; it will bear the direct rays
of the sun, even if they should rise to 100°, but nectarines are much
more liable to damage than peaches. The trees often suffer from
mildew, which is best prevented by keeping the borders of the
peach house clear and sufficiently moist and the house well ventilated,
and if it should appear the trees should be sprayed with I oz. potas-
sium sulphide dissolved in 3 gallons of water. Care must be taken in
using this fungicide not to wet the painted wood, as it is sure to
become discoloured. .

Peaches and nectarines are frequently cultivated in well-drained
pots, and are then usually trained as pyramids, and in some cases
as half-standards. The potting must be done very firmly, using
turfy loam with which a little mortar rubble has been mixed.
The trees are to be top-dressed from time to time with well-decayed
manure and turfy loam, and considerable space must be left in the
pots for this and the watering.

The following are some of the best_ peaches and nectarines,
arranged in the order of the times of their ripening: —

PEACHAM— PEACOCK, G.

Peaches.

Early Beatrice . . m
Early Louise . . e.

• K

Royal George . . j

b. Sept.

Hales's Early . . b.

Aug.

Bellegarde . . .

b.m.Sept.

Rivers's Early York b.

m.Aug.

Belle Bauce

m. Sept.

A'bec . . . . m

• Aug.

Dymond.

m. Sept.

Crimson Galande . e.

Aug.

Late Admirable

m.e. Sept.

Crawford's Early .

b.

Aug.
Sept.

Sea Eagle
Walburton Admirable \

e. Sept.

Grosse Mignonne .

b.

Aug.
Sept.

(

Salwey . j

e.' OcV.

Noblesse . . . | £

Aug.
Sept.

Princess of Wales .

e. Oct.

Nectarines.

Cardinal (under glass) c.
Lord Napier . . b

July
Aug.

Pitmaston Orange . j

b. Sept.

Darwin m. Aug.
Early Rivers . . m. Aug.

Violette Hative . . j

e. Aug.

Balgowan

e.

b

Aug.
Sept.

Victoria (under glass)
Pineapple

Sept.
b. Sept.

Elruge ....

1;

Aug.
Sept.

Stanwick Elruge
Humbolt

b. Sept.
m. Sept.

Stanwick (under glass) m.e. Sept.

PEACHAM, HENRY (c. i576-c. 1643), English writer, was
the son of Henry Peacham, curate of North Mimms, Hertford-
shire, and author of a book on rhetoric called the Garden of
Rhetoric (1577)- The elder Peacham became in 1597 rector of
Leverton, Lincolnshire. The son was educated at Trinity
College, Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. in 1594-1595 and
M. A. in 1 598. He was for some time a schoolmaster at Wymond-
ham, Norfolk, but settled in London in 1612, earning his living
as tutor to young men preparing for the universities. His first
book was Graphice (1606), a treatise on pen and water-colour
drawing, which, as The Gentleman's Exercise, passed through
three editions. The years 1613-1614 he spent abroad, part of
the time as tutor to the three young sons of Thomas Howard
(1585-1646), earl of Arundel, and partly on his own account. He
travelled in Italy, France, Westphalia and the Netherlands.
The table of Sir John Ogle, English governor of Utrecht, was, he
says, a " little academy," where he met soldiers and scholars of all
nationalities. When he returned to London he was accused of
libel on the king. Incriminating papers had been discovered in
the house of Edmond Peacham, rector of Hinton Saint George,
who, on being charged with an attack on the king denied the

authorship, stating that they were written by a namesake, " a
divine, a scholar and a traveller." The change was, however,
easily rebutted. Peacham had many friends in London, among
them Thomas Dowland the musician, Inigo Jones, and Edward
Wright the mathematician. In 1622 appeared Peacham's
magnum opus, the Compleat Gentleman. Enlarged editions
appeared in 1626 and 1627. The 1627 edition was reprinted in
1634, and a third, with additional notes on blazonry by Thomas
Blount (1617-1679), appeared in 1661. The book is a text-book
of manners and polite learning; it includes chapters on cosmo-
graphy, geometry, poetry, music, antiquities, painting, the lives
of the painters, the " art of limming " (Peacham himself was a
proficient engraver), and the military art, including the order of
" a maine battaile or pitched field in eight severall wayes."
The book differs from the Courtier of Castiglione, which had been
the guide of an earlier generation. Peacham was a Cavalier,
even an ardent polemist in the royal cause, but the central point
of his book is a more or less Puritan sentiment of duty. In his
later years Peacham was reduced to extreme poverty, and is said
to have written children's books at a penny each. His last book
was published in 1642, and it may be concluded that he died soon
afterwards.

His other works include: Minerva Britanna (1612), dedicated to
Henry, prince of Wales; The Period of Mourning (1613), in honour
of the same prince; Thalia's Banquet (1620), a book of epigrams;
The Art of Living in London (1642), and The Worth of a Peny
(1641), &c. There is a nearly complete collection of Peacham's
works in the Bodleian, Oxford. Harleian MS. 6855 contains a
translation by Peacham of James I.'s Basilicon doron into Latin
verse, written in his own hand and ornamented with pen and ink
drawings. His Compleat Gentleman was edited by G. S. Gordon
in 1906 for the Clarendon Press; the Art of Living is reprinted
in the Harleian Misc. ix. ; The Worth of a Peny in E. Arber's English
Garner (vol. vi. 1883).

PEACOCK, SIR BARNES (1810-1890), English judge, was born
in 1810, the son of Lewis Peacock, a solicitor. After practising
as a special pleader, he was called to the bar in 1836, and in
1844 obtained great reputation by pointing out the flaw which
invalidated the conviction of Daniel O'Connell and his fellow
defendants. In 1852 he went to India as legal member of the
governor-general's council. He here displayed great activity as a
law reformer, but sometimes manifested too little consideration
for native susceptibilities. The legislative council was established
soon after his arrival, and although no orator, he was so frequent
a speaker that legislation enjoining councillors to deliver their
speeches sitting was said to have been devised with the sole
object of restraining him. As a member of Lord Dalhousie's
council he supported the annexation of Oudh, and he stood by
Lord Canning all through the Mutiny. In 1859 he became chief
justice of the Supreme Court. He returned to England in 1870,
and in 1872 was placed upon the judicial committee of the privy
council, where his Indian experience rendered him invaluable.
He died on the 3rd of December 1890.

PEACOCK, GEORGE (1791-1858), English mathematician,
was born at Thornton Hall, Denton, near Darlington, on the
9th of April 1791. He was educated at Richmond, Yorkshire,
and entered Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1809. He was second
wrangler in 1812 (Sir J. F. W. Herschel being senior), was elected
fellow of his college in 1814, became assistant tutor in 1815 and
full tutor in 1823. While still an undergraduate he formed a
league with John Herschel and Charles Babbage, to conduct the
famous struggle of " d-ism versus dot-age," which ended in the
introduction into Cambridge of the continental notation in the
infinitesimal calculus to the exclusion of the fluxional notation
o'f Sir Isaac Newton. This was an important reform, not so
much on account of the mere change of notation (for mathe-
maticians follow J. L. Lagrange in using both these notations),
but because it signified the opening to the mathematicians of
Cambridge of the vast storehouse of continental discoveries.
The analytical society thus formed in 1813 published various
memoirs, and translated S. F. Lacroix's Differential Calculus in
1816. Peacock powerfully aided the movement by publishing in
1820 A Collection of Examples of the Application of the Differential
and Integral Calculus. In 1841 he published a pamphlet on the

PEACOCK, T. L.

21

university statutes, in which he indicated the necessity for
reform; and in 1850 and 1855 he was a member of the commission
of inquiry relative to the university of Cambridge. In 1837 he
was appointed Lowndean professor of astronomy. In 1839 he
took the degree of D.D., and the same year was appointed by
Lord Melbourne to the deanery of Ely. Peacock threw himself
with characteristic ardour into the duties of this new position.
He improved the sanitation of Ely, published in 1840 Observations
on Plans for Cathedral Reform, and carried out extensive works
of restoration in his own cathedral. He was twice prolocutor of
the lower house of convocation for the province of Canterbury.
He was also a prime mover in the establishment of the Cambridge
Astronomical Observatory, and in the founding of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society. He was a fellow of the Royal, Royal
Astronomical, Geological and other scientific societies. In 1838,
and again in 1843, he was one of the commissioners for standards
of weights and measures; and he also furnished valuable infor-
mation to the commissioners on decimal coinage. He died on
the 8th of November 1858.

Peacock's original contributions to mathematical science were
concerned chiefly with the philosophy of its first principles. He
did good service in systematizing the operational laws of
algebra, and in throwing light upon the nature and use of
imaginaries. He published, first in 1830, and then in an enlarged
form in 1842, a Treatise on Algebra, in which he applied his
philosophical ideas concerning algebraical analysis to the eluci-
dation of its elements. A second great service was the publica-
tion in the British Association Reports for 1833 of his " Report
on the Recent Progress and Present State of certain branches of
Analysis." Modern mathematicians may find on reading this
brilliant summary a good many dicta which they will call in
question, but, whatever its defects may be, Peacock's report
remains a work of permanent value. In 1855 he published a
memoir of Thomas Young, and about the same time there
appeared Young's collected works in three volumes, for the first
two of which Peacock was responsible.

PEACOCK, THOMAS LOVE (1785-1866), English novelist and
poet, was born at Weymouth on the i8th of October 1785. He
was the only son of a London glass merchant, who died soon after
the child's birth. Young Peacock was educated at a private
school at Englefield Green, and after a brief experience of business
determined to devote himself to literature, while living with his
mother (daughter of Thomas Love, a naval man) on their private
means. His first books were poetical, The Monks of St Mark
(1804), Palmyra (1806), The Genius of the Thames (1810), The
Philosophy of Melancholy (1812) — works of no great merit. He
also made several dramatic attempts, which were never acted.
He served for a short time as secretary to Sir Home Popham at
Flushing, and paid several visits to Wales. In 1812 he became
acquainted with Shelley. In 1815 he evinced his peculiar power
by writing his novel Headlong Hall. It was published in 1816,
and Melincourt followed in the ensuing year. During 1817 he
lived at Great Marlow, enjoying the almost daily society of
Shelley, and writing Nightmare Abbey and Rhododaphne, by far
the best of his long poems. In 1819 he was appointed assistant
examiner at the India House. Peacock's nomination appears to
have been due to the influence of his old schoolfellow Peter
Auber, secretary to the East India Company, and the papers he
prepared as tests of his ability were returned with the comment,
" Nothing superfluous and nothing wanting." This was char-
acteristic of the whole of his intellectual work; and equally
characteristic of the man was his marriage about this time to
Jane Griffith, to whom he proposed by letter, not having seen
her for eight years. They had four children, only one of whom,
a son, survived his father; one daughter was the first wife of
George Meredith. His novel Maid Marian appeared in 1822,
The Misfortunes of Elphin in 1829, and Crotchet Castle in 1831;
and he would probably have written more but for the death in
1833 of his mother. He also contributed to the Westminster
Review and the Examiner. His services to the East India Com-
pany, outside the usual official routine, were considerable. He
defended it successfully against the attacks of James Silk

Buckingham and the Liverpool salt interest, and made the subject
of steam navigation to India peculiarly his own. He represented
the company before the various parliamentary committees on
this question; and in 1839 and 1840 superintended the con-
struction of iron steamers, which not only made the voyage round
the Cape successfully, but proved very useful in the Chinese War.
He also drew up the instructions for the Euphrates expedition
of 1835, subsequently pronounced by its commander, General
F. R. Chesney, to be models of sagacity. In 1836 he succeeded
James Mill as chief examiner, and in 1856 he retired upon a
pension. During his later years he contributed several papers to
Fraser's Magazine, including reminiscences of Shelley, whose
executor he was. He also wrote in the same magazine his last
novel, Gryll Grange (1860), inferior to his earlier writings in
humour and vigour, but still a surprising effort for a man of his
age. He died on the 23rd of January 1866 at Lower Halliford,
near Chertsey, where, so far as his London occupations would
allow him, he had resided for more than forty years.

Peacock's position in English literature is unique. There was
nothing like his type of novel before his time; though there
might have been if it had occurred to Swift to invent a story as a
vehicle for the dialogue of his Polite Conversation. Peacock speaks
as well in his own person as through his puppets; and his pithy
wit and sense, combined with remarkable grace and accuracy
of natural description, atone for the primitive simplicity of plot
and character. Of his seven fictions, Nightmare Abbey and
Crotchet Castle are perhaps on the whole the best, the former
displaying the most vis comica of situation, the latter the fullest
maturity of intellectual power and the most skilful grouping of
the motley crowd of " perfectibilians, deteriorationists, statu-
quo-ites, phrenologists, transcendentalists, political economists,
theorists in all sciences, projectors in all arts, morbid visionaries,
romantic enthusiasts, lovers of music, lovers of the picturesque
and lovers of good dinners," who constitute the dramatis personae
of the Peacockian novel. Maid Marian and The Misfortunes of
Elpkin are hardly less entertaining. Both contain descriptive
passages of extraordinary beauty. Melincourt is a comparative
failure, the excellent idea of an orang-outang mimicking humanity
being insufficient as the sole groundwork of a novel. Headlong
Hall, though more than foreshadowing the author's subsequent
excellence, is marred by a certain bookish awkwardness char-
acteristic of the recluse student, which reappears in Gryll Grange
as the pedantry of an old-fashioned scholar, whose likes and
dislikes have become inveterate and whose sceptical liberalism,
always rather inspired by hatred of cant than enthusiasm for
progress, has petrified into only too earnest conservatism. The
book's quaint resolute paganism, however, is very refreshing in
an age eaten up with introspection ; it is the kindliest of Peacock's
writings, and contains the most beautiful of his poems, " Years
Ago," the reminiscence of an early attachment. In general the
ballads and songs interspersed through his tales are models of
exact and melodious diction, and instinct with true feeling. His
more ambitious poems are worth little, except Rhododaphne,
attractive as a story and perfect as a composition, but destitute
of genuine poetical inspiration. His critical and miscellaneous
writings are always interesting, especially the restorations of
lost classical plays in the Horae dramaticae, but the only one of
great mark is the witty and crushing exposure in the Westminster
Review of Thomas Moore's ignorance of the manners and belief
he has ventured to portray in his Epicurean. Peacock resented
the misrepresentation of his favourite sect, the good and ill of
whose tenets were fairly represented in his own person. Some-
what sluggish and self-indulgent, incapable of enthusiasm or self-
sacrifice, he yet possessed a deep undemonstrative kindliness of
nature; he could not bear to see anyone near him unhappy
or uncomfortable; and his sympathy, no less than his genial
humour, gained him the attachment of children, dependants,
and friends. In official life he was upright and conscientious; his
judgment was shrewd and robust. What Shelley justly termed
" the lightness, strength and chastity " of his diction secures him
an honourable rank among those English writers whose claims to
remembrance depend not only upon matter but upon style.

22

Peacock's works were collected, though not completely, and pub-
lished in three volumes in 1875, at the expense of his friend and
former protege, Sir Henry Cole, with an excellent memoir by his
granddaughter Mrs Clarke, and a critical essay by Lord Hougnton.
His prose works were collected by Richard Garnett in ten volumes
(1891) Separate novels are included in " Macmillan s Illustrated
Standard Novels," with introductions by Mr Saintsbury. For an
interesting personal notice, see A Poet's Sketch Book, by K, W.
Buchanan (1884).

PEACOCK (Lat. Paw, O. Eng. Pawe, Du. pauuiv, Ger. Pfau,
Fr. Paon), the bird so well known from the splendid plumage of
the male, and as the proverbial personification of pride. It is a
native of the Indian peninsula, and Ceylon, in some parts of which
it is very abundant. Setting aside its importation to Palestine
by Solomon (i Kings x. 22; 2 Chron. ix. 21), its assignment in
classical mythology as the favourite bird of Hera testifies to the
early acquaintance the Greeks must have had with it; but,
though it is mentioned by Aristophanes and other older writers,
their knowledge of it was probably very slight until after the
conquests of Alexander. Throughout all succeeding time,
however, it has never very freely rendered itself to domestication,
and, though in earlier days highly esteemed for the table,1 it is no
longer considered the delicacy it was once thought; the young of
the wild birds are, however, still esteemed in the East.

PEACOCK— PEALE, C. W.

Japan or " black-shouldered " Peafowls.

As in most cases of domestic animals, pied or white varieties
of the ordinary peacock, Pavo crislatus, are not infrequently to
be seen, and they are valued as curiosities. Greater interest,
however, attends what is known as the Japanese or Japan
peacock, a form which has received the name of P. nigripennis,
as though it were a distinct species. In this form the cock,
besides other less conspicuous differences, has all the upper
wing-coverts of a deep lustrous blue instead of being mottled
with brown and white, while the hen is of a more or less grizzled-
white. It " breeds true "; but occasionally a presumably pure
stock of birds of the usual coloration throws out one or more
having the Japan plumage. It is to be observed that the male
has in the coloration of the parts mentioned no little resemblance
to that of the second indubitably good species, the P. muticus
(or P. spicifer of some writers) of Burma and Java, though the
character of the latter's crest — the feathers of which are barbed
along their whole length instead of at the tip only — and its

1 Classical authors contain many allusions to its high appreciation
at the most sumptuous banquets; and medieval bills of fare on state
occasions nearly always include it. In the days of chivalry one of
the most solemn oaths was taken "on the peacock," which seems to
have been served up garnished with its gaudy plumage.

golden-green neck and breast furnish a ready means of distinction.
Sir R. Heron was confident that the Japan breed had arisen in
England within his memory,2 and C. Darwin (Animals and
Plants under Domestication, i. 290-292) was inclined to believe it
only a variety; but its abrupt appearance, which rests on indis-
putable evidence, is most suggestive in the light that it may one
day throw on the question of evolution as exhibited in the origin
of " species." It should be stated that the Japan bird is not
known to exist anywhere as a wild race, though apparently kept
in Japan. The accompanying illustration is copied from a plate
drawn by J. Wolf, given in D. G. Elliot's Monograph of the
Phasianidae.

The peafowls belong to the group Gallinae, from the normal mem-
bers of which they do not materially differ in structure; and, though
by some systematists they are raised to the rank of a family,
Pavonidae, most are content to regard them as a sub-family of
Phasianidae (PHEASANT, q.v.). Akin to the genus Pavo is Poly-
plectrum, of which the males are armed with "two or more spurs on
each leg, and near them is generally placed the genus Argusianus,
containing the argus-pheasants, remarkable for their wonderfully
ocellated plumage, and the extraordinary length of the secondary
quills of their wings, as well as of the tail-feathers. It must always
be remembered that the so-called " tail " of the peacock is formed
not by the rectrices or true tail-feathers, but by the singular develop-
ment of the tail-coverts. (A. N.)

PEAK, THE, a high table-land in the north of Derbyshire,
England, included in the Pennine range of hills. The name,
however, is extended, without definite limits, to cover the whole
of the hilly district north of Buxton. The table-land reaches an
elevation of 2088 ft. in Kinder Scout. The geological formation
is millstone-grit, and the underlying beds are not domed, but
cup-shaped, dipping inward from the flanks of the mass. The
summit is a peaty moorland, through which masses of rock
project at intervals. The name of this high plateau has from the
1 7th century been identified with " peak," the pointed or conical
top of a mountain, but the very early references to the district
and certain places in it show clearly, as the New English
Dictionary points out, that this connexion is unwarranted. The
name appears in the Old English Chronicle (924) as Peaclond, of
the district governed from the castle of Peveril of the Peak (sec
DERBYSHIRE), and also in the name of the cavern under the hill
at Castleton, Peac's Arse. Peac, it has been suggested, is the
name of a local deity or demon, and possibly may be indentified
with Puck. For the etymology of " peak," point, &c., and its
variants or related words, " pick " and " pike," see PIKE.

PEALE, CHARLES WILLSON (1741-1826), American portrait
painter, celebrated especially for his portraits of Washington,
was born in Queen Anne county, Maryland, on the i6th of April
1741. During his infancy the family removed to Chestertown,
Kent county, Maryland, and after the death of his father
(a country schoolmaster) in 1750 they removed to Annapolis.
Here, at the age of 13, he was apprenticed to a saddler. About
1764 he began seriously to study art. He got some assistance
from Gustavus Hesselius, a Swedish portrait painter then living
near Annapolis, and from John Singleton Copley in Boston;
and in 1767-1770 he studied under Benjamin West in London.
In 1770 he opened a studio in Philadelphia, and met with
immediate success. In 1772, at Mount Vernon, Peale painted
a three-quarters-length study of Washington (the earliest known
portrait of him), in the uniform of a colonel of Virginia militia.
This canvas is now in the Lee Memorial Chapel of Washington
and Lee University. He painted various other portraits of
Washington; probably the best known in a full-length, which
was made in 1778, and of which Peale made many copies. This
portrait had been ordered by the Continental Congress, which,
however, made no appropriation for it, and eventually it was
bought for a private collection in Philadelphia. Peale painted
two miniatures of Mrs Washington (1772 and 1777), and portraits
of many of the famous men of the time, a number of which
are in Independence Hall, Philadelphia. His portraits of
Washington do not appeal so strongly to Americans as do those
of Gilbert Stuart, but his admitted skill as a draughtsman gives to
all of his work considerable historical value. Peale removed to
1 A. Newton himself regarded this as probably incorrect.

PEALE, R.— PEAR

Philadelphia in 1777, and served as a member of the committee
of public safety; he aided in raising a militia company, became a
lieutenant and afterwards a captain, and took part in the battles
of Trenton, Princeton and Germantown. In 1770-1 780 he was
a member of the Pennsylvania assembly, where he voted for
the abolition of slavery — he freed his own slaves whom he had
brought from Maryland. In 1801 he undertook, largely at his
own expense, the excavation of the skeletons of two mastodons
in Uls'ter and Orange counties, New York, and in 1802 he estab-
lished at Philadelphia Peale's Museum. He was one of the
founders, in 1805, of the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts
at Philadelphia. At the age of eighty-one Peale painted a large
canvas, " Christ Healing the Sick at Bethesda," and at eighty-
three a full-length portrait of himself, now in the Academy of the
Fine Arts. He died at his country home, near Germantown,
Pennsylvania, on the 2 2nd of February 1826.

His brother, JAMES PEALE (1749-1831), also an artist, painted
two portraits of Washington (one now the property of the New
York Historical Society, and the other in Independence Hall,
Philadelphia), besides landscapes and historical compositions.

PEALE, REMBRANDT (1778-1860), American artist, was born
in Bucks county, Pennsylvania, on the 22nd of February 1778,
the son of Charles Willson Peale (q.v.). He studied under his
father, under Benjamin West in London (1802-1803), and in
Paris in 1807 and 1809. As early as 1795 he had begun from life
a portrait of Washington. Of this he made many replicas, the
latest in 1823, purchased by the United States government
in 1832, and now in the Capitol of Washington. Peale was one
of the first of American lithographers. He was an excellent
draughtsman, but in colour his work cannot rank with hisfather's.
In 1843 he devised for the Philadelphia public schools a system
of teaching drawing and penmanship. His portraits include
those of President Jefferson, Mrs Madison, Commodores Perry,
Decatur, and Bainbridge, Houdon, the sculptor, General Arm-
strong, and an equestrian portrait of General Washington, now
in Independence Hall, Philadelphia. His " Court of Death "
(1820) is in the Detroit Art Gallery. In 1825 Peale succeeded
John Trumbull as president of the American Academy of Fine
Arts (founded in 1802 as the New York Academy of Fine Arts),
and he was one of the original members of the National
Academy of Design. He wrote several books, among them
Notes on Italy (1831), Reminiscences of Art and Artists (1845).
He died in Philadelphia on the 3rd of October 1860.

A brother, RAPHAELLE PEALE (1774-1825), was one of the
earliest of American still-life painters; and another brother,
TITIAN RAMSEY PEALE (1800-1885), made numerous drawings,
some of them in water-colour, in illustration of animal life.

See " Rembrandt Pcalc," partly autobiographical, in C.E.Lester's
The Artists of America (New York, 1846).

PEAR (Pyrus communis), a member of the natural order
Rosaceae, belonging to the same genus as the apple (P. mains),
which it resembles in floral structure. In both cases the so-
called fruit is composed of the receptacle or upper end of the
flower-stalk (the so-called calyx tube) greatly dilated, and en-
closing within its cellular flesh the five cartilaginous carpels which
constitute the " core " and are really the true fruit. From the
upper rim of the receptacle are given off the five sepals, the five
petals, and the very numerous stamens. The form of the pear
and of the apple respectively, although usually characteristic
enough, is not by itself sufficient to distinguish them, for there
are pears which cannot by form alone be distinguished from
apples, and apples which cannot by superficial appearance be
recognized from pears. The main distinction is the occurrence
in the tissue of the fruit, or beneath the rind, of clusters of cells
filled with hard woody deposit in the case of the pear, constituting
the " grit," while in the apple no such formation of woody cells
takes place. The appearance of the tree — the bark, the foliage,
the flowers — is, however, usually quite characteristic in the
two species. Cultivated pears, whose number is enormous, are
without doubt derived from one or two wild species widely
distributed throughout Europe and western Asia, and sometimes
forming part of the natural vegetation of the forests. In England,

where the pear is sometimes considered wild, there is always
the doubt that it may not really be so, but the produce of some
seed of a cultivated tree deposited by birds or otherwise, which
has degenerated into the wild spine-bearing tree known as
Pyrus communis.

The cultivation of the pear extends to the remotest antiquity.
Traces of it have been found in the Swiss lake-dwellings; it is
mentioned in the oldest Greek writings, and was cultivated by
the Romans. The word " pear " or its equivalent occurs in all
the Celtic languages, while in Slavonic and other dialects different
appellations, but still referring to the same thing, are found — a
diversity and multiplicity of nomenclature which led Alphonse
de Candolle to infer a very ancient cultivation of the tree from
the shores of the Caspian to those of the Atlantic. A certain
race of pears, with white down on the under surface of their
leaves, is supposed to have originated from P. nivalis, and their
fruit is chiefly used in France in the manufacture of Perry (see
CIDER). Other small-fruited pears, distinguished by their
precocity and apple-like fruit, may be referred to P. cordaia, a
species found wild in western France, and in Devonshire and
Cornwall.

Karl Koch considered that cultivated pears were the descendants
of three species — P. persica (from which the bergamots have
descended), P. elaeagrifolia and P. sinensis. J. Decaisnc, who made
the subject one of critical study for a number of years, and not only
investigated the wild forms, but carefully studied the peculiarities
of the numerous varieties cultivated in the Jardin des Plantes at
Paris, refers all cultivated pears to one species, the individuals of
which have in course of time diverged in various directions, so as
to form now six races: (l) the Celtic, including P. cordata; (2) the
Germanic, including P. communis, P. achras, and P. piraster; (3)
the Hellenic, including P. parviflora, P. sinaica and others; (4)
the Pontic, including P. elaeagrifolia; (5) the Indian, comprising
P . Paschae; and (6) the Mongolic, represented by P. sinensis. With
reference to the Celtic race, P. cordata, it is interesting to note its
connexion with Arthurian legend and the Isle of Avalon or Isle of
Apples. An island in Loch Awe has a Celtic legend containing the
principal features of Arthurian story; but in this case the word is
" berries " instead of " apples." Dr Phen6 visited Armorica
(Brittany) with a view of investigating these matters, and brought
thence fruits of a small berry-like pear, which were identified
with the Pyrus cordata of western France.

Cultivation. — The pear may be readily raised by sowing the
pips of ordinary cultivated or of wilding kinds, these forming
what are known as free or pear stocks, on which the choicer
varieties are grafted for increase. For new varieties the flowers
should be fertilized with a view to combine, in the seedlings
which result from the union, the desirable qualities of the parents.
The dwarf and pyramid trees, more usually planted in gardens,
are obtained by grafting on the quince stock, the Portugal quince
being the best; but this stock, from its surface-rooting habit,
is most suitable for soils of a cold damp nature. The pear-stock,
having an inclination to send its roots down deeper into the soil,
is the best for light dry soils, as the plants are not then so likely
to suffer in dry seasons. Some of the finer pears do not unite
readily with the quince, and in this case double working is
resorted to; that is to say, a vigorous-growing pear is first
grafted on the quince, and then the choicer pear is grafted on
the pear introduced as its foster parent.

In selecting young pear trees for walls or espaliers, some
persons prefer plants one year old from the graft, but trees two
or three years trained are equally good. The trees should be
planted immediately before or after the fall of the leaf. The wall
trees require to be planted from 25 to 30 ft. apart when on free
stocks, and from 15 to 20 ft. when dwarfed. Where the trees
are trained as pyramids or columns they may stand 8 or 10 ft.
apart, but standards in orchards should be allowed at least 30 ft.,
and dwarf bush trees half that distance.

In the formation of the trees the same plan may be adopted as
in the case of the apple. For the pear orchard a warm situation
is very desirable, with a soil deep, substantial, and thoroughly
drained. Any good free loam is suitable, but a calcareous loam
is the best. Pear trees worked on the quince should have the
stock covered up to its junction with the graft. This is effected
by raising up a small mound of rich compost around it. a contriv-
ance which induces the graft to emit roots into the surface soil,

PEARCE— PEARL

and also keeps the stock from becoming hard or bark-bound.
The fruit of the pear is produced on spurs, which appear on shoots
more than one year old. The mode most commonly adopted
of training wall pear-trees is the horizontal. For the slender
twiggy sorts the fan form is to be preferred, while for strong
growers the half-fan or the horizontal is more suitable. In the
latter form old trees, the summer pruning of which has been
neglected, are apt to acquire an undue projection from the wall
and become scraggy, to avoid which a portion of the old spurs
should be cut out annually.

The summer pruning of established wall or espalier-rail trees
consists chiefly in the timely displacing, shortening back, or
rubbing off of the superfluous shoots, so that the winter pruning,
in horizontal training, is little more than adjusting the leading
shoots and thinning out the spurs, which should be kept close to
the wall and allowed to retain but two or at most three buds.
In fan-training the subordinate branches must be regulated, the
spurs thinned out, and the young laterals finally established in
their places. When horizontal trees have fallen into disorder, the
branches may be cut back to within 9 in. of the vertical stem
and branch, and trained in afresh, or they may be grafted with
other sorts, if a variety of kinds is wanted.

Summer and autumn pears should be gathered before they are
fully ripe, otherwise they will not in general keep more than a
few days. The Jargonelle should be allowed to remain on the
tree and be pulled daily as wanted, the fruit from standard trees
thus succeeding the produce of the wall trees. In the case of
the Crassane the crop should be gathered at three different
times, the first a fortnight or more before it is ripe, the second
a week or ten days after that, and the third when fully ripe.
The first gathering will come into eating latest, and thus the
season of the fruit may be considerably prolonged. It is
evident that the same method may be followed with other
sorts which continue only a short time in a mature state.

Diseases. — The pear is subject to several diseases caused by fungi.
Gymnosporangium sabinae, one of the rusts (Uredineae) passes one
stage of its life-history on living pear leaves, forming large raised
spots or patches which are at first yellow but soon become red and
are visible on both faces; on the lower face of each patch is a group
of cluster-cups or aecidia containing spores which escape when ripe.
This stage in the life-history was formerly regarded as a distinct
fungus with the name Roestelia cancellata; it is now known, however,
that the spores germinate on young juniper leaves, in which they give
rise to this other stage in the plant's history known as Gymnospor-
angium. The gelatinous, generally reddish-brown masses of spores — •
the teleutospores — formed on the juniper in the spring germinate
and form minute spores — sporidia — which give rise to the aecidium
stage on the pear. Diseased pear leaves should be picked off and
destroyed before the spores are scattered and the various species of
juniper on which the alternate stage is developed should not be
allowed near the pear trees.

Pear scab is caused by a parasitic fungus, Fusidadium pyrinum,
very closely allied and perhaps merely a form of the apple scab

fungus, F. dendriticum. As in
the case of the apple disease it
forms large irregular blackish
blotches on the fruit and
leaves, the injury being often
very severe especially in a cool,
damp season. The fungus
mycelium grows between the
cuticle and the epidermis,
the former being ultimately
ruptured by numerous short
branches bearing spores (con-
idia) by means of which the
disease is spread. As a pre-
ventive repeated spraying
with dilute Bordeaux mixture
is recommended, during the
flowering season and early
development of the fruit.
Similar spraying is recom-
(From a specimen in the British Museum.) mended for pear-leaf blister
Pear Scab (Fusidadium pyrinum). caused by Taphrina buttata,

1 . Leaf showing diseased areas. !? * forms s^ollen areas on

2, Section of leaf surface showing the ^,SQ fae attackdb
spores or conidia, c, borne on long var;etv of : t ^^
stalks (conidiophores) X25O. the yOunger bran

injured by the pearl oyster scale (Aspidiotus ostreaeformisi^Uch

may be removed by washing in winter with soft soap and hot
water. A number of larvae of Lepidoptera feed on the leaves —
the remedy is to capture the mature insects when possible. The
winter moth (Cheimatobia brumata) must be kept in check by putting
greasy bands round the trunks from October till December or
January, to catch the wingless females that crawl up and deposit
their eggs in the cracks and crevices in the bark. The caterpillars
of the leopard moth (Zeuzera pyrina) and of the goat moth (Cossus
ligniperda) sometimes bore their way into the trunks and destroy
the sap channels. If badly bored, the trees are useless; but in

Pear-leaf Cluster-cups (Gymnosporangium sabinae).

I. Leaf showing groups of cups or aecidia. 2, Early stage of

disease. 3, Cups enlarged X 5.

the early stages if the entrance of the caterpillars has been detected,
a wire should be pushed into the hole. One of the worst pests
of pear trees is the pear midge, known as Diplosis pyrivora or
Cecidomyia nigra, the females of which lay their eggs in the flower-
buds before they open. The yellow maggots devour the seeds and
thus ruin the crop. When deformed fruits are noticed they should
be picked off and burned immediately. Species of aphides may be
removed by tobacco infusion, soapsuds or other solutions. A gall
mite (Phytoptus pyri) sometimes severely injures the leaves, on
which it forms blisters — the best remedy is to cut off and burn
the diseased leaves. •

The Alligator or Avocado Pear is Persea gratissima, a member
of the natural order Lauraceae, and a native of the West Indies
and other parts of tropical America. It is a tree of 25 to 30 ft.
high and bears large pear-shaped fruits, green or deep purple in
colour, with a firm yellowish-green marrow-like pulp surrounding
a large seed. The pulp is much esteemed in the West Indies and
is eaten as a salad, usually with the addition of pepper, salt and
vinegar. The pulp contains much oil, which is used for lighting
and soap-making, and the seeds yield a deep indelible black
stain which is used for marking linen.

Prickly pear is the popular name for species of Opunlia (see
CACTUS).

The name wooden pear is applied to the fruits of Xylotnelum
(nat. ord. Proteaceae), an Australian genus of trees with very
thick, woody, inversely pear-shaped fruits which split into two
parts when ripe.

PEARCE, CHARLES SPRAGUE (1851- ), American artist,
was born at Boston, Massachusetts, on the I3th of October 1851.
In 1873 he became a pupil of Leon Bonnat in Paris, and after
1885 he lived in Paris and at Auvers-sur-Oise. He painted
Egyptian and Algerian scenes, French peasants, and portraits,
and also decorative work, notably for the Congressional Library
at Washington. He received medals at the Paris Salon and
elsewhere, and was decorated with the Legion of Honour, the
order of Leopold, Belgium, the order of the Red Eagle, Prussia,
and the order of Dannebrog, Denmark. Among his best known
paintings are " The Decapitation of St John the Baptist "
(i88i),in the Art Institute of Chicago; " Prayer " (1884), owned
by the Massachusetts Charitable Mechanic Association; " The
Return of the Flock," in the Bohemian Club, San Frana'sco;
and " Meditation," in the New York Metropolitan Museum.

PEARL. Pearls are calcareous concretions of peculiar lustre,
produced by certain molluscs, and valued as objects of personal
ornament. The experience of pearl-fishers shows that those
shells which are irregular in shape and stunted in growth, or

PEARL

which bear excrescences, or are honeycombed by boring parasites,
are those most likely to yield pearls.

The substance of a pearl is essentially the same as that which
lines the interior of many shells and is known as " mother-of-
pearl." Sir D. Brewster first showed that the iridescence of this
substance was an optical phenomenon due to the interference of
rays of light reflected from microscopic corrugations of the surface
— an effect which may be imitated by artificial striations on a suit-
able medium. When the inner laminated portion of a nacreous
shell is digested in acid the calcareous layers are dissolved away,
leaving a very delicate membranous pellicle, which, as shown
by Dr Carpenter, may retain the iridescence as long as it is
undisturbed, but which loses it when pressed or stretched.

It is obvious that if a pearl presents a perfectly spherical form
it must have remained loose in the substance of the muscles or
other soft tissues of the mollusc. Frequently, however, the pearl
becomes cemented to the interior of the shell, the point of attach-
ment thus interfering with its symmetry. In this position it may
receive successive nacreous deposits, which ultimately form a
pearl of hemispherical shape, so that when cut from the shell it
may be flat on one side and convex on the other, forming what
jewelers know as a " perle bouton." In the course of growth
the pearl may become involved in the general deposit of mother-
of-pearl, and be ultimately buried in the substance of the shell.
It has thus happened that fine pearls have occasionally been
unexpectedly brought to light in cutting up mother-of-pearl in
the workshop.

When a pearl oyster is attacked by a boring parasite the
mollusc protects itself by depositing nacreous matter at the point
of invasion, thus forming a hollow body of irregular shape known
as a " blister pearl." Hollow warty pearl is sometimes termed
in trade " coq de perle." Solid pearls of irregular form are often
produced by deposition on rough objects, such as small fragments
of wood, and these, and in fact all irregular-shaped pearls, are
termed " perles baroques," or " barrok pearls." It appears that
the Romans in the period of the Decline restricted the name unio
to the globular pearl, and termed the baroque margaritum. It
was fashionable in the i6th and I7th centuries to mount curiously
shaped baroques in gold and enamel so as to form ornamental
objects of grotesque character. A valuable collection of such
mounted pearls by Dinglinger is preserved in the Green vaults at
Dresden.

A pearl of the first water should possess, in jewelers' language,
a perfect " skin " and a fine " orient "; that is to say, it must be
of delicate texture, free from speck or flaw, and of clear almost
translucent white colour, with a subdued iridescent sheen. It
should also be perfectly spherical, or, if not, of a symmetrical
pear-shape. On removing the outer layer of a pearl the sub-
jacent surface is generally dull, like a dead fish-eye, but it
occasionally happens that a poor pearl encloses a "lively kernel,"
and may therefore be improved by careful peeling. The most
perfect pearl in existence is said to be one, known as " La Pelle-
grina," in the museum of Zosima in Moscow; it is a perfectly
globular Indian pearl of singular beauty, weighing 28 carats.
The largest known pearl is one of irregular shape in the Beresford
Hope collection at the Victoria and Albert Museum. This
magnificent pearl weighs 3 oz., has a circumference of 4.5 in., and
is surmounted by an enamelled and jewelled gold crown, forming
a pendant of great value.

Pearl Fisheries.— The ancients obtained their pearls chiefly
from India and the Persian Gulf, but at the present time they are
also procured from the Sulu seas, the coast of Australia, the shores
of Central America and some of the South Pacific Islands. The
ancient fisheries of Ceylon (Taprobane) are situated in the Gulf
of Manaar, the fishing-banks lying from 6 to 8 m. off the western
shore, a little to the south of the isle of Manaar. The Tinnevelly
fishery is on the Madras side of the strait, near Tuticorin. These
Indian fishing-grounds are under the control of government
inspectors, who regulate the fisheries. The oysters yield the
best pearls at about four years of age. Fishing generally com-
mences in the second week in March, and lasts for from four to six
weeks, according to the season. The boats are grouped in fleets

of from sixty to seventy, and start usually at midnight so as to
reach the oyster-banks at sunrise. Each boat generally carries
ten divers. On reaching the bank a signal-gun is fired, and diving
commences. A stone weighing about 40 Ib is attached to
the cord by which the diver is let down. The divers work in
pairs, one man diving while the other watches the signal-cord,
drawing up the sink-stone first, then hauling up the baskets of
oysters, and finally raising the diver himself. On an average the
divers remain under water from fifty to eighty seconds, though
exceptional instances are cited of men remaining below for as
long as six minutes. After resting for a minute or two at the
surface, the diver descends again; and so on, until exhausted,
when he comes on board and watches the rope, while his comrade
relieves him as diver. The native descends naked, carrying only
a girdle for the support of the basket in which he places the pearl
oysters. In his submarine work the diver makes skilful use of his
toes. To arm himself against the attacks of the sharks and other
fishes which infest the Indian waters he carries spikes of iron-
wood; and the genuine Indian cliver never descends without the
incantations of shark-charmers, one of whom accompanies the
boat while others remain on shore. As a rule the diver is a short-
lived man.

The diving continues from sunrise to about noon, when a gun
is fired. On the arrival of the fleet at shore the divers carry their
oysters to a shed, where they are made up into four heaps, one
of which is taken by the diver. The oysters are then sold by
auction in lots' of 1000 each. The pearls, after removal from the
dead oysters, are " classed " by passing through a number of
small brass colanders, known as " baskets," the holes in the
successive vessels being smaller and smaller. Having been sized
in this way, they are sorted as to colour, weighed and valued.

Since the days of the Macedonians pearl-fishing has been
carried on in the Persian Gulf. It is said that the oyster-beds
extend along the entire Arabian coast of the gulf, but the most
important are on sandbanks off the islands of Bahrein. The chief
centre of the trade is the port of Lingah. Most of the products
of this fishery are known as " Bombay pearls," from the fact that
many of the best are sold there. The shells usually present a
dark colour about the edges, like that of " smoked pearl." The
yellow-tinted pearls are sent chiefly to Bombay, while the whitest
go to Bagdad. Very small pearls, much below a pea in size,
are generally known as " seed-pearls," and these are valued in
India and China as constituents of certain electuaries, while
occasionally they are calcined for chunam, or lime, used with betel
as a masticatory. There is a small pearl-fishery near Karachi
on the coast of Bombay.

From the time of the Ptolemies pearl-fishing has been
prosecuted along the coast of the Red Sea, especially in the
neighbourhood of Jiddah and Koseir. This fishery is now
insignificant, but the Arabs still obtain from this district a
quantity of mother-of-pearl shells, which are shipped from
Alexandria, and come into the market as " Egyptians."

Very fine pearls are obtained from the Sulu Archipelago, on
the north-east of Borneo. The mother-of-pearl shells from the
Sulu seas are characterized by a yellow colour on the border and
back, which unfits them for many ornamental purposes. Pearl
oysters are also abundant in the seas around the Aru Islands to
the south-west of New Guinea. From Labuan a good many
pearl-shells are occasionally sent to Singapore. They are also
obtained from the neighbourhood of Timor, and from New
Caledonia. The pearl oyster occurs throughout the Pacific,
mostly in the clear water of the lagoons within the atolls, though
fine shells are also found in deep water outside the coral reefs.
The Polynesian divers do not employ sink-stones, and the women
are said to be more skilful than the men. They anoint their
bodies with oil before diving. Fine pearl-shells are obtained
from Navigators' Islands, the Society Islands, the Low Archi-
pelago or Paumota Isles and the Gambier Islands. Many of
the Gambier pearls present a bronzy tint.

Pearl-fishing is actively prosecuted along the western coast of
Central America, especially in the Gulf of California, and to a less
extent around the Pearl Islands in the Bay of Panama. The

26

PEARL

fishing-grounds are in water about 40 ft. deep, and the season
lasts for four months. An ordinary fishing-party expects to
obtain about three tons of shells per day, and it is estimated that
one shell in a thousand contains a pearl. The pearls are shipped
in barrels from San Francisco and Panama. Some pearls of rare
beauty have been obtained from the Bay of Mulege, near Los
Coyetes, in the gulf of California; and in 1882 a pearl of 75 carats,
the largest on record from this district, was found near La Paz
in California. The coast of Guayaquil also yields pearls.
Columbus found that pearl-fishing was carried on in his time in
the Gulf of Mexico, and pearls are still obtained from the Carib-
bean Sea. In the West Indies the best pearls are obtained from
St Thomas and from the island of Margarita, off the coast of
Venezuela. From Margarita Philip II. of Spain is said to have
obtained in 1579 a famous pearl of 250 carats.

Of late years good pearls have been found in Shark's Bay, on
the coast of West Australia, especially in an inlet termed Useless
Harbour. Mother-of-pearl shells are also fished at many other
points along the western coast, between the i5th and 25th
parallels of south latitude. An important pearl-fishery is also
established in Torres Strait and on the coast of Queensland.
The shells occur in water from four to six fathoms deep, and the
divers are generally Malays and Papuans, though sometimes
native Australians. On the western coast of Australia the
pearl-shells are obtained by dredging rather than by diving.
Pearl-shells have also been found at Port Darwin and in
Oakley Creek, New Zealand.

River pearls are produced by the species of Unio and Anodonta,
especially by Unio margaritiferus. These species belong to the family
Unionidae, order Eulamellebranchia. They inhabit the mountain-
streams of temperate climates in the northern hemisphere^—
especially in Scotland, Wales, Ireland, Saxony, Bohemia, Bavaria,
Lapland and Canada. The pearls of Britain are mentioned by
Tacitus and by Pliny, and a breastplate studded with British pearls
was dedicated by Julius Caesar to Venus Genetrix. As early as
1355 Scotch pearls are referred to in a statute of the goldsmiths of
Paris; and in the reign of Charles II. the Scotch pearl trade was
sufficiently important to attract the attention of parliament. The
Scotch pearl-fishery, after having declined for years, was revived
in 1860 by a German named Moritz Unger, who visited Scotland
and bought up all the pearls he could find in the hands of the peasan-
try, thus leading to an eager search for more pearls the following
season. It is estimated that in 1865 the produce of the seaso.i's
fishing in the Scotch rivers was worth at least £12,000. This
yield, however, was not maintained, and at the present time only
a few pearls are obtained at irregular intervals by an occasional
fisherman.

The principal rivers in Scotland which have yielded pearls are
the Spey, the Tay and the South Esk; and to a less extent the Doon,
the Dee, the Don, the Ythan, the Teith, the Forth and many other
streams. In North Wales the Conway was at one time celebrated
for its pearls; and it is related that Sir Richard Wynn, chamberlain
to the queen of Charles II., presented her with a Conway pearl
which is believed to occupy a place in the British crown. In Ireland
the rivers of Donegal, Tyrone and Wexford have yielded pearls.
It is said that Sir John Hawkins the circumnavigator had a patent
for pearl-fishing in the Irt in Cumberland. Although the pearl-
fisheries of Britain are now neglected, it is otherwise with those of
Germany. The most important of these are in the forest-streams of
Bavaria, between Ratisbon and Passau. The Saxon fisheries are
chiefly confined to the basin of the White Elster, and those of
Bohemia to the Horazdiowitz district of Wotawa. For more than
two centuries the Saxon fisheries have been carefully regulated
by inspectors, who examine the streams every spring, and determine
where fishing is to be permitted. After a tract has been fished over,
it is left to rest for ten or fifteen years. The fisher-folk open the
valves of the mussels with an iron instrument, and if they find no
ptarl restore the mussel to the water.

River pearls are found in many parts of the United States, and
have been systematically worked in the Little Miami river, Warren
county, Ohio, and also on the Mississippi, especially about Musca-
tine, Iowa. The season extends from June to October. Japan
produces fresh-water pearls, found especially in the Anodonta
japonica. But it is in China that the culture of the pearl-mussel
is carried to the greatest perfection. The Chinese also obtain marine
pearls, and use a large quantity of mother-of-pearl for decorative
purposes. More than twenty-two centuries before our era pearls
are enumerated as a tribute or tax in China; and they are mentioned
as products of the western part of the empire in the Rh'ya,_ a
dictionary compiled earlier than 1000 B.C. A process for promoting
the artificial formation of pearls in the Chinese river-mussels was
discovered by Ye-jin-yang, a native of Hoochow, in the I3th
century ; and this process is still extensively carried on near the city

of Teh-tsing, where it forms the staple industry of several villages,
and is said to give employment to about 5000 people. Large num-
bers of the mussels are collected in May and June, and the valves
of each are gently opened with a spatula to allow of the introduction
of various foreign bodies, which are inserted by means of a forked
bamboo stick. These " matrices " are generally pellets of prepared
mud, but may be small bosses of bone, brass or wood. After a num-
ber of these objects have been placed in convenient positions on one
valve, the unfortunate mollusc is turned over and the operation is
repeated on the other valve. The mussels are then placed in shallow
ponds connected with the canals, and are nourished by tubs of night-
soil being thrown in from time to time. After several months, in
some cases two or three years, the mussels are removed, and the
pearls which have formed over the matrices are cut from the shells,
while the molluscs themselves serve as food. The matrix is generally
extracted from the pearl and the cavity filled with white wax, the
aperture being neatly sealed up so as to render the appearance of the
pearl as perfect as possible. Millions of such pearls are annually
sold at Soo-chow. The most curious of these Chinese pearls are those
which present the form of small seated images of Buddha. The
figures are cast in very thin lead, or stamped in tin, and are inserted
as previously describe.d. Specimens of these Buddha pearls in the
British Museum are referred to the species Dipsas plicala. It
should be mentioned • that Linnaeus, probably ignorant of what
had long been practised in China, demonstrated the possibility of
producing artificial pearls in the fresh-water mussels of Sweden.

Pink pearls are occasionally found in the great conch or fountain
shell of the West Indies, Strombus gigas, L. ; but these, though much
prized, are not nacreous, and their tint is apt to fade. They are also
produced by the chank shell, Turbinella scolymus, L.1 Yellowish-
brown pearls, of little or no value, are yielded by the Pinna squamosa,
and bad-coloured concretions are formed by the Placuna placenta? '
Black pearls, which are very highly valued, are obtained chiefly
from the pearl oyster of the Gulf of Mexico. The common marine
mussel Mytilus edulis also produces pearls, which are, however, of
little value.

According to the latest researches the cause of pearl-formation
is in most cases, perhaps in all, the dead body of a minute parasite
within the tissues of a mollusc, around which nacreous deposit is
secreted. The parasite is a stage in the life history of a Trema-
tode in some cases, in others of a Cestode; that is to say of a form
resembling the common liver-fluke of the sheep, or of a tape-
worm. As long ago as 1852 Filippi of Turin showed that the
species of Trematode Distomum duplicalum was the cause of a
pearl formation in the fresh-water mussel Anodonta. Kuchen-
meister subsequently investigated the question at Elster in
Saxony and came to a different conclusion, namely that the
central body of the pearl was a small specimen of a species of
water mite which is a very common parasite of A nodonta. Filippi
however states that the mite is only rarely found within a
pearl, the Trematode occurring in the great majority of cases.
R. Dubois and Dr H. Lyster Jameson have made special investi-
gations of the process in the common mussel Mytilus edulis.
The latter states that the pearl is produced in a sac which is
situated beneath the epidermis of the mantle and is lined by an
epithelium. This epithelium is not derived from the cells of the
epidermis but from the internal connective-tissue cells. This
statement, if correct, is contrary to what would be expected, for
calcareous matter is usually secreted by the external epidermis
only. The sac or cyst is formed by the larva of a species of
Trematode belonging to the genus Leucilhodendrium, a species
closely resembling and probably identical with L. somateriac,
which lives in the adult state in the eider duck. At Billiers,
Morbihan, in France, the host of the adult Trematode is another
species of duck, namely the common Scoter, Oedemia nigra, which
is notorious in the locality for its avidity for mussels. Trema-
todes of the family Distomidae, to which the parasite under
consideration belongs, usually have three hosts in each of which
they pass different stages of the life history. In this case the first
host at Billiers is a species of bivalve called Tapes decussatus, but
at Piel in Lancashire there are no Tapes and the first stages of the
parasite are found in the common cockle. The Trematode
enters the first host as a minute newly hatched embryo and

1 Strombus gigas, L., is a Gastropod belonging to the family
Strombidae, of the order Pectinibranchia. Turbinella scolymus,
Lam., is a Gastropod of the same order.

2 Placuna placenta, L., belongs to the family Anomiidae; it is
found on the shores of North Australia. Pinna squamosa, Gmelin,
belongs to the Ostreacea; it occurs in the Mediterranean. Both
are Lamellibranchs.

PEARL, THE

27

leaves it in the form called Cercaria, which is really an immature
condition of the adult. The Cercaria makes its way into the
tissues of a mussel and there becomes enclosed in the cyst
previously described. If the mussel is then swallowed by the
•duck the Cercariae develop into adult Trematodes or flukes in the
liver or intestines of the bird. In the mussels which escape being
devoured the parasites cannot develop further, and they die and
become embedded in the nacreous deposit which forms a pearl.
Dr Jameson points out that, as in other cases, pearls in Mytilus
are common in certain special localities and rare elsewhere, and
that the said localities are those where the parasite and its hosts
are plentiful.

The first suggestion that the most valuable pearls obtained
from pearl oysters in tropical oceans might be due to parasites
was made by Kelaart in reports to the government of Ceylon in
1857-1859. Recently a special investigation of the Ceylon pearl
fishery has been organized by Professor Herdman. Herdman and
Hornell find that in the pearl oyster of Ceylon Margaritifera
vulgaris, -Schum, the nucleus of the pearl is, in all specimens
examined, the larva of a Cestode or tapeworm. This larva is of
globular form and is of the type known as a cysticercus. As in
the case of the mussel the larva dies in its cyst and its remains are
enshrined in nacreous deposit, so that, as a French writer has
said, the ornament associated in all ages with beauty and riches
is nothing but the brilliant sarcophagus of a worm.

The cysticercus described by Herdman and Hornell has on the
surface a muscular zone within which is a depression containing
a papilla which can be protruded. It was at first identified as
the larva of a tapeworm called Tetrarhynchus, and Professor
Herdman concluded that the life-history of the pearl parasite
consisted of four stages, the first being exhibited by free larvae
which were taken at the surface of the sea, the second that in the
pearl oyster, the third a form found in the bodies of file-fishes
which feed on the oysters, and the fourth or adult stage living in
some species of large ray. It has not however been proved that
the pearl parasite is a Tetrarhynchus, nor that it is connected
with the free larva or the form found in the file-fish, Balistes; nor
has the adult form been identified. All that is certain is that
the pearls are due to the presence of a parasite which is the larva
of a Cestode; all the rest is probability or possibility. A French
naturalist, M. Seurat, studying the pearl oyster of the Gambier
Archipelago in the Pacific, found that pearl formation was due
to a parasite quite similar to that described by Herdman and
Hornell. This parasite was described by Professor Giard as
characterized by a rostrum armed with a single terminal sucker
and he did not identify it with TetrarHynchus.

Genuine precious pearls and the most valuable mother-of-pearl
are produced by various species and varieties of the genus Meleagrina
of Lamarck, for which Dr Jameson in his recent revision of the species
prefers the name Margaritifera. The genus is represented in tropical
regions in all parts of the world. It belongs to the family Aviculidae,
which is allied to the Pectens or scallop shells. In this family the
hinge border is straight and prolonged into two auriculae; the foot
has a very stout byssus. Meleagrina is distinguished by the small
size or complete absence of the posterior auricula. The species are
as follows. The type species is Meleagrina margaritifera, which has
no teeth on the hinge. Geographical races are distinguished by
different names in the trade. Specimens from the Malay Archipelago
have a dark band along the margin of the nacre and are known as
black-edged Banda shell ; those from Australia and New Guinea
and the neighbouring islands of the western Pacific are called
Australian and New Guinea black-lip. Another variety occurs in
Tahiti, Gambier Islands and Eastern Polynesia generally, yielding
both pearls and shell. It occurs also in China, Ceylon, the Andaman
Islands and the Maldives. Another form is taken at Zanzibar, Mada-
gascar, and the neighbouring islands, and is called Zanzibar and
Madagascar shell. Bombay shell is another local form fished in
the Persian Gulf and shipped via Bombay. The Red Sea variety
is known as Egyptian shell. Another variety occurs along the west
coast of America and from Panama to Vancouver, and supplies
Panama shell and some pearls. A larger form, attaining a foot in
diameter and a weight of 10 Ib per pair of shells, is considered as a
distinct species by Dr Jameson and named Margaritifera maxima.
It is found along the north coast of Australia and New Guinea and
the Malay Archipelago. The nacreous surface of this shell is white,
without the black or dark margin of the common species; it is
known in the trade as the silver-lip, gold-lip and by other names.
It is the most valuable species of mother-of-pearl oyster.

Dr Jameson distinguishes in addition to the above thirty-two
species of Margaritifera or- Meleagrina; all these have rudimentary
teeth on the hinge. The most important species is Meleagrina
vulgaris, to which belong the pearl oyster of Ceylon and southern
India, the lingah shell of the Persian Gulf and the pearl oyster of
the Red Sea. Since the opening of the Suez Canal the latter form
has invaded the Mediterranean, specimens having been taken at
Alexandria and at Malta, and attempts have been made to cultivate
it on the French coast. The species occurs also on the coasts of the
Malay Peninsula, Australia and New Guinea, where it is fished both
for its shells (Australian lingah) and for pearls. Two species occur
on the coasts of South Africa but have no market value. Melea-
grina carchariarum is the Shark's Bay shell of the London market.
It is taken in large quantities at Shark's Bay, Western Australia,
and is of rather small value; it also yields pearls of inferior quality.
The pearl oyster of Japan, known as Japan lingah, is probably a
variety of Meleagrina vulgaris. Meleagrina radiata is the West
Indian pearl oyster.

The largest and steadiest consumption of mother-of-pearl is in
the button trade, and much is also consumed by cutlers for handles
of fruit and dessert knives and forks, pocket-knives, &c. It is also
used in the inlaying of Japanese and Chinese lacquers, European
lacquered papier-mache work, trays, &c., and as an ornamental
inlay generally. The carving of pilgrim shells and the elaboration of
crucifixes and ornamental work in mother-of-pearl is a distinctive
industry of the monks and other inhabitants of Bethlehem. Among
the South Sea Islands the shell is largely fashioned into fishing-hooks.
Among shells other than those of Meleagrina margaritifera used as
mother-of-pearl may be mentioned the Green Ear or Ormer shell
(Haliotis tuberculata) and several other species of Haliotis, besides
various species of Turbo.

Artificial pearls were first made in western Europe in 1 680 by
Jacquin, a rosary-maker in Paris, and the trade is now largely carried
on in France, Germany and Italy. Spheres of thin glass are filled
with a preparation known as " essence d'orient," made from the
silvery scales of the bleak or " ablette," which is caused to adhere
to the inner wall of the globe, and the cavity is then filled with
white wax. Many imitation pearls are now formed of an opaline
glass of nacreous lustre, and the soft appearance of the pearl obtained
by the judicious use of hydrofluoric acid. An excellent substitute
for black pearl is found in the so-called " ironstone jewelry," and
consists of close-grained haematite, not too highly polished ; but the
great density of the haematite immediately destroys the illusion.
Pink pearls are imitated by turning small spheres out of the rosy
part of the conch shell, or even out of pink coral.

See Clements R. Markham, " The Tinnevelly Pearl Fishery,"
in Journ. Soc. Arts (1867), xv., 256; D. T. Macgowan, " Pearls and
Pearl-making in China," ibid. (1854), ii. 72; F. Hague, "On the
Natural and Artificial Production of Pearls in China," in Journ. Roy.
Asiatic Soc. (1856), vol. xvi.; H. J. Le Beck, " Pearl Fishery in the
Gulf of Manar," in Asiatic Researches (1798), v. 393; K. Mobius,
Dieechten Perlen (Hamburg, 1857); H. Lyster Jameson, " Formation
of Pearls," Proc. Zool. Soc. (1902), pi. I ; idem, " On the Identity and
Distribution of Mother-of- Pearl Oysters," Proc. Zool. Soc. (1901),
pi. i, pp. 372-394; Herdman and Hornell, Rep. Ceylon Pearl Fisheries
(London, Royal Soc., 1903) ; and Kunz and Stevenson, Book of the
Pearl (New York, 1908), with bibliography. (J. T. C.)

PEARL, THE. The Middle-English poem known as Pearl, or
The Pearl, is preserved in the unique manuscript Cotton Nero
Ax at the British Museum ; in this volume are contained also the
poems Cleanness, Patience, and Sir Gawayne and the Green Knight.
All the pieces are in the same handwriting, and from internal
evidences of dialect, style and parallel references, it is now
generally accepted that the poems are all by the same author.
The MS., which is quaintly illustrated, belongs to the end of
the I4th or the beginning of the isth century, and appears to
be but little later than the date of composition ; no line of Pearl
or of the other poems is elsewhere to be found.

Pearl is a poet's lament for the loss of a girl-child, " who
lived not upon earth two years " — the poet is evidently the
child's father. In grief he visits the little grave, and there in
a vision beholds his Pearl, now transfigured as a queen of
heaven — he sees her beneath " a crystal rock," beyond a stream ;
the dreamer would fain cross over, but cannot. From the
opposite bank Pearl, grown in wisdom as in stature, instructs
him in lessons of faith and resignation, expounds to him the
mystery of her transfiguration, and leads him to a glimpse of the
New Jerusalem. Suddenly the city is filled with glorious
maidens, who in long procession glide towards the throne, all
of them clad in white, pearl-bedecked robes as Pearl herself.
And there he sees, too, " his little queen." A great- love-
longing possesses him to be by her. He must needs plunge

PEARSALL— PEARSON, C. H.

into the stream that keeps him from her. In the very effort
the dreamer awakes, to find himself resting upon the little
mound where his Pearl had " strayed below ": —

" I roused me, and fell in great dismay,
And, sighing, to myself I said:

Now all be to that Prince's pleasure."

The poem consists of one hundred and one stanzas, each oi
twelve lines, with four accents, rhymed ab, ab, ab, ab, be, be;
the versification combines rhyme with alliteration; trisyllabic
effects add to the easy movement and lyrical charm of the lines.
Five stanzas (in one case six), with the same refrain, constitute
a section, of which accordingly there are twenty in all, the whole
sequence being linked together by the device of making the
first line of each stanza catch up the refrain of the previous
verse, the last line of the poem re-echoing the first line. The
author was not the creator of this form, nor was he the last to
use it. The extant pieces in the metre are short religious poems,
some of the later (e.g. God's Complaint, falsely attributed to
Scottish authorship) revealing the influence of Pearl.

The dialect is West Midland, or rather North- West Midland,
and the vocabulary is remarkable for the blending of native
speech with Scandinavian and Romance elements, the latter
partly Anglo-French, and partly learned French, due to the
author's knowledge of French literature.

" While the main part of the poem," according to Gollancz,
" is a paraphrase of the closing chapters of the Apocalypse and
the parable of the Vineyard, the poet's debt to the Romaunt of
the Rose is noteworthy, more particularly in the description of
the wonderful land through which the dreamer wanders; and it
can be traced throughout the poem, in the personification of
Pearl as Reason, in the form of the colloquy, in the details of
dress and ornament, in many a characteristic word, phrase and
reference. ' The river from the throne,' in the Apocalypse,
here meets ' the waters of the wells ' devised by Sir Mirth for
the Garden of the Rose. From these two sources, the Book of
Revelation, with its almost Celtic glamour, and The Romaunt of
the Rose, with its almost Oriental allegory, are derived much of
the wealth and brilliancy of the poem. The poet's fancy revels
in the richness of the heavenly and the earthly paradise, but
his fancy is subordinated to his earnestness and intensity."

The leading motifs of Pearl are to be found in the Gospel —
in the allegory of the merchant who sold his all to purchase one
pearl of great price, and in the words, so fraught with solace for
the child-bereft, " for of such is the Kingdom of Heaven."
Naturally arising from the theme, and from these motifs, some
theological problems of the time are touched upon, or treated
somewhat too elaborately perhaps, and an attempt has been made
to demonstrate that Pearl is merely allegorical and theological,
and not really a lament. Those who hold this view surely ignore
or fail to recognize the subtle personal touches whereby the
poem transcends all its theological interests, and makes its
simple and direct appeal to the human heart. Herein, too, lies
its abiding charm, over and above the poetical talent, the love
of nature, colour and the picturesque, the technical skill, and
the descriptive power, which in a high degree belonged to the
unknown poet.

Various theories have been advanced as to the authorship of
Pearl and the other poems in the manuscript. The claims of
Huchown " of the Awle Ryale " have been vigorously (but
unsuccessfully) advocated; the case in favour of Ralph Strode
(Chaucer's " philosophical Strode ") — the most attractive of all
the theories — is still, unfortunately, " not proven." By piecing
together the personal indications to be found in the poems
an imaginary biography of the poet may be constructed. It
may safely be inferred that he was born about 1330, somewhere
in Lancashire, or a little to the north ; that he delighted in open-
air life, in woodcraft and sport; that his early life was passed
amid the gay scenes that brightened existence in medieval hall
and bower; that he availed himself of opportunities of study,
theology and romance alike claiming him; that he wedded, and
had a child named Margery or Marguerite — the Daisy, or the

Pearl — at whose death his happiness drooped and life's joy
ended.

The four poems are closely linked and belong to one period
of the poet's career. In Gawayne, probably the first of the four,
the poet is still the minstrel rejoicing in the glamour of the
Arthurian tale, but using it, in almost Spenserian spirit, to point
a moral. In Pearl the minstrel has become the elegiac poet,
harmonizing the old Teutonic form with the newer Romance
rhyme. In Cleanness he has discarded all attractions of form,
and writes, in direct alliterative metre, a stern homily on chastity.
In Patience — a homiletic paraphrase of ^onah — he appears to
be autobiographical, reminding himself, while teaching others,
that " Poverty and Patience are needs playfellows." He had
evidently fallen on evil days.

It is noteworthy that soon after 1358 Boccaccio wrote his
Latin eclogue Olympia in memory of his young daughter
Violante. A comparative study of the two poems is full of
interest; the direct influence of the Latin on the English poem
is not so clear as has been maintained. Pearl cannot be placed
earlier than 1360; it is most probably later than Olympia.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Texts and Translations: Early Alliterative
Poems in the West Midland Dialect of the fourteenth Century (edited
by Richard Morris, Early English Text Society I. 1864; revised,
1869, 1885, 1896, 1901); Pearl, an English Poem of the Fourteenth
Century, edited, with a Modern Rendering, by Israel Gollancz (with
frontispiece by Holman Hunt, and prefatory lines, sent to the
editor by Tennyson) ; revised edition of the text, privately printed,
1897; new edition of text and translation, " King's Classics, 1910-
1911; Facsimile of MS. Cotton Nero Ax, 1910-1911; The Pearl,
(edited by C. G. Osgood; Boston, 1906). Translations by Gollancz
(as above) ; G. G. Coulton (1906) ; Osgood (1907) ; Miss Mead (1908) ;
Miss Jewett (1908); part of the poem, by S. Weir Mitchell (1906).

Literary History: Tenbrink, History of English Literature (trans-
lated by H. M. Kennedy, 1889, i. 336-351); G. Nelson, Huchown
of the Awle Ryale (Glasgow, 1902) ; Carletpn Brown, The Author
of the Pearl, considered in the Light of his Theological Opinions
(publications of the Modern Languages Association of America,
xix. 115-153; 1904); W. G. Schofield, The Nature and Fabric of the
Pearl (ibid. pp. 154-215; 1904); also Symbolism, Allegory and
Autobiography (ibid. xxiv. 585-675; 1909); I. Gollancz, Cambridge
History of English Literature, vol. i. ch. xv.

Works connected with Pearl: Sir Gawayne, a Collection of Ancient
Romance Poems (edited by Sir F. Madden; London, 1839); Sir
Gawayne (re-edited by Richard Morris, E.E.T.S., 1864, 1869; text
revised by I. Gollancz, 1893); The Parlement of the Thre Ages, and
Wynnere and Wastoure (edited by I. Gollancz: London, 1897);
Hymns to the Virgin and Christ (edited by F. J. Furnivall, E.E.T.S.,
1867) ; Political, Religious and Love Poems (edited by F. J. Furnivall,
E.E.T.S., 1866, 1903).

Metre. — Clark S. Northup, Study of the Metrical Structure of the
Pearl (publications of the Modern Languages Association, xii.
326-340).

Phonology. — W. Fick, Zum mittelenglischen Gedicht von der Perle
(Kiel, 1885). (I. G.)

PEARSALL, ROBERT LUCAS DE (1795-1856), English
composer, was born on the i4th of March 17951 at Clifton.
Educated for the bar, he practised till 1825, when he left England
for Germany and studied composition under Panny of Mainz;
with the exception of three comparatively short visits to
England, during one of which he made the acquaintance of
the English school of madrigals, he lived abroad, selling his
family property of Willsbridge and settling in the castle of
Wartensee, on the lake of Constance. He produced many works
of lasting beauty, nearly all of them for voices in combination:
from his part songs, such as " Oh, who will o'er the downs ? " to
bis elaborate and scholarly madrigals, such as the admirable
eight-part compositions, " Great God of Love " and " Lay a
Garland," or the beautiful " Light of my Soul." His reception
into the Roman Church in his later years may have suggested
the composition of some beautiful sacred music, among other
things a fine " Salve Regina." He wrote many valuable
treatises on music, and edited a Roman Catholic hymn-book.
He died on the 5th of August 1856.

PEARSON, CHARLES HENRY (1830-1894), British historian
and colonial statesman, was born in London on the 7th of
September 1830. After receiving his early education at Rugby
and King's College, London, he went up to Oxford, where he

PEARSON, J.— PEARSON, J. L.

was generally regarded as the most brilliant of an exceptionally
able set, and in 1854 obtained a fellowship at Oriel College.
His constitutional weakness and bad eyesight forced him to
abandon medicine, which he had adopted as a career, and in
1855 he returned to King's College as lecturer in English language
and literature, a post which he almost immediately quitted
for the professorship of modern history. He made numerous
journeys abroad, the most important being his visit to Russia
in 1858, his account of which was published anonymously in
1859 under the title of Russia, by a Recent Traveller; an adven-
turous journey through Poland during the insurrection of 1863,
of which he gave a sympathetic and much praised account in
the Spectator; and a visit to the United States in 1868, where
he gathered materials for his subsequent discussion of the negro
problem in his National Life and Character. In the meantime,
besides contributing regularly, first to the Saturday Review and
then to the Spectator, and editing the National Review, he wrote
the first volume of The Early and Middle Ages of England (1861).
The work was bitterly attacked by Freeman, whose " extrava-
gant Saxonism " Pearson had been unable to adopt. It appeared
in 1868 in a revised form with the title of History of England
during the Early and Middle Ages, accompanied by a second
volume which met with general recognition. Still better was
the reception of his admirable Maps of England in the First
Thirteen Centuries (1870). But as the result of these labours he
was threatened with total blindness; and, disappointed of
receiving a professorship at Oxford, in 1871 he emigrated to
Australia. Here he married and settled down to the life of a
sheep-farmer; but finding his health and eyesight greatly
improved, he came to Melbourne as lecturer on history at the
university. Soon afterwards he became head master of the
Presbyterian Ladies' College, and in this position practically
organized the whole system of higher education for women in
Victoria. On his election in 1878 to the Legislative Assembly
he definitely adopted politics as his career. His views on the
land question and secular education aroused the bitter hostility
of the rich squatters and the clergy; but his singular nobility
of character, no less than his powers of mind, made him one
of the most influential men in the Assembly. He was minister
without portfolio in the Berry cabinet (1880-1881), and as
minister of education in the coalition government of 1886 to 1890
he was able to pass into law many of the recommendations of
his report. His reforms entirely remodelled state education in
Victoria. In 1892 a fresh attack of illness decided him to return
to England. Here he published in 1893 the best known of his
works, National Life and Character. It is an attempt to show
that the white man can flourish only in the temperate zones,
that the yellow and black races must increase out of all propor-
tion to the white, and must in time crush out his civilization.
He died in London on the 29th of May 1894.

A volume of his Reviews and Critical Essays was published in
1896, and was followed in 1900 by his autobiography, a work of
great interest.

PEARSON, JOHN (1612-1686), English divine and scholar,
was born at Great Snoring, Norfolk, on the 28th of February
1612. From Eton he passed to Queen's College, Cambridge, and
was elected a scholar of King's in April 1632, and a fellow in
1634. On taking orders in 1639 he was collated to the Salisbury
prebend of Nether-Avon. In 1640 he was appointed chaplain to
the lord-keeper Finch, by whom he was presented to the living
of Thorington in Suffolk. In the Civil War he acted as chaplain
to George Goring's forces in the west. In 1654 he was made
weekly preacher at St Clement's, Eastcheap, in London. With
Peter Gunning he disputed against two Roman Catholics on the
subject of schism, a one-sided account of which was printed in
Paris by one of the Roman Catholic disputants, under the title
Scisme Unmask't (1658). Pearson also argued against the
Puritan party, and was much interested in Brian Walton's
polyglot Bible. In 1659 he published in London his celebrated
Exposition of the Creed, dedicated to his parishioners of St
Clement's, Eastcheap, to whom the substance of the work had
been preached several years before. In the same year he

29

published the Golden Remains of the ever-memorable Mr John
Hales of Eton, with an interesting memoir. Soon after the
Restoration he was presented by Juxon, bishop of London, to
the rectory of St Christopher-le-Stocks; and in 1660 he was
created doctor of divinity at Cambridge, appointed a royal
chaplain, prebendary of Ely, archdeacon of Surrey, and master
of Jesus College, Cambridge. In 1661 he was appointed Lady
Margaret professor of divinity; and on the first day of the
ensuing year he was nominated one of the commissioners for
the review of the liturgy in the conference held at the Savoy.
There he won the esteem of his opponents and high praise from
Richard Baxter. On the i4th of April 1662 he was made master
of Trinity College, Cambridge. In 1667 he was admitted a
fellow of the Royal Society. In 1672 he published at Cambridge
Vindiciae epistolarum S. Ignatii, in 4to, in answer to Jean
Daille. His defence of the authenticity of the letters of Ignatius
has been confirmed by J. B. Lightfoot and other recent scholars.
Upon the death of John \yilkins in 1672, Pearson was appointed
to the bishopric of Chester. In 1682 his Annales cyprianici were
published at Oxford, with John Fell's edition of that father's
works. He died at Chester on the i6th of July 1686. His last
work, the Two Dissertations on the Succession and Times of the
First Bishops of Rome, formed with the Annales Paulini the
principal part of his Opera posthuma, edited by Henry Dodwell
in 1688.

See the memoir in Biographia Britannica, and another by Edward
Churton, prefixed to the edition of Pearson's Minor Theological
Works (2 vols., Oxford, 1844). Churton also edited almost the
whole of the theological writings.

PEARSON, JOHN LOUGHBOROUGH (1817-1897), English
architect, son of William Pearson, etcher, of Durham, was born
in Brussels on the 5th of July 1817. He was articled at the age
of fourteen to Ignatius Bonomi, architect, of Durham, but soon
removed to London, and worked under the elder Hardwicke.
He revived and practised largely the art of vaulting, and acquired
in it a proficiency unrivalled in his generation. He was, however,
by no means a Gothic purist, and was also fond of Renaissance
and thoroughly grounded in classical architecture. From the
erection of his first church of EUerker, in Yorkshire, in 1843,
to that of St Peter's, Vauxhall, in 1864, his buildings are
Geometrical in manner and exhibit a close adherence to pre-
cedent, but elegance of proportion and refinement of detail lift
them out of the commonplace of mere imitation. Holy Trinity,
Westminster (1848), and St Mary's, Dalton Holme (1858), are
notable examples of this phase. St Peter's, Vauxhall (1864),
his first groined church, was also the first of a series of buildings
which brought Pearson to the forefront among his contempor-
aries. In these he applied the Early English style to modern
needs and modern economy with unrivalled success. St Augus-
tine's, Kilburn (1871), St John's, Red Lion Square, London
(1874), St Alban's, Birmingham (1880), St Michael's, Croydon
(1880), St John's, Norwood (1881), St Stephen's, Bournemouth
(1889), and All Saints', Hove (1889), are characteristic examples
of his matured work. He is best known by Truro Cathedral
(1880), which has a special interest in its apt incorporation
of the south aisle of the ancient church. Pearson's conservative
spirit fitted him for the reparation of ancient edifices, and among
cathedrals and other historical buildings placed under his
care were Lincoln, Chichester, Peterborough, Bristol and
Exeter Cathedrals, St George's Chapel, Windsor, Westminster
Hall and Westminster Abbey, in the surveyorship of which
last he succeeded Sir G. G. Scott. Except as to the porches,
the work of Scott, he re-faced the north transept of Westminster
Abbey, and also designed the vigorous organ cases. In his hand-
ling of ancient buildings he was repeatedly opposed by the ultra
anti-restorers (as in the case of the west front of Peterborough
Cathedral in 1896), but he generally proved the soundness
of his judgment by his executed work. Pearson's practice was
not confined to church building. Treberfydd House (1850),
Quar Wood (1858), Lechlade Manor, an Elizabethan house
(1873), Westwood House, Sydenham, in the French Renaissance
style (1880), the Astor estate offices (1892) upon the Victoria

PEARY

Embankment, London, the remodelling of the interiors of
Clieveden House (1893) and No. 18 Carlton House Terrace (1894),
with many parsonages, show his aptitude for domestic architec-
ture. In general design he first aimed at form, embracing both
proportion and contour; and his work may be recognized by
accurate scholarship coupled with harmonious detail. Its key-
notes are cautiousness and refinement rather than boldness.
He died on the nth of December 1897, and was buried in the
nave of Westminster Abbey, where his grave is marked by the
appropriate motto Sustinuit et abstinuit. He was elected A.R.A.
in 1874, R.A. in 1880, was a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries,
and a fellow and member of the Council of the Royal Institute
of British Architects.

The following are some of Pearson's more important works,
not already named: Ferriby church (1846); Stow, Lincolnshire
(restoration, 1850) ; Weybridge, St James's (1853) ; Freeland church,
parsonage and schools (1866) ; Kilbuin, St Peter's Home (1868) ;
Wentworth church (1872); Horsforth church (1874); Cullercoats,
St George's (1882) ; Chiswick, St Michaells (restoration, 1882) ; Great
Yarmouth church (restoration, 1883); Liverpool, St Agnes' (1883);
Woking Convalescent Home (1884); Headingley church (1884);
Torquay, All Saints (1884); Maidstone, All Saints (restoration,
1885); Shrewsbury Abbey (1886); Ayr, Holy Trinity (1886); Hythe
church (restoration, 1887); Oxford, New College, reredos (com-
pletion, 1889); Cambridge University Library (additions, 1889);
Friern Barnet, St John's (1890); Cambridge, Sidney Sussex College
(additions, 1890); Middlesex Hospital chapel (1890); Bishopsgate,
St Helen's (restoration, 1891); Maida Hill (Irvingite) church (1891);
Barking, All Hallows (restoration, 1893) ; Cambridge, Emmanuel
College (additions, 1893); Ledbury, St Michael's (restoration,
1894); Malta, Memorial church (1894); Port Talbot church (1895).

(W. D. C.)

PEARY, ROBERT EDWIN (1856- ), American Arctic
explorer, was born at Cresson, Pennsylvania, on the 6th of May
1856. He graduated at Bowdoin College in 1877, and in 1881
became a civil engineer in the U.S. navy with the rank of lieuten-
ant. In 1884 he was appointed assistant-engineer in connexion
with the surveys for the Nicaragua Ship Canal, and in 1887-1888
he was in charge of these surveys. In 1886 he obtained leave of
absence for a summer excursion to Disco Bay on the west coast
of Greenland. From this point he made a journey of nearly a
hundred miles into the interior, and the experience impressed
him with the practicability of using this so-called inland ice-cap
as a highway for exploration. In 1891 he organized an expedi-
tion under the auspices of the Academy of Natural Sciences of
Philadelphia. The party of seven included Lieut. Peary's
wife, the first white woman to accompany an Arctic ex-
pedition. After wintering in Inglefield Gulf on the north-
west coast of Greenland, in the following spring Lieut. Peary,
with a young Norwegian, Eivind Astrup, crossed the inland
ice-cap along its northern limit to the north-east of Greenland
and back. The practical geographical result of this journey
was to establish the insularity of Greenland. Valuable
work was also performed by the expedition in the close
study which was made of the isolated tribe of the Cape
York or Smith Sound Eskimos, the most northerly people in
the world.1 Lieut. Peary was able to fit out another Arctic
expedition in 1893, and was again accompanied by Mrs Peary,
who gave birth to a daughter at the winter quarters in Inglefield
Gulf. The expedition returned in the season of 1894, leaving
Peary with his coloured servant Henson and Mr Hugh G. Lee
to renew the attempt to cross the inland ice in the next year.
This they succeeded in doing, but without being able to carry
the work of exploration any farther on the opposite side of
Greenland. During a summer excursion to Melville Bay in
1894, Peary discovered three large meteorites, which supplied
the Eskimos with the material for their iron implements, as
reported by Sir John Ross in 1818, and on his return in 1895
he brought the two smaller ones with him. The remaining
meteorite was brought to New York in 1897. In 1898 Lieut.
Peary published Northward over the Great Ice, a record of all his
expeditions up to that time, and in the same year he started

* A narrative of the expedition written by Mrs Peary, and con-
taining an account of the " Great White Journey across Greenland,"
by her husband, was published under the title of My Arctic Journal.

on another expedition to the Arctic regions. In this and sub-
sequent expeditions he received financial aid from Mr Morris
Jesup and the Peary Arctic Club. The greatest forethought
was bestowed upon the organization of the expedition, a four-
years' programme being laid down at the outset and a system
of relief expeditions provided for. A distinctive feature was
the utilization of a company of Eskimos. Although unsuccessful
as regards the North Pole, the expedition achieved the accurate
survey (1900) of the northern limit of the Greenland continent
and the demanstration that beyond it lay a Polar ocean.
In 1902 Peary with Henson and an Eskimo advanced as
far north as lat. 84° 17' 27", the highest point then reached
in the western hemisphere. Lieut. Peary had now been
promoted to the rank of Commander, and on his return he
was elected president of the American Geographical Society.
In November 1903 he went to England on a naval commission
to inquire into the system of naval barracks in Great
Britain, and was presented with the Livingstone Gold Medal
of the Royal Scottish Geographical Society. Commander Peary
then began preparations for another expedition by the con-
struction of a special ship, named the " Roosevelt," the first
ever built in the United States for the purpose of Arctic
exploration. He sailed from New York on the i6th of July
1905, having two years' supplies on board. The " Roosevelt "
wintered on the north coast of Grant Land, and on the 2ist of
February a start was made with sledges. The party experienced
serious delay owing to open water between 84° and 85°, and
farther north the ice was opened up during a six days' gale,
which cut off communications and destroyed the depots which
had been established. A steady easterly drift was experienced.
But on the 2ist of April, 1906, 87°6' was reached — the"farthest
north " attained by man — by which time Peary and his com-
panions were suffering severe privations, and had to make the
return journey in the face of great difficulties. They reached
the north coast of Greenland and subsequently rejoined the ship,
from which, after a week's rest, Peary made a sledge journey
along the north coast of Grant Land. Returning home, the
expedition reached Hebron, Labrador, on the i3th of October,
the " Roosevelt " having been nearly wrecked en route. In 1907
the narrative of this journey, Nearest the Pole, was published.

In 1908 Peary started in the " Roosevelt " on the journey
which was to bring him his final success. He left Etah on the
i8th of August, wintered in Grant Land, and set forward over the
ice from Cape Columbia on the ist of March 1909. A party of
six started with him, and moved in sections, one in front of
another. They were gradually sent back as supplies diminished.
At the end of the month Captain Bartlett was the only white
man left with Peary, and he turned back in 87° 48' N., the highest
latitude then ever reached. Peary, with his negro servant and
four Eskimos, pushed on, and on the 6th of April 1909 reached
the North Pole. They remained some thirty hours, took obser-
vations, and on sounding, a few miles from the pole, found no
bottom at 1500 fathoms. The party, with the exception of one
drowned, returned safely to the " Roosevelt," which left her
winter quarters on the i8th of July and reached Indian Harbour
on the sth of September. Peary's The North Pole: Its Discovery
in igog was published in 1910.

Just before the news came of Peary's success another
American explorer, Dr F. A. Cook (b. 1865), returning from
Greenland to Europe on a Danish ship, claimed that he
had reached the North Pole on the 2ist of April 1908. He had
accompanied an expedition northward in 1907, prepared to
attempt to reach the Pole if opportunity offered, and according
to his own story had done so, leaving his party and taking only
some Eskimos, early in 1908. Nothing had been heard of him
since March of that year, and it was supposed that he had
perished. Cook's claim to have forestalled Peary was at first
credited in various circles, and he was given a rapturous
reception at Copenhagen; but scientific opinion in England and
America was more reserved, and eventually, after a prolonged
dispute, a special committee of the university of Copenhagen,
to whom his documents were submitted, declared that they

PEASANT— PECAUT

contained no proof that he had reached the Pole. By that time
most other people had come to an adverse conclusion and the
sensation was over.

PEASANT (O. Fr. paysant, Mod. paysan; Lat. pagensis,
belonging to the pagus or country; cf. " pagan"), a countryman
or rustic, either working for others, or, more specifically, owning
or renting and working by his own labour a small plot of ground.
Though a word of not very strict application, it is now frequently
used of the rural population of such countries as France, where
the land is chiefly held by small holders, " peasant proprietors."
(See ALLOTMENTS and METAYAGE).

PEASE, EDWARD (1767-1858), the founder of a famous
industrial Quaker family in the north of England, was born at
Darlington on the 315! of May 1767, his father, Joseph Pease
(1737-1808), being a woollen manufacturer in that town. Having
retired from this business Edward Pease made the acquaintance
of George Stephenson, and with him took a prominent part in
constructing the railway between Stockton and Darlington.
He died at Darlington on the 3ist of July 1858. His second
son, Joseph Pease (1799-1872), who assisted his father in his
railway enterprises, was M.P. for South Durham from 1832 to
1841, being the first Quaker to sit in parliament. He was
interested in collieries, quarries and ironstone mines in Durham
and North Yorkshire, as well as in cotton and woollen manu-
factures; and he was active in educational and philanthropic
work. Another son, Henry Pease (1807-1881), was M.P. for
South Durham from 1857 to 1865. Like all the members of
his family he was a supporter of the Peace Society, and in its
interests he visited the emperor Nicholas of Russia just before
the outbreak of the Crimean War, and later the emperor of the
French, Napoleon III. /

Joseph Pease's eldest son, Sir Joseph Whitwell Pease (1828-
1903), was made a baronet in 1882. He was M.P. for South
Durham from 1865 to 1885 and for the Barnard Castle division
of Durham from 1885 to 1903. His elder son, Sir Alfred Edward
.Pease (b. 1857), who succeeded to the baronetcy, became famous
as a hunter of big game, and was M.P. for York from 1885 to
1892 and for the Cleveland division of Yorkshire from 1897 to
1902. A younger son, Joseph Albert Pease (b. 1860), entered
parliament in 1892, and in 1908 became chief Liberal whip,
being advanced to the cabinet as chancellor of the duchy of
Lancaster in 1910.

Another son of Joseph Pease was Arthur Pease (1837-1898),
member of parliament from 1880 to 1885 and again from 1895
to 1898. His son, Herbert Pike Pease (b. 1867), M.P. for
Darlington 1898-1910, was one of the Unionist Whips.

The Diaries of Edward Pease were edited by Sir Alfred Pease in
1907.

PEAT (possibly connected with Med. Lat. pelia, pecia, piece,
ultimately of Celtic origin; cf. O. Celt, pet, O. Ir. pit, Welsh peth,
portion), a product of decayed vegetation found in the form of
bogs in many parts of the world. The continent of Europe is
estimated to contain 212,700 sq. m. of bog; Ireland has 2,858,150
acres, Canada 30,000,000 acres, and the United States 20,000,000
acres. The plants which give origin to these deposits are mainly
aquatic, including reeds, rushes, sedges and mosses. Sphagnum
is present in most peats, but in Irish peat Thacomitrum lanugino-
sum predominates. It seems that the disintegration of the
vegetable tissues is effected partly by moist atmospheric oxida-
tion and partly by anaerobic bacteria, yeasts, moulds and fungi,
in depressions containing fairly still but not stagnant water,
which is retained by an impervious bed or underlying strata.
As decomposition proceeds the products become waterlogged
and sink to the bottom of the pool; in the course of time the
deposits attain a considerable thickness, and the lower layers,
under the superincumbent pressure of the water and later
deposits, are gradually compressed and carbonized. The most
favourable conditions appear to be a moist atmosphere, and a
mean annual temperature of about 45° F. ; no bogs are found
between latitudes 45° N. and 45° S.

Peat varies from a pale yellow or brown fibrous substance,
resembling turf or compressed hay, containing conspicuous plant

remains, to a compact dark brown material, resembling black
clay when wet, and some varieties of lignite when dry. Two
typical forms may be noticed: " Hill peat " (the mountain or
brown bogs of Ireland), found in mountainous districts, and
consisting mainly of Sphagnum and Andromeda; and " Bottom
peat " (the lowland or red bogs of Ireland), found in lakes,
rivers, and brooks, and containing Hypnum. It always contains
much water, up to 90%, which it is necessary to remove before
the product can be efficiently employed as a fuel, and for most
other purposes. A specimen dried at 100° C. had the composi-
tion: carbon = 60-48%, hydrogen = 6- 10%, oxygen = 32-55%,
nitrogen = 0-88%, ash = 3~3O%; the ash is very variable — from
i to 65 % — and consists principally of clay and sand, with lesser
amounts of ferric oxide, lime, magnesia, &c. The specific gravity
has been variously given, owing to the variable water content
and air spaces; when dried and compressed, however, it is denser
than water.

Peat-winning presents certain special features. The general
practice is to cut a trench about a foot deep with a peculiarly
shaped spade, termed in Ireland a " slane," and remove sods
from 3 to 4 ft. long. When one layer has been removed, the
next is attacked, and so on. If the deposit be more solid step-
working may be adopted, and should water be reached recourse
may be had to long-handled slanes. The sods are allowed to
drain, and then stacked for drying in the air, being occasionally
turned so as to dry equally; this process may require about six
weeks. The dried sods are known as " dug peat." Excavators
and dredges are now extensively used, and the drying is effected
in heated chambers, both fixed and revolving.

The low value of ordinary dug peat as a fuel has led to processes
for obtaining a more useful product. In M. Ekenberg's process
the wet peat is pulped and milled so as to make it of uniform
composition, and the pulp passed into an oven maintained at
l8o°-2OO° F., where it is carbonized by superheated water. The
pressed product, which resembles lignite, still contains 8 to 14% of
water; this is driven off by heat, and the residue briquetted. The
final product is nearly equal to coal in calorific value, and has the
additional advantage of a lower sulphur content — 0-2 to 0-4 %
against about 2 % in ordinary coal. M. Zeigler's method leads to
the production of a useful coke. Both these processes permit the
recovery of valuable by-products, especially ammonium sulphate.
Experiments for obtaining a gas suitable for consumption in gas-
engines have been followed by commercial processes devised by the
Mond Gas Corporation, London, and Crossley Bros, of Manchester,
and by Caro and Frank in Germany. The processes essentially
consist in destructively distilling peat in special retorts and under
specified conditions, and, in addition to the gas, there is recovered
a useful coke and also the nitrogen as ammonium sulphate.

The conversion of the nitrogen into ammonia has been the subject
of much work, and is commercially pursued at a works at Carn-
lough, Co. Antrim, under patents held by H. C. Woltereck. The
peat is treated with a mixture of air and water vapour in special
furnaces, and the gaseous products, including paraffin tar, acetic
acid and ammonia, are led through a special scrubber to remove
the tar, then through a tower containing milk of lime to absorb
the acid (the calcium acetate formed being employed for the manu-
facture of acetone, &c.), and finally through a sulphuric acid tower,
where the ammonia is converted into ammonium sulphate which
is recovered by crystallization.

Peat has also been exploited as a source of commercial alcohol,
to be employed in motors. In the process founded on the experi-
ments of R. W. Wallace and Sir W. Ramsay, which gives 25 to 26
gallons of spirit from a ton of peat, the peat is boiled with water
containing a little sulphuric acid, the product neutralized with
lime and then distilled; the ammonia is also recovered. In another
process a yield of 40 gallons of spirit and 66 Ib of ammonium
sulphate per ton of peat is claimed.

Of other applications we may notice C. E. Nelson's process for
making a paper, said to be better than ordinary wrapping; the first
factory to exploit this idea was opened at Capac, Michigan, in 1906.
Peat has been employed as a manure for many years, and recently
attempts have been made to convert artificially its nitrogen into
assimilable nitrates; such a process was patented by A. Miintz
and A. G. Girard of Paris, in 1907.

See P. R. Bjorling and F. T. Gissing, Peat and its Manufacture
(1907); F. T. Gissing, Commercial Peat (1909); E. Nystrom, Peat
and Lignite (1908), published by Department of Mines of Canada.

PECAUT, FELIX (1828-1898), French educationalist, a
member of an old Huguenot family, was born at Salies de Beam,
in 1828. He was for some months evangelical pastor at Salies,
but he had no pretence of sympathy with ecclesiastical authority

PECCARY— PECK

He was consequently compelled to resign his pastorate, and for
some years occupied himself by urging the claims of a liberal
Christianity. In 1879 he conducted a general inspection of
primary education for the French government, and several
similar missions followed. His fame chiefly rests in his successful
organization of the training school for women teachers at
Fontenoy-aux-Roses, to which he devoted fifteen years of
ceaseless toil. He died on the 3ist of July 1898.

A summary of his educational views is given in his Public Educa-
tion and National Life (1897).

PECCARY, the name of the New World representatives of
the swine (Suidae) of the E. hemisphere, of which they constitute
the sub-family Dicotylinae (or Tagassuinae). (See ARTIODACTYLA
and SWINE.)

The teeth of the peccaries differ from those of the typical Old
World pigs (Sus), numerically, in wanting the upper outer incisor
and the anterior premolar on each side of each jaw, the dental
formula being: i. f , c. {, p. f , m. •§ , total 38. From those of all
Old World swine or Suinae, the upper canines, or tusks, differ
in having their points directed downwards, not outwards or

The Collared Peccary (Dicotyles tajacu).

upwards; these being very sharp, with cutting hinder edges,
and completely covered with enamel until worn. The lower
canines are large and directed upwards and outwards, and
slightly curved backwards. The cheek-teeth form a continuous
series, gradually increasing in size from the first to the last: the
molars having square four-cusped crowns. The stomach is
much more complex than in the true pigs, almost approaching
that of a ruminant. In the feet the two middle (third and
fourth) metacarpal and metatarsal bones, which are completely
separate in the pigs, are united at their upper ends. On the
fore-foot the two (second and fifth) outer toes are equally
developed as in pigs, but on the hind-foot, although the inner
(or second) is present, the outer or fifth toe is entirely wanting.
As in all Suidae the snout is truncated, and the nostrils are
situated in its flat, expanded, disk-like termination. The ears
are rather small, ovate and erect; and there is no external
appearance of a tail.

Peccaries, which range fromNewMexico andTexas to Patagonia,
are represented by two main types, of which the first is the
collared peccary, Dicotyles (or Tagassu) tajacu, which has an
extensive range in South America. Generally it is found singly
or in pairs, or at most in small herds of from eight to ten, and is
not inclined to attack other animals or human beings. Its
colour is dark grey, with a white or whitish band passing across
the chest from shoulder to shoulder. The length of the head
and body is about 36 in. The second form is typified by the
white-lipped peccary or warri, D. (or T.) labiatus, or pecari,
representing the sub-genus Olidosus. Typically it is rather
larger than the collared species, being about 40 in. in length,
of a blackish colour, with the lips and lower jaw white. It is

not found farther north than Guatemala, or south of Paraguay.
Generally met with in large droves of from fifty to a hundred, it
is of a more pugnacious disposition than the former species,
and a hunter who encounters a herd in a forest has often to climb
a tree as his only chance of safety. Peccaries are omnivorous,
living on roots, fallen fruits, worms and carrion, and often inflict
great devastation upon crops. Both types are so nearly allied
that they will breed together freely in captivity. Unlike pigs,
they never appear to produce more than two young ones at a
birth.

Remains of extinct peccaries referable to the modern genus
occur in the caverns and superficial deposits of South America,
but not in the earlier, formations. This, coupled with the
occurrence of earlier types in North America, indicates that the
group is a northern one. Of the extinct North American
peccaries, the typical Dicotyles occur in the Pliocene while the
Miocene Botkriolabis, which has tusks of the peccary type,
approximates in the structure of its cheek-teeth to the European
Miocene genus among the Suinae. From this it may be inferred
that the ancestral peccaries entered America in the Upper
Oligocene. Platygonus is an aberrant type which died out in
the Pleistocene. (R.L.*)

PECHLIN, KARL FREDRIK (1720-1796), Swedish politician
and demagogue, son of the Holstein minister at Stockholm, was
educated in Sweden, and entered the Swedish army. He rose
to the rank of major-general, but became famous by being the
type par excellence of the corrupt and egoistic Swedish parlia-
mentarian of the final period of the Frihetstiden (see SWEDEN :
History); he received for many years the sobriquet of " General
of the Riksdag." Pechlin first appears prominently in Swedish
politics in 1760, when by suddenly changing sides he contrived
to save the " Hats " from impeachment. Enraged at being
thus excluded from power by their former friend, the " Caps "
procured Pechlin's expulsion from the two following Riksdags -
In 1769 Pechlin sold the " Hats " as he had formerly sold the
" Caps, " and was largely instrumental in preventing the pro-
jected indispensable reform of the Swedish constitution. During
the revolution of 1772 he escaped from Stockholm and kept
quietly in the background. In 1786, when the opposition
against Gustavus III. was gathering strength, Pechlin reappeared
in the Riksdag as one of the leaders of the malcontents, and is
said to have been at the same time in the pay of the Russian
court. In 1789 he was one of the deputies whom Gustavus III.
kept under lock and key till he had changed the government
into a semi-absolute monarchy. It is fairly certain that Pechlin
was at the bottom of the plot for murdering Gustavus in 1792.
On the eve of the assassination (March 16) the principal
conspirators met at his house to make their final preparations
and discuss the form of government which should be adopted
after the king's death. Pechlin undertook to crowd the fatal
masquerade with accomplices, but took care not to be there
personally. He was arrested on the i7th of March, but nothing
definite could ever be proved against him. Nevertheless he
was condemned to imprisonment in the fortress of Varberg,
where he died four years later.

See R. N. Bain, Gustavus III. and his Contemporaries (London,
1905). (R. N. B.)

PECHORA, a river of N. Russia, rising in the Urals, almost
on 62° N., in the government of Perm. It flows W. for a short
distance, then turns N. and maintains that direction up to
about 66° 20' N. It then describes a double loop, to N. and
to S., and after that resumes its N. course, finally emptying
into the Gulf of Pechora, situated between the White Sea and
the Kara Sea. Its total length is 970 m. At its mouth it forms
an elongated delta. Although frozen in its upper reaches for
190 days in the year and for 138 days in its lower reaches, it
is navigable throughout the greater part of its course. Its
drainage basin covers an area of 127,200 sq. m. The principal
tributaries are, on the right, the Ilych and the Usa, and on the
.eft the Izhma, the Tsylma and the Sula.

PECK, a dry measure of capacity, especially used for grain.
It contains 8 quarts or 2 gallons, and is J of a bushel. The

PECKHAM— PECORA

33

imperial peck contains 554-548 cub. in., in the United States
of America 537-6 cub. in. The word is in M.E. pek, and
is found latinized as pecctim or pekka. In Med. Lat. are found
picotinus, " mensura frumentaria," and picotus, " mensura
liquidorum " (Du Cange, Gloss, s.vv.) These words seem to be
connected with the Fr. picoter, to peck, of a bird, and this would
identify the word with " peck," a variant of " pick," a tap or
stroke of the beak, especially used of the action of a bird in
picking up grain or other food. The sense-development in this
case is very obscure, and the name of the measure is found much
earlier than " peck " as a variant form of " pick."

PECKHAM, JOHN (d. 1292), archbishop of Canterbury, was
probably a native of Sussex, and received his early education
from the Cluniac monks of Lewes. About 1250 he joined the
Franciscan order and studied in their Oxford convent. Shortly
afterwards he proceeded to the university of Paris, where he
took his degree under St Bonaventure and became regent in
theology. For many years Peckham taught at Paris, coming
into contact with the greatest scholars of the day, among others
St Thomas Aquinas. About 1270 he returned to Oxford and
taught there, being elected in 1275 provincial minister of the
Franciscans in England, but he was soon afterwards called
to Rome as lector sacri palalii, or theological lecturer in the
schools of the papal palace. In 1279 he returned to England as
archbishop of Canterbury, being appointed by the pope on the
rejection of Robert Burnell, Edward I.'s candidate. Peckham
was always a strenuous advocate of the papal power, especially
as shown in the council of Lyons in 1274. His enthronement
in October 1279 marks the beginning of an important epoch
in the history of the English primacy. Its characteristic note
was an insistence on discipline which offended contemporaries.
Peckham's zeal was not tempered by discernment, and he
had little gift of sympathy or imagination. His first act on
arrival in England was to call a council at Reading, which met in
July 1 279. Its main object was ecclesiastical reform, but the pro-
vision that a copy of Magna Carta should be hung in all cathedral
and collegiate churches seemed to the king a political action,
and parliament declared void any action of this council
touching on the royal power. Nevertheless Peckham's relations
with the king were often cordial, and Edward called on him for
help in bringing order into conquered Wales. The chief note
of his activity was, however, certainly ecclesiastical. The
crime of " plurality," the holding by one cleric of two or more
benefices, was especially attacked, as also clerical absenteeism
and ignorance, and laxity in the monastic life. Peckham's
main instrument was a minute system of " visitation," which he
used with a frequency hitherto unknown. Disputes resulted,
and on some points Peckham gave way, but his powers as papal
legate complicated matters, and he did much to strengthen
the court of Canterbury at the expense of the lower courts.
The famous quarrel with St Thomas of Cantilupe, bishop of
Hereford, arose out of similar causes. A more attractive side
of Peckham's career is his activity as a writer. The numerous
manuscripts of his works to be found in the libraries of Italy,
England and France, testify to his industry as a philosopher
and commentator. In philosophy he represents the Franciscan
school which attacked the teaching of St Thomas Aquinas
on the " Unity of Form." He wrote in a quaint and elaborate
style on scientific, scriptural and moral subjects and engaged
in much controversy in defence of the Franciscan rule and
practice. He was " an excellent maker of songs," and his
hymns are characterized by a lyrical tenderness which seems
typically Franciscan. Printed examples of his work as com-
mentator and hymn writer respectively may be found in the
Firamentum Irium ordinum (Paris, 1512), and his office for
Trinity Sunday in the " unreformed " breviary.

The chief authority on Peckham as archbishop of Canterbury,
is the Registrum fratris Johannis Peckham, edited by C. Trice
Martin for the Rolls Series (London, 1882-1885). A sympathetic
account of his life as a Franciscan is to be found in L. Wadding,
Annales minorum (Lyons, 1625, 1654). See also the article by
C. L. Kingsford in Did. Nat. Biog., and Wilkin's Concilia magnae
Britanniae (London, 1737). (E. O'N.)

XXI. 2

PECOCK (or PEACOCK), REGINALD (c. i39S-c. 1460), English
prelate and writer, was probably born in Wales, and was edu-
cated at Oriel College, Oxford. Having been ordained priest
in 1421, he secured a mastership in London in 1431, and soon
became prominent by his attacks upon the religious position
of the Lollards. In 1444 he became bishop of St Asaph, and
six years later bishop of Chichester. He was an adherent of
the house of Lancaster and in 1454 became a member of the privy
council. In attacking the Lollards Pecock put forward religious
views far in advance of his age. He asserted that the Scriptures
were not the only standard of right and wrong; he questioned
some of the articles of the creed and the infallibility of the
Church; he wished " bi cleer witte drawe men into consente of
trewe feith otherwise than bi fire and swerd or hangement " and
in general he exalted the authority of reason. Owing to these
views the archbishop of Canterbury ,Thomas Bourchier, ordered
his writings to be examined. This was done and he was found
guilty of heresy. He was removed from the privy council and
he only saved himself from a painful death by privately,
and then publicly (at St Paul's Cross, Dec. 4, 1457), renounc-
ing his opinions. Pecock, who has been called " the only
great English theologian of the isth century," was then
forced to resign his bishopric, and was removed to Thorney
Abbey in Cambridgeshire, where he doubtless remained until his
death. The bishop's chief work is the famous Represser of
over-much weeting [blaming] of the Clergie, which was issued
about 1455. In addition to its great importance in the history
of the Lollard movement the Represser has an exceptional
interest as a model of the English of the time, Pecock being
one of the first writers to use the vernacular. In thought and
style alike it is the work of a man of learning and ability.

A biography of the author is added to the edition of the Represser
published by C. Babingtor. for the Rolls Series in 1860. Pecock' s
other writings include the Book or Rule of Christian Religion; the
Donet, " an introduction to the chief truths of the Christian faith
in the form of a dialogue between father and son " ; and the Folewer
to the Donet. The two last works are extant in manuscript. His
Book of Faith has been edited from the manuscript in the library
of Trinity College, Cambridge, by J. L. Morison (Glasgow, 1909).
See also John Lewis, Life of Pecock (1744; new ed., 1820).

PECORA (plural of Lat. pecus, cattle), a term employed — in a
more restricted sense — in place of the older title Ruminantia,
to designate the group of ruminating artiodactyle ungulates
represented by oxen, sheep, goats, antelopes, deer, giraffes, &c.

The leading characteristics of the Pecora are given in some
detail in the article ARTIODACTYLA (q.v.); but it is necessary to
allude to a few of these here. Pecora, or true ruminants as
they may be conveniently called, have complex stomachs and
chew the cud; they have no upper incisor teeth; and the lower
canines are approximated to the outer incisors in such a manner
that the three incisors and the one canine of the two sides
collectively form a continuous semicircle of four pairs of nearly
similar teeth. In the cheek-teeth the component columns are
crescent-shaped, constituting the selenodont type. In the fore-
limbs the bones corresponding to the third and fourth metacar-
pals of the pig's foot are fused into a cannon-bone; and a similar
condition obtains in the case of the corresponding metatarsals
in the hind-limbs. There is generally no sagittal crest to the
skull; and the condyle of the lower jaw is transversely elongated.
Another general, although not universal, characteristic of the
Pecora is the presence of simple or complex appendages on the
forehead commonly known as horns. In a few existing species,
such as the musk-deer and the water-deer, these appendages
are absent, and they are likewise lacking in a large number
of extinct members of the group, in fact in all the earlier ones.
They are, therefore, a specialized feature, which has only recently
attained its full development.

These horns present several distinct structural types, which may
be classified as follows : —

I. The simplest type is that of the giraffe, in which three bony
prominences — a single one in front and a pair behind — quite
separate from the underlying bones and covered during life with
skin, occupy the front surface of the skull. The summits of the
hind pair are surmounted by bristly hairs. In the extinct

5

34

PECORA

Sivatherium there are two pairs of such appendages, of which the
hinder are large and were probably covered during life either with
skin or thin horn. In the giraffes the separation of the horns from
the skull may be a degenerate character.

II. In the Asiatic muntjac deer we find a pair of skin-covered
horns, or "pedicles," corresponding to the paired horns of the
giraffe, although welded to the skull. From the summits of these

FIG. i. — Head of Siamese Deer (Cervus schomburgkii), showing
antlers.

pedicles arise secondary outgrowths, at first covered with skin,
which (owing to the growth of a ring of bone at the base arresting
the flow of blood) eventually dries up and leaves bare bone incapable
of further growth. In the muntjac the bare bony part, or " antler,"
is small in proportion to the skin-covered pedicle, and simple in
structure; but in the majority of deer the antler increases in size
at the expense of the pedicle — which dwindles — and in some species,
like the Siamese deer (fig. i), the sambar and the red deer, becomes
very large and more or less branched. Owing to liability to necrosis,
the permanent retention of such a mass of dead bone would be
dangerous; and the antlers are consequently shed annually (or
every few years), to be renewed the following year, when, till the
animal becomes past its prime, they are larger than their predeces-
sors. The periodical shedding is also necessary in order to allow of
this increase in size. With the exception of the reindeer, antlers
are confined to the males.

III. The third type of horn is presented by the American
prongbuck, or pronghorn, in which bony processes, or " core's," corre-
sponding to the horns of the giraffe, have acquired a horny sheath,
in place of skin ; the sheath being in this instance forked, and annually
shed and renewed, although the core is simple. The sheaths are
akin to hair in structure, thus suggesting affinity with the hairs
surmounting the giraffe's horns. Female prongbuck may or may
not have horns.

IV. In the great majority of " Hollow-horned Ruminants,"
such as oxen, sheep, goats and antelopes (fig. 2), the horny sheath
(or true " horn ") forms a simple unbranched cone, which may be
compressed, spirally twisted, or curved in one or more directions,
but is permanently retained and continues to grow throughout
life from the base, while it becomes worn away at the tip. Rarely,
as in the four-horned antelope, there are two pairs of horns. In
many cases these horns are present in both sexes.

Dr H. Gadow is of opinion that the antlers of the deer, the horn-
like protuberances on the skull of the giraffe, and the true horns
of the prongbuck and other hollow-horned ruminants (Bovidae)
are all different stages of evolution from a single common type:
the antlers of the deer being the most primitive, and the horns of
the Bovidae the most specialized. From the fact that the bony
horn-core of the hollow-horned ruminants first develops as a separate
ossification, as do the horns of the giraffe, while the pedicle of the
antlers of the deer grow direct from the frontal bone, it has been
proposed to place the hollow-horned ruminants (inclusive of the
prongbuck) and the giraffes in one group and the deer in another.
This arrangement has the disadvantage of separating the deer from

the giraffes, to which they are evidently nearly related ; but_ Dr
Gadow's work brings them more into line. Whether he is right
in regarding the hollow-horned ruminants as derived from the
primitive deer may, however, be a matter of opinion. One very
important fact recorded by Dr Gadow is that calves and lambs
shed their horns at an early age. The Bovidae are thus brought
into nearer relationship with the American prongbuck (the only
living ruminant which sheds its horn-cover in the adult condition)
than has generally been supposed.

The above-mentioned four types of skull appendages are gener-
ally regarded as severally characteristic of as many family groups,
namely the Giraffidae, Cervidae, Antilocapridae and Bovidae. The
two last are, however, much more closely connected than are either
of the others, and should perhaps be united.

Giraffidae. — In the Giraffidae, which include not only giraffes
(Giraffa) but also the okapi (Ocapia) and a number of extinct
species from the Lower Pliocene Tertiary deposits of southern
Europe, Asia and North Africa, the appendages on the skull are of
type No. I., and may well be designated " antler-horns." Another
important feature is that the lower canine has a cleft or twp-lobed
crown, so that it is unlike the incisors to which it is approximated.
There are no upper canines; and the cheek-teeth are short -crowned
(brachyodont) with a peculiar grained enamel, resembling the
skin of a slug in character. The feet have only two hoofs, all traces
of the small lateral pair found in many other ruminants having
disappeared.

The giraffes (Giraffa) are now an exclusively African genus, and
have long legs and neck, and three horns — a single one in front
and a pair behind — supplemented in some instances with a rudi-
mentary pair on the occiput.

The okapi (Ocapia), which is also African but restricted to the
tropical forest-region, in place of being an inhabitant of more or
less open country, represents a second genus, characterized by the
shorter neck and limbs, the totally different type of colouring, and
the restriction of the horns to the male sex, in which they form
a pair on the forehead; these horns being more compressed than

FIG. 2. — Head of Grant's Gazelle (Gazella granti), showing horns.

the paired horns of the giraffe, and penetrating the skin at their
summits (see GIRAFFE and OKAPI). Remains of extinct species
of giraffe occur in the Lower Pliocene formations of Greece, Hungary,
Persia, Northern India and China. From deposits of the same
age in Greece, Samos and elsewhere have been obtained skulls
and other remains of Palaeolragus or Samotherium, a ruminant
closely allied to Ocapia, the males of which were armed with a very
similar pair of dagger-shaped horns. Helladotherium was a much
larger animal, known by a single hornless skull from the Pliocene
of Greece, which may be that of a female. In the equally large

PECORA

35

Bramatherium and Hydaspitherium of India the horns of the males
were complex, those of the former including an occipital pair,
while those of the latter arise from a common base. In both
genera, as in the okapi, there is a vacuity in front of the orbit.
Largest of all is Sivatherium, typically from the Lower Pliocene of
Northern India, but also recorded from Adrianople, in which the
skull of the male is short and wide, with a pair of simple conical
horns above the eye, and a huge branching pair at the vertex.
Libytherium is an allied form from North Africa. Whether the
Giraffidae were originally an African or a Euro-Asiatic group there
is not yet sufficient evidence to decide. The family is unrepre-
sented in the western hemisphere.

Cervidae. — In the deer-tribe, or Cervidae, the lower canine, as in
the two following families, is simple and similar to the incisors.
The frontal appendages, when present, are confined (except in the
case of the reindeer) to the males, and take the form of antlers, that
is to say of type No. II. in the foregoing description. As a general
rule, the molars, and more especially the first, are partially brachy-
odont (short-crowned) ; although they are taller in the chital (Cervus
axis). In the skull there are two orifices to the lachrymal duct,
situated on or inside the rim of the orbit. A preorbital vacuity of
such dimensions as to exclude the lachrymal bone from articulation
with the nasal. Upper canines usually present in both sexes, and
sometimes attaining a very great size in the male (see fig. 3).

FIG. 3. — Skull of Chinese Water-Deer, Hydrelaphus inermis (adult
male), a Deer without Antlers, but with largely developed upper
canine teeth. (Xj.)

Lateral digits of both fore and hind feet almost always present,
and frequently the lower ends of the metacarpals and the meta-
tarsals as well. Placenta with few cotyledons. Gall-bladder
absent (except in the musk-deer, Moschus). This family contains
numerous species, having a wide geographical distribution, ranging
in the New World from the Arctic circle as far south as Patagonia,
and in the Old World throughout the whole of Europe and Asia,
but absent in Africa south of the Sahara, and, of course, Australasia.
Evidently the family originated in the northern continent of the
Old World, from which an entrance was effected by way of Bering
Strait into America. Some of the more northern American deer,
such as the wapiti, reindeer and elk (moose), are cjosely allied to
Old World species; but there is also a group of exclusively American
deer (Mazama) — the only one found in Central and South America
— the members of which are unlike any living Old World deer;
and these must be regarded as having reached the western hemi-
sphere at an earlier date than the wapiti, reindeer and elk (see
DEER, ELK, FALLOW-DEER, MUNTJAC, MUSK-DEER, PfeRE DAVID'S
DEER, REINDEER, ROEBUCK, WATER-DEER, &c.).

Remains of deer more or less nearly allied to species inhabiting
the same districts are found over the greater part of the present
habitat of the family. It is noteworthy, however, that certain
Pliocene European deer (Anoglochis) appear to be closely allied to
the modern American deer (Mazama). As we descend in the geo-
logical series the deer have simpler antlers, as in the European
Miocene Dicrocerus; while in the Oligocene Amphitragulus, Dremo-
therium and Palaeomeryx, constituting the family Palaeomerycidae,
antlers were absent, and the crowns of the molars so low that the
whole depth of the hollows between the crescentic cojumns is com-
pletely visible. Most of these animals were of small size, and many
had long upper canines, like those of the existing Hydrelaphus;
while in all there was no depression for a gland in front of the eye.

From North America have been obtained remains of certain
ruminants which seem in some degree intermediate between deer
and the prongbuck. Of one of these a complete skeleton was
obtained in 1901 from the Middle Miocene deposits of north-eastern
Colorado, and as mounted stands 19 in. in height at the withers.
With the exception that the right antler is malformed and partially
aborted, and that the bones of the lateral toes have been lost,
the skeleton is practically complete. The one complete antler has
a well-marked burr and a long undivided beam, which eventually
forks. After this there is a bifurcation of the hinder branch, thus
producing three tines. From the presence of these well-marked
antlers the skeleton would at first sight be set down as that of a
small and primitive deer, conforming in regard to the structure of
these appendages to the American type of the group. Mr W. D.

Matthew shows, however, that the skeleton of Merycodus, as the
extinct ruminant is called, differs markedly from that of all deer.
The most noteworthy point of distinction is in the skull, in which
the facial portion is sharply bent down on the posterior basal axis
in the fashion characteristic of the hollow-horned ruminants (oxen,
antelopes, &c.), and the American prongbuck, instead of running
more or less nearly parallel to the same, as in deer. Again, the
cheek-teeth have the tall crowns characteristic of a large number
of representatives of the first group and of the prongbuck, thereby
showing that Merycodus can scarcely be regarded as a primitive
type. As regards the general structure of the rest of the skeleton,
it must suffice to say that this agrees closely with that of the ante-
lopes and the prongbuck', and differs markedly from the cervine
type. In the absence of any trace of the lower extremities of the
metacarpal and metatarsal bones of the lateral toes the skeleton
differs from the American deer, and resembles those hollow-horned
ruminants in which these toes persist.

As a whole Merycodus presents a curious mixture of cervine
and antilopine character. To explain these, two alternatives are
offered by the describer. Either we must regard Merycodus as
a deer which parallels the antelopes and the prongbuck in every
detail of skeletal structure, or else, like the prongbuck, an antelope
separated from the main stock at a date sufficiently early to have
permitted the development of a distinct type of cranial appendages,
namely, antlers in place of true horns. The former alternative,
it is urged, involves a parallelism too close and too uniform between
unrelated types to have been probable. On the latter view Mery-
codus, the prongbuck (Antilocapra) and the antelopes must be
regarded as representing three branches from an original common
stock, divergent as regards the structure of their cranial appendages,
but parallel in other respects. If, therefore, Antilocapra deserves
to be separated as a family from the Bovidae, the same can scarcely
be refused for Merycodus. But American extinct types appear to
indicate signs of intimate relationship between antelopes, prong-
buck and deer, and it may be necessary eventually to amend the
current classification. As a temporary measure it seems prefer-
able to regard Merycodus either as representing a distinct sub-
family of Antilocapridae or a family by itself, the latter course
being adopted by Mr Matthew.

Whatever be the ultimate verdict, the association of antlers —
and these, be it noticed, conforming almost exactly with the forked
type characteristic of American deer — with an antilopine type of
skull, skeleton and teeth in Merycodus is a most interesting and
unexpected feature. Merycodus was named many years ago by
Professor J. Leidy on the evidence of imperfect materials, and other
remains now known to belong to the same type were subsequently
described as Cosoryx, to which Blastomeryx seems to be allied.
Not till the discovery of the skeleton of the' species described by
Mr Matthew was it possible to arrive at an adequate conception of
the affinities of this remarkable ruminant.

Antilocapridae. — By many modern writers the American prong-
buck, pronghorn or " antelope," alone forming the genus Antilo-
capra, is regarded as representing merely a sub-family of the Bovidae,
to which latter group the animal is structurally akin. In view of
what has been stated in the preceding paragraph with regard to
the extinct American genus Merycodus, it seems, however, at least
provisionally advisable to allow the prongbuck to remain as the
type of a family — Antilocapridae. The characteristic of this family
— as represented by the prongbuck — is that the sheath of the horns
is forked, and shed annually, or every few years. The cheek-
teeth are tall-crowned (hypsodont), and lateral hoofs are wanting
(see PRONGBUCK).

Bovidae. — Lastly, we have the great family of hollow-horned
ruminants or Bovidae, in which the horns (present in the males at
least of all the existing species) take the form of simple non-deciduous
hollow sheaths growing upon bony cores. As a rule the molars
are tall-crowned (hypsodont). Usually only one orifice to the
lachrymal canal, situated inside the rim of the orbit. Lachrymal
bone almost always articulating with the nasal. Canines absent
in both sexes. The lateral toes may be completely absent, but
more often are represented by the hoofs alone, supported sometimes
by a very rudimentary skeleton, consisting of mere irregular nodules
of bone. Lower ends of the lateral metacarpals and metatarsals
never present. Gall-bladder almost always present. Placenta
with many cotyledons.

The Bovidae form a most extensive family, with members widely
distributed throughout the Old World, with the exception of the
Australian region; but in America they are less numerous, and
confined to the Arctic and northern temperate regions, no species
being indigenous either to South or Central America. The home
of the family was evidently the Old World, whence a small number
of forms made their way into North America by way of what is
now Bering Strait. It has already been pointed out that the
Cervidae originated in the northern continent of the Old World;
and it has been suggested that the Bovidae were developed in
Africa. Unfortunately, we know at present practically nothing
as to the past history of the group, all the fossil species at present
discovered approximating more or less closely to existing types.
While admitting, therefore, that there are several facts in favour
of the theory of an African origin of the Bovidae, final judgment

PECS— PEDANT

must for the present be suspended. For the various generic
types see BOVIDAE, and the special articles referred to under that
heading. (R. L.*)

(Ger. FUnfkirchen), a town of Hungary, capital of
the country of Baranya, 160 m. S.S.W. of Budapest by rail.
Pop. (1900), 42, 252. It lies on the outskirts of the Mecsek Hills,
and is composed of the inner old town, which is laid out in an
almost regular square, and four suburbs. Pecs is the see of a
Roman Catholic bishop, and its cathedral, reputed one of the
oldest churches in Hungary, is also ont of the finest medieval
buildings in the country. It was built in the nth century in
the Romanesque style with four towers, and completely restored
in 1881-1891. In the Cathedral Square is situated the Sacellum,
a subterranean brick structure, probably a burial-chapel, dating
from the end of the 4th or the beginning of the sth century.
Other noteworthy buildings are the parish church, formerly a
mosque of the Turkish period; the hospital church, also a former
mosque, with a minaret 88 ft. high, and another mosque, the
bishop's palace, and the town and county hall. Pecs has
manufactories of woollens, porcelain, leather and paper, and
carries on a considerable trade in tobacco, gall-nuts and wine.
The hills around the town are covered with vineyards, which
produce one of the best wines in Hungary. In the vicinity are
valuable coal-mines, which since 1858 are worked by the Danube
Steamship Company.

According to tradition Pecs existed in the time of the Romans
under the name of Sompiana, and several remains of the Roman
and early Christian period have been found here. In the
Prankish-German period it was known under the name of
Quinque ecclesiae; its bishopric was founded in 1009. King
Ludwig I. founded here in 1367 a university, which existed
until the battle of Mohacs. In 1543 it was taken by the Turks,
who retained possession of it till 1686.

PECTORAL, a word applied to various objects worn on the
breast (Lat. pectus) ; thus it is the name of the ornamental plate
of metal or embroidery formerly worn by bishops of the Roman
Church during the celebration of mass, the breastplate of the
Jewish high priest, and the metal plate placed on the breast of
the embalmed dead in Egyptian tombs. The " pectoral cross,"
a small cross of precious metal, is worn by bishops and abbots
of the Roman, and by bishops of the Anglican, communion.
The term has also been used for the more general " poitrel " or
" peitrel " (the French and Norman French forms respectively),
the piece of armour which protected the breast of the war-horse
of the middle ages.

PECULIAR, a word now generally used in the sense of that
which solely or exclusively belongs to,or is particularly character-
istic of, an individual; hence strange, odd, queer. The Lat.
peculiaris meant primarily " belonging to private property,"
and is formed from peculium, private property, particularly
the property given by a paterfamilias to his children, or by a
master to his slave, to enjoy as their own. As a term of ecclesias-
tical law " peculiar " is applied to those ecclesiastical districts,
parishes, chapels or churches, once numerous in England, which
were outside the jurisdiction of the bishop of the diocese in
which they were situated, and were subject to a jurisdiction
" peculiar " to themselves. They were introduced originally,
in many cases by papal authority, in order to limit the powers
of the bishop in his diocese. There were royal peculiars, e^.
the Chapel Royal St James's, or St George's Windsor, peculiars
of the archbishop, over certain of which the Court of Peculiars
exercised jurisdiction (see ARCHES, COURT OF), and peculiars
of bishops and deans (see DEAN). The jurisdiction and privi-
leges of the " peculiars " were abolished by statutory powers
given to the Ecclesiastical Commissioners, by the Ecclesiastical
Commissioners Acts 1836 and 1850, by the Pluralities Act 1838,
the Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction Act 1847, and other statutes.

PECULIAR PEOPLE, a small sect of Christian faith-healers
founded in London in 1838 by John Banyard. They consider
themselves bound by the literal interpretation of James v. 14,
and in cases of sickness seek no medical aid but rely on oil,
prayer and nursing. The community is in the main composed

of simple working people, who, apart from their peculiarity,
have a good reputation; but their avoidance of professional
medical attendance has led to severe criticism at inquests on
children who have died for want of it.

PEDAGOGUE, a teacher or schoolmaster, a term usually now
applied with a certain amount of contempt, implying pedantry,
dogmatism or narrow-mindedness. The Gr. Traidayuyos (ircus,
boy, ayuybs, leader, 8.ytu>, to lead), from which the English
word is derived, was not strictly an instructor. He was a
slave in an Athenian household who looked after the personal
safety of the sons of the master of the house, kept them from
bad company, and took them to and from school and the
gymnasium. He probably sat with his charges in school. The
boys were put in his charge at the age of six. The 7rai5a7&yy6s,
being a slave, was necessarily a foreigner, usually a Thracian or
Asiatic. The Romans adopted the paedagogus or pedagogus
towards the end of the republic. He probably took some part
in the instruction of the boys (see SCHOOLS). Under the empire,
the pedagogus was specifically the instructor of the boy slaves,
who were being trained and educated in the household of the
emperor and of the rich nobles and other persons; these boys
lived together in a paedagogium, and were known as pueri
paedagogiani, a name which has possibly developed into
" page " (?.».).

PEDAL CLARINET, a contrabass instrument invented in
1891 by M. F. Besson to complete the quartet of clarinets, as
the contrafagotto or double bassoon completes that of the
oboe family; it is constructed on practically the same principles
as the clarinet, and consists of a tube 10 ft. long, in which cylin-
drical and conical bores are so ingeniously combined that the
acoustic principles remain unchanged. The tube is doubled up
twice upon itself; at the upper end the beak mouthpiece stands
out like the head of a viper, while at the lower a metal tube, in the
shape of a U with a wide gloxinea-shaped bell, is joined to the
wooden tube. The beak mouthpiece is exactly like that of the '
other clarinets but of larger size, and it is furnished with a single
or beating reed. There are 13 keys and 2 rings on the tube, and
the fingering is the same as for the B flat clarinet except for the
eight highest semitones. The compass of the pedal clarinet is
as follows: —

Notation —

Real Sounds

gj t — to —

from

from

8va bassa

The instrument is in B flat two octaves below the B flat
clarinet, and, like it, it is a transposing instrument, the music
being written in a key a tone higher than that of the
composition, and in order to avoid ledger lines a whole octave
higher besides. The tone is rich and full except for the lowest
notes, which are unavoidably a little rough in quality, but much
more sonorous than the corresponding notes on the double
bassoon. The upper register resembles the chalumeau register
of the B flat clarinet, being reedy and sweet. The instrument
is used as a fundamental bass for the wood wind at Kneller
Hall, and it has also been used at Covent Garden to accompany
the music of Fafner and Hunding in the Nibelungen Ring.

Many attempts have been made since the beginning of the
I9th century to construct contra clarinets, but all possessed inherent
faults and have been discarded (see BATYPHONE). A contrabass
clarinet in F, an octave below the basset horn, constructed by
Albert of Brussels in 1890, was, we believe, considered successful,
but it differed in design from the pedal clarinet. (K. S.)

PEDANT, one who exaggerates the value of detailed erudition
for its own sake; also a person who delights in a display of the
exact niceties of learning, in an excessive obedience to theory
without regard to practical uses. The word came into English
in the latter part of the i6th century in the sense of schoolmaster,
the original meaning of Ital. pedanle, from which it is derived.
The word is usually taken to be an adaptation of Gr. iraidfvtiv,

PEDEN— PEDIPALPI

37

to teach. Others connect with an O. Ital. pedare, to tramp about
(Lat. pes, foot), of an usher tramping about with his pupils.

PEDEN, ALEXANDER (c. 1626-1686), Scottish divine, one of
the leading forces in the Covenant movement, was born at
Auchincloich, Ayrshire, about 1626, and was educated at
Glasgow University. He was ordained minister of New Luce
in Galloway in 1660, but had to leave his parish under Middleton's
Ejectment Act in 1663. For 23 years he wandered far and wide,
bringing comfort and succour to his co-religionists, and often
very narrowly escaping capture. He was indeed taken in June
1673 while holding a conventicle at Knockdow, and condemned
by the privy council to 4 years and 3 months' imprisonment on
the Bass Rock and a further 15 months in the Tolbooth at
Edinburgh. In December 1678 he was, with sixty others,
sentenced to banishment to the American plantations, but the
party was liberated in London, and Peden made his way north
again to divide the remaining years of his life between his own
country and the north of Ireland. His last days were spent in
a cave in the parish of Sorn, near his birthplace, and there he
died in 1686, worn out by hardship and privation.

See A. Smelhe, Men of the Covenant, ch. xxxiv.

PEDERSEN, CHRISTIERN (c. 1480-1554), Danish writer,
known as the " father of Danish literature, " was a canon of the
cathedral of Lund, and in 1510 went to Paris, where he took his
master's degree in 1515. In Paris he edited the proverbs of Peder
Laale and (1514) the Historia danica of Saxo Grammaticus.
He showed signs of the spirit of reform, asserting that the
gospels should be translated into the vernacular so that the
common people might understand. He worked at a continuation
of the history of Saxo Grammaticus, and became secretary to
Christian II., whom he followed into exile in 1525. In Holland
he translated the New Testament (1529) and the Psalms (1531)
from the Vulgate, and, becoming a convert to the reformed
opinion, he issued several Lutheran tracts. After his return to
Denmark in 1532 he set up a printing press at Malmo. He
published a Danish version (Kronike om Holger Danske) of
the French romance of Ogier the Dane, and another of the
Charlemagne legends, which is probably derived immediately
from the Norwegian Katiamagnus saga. His greatest work, the
Danish version of the Holy Scriptures, which is known generally
as " Christian III.'s Bible, " is an important landmark in
Danish literature. It was founded on Luther's version, and
was edited by Peder Palladius, bishop of Zealand, and others.

See C. Pedersen's Danske Skrifter, edited by C. J. Brandt and
B. T. Fenger (5 vols., Copenhagen, 1850-1856).

PEDESTAL (Fr. picdestal, Ital. piedestallo, foot of a stall), a
term generally applied to a support, square, octagonal or
circular on plan, provided to carry a statue or a vase. Although
in Syria, Asia Minor and Tunisia the Romans occasionally
raised the columns of their temples or propylaea on square
pedestals, in Rome itself they were employed only to give
greater importance to isolated columns, such as those of Trajan
and Antoninus, or as a podium to the columns employed decor-
atively in the Roman triumphal arches. The architects of the
Italian revival, however, conceived the idea that no order was
complete without a pedestal, and as the orders were by them
employed to divide up and decorate a building in several storeys,
the cornice of the pedestal was carried through and formed the
sills of their windows, or, in open arcades, round a court, the
balustrade of the arcade. They also would seem to have
considered that the height of the pedestal should correspond in
its proportion with that of the column of pilaster it supported;
thus in the church of St John Lateran, where the applied order
is of considerable dimensions, the pedestal is 13 ft. high instead
of the ordinary height of 3 to 5 ft.

PEDICULOSIS, or PHTHIRIASIS, the medical term for the
pathological symptoms in man due to the presence of lice
(pediculi), either on the head (pediculus capitis), body (pediculus
corporis, or vestimentorum) , or pubes (pediculus pubis).

PEDIGREE, a genealogical tree, a tabular statement of descent
(see GENEALOGY). The word first appears at the beginning of
the isth century and takes an extraordinary variety of forms,

e.g. pedicree, pe de gre, petiegrew, petygru, &c. It is generally
accepted that these point to a corruption of Fr. pied de grue, foot
of a crane, and that the probable reference is to the marks
resembling the claw of a bird found in old genealogies showing
the lines of descent. Such etymologies as Minshea's par degris,
by degrees, or pfre degrts, descent by the father, are mere
guesses.

PEDIMENT (equivalents, Gr. derfe, Lat. fasligium, Fr.
ponton), in classic architecture the triangular-shaped portion of
the wali above the cornice which formed the termination of the
roof behind it. The projecting mouldings of the cornice which
surround it enclose the tympanum, which is sometimes decorated
with sculpture. The pediment in classic architecture corre-
sponds to the gable in Gothic architecture, where the roof is of
loftier pitch. It was employed by the Greeks only as the front
of the roof which covered the main building; the Romans, how-
ever, adopted it as a decorative termination to a doorway, niche
or window, and occasionally, in a row of windows or niches,
alternated the triangular with a segmental pediment. It was
reserved for the Italian architects of the decadence to break the
pediment in the centre, thus destroying its original purpose.
The earliest English form of the word is periment or peremint,
probably a workman's corruption of " pyramid. "

PEDIPALPI, Arachnida (q.v.) related to the spiders, and
serving in a measure to bridge over the structural interval
between the latter and the scorpions. The appendages of the
second pair are large and prehensile, as in scorpions, but are
armed with spines, to impale and hold prey. The appendages of
the third pair, representing the first pair of walking legs in spiders
and scorpions, are, on the contrary, long, attenuated and many-
jointed at the end. Like the antennae of insects, they act as
feelers. It is from this structural feature that the term " pedi-
palpi " has been derived. In the tailless division of the Pedipalpi,

SrnUl

Jlncta

Mexican tailed Pedipalp (Mastigoproetus giganteus).

namely the Amblypygi of which Phrynus is a commonly cited
type, these tactile appendages are exceedingly long and lash-
like, whereas in the tailed division, the Uropygi, of which Thely-
phonus is best known, the limb is much shorter andless modified.
Thelyphonus and its allies, however, have a long tactile caudal
flagellum, the homologue of the scorpion's sting; but its exact
use is unknown. A third division, the Tartarides, a subordinate
group of the Uropygi, contains minute Arachnida differing
principally from the typical Uropygi in having the caudal process
un jointed and short. Apart from the Tartarides, the Pedipalpi

PEDOMETER— PEEBLESSHIRE

are large or medium-sized Arachnida, nocturnal in habits and
spending the day under stones, logs of wood or loosened bark.
Some species of the Uropygi (Thelyphonidae) dig burrows; and
in the east there is a family of Amblypygi, the Charontidae, of
which many of the species live in the recesses of deep caves.
Specimens of another species have been found under stones
between tide marks in the Andaman Islands. The Pedipalpi
feed upon insects, and Like spiders, are oviparous. The eggs
after being laid are carried about by the mother, adhering in a
glutinous mass to the underside of the abdomen.

Pedipalpi date back to the Carboniferous Period, occurring in
deposits of that age both in Europe and North America. More-
over, the two main divisions of the order, which were as sharply
differentiated then as they are now, have existed practically
unchanged from that remote epoch.

In spite of the untold ages they have been in existence, the
Pedipalpi are more restricted in range than the scorpions. The
Uropygi are found only in Central and South America and in
south and eastern Asia, from India and south China to the Solo-
mon Islands.' The absence of the entire order from Africa is an
interesting fact. The distribution of the Amblypygi practically
covers that of the Uropygi, but in addition they extend from India
through Arabia into tropical and southern Africa. Both groups
are unknown in Madagascar, in Australia, with the exception
possibly of the extreme north, and in New Zealand. Very little
can be said with certainty about the distribution of the Tartar-
ides. They have been recorded from the Indian Region, West
Africa and sub-tropical America. (R- 1. P-)

PEDOMETER (Lat. pes, foot, and Gr. utrpov, measure), an
apparatus in the form of a watch, which, carried on the person
of a walker, counts the number of paces he makes, and thus
indicates approximately the distance travelled. The ordinary
form has a dial-plate marked for yards and miles. The regis-
tration is effected by the fall of a heavy pendulum, caused by the
percussion of each step. The pendulum is forced back to a
horizontal position by a delicate spring, and with each stroke a
fine-toothed ratchet-wheel connected with it is moved round a
certain length. The ratchet communicates with a train of wheels
which work the dial-hands. In using the apparatus a measured
mile or other known distance is walked and the indication
thereby made on the dial-plate observed. According as it is too
great or too small, the stroke of the pendulum is shortened or
lengthened by a screw. Obviously the pedometer is little better
than an ingenious toy, depending even for rough measurements
on the uniformity of pace maintained throughout the journey
measured.

PEDRO II. (1825-1891), emperor of Brazil, came to the throne
in childhood, having been born on the 2nd of December 1825,
and proclaimed emperor in April 1831, upon the abdication of
his father. He was declared of full age in 1840. For a long
period few thrones appeared more secure, and his prosperous
and beneficent rule might have endured throughout his life
but for his want of energy and inattention to the signs of the
times. The rising generation had become honeycombed with
republicanism, the prospects of the imperial succession were
justly regarded as unsatisfactory, the higher classes had been
estranged by the emancipation of the slaves, and all these causes
of discontent found expression in a military revolt, which in
November 1889 overthrew the seemingly solid edifice of the
Brazilian Empire in a few hours. Dom Pedro retired to Europe,
and died in Paris on the 5th of December 1891. The chief
events of his reign had been the emancipation of the slaves,
and the war with Paraguay in 1864-70. Dom Pedro was a
model constitutional sovereign, and a munificent patron of
science and letters. He travelled in the United States (1876),
and thrice visited Europe (1871-1872, 1876-1877, 1886-1889).

PEEBLES, a royal and police burgh and county town of
Peeblesshire, Scotland, situated at the junction of Eddleston
Water with the Tweed. Pop. (1901), 5266. It is 27 m. south of
Edinburgh by the North British Railway (22 m. by road), and
is also the terminus of a branch line of the Caledonian system
from Carstairs in Lanarkshire. The burgh consists of the new

town, the principal quarter, on the south of the Eddleston, and
the old on the north; the Tweed is crossed by a handsome five-
arched bridge. Peebles is a noted haunt of anglers, and the
Royal Company of Archers shoot here periodically for the silver
arrow given by the burgh. The chief public buildings are the
town and county halls, the corn exchange, the hospital and
Chambers Institution. The last was once the town house of the
earls of March, but was presented to Peebles byWilliam Chambers,
the publisher, in 1859. The site of the castle, which stood till
the beginning of the i8th century, is now occupied by the parish
church, built in 1887. Of St Andrew's Church, founded in 1195,
nothing remains but the tower, restored by William Chambers,
who was buried beside it in 1883. The church of the Holy
Rood was erected by Alexander III. in 1261, to contain a
supposed remnant of the true cross discovered here. The
building remained till 1784, when it was nearly demolished to
provide stones for a new parish church. Portions of the town
walls still exist, and there are also vaulted cellars constructed
in the i6th and i7th centuries as hiding-places against Border
freebooters. The old cross, which had stood for several years in
the quadrangle of Chambers Institution, was restored and
erected in High Street in 1895. The industries consist of the
manufactures of woollens and tweeds, and of meal and flour
mills. The town is also an important agricultural centre.

The name of Peebles is said to be derived from the pebylls, or
tents, which the Gadeni pitched here in the days of the Romans.
The place was early a favourite residence of the Scots kings when
they came to hunt in Ettrick forest. It probably received its
charter from Alexander III., was created a royal burgh in 1367
and was the scene of the poem of Peblis to the Play, ascribed to
James I. In 1544 the town sustained heavy damage in the
expedition led by the ist earl of Hertford, afterwards the
protector Somerset, and in 1604 a large portion of it was
destroyed by fire. Though James VI. extended its charter,
Peebles lost its importance after the union of the Crowns.

On the north bank of the Tweed, one mile west of Peebles, stands
Neidpath Castle. The ancient peel tower dates probably from the
1 3th century. Its first owners were Tweeddale Frasers or Frisels,
from whom it passed, by marriage, to the Hays of Yester in Had-
dingtonshire, earls of Tweeddale. It was besieged and taken by
Cromwell in 1650. The third earl of Tweeddale (1645-1713) sold
it to the duke of Queensberry in 1686. The earl of Wemyss suc-
ceeded to the Neidpath property in 1810.

PEEBLESSHIRE, or TWEEDDALE, a southern inland county of
Scotland, bounded N. and N.E. by Edinburghshire, E. and S.E.
by Selkirkshire, S. by Dumfriesshire, and W. by Lanarkshire.
Its area is 222,599 acres or 547-8 sq. m. The surface consists
of a succession of hills, which are highest in the south, broken
by the vale of the Tweed and the glens formed by its numerous
tributaries. South of the Tweed the highest points are Broad
Law and Cramalt Craig on the confines of Selkirkshire (each
2723 ft.), while north of the river are, in the west centre, Brough-
ton Heights (1872), Trahenna Hill (1792), Penvalla (1764) and
Ladyurd Hill (1724), and in the north-west the Pentland emin-
ences of Mount Maw (1753), Byrehope Mount (1752) and King
Seat (1521). The lowest point above sea-level is on the banks of
the Tweed, where it passes into Selkirkshire (about 450 ft.).
The principal river is the Tweed, and from the fact that for the
first 36 m. of its course of 97 m. it flows through the south of
the shire, the county derives its alternative name of Tweeddale.
Its affluents on the right are the Stanhope, Drummelzier, Manor
andQuair;on the left, the Biggar, Lyne, Eddlestone and Leithen.
The North Esk, rising in Cairnmuir, forms the boundary line
between Midlothian and Peeblesshire for about four miles,
during which it presents some very charming pictures, especially
at Habbie's Howe, where Allan Ramsay laid the scene of the
Gentle Shepherd. For 4 m. of its course the South Medwin
divides the south-western part of the parish of Linton from
Lanarkshire. Portmore Loch, a small sheet of water 2 m. north-
east of Eddlestone church, lies at a height of 1000 ft. above the
sea, and is the only lake in the county. The shire is in favour with
anglers, its streams being well stocked and unpolluted, and few
restrictions being placed on the fishing.

PEEKSKILL— PEEL, VISCOUNT

39

Geology. — The southern elevated portion of the county is occupied
by Silurian rocks, mainly by shales and grits or greywackes of
Llandovery age. Owing to the repeated folding and crumpling of
the rocks in this region there are numerous elliptical exposures
of Ordovician strata within the Silurian tract; but the principal
area of Ordovician rocks lies north of a line running south-west
from the Moorfoot Hills through Lyne and Stobo. Here these
rocks form a belt some four to five miles in breadth ; they are com-
posed of radiolarian cherts and mudstones with associated con-
temporaneous volcanic rocks of Arenig age, and of shales, grits
and limestones of Llandeilo and Caradoc age. The general direction
of strike of all these formations is south-west-north-east, but the
dips are sometimes misleading through occasional inversion of the
strata. Patches of higher Silurian, with Wenlock and Ludlow
fossils, are found in the north of the country in the Pentland Hills,
and resting conformably upon the Silurian in the same district is
the Lower Old Red Sandstone. The Old Red Sandstone here
consists of a lower division, red and chocolate marls and sandstones ;
a middle division, volcanic rocks, porphyrites, tuffs, &c., which are
unconformable on the lower marls in this area; and an upper
division, sandstones and conglomerates. The south-west extremity
of the Edinburgh coalfield just enters this county over the north-
west border where a slice of Carboniferous strata is found let down
between Silurian and Old Red rocks by two important faults.
Both Calciferous sandstone and Carboniferous limestone occur,
with useful beds of coal, limestone, ironstone, fireclay and alum
shale. An outlier of Carboniferous limestone, surrounded by
Lower Old Red Sandstone, lies south of Linton. Much glacial
boulder clay with gravel and sand rests upon the higher ground,
while morainic deposits are found in the valleys.

Climate and Industries. — The annual rainfall averages from
33 to 41 in.; the mean temperature for the year is 47-5° F.,
for January 38° F., and for July 59° F. The character of the
soil varies considerably, peat, gravel and clay being all repre-
sented. The low-lying lands consist generally of rich loam,
composed of sand and clay. The farming is pastoral rather than
arable. The average holding is about 200 acres of arable land,
with pasturage for from 600 to 800 sheep. Roughly speaking,
one-fifth of the total area is under cultivation. Oats are the
chief grain and turnips the chief root crop. The hill pastures are
better suited to sheep than to cattle, but both flocks and herds are
comparatively large. Cheviots and half-breds are preferred for
the grass lands, the heathery ranges being stocked with black-
faced sheep. Crosses of Cheviots, black-faced and half-bred
ewes with Leicestershire rams are common. The favourite
breed of cattle is a cross between Ayrshires and shorthorns, the
cows being Ayrshire. Many of the horses are Clydesdales bred
in the county. Pig-keeping is on the decline. A few acres have
been laid down as nurseries and market gardens, and about
10,000 acres are under wood, especially at Dalwick, where larch
and horse-chestnut were first grown in Scotland. Apart from
agriculture, the only industries are the woollen factories and flour
mills at Peebles and Innerleithen.

The North British railway crosses the county in the north from
Leadburn to Dolphinton, and runs down the Eddlestone valley
from Leadburn to Peebles and Thornielee, while in the south the
Caledonian railway connects the county town with Biggar in
Lanarkshire.

Population and Administration. — In 1001 the population
numbered 13,066 or 43 persons to the sq. m. In igoi one person
spoke Gaelic only, 72 Gaelic and English. The chief towns are
Peebles (pop. 5266) and Innerleithen (2181). West Linton, on
Lyne Water, is a holiday resort. The shire combines with
Selkirkshire to return one member to parliament, the electors
of Peebles town voting with the county. Peeblesshire forms a
sheriff dom with the Lothians and a sheriff -substitute sits in
the county town. There is a high school in Peebles, and one
or more schools in the county usually earn grants for secondary
education.

History. — The country was originally occupied by the Gadeni,
a British tribe, of whom there are many remains in the shape of
camps and sepulchral mounds (in which stone coffins, axes and
hammers have been found), while several place-names (such as
Peebles, Dalwick and Stobo) also attest their presence. The
standing stones near the confluence of the Lyne and Tweed are
supposed to commemorate a Cymric chief. The natives were
reduced by the Romans, who have left traces of their military
rule in the fine camp at Lyne, locally known as Randal's Walls.

The hill-side terraces at Romanno are conjectured, somewhat
fancifully, to be remains of a Roman method of cultivation. On
the retreat of the Romans the Gadeni came into their own again,
and although they are said to have been defeated by King Arthur
at Cademuir in 530, they held the district until the consolidation
of the kingdom after Malcolm II. 's victory at Carham in 1018,
before which the land, constantly harried by Danes, was nomi-
nally included in the territory of Northumbria. This tract of
Scotland is closely associated with the legend of Merlin. David I.
made the district a deanery in the archdeaconry of Peebles,
and it afterwards formed part of the diocese of Glasgow.
Towards the middle of the i2th century it was placed under
the jurisdiction of two sheriffs, one of whom was settled at
Traquair and the other at Peebles. At Happrew, in the valley
of the Lyne, the English defeated Wallace in 1304. The Scottish
sovereigns had a lodge at Polmood, and often hunted in the
uplands and the adjoining forests. English armies occasionally
invaded the county, but more frequently the people were harried
by Border raiders. Many castles and peels were erected in the
valley of the Tweed from the Bield to Berwick. Several were
renowned in their day, among them Oliver Castle (built by Sir
Oliver Fraser in the reign of David I.), Drumeizier, Tinnis or
Thane's Castle, and Neidpath. Three miles south of Romanno
stand the ruins of Drochil Castle, designed for the Regent
Morton, who was beheaded at Edinburgh in 1581, and the
building was never completed. Memories of the Covenanters
cluster around Tweedhopefoot, Tweedshaws, Corehead, Tweeds-
muir, Talla Linns and other spots. In the churchyard of
Tweedsmuir is the tombstone of John Hunter, the martyr,
which was relettered by " Old Mortality." The " men of the
moss hags " did little fighting in Peeblesshire, but Montrose first
drew rein at Traquair House after he was defeated at Philip-
haugh on the Yarrow in 1645. The plain of Sheriffmuir near
Lyne is the place where the Tweeddale wapinschaws used to be
held in the i7th century. The Jacobite risings left the county
untouched, and since the beginning of the ipth century the shire
has been more conspicuous in literature than in politics.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Pennecuick, Description of Tweeddale (1715);
William Chambers, History of Peeblesshire (Edinburgh, 1864);
Dr C. B. Gunn, Innerleithen and Traquair (Innerleithen, 1867);
Sir George Reid, The River Tweed from its Source to the Sea (Text
by Professor Veitch) (Edinburgh, 1884); Professor Veitch, History
and Poetry of the Scottish Border (Edinburgh, 1893); Border Essays
(Edinburgh, 1896); Rev. W. S. Crockett, The Scott Country (Edin-
burgh, 1902).

PEEKSKILL, a village of Westchester county, New York,
U.S.A., on the E. bank of the Hudson river, about 41 m. N.
of New York City. Pop. (1910, census), 15,245. It is served
by the New York Central & Hudson River railway, and by
passenger and freight steamboat lines on the Hudson river.
The village is the home of many New York business men.
At Peekskill are the Peekskill military academy (1833, non-
sectarian); St Mary's school, Mount St Gabriel (Protestant
Episcopal), a school for girls established by the sisterhood of
St Mary; the Field memorial library; St Joseph's home (Roman
Catholic); the Peekskill hospital, and several sanatoria.
Near the village is the state military camp, where the national
guard of the state meets in annual encampment. Peekskill has
many manufactures, and the factory products were valued in
1905 at $7,251,897, an increase of 306-7 % since 1900. The site
was settled early in the i8th century, but the village itself dates
from about 1 760, when it took its present name from the adjacent
creek or " kill," on which a Dutch trader, Jans Peek, of New
York City, had established a trading post. During the latter
part of the War of Independence Peekskill was an important
outpost of the Continental Army, and in the neighbourhood
several small engagements were fought between American and
British scouting parties. The village was incorporated in 1816.
Peekskill was the country home of Henry Ward Beecher.

PEEL, ARTHUR WELLESLEY PEEL, IST VISCOUNT
(1829- ), English statesman, youngest son of the great
Sir Robert Peel, was born on the 3rd of August 1829, and was
educated at Eton and Balliol College, Oxford. He unsuccessfully

PEEL, SIR ROBERT

contested Coventry in 1863; in 1865 he was elected in the
liberal interest for Warwick, for which he sat until his elevation
to the peerage. In December 1 868 he was appointed parliamentary
secretary to the poor law board. This office he filled until 1871,
when he became secretary to the board of trade, an appointment
which he held for two years. In 1873-1874 he was patronage
secretary to the treasury, and in 1880 he became under-
secretary for the home department. On the retirement of Mr
Brand (afterwards Viscount Hampden)in 1884, Peel was elected
Speaker. He was thrice re-elected to the post, twice in 1886, and
again in 1892.. Throughout his career as Speaker he exhibited
conspicuous impartiality, combined with a perfect knowledge of
the traditions, usages and forms of the house, soundness of judg-
ment, and readiness of decision upon all occasions; and he will
always rank as one of the greatest holders of this important
office. On the 8th of April 1895 he announced that for reasons
of health he was compelled to retire. The farewell ceremony
was of a most impressive character, and warm tributes were paid
from all parts of the house. He was created a viscount and
granted a pension of £4000 for life. He was presented with the
freedom of the City of London in July 1895. The public
interest in the ex-Speaker's later life centred entirely in his some-
what controversial connexion with the drink traffic. A royal
commission was appointed in April 1896 to inquire into the
operation and administration of the licensing laws, and Viscount
Peel was appointed chairman. In July 1898 Lord Peel drew up
a draft report for discussion, in five parts. Some differences of
opinion arose in connexion with the report, and at a meeting of
the commissioners on the i2th of April 1899, when part 5 of the
draft report was to be considered, a proposal was made to
substitute an alternative draft for Lord Peel's, and also a series
of alternative drafts for the four sections already discussed.
Lord Peel declined to put these proposals, and left the room.
Sir Algernon West was elected to the chair, and ultimately two
main reports were presented, one section agreeing with Lord
Peel, and the other — including the majority of the commis-
sioners— presenting a report which differed from his in several
important respects. The Peel report recommended that a
large reduction in the number of licensed houses should be
immediately effected, and that no compensation should be paid
from the public rates or taxes, the money for this purpose
being raised by an annual licence-rental levied on the rateable
value of the licensed premises; it at once became a valuable
weapon in the hands of advanced reformers.

Lord Peel married in 1862, and had four sons and two daughters
(married to Mr J. Rochfort Maguire and to Mr C. S. Goldman).
His eldest son, William Robert Wellesley Peel (b. 1866), married
the daughter of Lord Ashton; he was Unionist M.P. for South
Manchester from 1900 to 1905, and later for Taunton, and also
acted as Municipal Reform leader on the London County
Council.

PEEL, SIR ROBERT, BART. (1788-1850), English statesman,
was born on the sth of February 1788 at Chamber Hall, in the
neighbourhood of Bury, Lancashire, or, less probably, at a
cottage near the Hall. He was a scion of that new aristocracy
of wealth which sprang from the rapid progress of mechanical
discovery and manufactures in the latter part of the i8th
century. His ancestors were Yorkshire yeomen in the district
of Craven, whence they migrated to Blackburn in Lancashire.
His grandfather, Robert Peel, first of Peeltcld, and afterwards of
Brookside, near Blackburn, was a calico-printer, who, appre-
ciating the discovery of his townsman Hargreaves, took to
cotton-spinning with the spinning-jenny and grew a wealthy man.
His father, Robert Peel (1750-1830), third son of the last-named,
carried on the same business at Bury with still greater success,
in partnership with his uncle, Mr Haworth, and Mr Yates, whose
daughter, Ellen, he married. He made a princely fortune,
became the owner of Drayton Manor and member of parlia-
ment for the neighbouring borough of Tamworth, was a trusted
and honoured, as well as ardent, supporter of Pitt, contributed
munificently towards the support of that leader's war policy,
and was rewarded with a baronetcy ( 1 800) .

At Harrow, according to the accounts of his contemporaries,
Peel was a steady industrious boy, the best scholar in the school,
fonder of country walks with a friend than of school games,
but reputed one of the best football players. At Christ Church,
where he entered as a gentleman commoner, he was the first who,
under the new examination statutes, took a first class both in
classics and in mathematics. His examination for his B .A. degree
in 1808 was an academical ovation in presence of a numerous
audience, who came to hear the first man of the day. From
his classical studies Robert Peel derived not only the classical,
though somewhat pompous, character of his speeches and the
Latin quotations with which they were of ten happily interspersed
but something of his lofty ideal of political ambition. To his
mathematical training, which was then not common among
public men, he no doubt owed in part his method, his clearness,
his great power of grasping steadily and working out difficult
and complicated questions. His speeches show that, in addition
to his academical knowledge, he was well versed in English
literature, in history, and in the principles of law, in order to study
which he entered at Lincoln's Inn. But while reading hard he
did not neglect to develop his tall and vigorous frame, and, though
he lost his life partly through his bad riding, he was always a
good shot and an untiring walker after game. His Oxford
education confirmed his atachment to the Church of England.
His practical mind remained satisfied with the doctrines of his
youth, and he never showed that he had studied the great
religious controversies of his day.

In 1 809, being then in his twenty-second year, he was brought
into parliament for the close borough of Cashel, which he after-
wards exchanged for Chippenham, and commenced his parlia-
mentary career under the eye of his father, then member for
Tamworth, who fondly saw in him the future leader of the Tory
party. In that House of Commons sat Wilberforce, Windham,
Tierney, Grattan, Perceval, Castlereagh, Plunkett, Romilly,
Mackintosh, Burdett, Whitbread, Horner, Brougham, Parnell,
Huskisson, and, above all, George Canning. Lord Palmerston
entered the house two years earlier, and Lord John Russell
three years later. Among these men young Peel had to rise.
And he rose, not by splendid eloquence, by profound political
philosophy or by great originality of thought, but by the closest
attention to all his parliamentary duties, by a study of all the
business of parliament, and by a style of speaking which owed
its force not to high flights of oratory, but to knowledge of the
subject in hand, clearness of exposition, close reasoning, and tact
in dealing with a parliamentary audience. With the close of
the struggle against revolutionary France, political progress in
England was soon to resume the march which that struggle had
arrested. Young Peel's lot, however, was cast, through his
father, with the Tory party. In his maiden speech in 1810,
seconding the address, he defended the Walcheren expedition,
which he again vindicated soon afterwards against the report of
Lord Porchester's committee. It is said that even then his father
had discerned in him a tendency to think for himself, and told
Lord Liverpool that to make sure of his support it would be well
to place him early in harness. At all events he began official
life in 1810 as Lord Liverpool's under-secretary for war and the
colonies under the administration of Perceval. In 1812 he was
transferred by Lord Liverpool to the more important but
unhappy post of secretary for Ireland. There he was engaged
till 1818 in maintaining English ascendancy over a country
heaving with discontent, teeming with conspiracy, and ever ready
to burst into rebellion. A middle course between Irish parties
was impossible, and Peel plied the established engines of coercion
and patronage with a vigorous hand. At the same time, it was
his frequent duty to combat Grattan, Plunkett, Canning and
the other movers and advocates of Roman Catholic emancipation
in the House of Commons. He, however, always spoke on this
question with a command of temper wonderful in hot youth,
with the utmost courtesy towards his opponents, and with warm
expressions of sympathy and even of admiration for the Irish
people. He also, thus early, did his best to advocate and
promote joint education in Ireland as a means of reconciling

PEEL, SIR ROBERT

sects and raising the character of the people. But his greatest
service to Ireland as secretary was the institution of the regular
Irish constabulary, nicknamed after him " Peelers," for the
protection of life and property in a country where both were
insecure. His moderation of tone did not save him from the
violent abuse of O'Connell, whom he was ill advised enough to
challenge — an affair which covered them both with ridicule.
In 1817 he obtained the highest parliamentary distinction of the
Tory party by being elected member for the university of Oxford
— an honour for which he was chosen in preference to Canning on
account of his hostility to Roman Catholic emancipation,
Lord Eldon lending him his best support. In the following
year he resigned the Irish secretaryship, of which he had long
been very weary, and remained out of office till 1821. But he
still supported the ministers, though in the affair of Queen
Caroline he stood aloof, disapproving some steps taken by
the government, and sensitive to popular opinion; and
when Canning retired on account of this affair Peel declined
Lord Liverpool's invitation to take the vacant place in the
cabinet. During this break in his tenure of office he had some
time for reflection, which there was enough in the aspect of the
political world to move. But early office had done its work.
It had given him excellent habits of business, great knowledge
and a high position; but it had left him somewhat stiff and
punctilious, too cold and reserved and over anxious for formal
justifications when he might well have left his conduct to the
judgment of men of honour and the heart of the people. At the
same time he was no pedant in business; in corresponding on
political subjects he loved to throw off official forms and com-
municate his views with the freedom of private correspondence;
and where his confidence was given, it was given without
reserve.

At this period he was made chairman of the bullion committee
on the death of Horner. He was chosen for this important
office by Huskisson, Ricardo and their fellow-economists, who
saw in him a mind open to conviction, though he owed hereditary
allegiance to Pitt's financial policy, and had actually voted with
his Pittite father for a resolution of Lord Liverpool's government
asserting that Bank of England notes were equivalent to legal
coin. The choice proved judicious. Peel was converted to the
currency doctrines of the economists, and proclaimed his con-
version in a great speech on the 24th of May 1819, in which he
moved and carried four resolutions embodying the recommen-
dations of the bullion committee in favour of a return to cash
payments. This laid the foundation of his financial reputation,
and his co-operation with the economists tended to give a liberal
turn to his commercial principles. In the course he took he
somewhat diverged from his party, and particularly from his
father, who remained faithful to Pitt's depreciated paper, and
between whom and his schismatic son a solemn and touching
passage occurred in the debate. The author of the Cash Pay-
ments Act had often to defend his policy, and he did so with
vigour. The act is sometimes said to have been hard on debtors,
including the nation as debtor, because it required debts to be
paid in cash which had been contracted in depreciated paper;
and Peel, as heir to a great fundholder, was even charged with
being biased by his personal interests. But it is answered that
the Bank Restriction Acts, under which the depreciated paper
had circulated, themselves contained a provision for a return to
cash payments six months after peace.

In 1820 Peel married Julia, daughter of General Sir John
Floyd, who bore him five sons and two daughters. The writers
who have most severely censured Sir Robert Peel as a public
man have dwelt on the virtues and happiness of his private
and domestic life. He was not only a most loving husband and
father but a true and warm-hearted friend. In Whitehall
Gardens or at Drayton Manor he gathered some of the most
distinguished intellects of the day. He indulged in free and
cheerful talk, and sought the conversation of men of science; he
took delight in art, and was a great collector of pictures; he was
fond of farming and agricultural improvements; he actively
oromoted useful works and the advancement of knowledge; he

loved making his friends, dependants, tenants and neighbours
happy. And, cold as he was in public, few men could be more
bright and genial in private than Sir Robert Peel.

In 1821 Peel consented to strengthen the enfeebled ministry
of Lord Liverpool by becoming home secretary; and in that
capacity he had again to undertake the office of coercing the
growing discontent in Ireland, of which he remained the real
administrator, and had again to lead in the House of Commons
the opposition to the rising cause of Roman Catholic emancipa-
tion. In 1825, being defeated on the Roman Catholic question
in the House of Commons, he wished to resign office, but Lord
Liverpool pleaded that his resignation would break up the
government. He found a congenial task in reforming and
humanizing the criminal law, especially those parts of it which
related to offences against property and offences punishable by
death. The five acts in which Peel accomplished this great
work, as well as the great speech of the gth of March 1826, in
which he opened the subject to the house, will form one of the
most solid and enduring monuments of his fame. Criminal law
reform was the reform of Romilly and Mackintosh, from the
hands of the latter of whom Peel received it. But the masterly
bills in which it was embodied were the bills of Peel — not himself
a creative genius, but, like the founder of his house, a profound
appreciator of other men's creations, and unrivalled in the power
of giving them practical and complete effect.

In 1827 the Liverpool ministry was broken up by the fatal
illness of its chief, and under the new premier, George Canning,
Peel, like the duke of Wellington and other high Tory members
of Lord Liverpool's cabinet, refused to serve. Canning and Peel
were rivals; but we need not interpret as mere personal rivalry
that which was certainly, in part at least, a real difference ol
connexion and opinion. Canning took a Liberal line, and was
supported by many of the Whigs; the seceders were Tories, and
it is difficult to see how their position in Canning's cabinet could
have been otherwise than a false one. Separation led to public
coolness and occasional approaches to bitterness on both sides in
debate. But there seems no ground for exaggerated complaints
against Peel's conduct. Canning himself said to a friend that
" Peel was the only man who had behaved decently towards
him." Their private intercourse remained uninterrupted to
the end; and Canning's son afterwards entered public life under
the auspices of Peel. The charge of having urged Roman
Catholic emancipation on Lord Liverpool in 1825, and opposed
Canning for being a friend to it in 1827, made against Sir Robert
Peel in the fierce corn-law debates of 1846, has been withdrawn
by those who made it.

In January 1828, after Canning's death, the duke of Welling-
ton formed a Tory government, in which Peel was home secretary
and leader of the House of Commons. This cabinet, Tory as it.
was, did not include the impracticable Lord Eldon, and did
include Huskisson and three more friends of Canning. Its
policy was to endeavour to stave off the growing demand for
organic change by administrative reform, and by lightening
the burdens of the people. The civil list was retrenched with an
unsparing hand, the public expenditure was reduced lower than
it had been since the Revolutionary war, and the import of corn
was permitted under a sliding scale of duties. Peel also intro-
duced into London the improved system of police which he had
previously established with so much success in Ireland. But
the tide ran too strong to be thus headed. First the government
were compelled, after a defeat in the House of Commons, to
acquiesce in the repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts, Peel
bringing over their High Church supporters, as far as he could.
Immediately afterwards the question of Roman Catholic emanci-
pation was brought to a crisis by the election of O'Connell for
the county of Clare. In August Peel expressed to the duke of
Wellington his conviction that the question must be settled.
He wrote that out of office he would co-operate in the settlement
but in his judgment it should be committed to other hands than
his. To this the duke assented, but in January 1829, owing to
the declared opinions of the king, of the House of Lords, and of
the Church against a change of policy, Wellington came to the

42

conclusion that without Peel's aid in office there was no prospect
of success. Under that pressure Peel consented to remain, and
all the cabinet approved. The consent of the king, which could
scarcely have been obtained except by the duke and Peel, was
extorted, withdrawn (the ministers being out for a few hours),
and again extorted; and on the 5th of March 1829 Peel proposed
Roman Catholic emancipation in a speech of more than four
hours. The apostate was overwhelmed with obloquy. Having
been elected for the university of Oxford as a leading opponent
of the Roman Catholics, he had thought it right to resign his
seat on being converted to emancipation. His friends put him
again in nomination, but he was defeated by Sir R. H. Inglis.
He took refuge in the close borough of Westbury, whence he
afterwards removed to Tamworth, for which he sat till his death.
Catholic emancipation was forced on Peel by circumstances;
but it was mainly owing to him that the measure was complete,
and based upon equality of civil rights. This great concession,
however, did not save the Tory government. The French
Revolution of July 1830 gave fresh strength to the movement
against them, though, schooled by the past, they promptly
recognized King Louis Philippe. The parliamentary reform
movement was joined by some of their offended Protestant
supporters. The duke of Wellington committed them fatally
against all reform, and the elections went against them on the
demise of the Crown; they were beaten on Sir H. Parnell's
motion for a committee on the civil list, and Wellington took the
opportunity to resign rather than deal with reform.

While in office, Peel succeeded to the baronetcy, Dray ton
Manor and a great estate by the death of his father (May 3,
1830). The old man had lived to see his fondest hopes fulfilled in
the greatness of his son; but he had also lived to see that a father
must not expect to fix his son's opinions — above all, the opinions
of such a son as Sir Robert Peel, and in such an age as that which
followed the French Revolution.

Sir Robert Peel's resistance to the Reform Bill won back for
him the allegiance of his party. His opposition was resolute but
it was temperate, and once only he betrayed the suppressed fire
of his temper, in the historical debate of the 22nd of April 1831,
when his speech was broken off by the arrival of the king to
dissolve the parliament which had thrown out reform. He refused
to join the duke of Wellington in the desperate enterprise of
forming a Tory government at the height of the storm, when the
Grey ministry had gone out on the refusal of the king to promise
them an unlimited creation of peers. By this conduct he secured
for his party the full benefit of the reaction which he no doubt
knew was sure to ensue. The general election of 1832, after the
passing of the Reform Bill, left him with barely 150 followers in
the House of Commons; but this handful rapidly swelled under
his management into the great Conservative party. He frankly
accepted the Reform Act as irrevocable, taught his party to
register instead of despairing, appealed to the intelligence of the
middle classes, whose new-born power he appreciated, steadily
supported the Whig ministers against the Radicals and O'Connell,
and gained every moral advantage which the most dignified
and constitutional tactics could afford. To this policy, and to the
great parliamentary powers of its author, it was mainly due that,
in the course of a few years, the Conservatives were as strong in
the reformed parliament as the Tories had been in the unre-
formed. It is vain to deny the praise of genius to such a leader,
though the skill of a pilot who steered for many years over such
waters may sometimes have resembled craft. But the duke of
Wellington's emphatic eulogy on him was, "Of all the men I
ever knew, he had the greatest regard for truth." The duke
might have added that his own question, "How is the king's
government to be carried on in a reformed parliament ? " was
mainly solved by the temperate and constitutional policy of Sir
Robert Peel, and by his personal influence on the debates and
proceedings of the House of Commons during the years which
followed the Reform Act.

In 1834, on the dismissal of the Melbourne ministry, power
came to Sir Robert Peel before he expected or desired it. He
hurried from Rome at the call of the duke of Wellington, whose

PEEL, SIR ROBERT

sagacious modesty yielded him the first place, and became prime
minister, holding the two offices of first lord of the treasury and
chancellor of the exchequer. He vainly sought to include in his
cabinet two recent seceders from the Whigs, Lord Stanley and
Sir James Graham. A dissolution gave him a great increase of
strength in the house, but not enough. He was outvoted on
the election of the speaker at the opening of the session of 1835,
and, after struggling on for six weeks longer, resigned on the
question of appropriating part of the revenues of the Church in
Ireland to national education. His time had not yet come; but
the capacity, energy and resource he displayed in this short
tenure of office raised him immensely in the estimation of the
house, his party and the country. Of the great budget of
practical reforms which he brought forward, the plan for the
commutation of tithes, the ecclesiastical commission, and the
plan for settling the question of dissenters' marriages bore fruit.

From 1835 to 1840 he pursued the same course of patient and
far-sighted opposition. In 1837 the Conservative members of
the House of Commons gave their leader a grand banquet at
Merchant Taylors' Hall, where he proclaimed in a great speech
the creed and objects of his party. In 1839, the Whigs having
resigned on the Jamaica Bill, he was called on to form a govern-
ment, and submitted names for a cabinet, but resigned the
commission owing to the young queen's persistent refusal to part
with any Whig ladies of her bedchamber (see VICTORIA, QUEEN).
In 1840 he was hurried into a premature motion of want of con-
fidence. But in the following year a similar motion was carried
by a majority of one, and the Whigs ventured to appeal to the
country. The result was a majority of ninety-one against them
on a motion of want of confidence in the autumn of 1841, upon
which they resigned, and Sir Robert Peel became first lord of
the treasury, with a commanding majority in both Houses
of Parliament.

The crisis called for a master-hand. The finances were in
disorder. For some years there had been a growing deficit,
estimated for 1842 at more than two millions, and attempts to
supply this by additions to assessed taxes and customs duties
had failed. The great financier took till the spring of 1842 to
mature his plans. He then boldly supplied the deficit by im-
posing an income-tax on all incomes above £150 a year. He
accompanied this tax with a reform of the tariff, by which pro-
hibitory duties were removed and other duties abated on a vast
number of articles of import, especially the raw materials of manu-
factures and prime articles of food. The increased consumption,
as the reformer expected, countervailed the reduction of duty.
The income-tax was renewed and the reform of the tariff carried
still farther on the same principle in 1845. The result was, in
place of a deficit of upwards of two millions, a surplus of five
millions in 1845, and the removal of seven millions and a half of
taxes up to 1847, not on^Y without loss, but with gain to the
ordinary revenue of the country. The prosperous state of the
finances and of public affairs also permitted a reduction of the
interest on a portion of the national debt, giving a yearly saving
at once of £625,000, and ultimately of a million and a quarter to
the public. In 1844 another great financial measure, the Bank
Charter Act, was passed and, though severely controverted and
thrice suspended at a desperate crisis, has ever since regulated
the currency of the country. In Ireland O'ConnelPs agitation
for the repeal of the Union had now assumed threatening pro-
portions, and verged upon rebellion. The great agitator was
prosecuted, with his chief adherents, for conspiracy and sedition;
and, though the conviction was quashed for informality, repeal
was quelled in its chief. At the same time a healing hand was
extended to Ireland. The Charitable Bequests Act gave Roman
Catholics a share in the administration of charities and legal
power to endow their own religion. The allowance to Maynooth
was largely increased, notwithstanding violent Protestant
opposition. Three queen's colleges, for the higher education of
all the youth of Ireland, without distinction of religion, were
founded, notwithstanding violent opposition, both Protestant and
Roman Catholic. The principle of toleration once accepted, was
thoroughly carried out. The last remnants of the penal laws

PEEL, SIR ROBERT

43

were swept from the statute-book, and justice was extended to
the Roman Catholic Church in Canada and Malta. In the same
spirit acts were passed for clearing from doubt Irish Presbyterian
marriages, for settling the titles of a large number of dissenters'
chapels in England, and removing the municipal disabilities of
the Jews. The grant for national education was trebled, and
an attempt was made, though in vain, to introduce effective
education clauses into the factory bills. To the alienation of any
part of the revenues of the Established Church Sir Robert Peel
never would consent; but he had issued the ecclesiastical com-
mission, and he now made better provision for a number of
populous parishes by a redistribution of part of the revenues of
the Church. The weakest part of the conduct of this great
government, perhaps, was its failure to control the railway
mania by promptly laying down the lines on a government plan.
It passed an act in 1844 which gave the government a right of
purchase, and it had prepared a palliative measure in 1846, but
was compelled to sacrifice this, like all other secondary measures,
to the repeal of the corn laws. It failed also, though not without
an effort, to avert the great schism in the Church of Scotland.
Abroad it was as prosperous as at home. It had found disaster
and disgrace in Afghanistan. It speedily ended the war there,
and in India the invading Sikhs were destroyed upon the Sutlej.
The sore and dangerous questions with France, touching the
right of search, the war in Morocco, and the Tahiti affair, and
with the United States touching the Maine boundary and the
Oregon territory, were settled by negotiation.

Yet there were malcontents in Sir Robert Peel's party. The
Young Englanders disliked him because he had hoisted the flag
of Conservatism instead of Toryism on the morrow of the Reform
Bill. The strong philanthropists and Tory Chartists disliked
him because he was a strict economist and an upholder of the
new poor law. But the fatal question was protection. That
question was being fast brought to a crisis by public opinion and
the Anti-Corn-Law League. Sir Robert Peel had been recognized
in 1841 by Cobden as a Free Trader, and after experience in
office he had become in principle more and more so. Since his
accession to power he had lowered the duties of the sliding scale,
and thereby caused the secession from the cabinet of the duke of
Buckingham. He had alarmed the farmers by admitting foreign
cattle and meat under his new tariff, and by admitting Canadian
corn. He had done his best in his speeches to put the mainte-
nance of the corn laws on low ground, and to wean the landed
interest from their reliance on protection. The approach of
the Irish famine in 1845 turned decisively the wavering balance.
When at first Sir Robert proposed to his cabinet the revision of
the corn laws, Lord Stanley and the duke of Buccleuch dis-
sented, and Sir Robert resigned. But Lord John Russell failed
to form a new government. Sir Robert again came into office;
and now, with the consent of all the cabinet but Lord Stanley,
who retired, he, in a great speech on the 27th of January 1846,
brought the repeal of the corn laws before the House of Commons.
In the long and fierce debate that ensued he was assailed, both
by political and personal enemies, with the most virulent
invective, which he bore with his wonted calmness, and to which
he made no retorts. His measure was carried; but immediately
afterwards the offended protectionists, led by Lord George
Bentinck and Benjamin Disraeli, coalesced with the Whigs,
and threw him out on the Irish Coercion Bill. He went home
from his defeat, escorted by a great crowd, who uncovered as
he passed, and he immediately resigned. So fell a Conservative
government which would otherwise have probably ended only
with the life of its chief.

Though out of office he was not out of power. He had " lost
a party, but won a nation." The Whig ministry which succeeded
him leant much on his support, with which he never taxed them.
He joined them in carrying forward free-trade principles by the
repeal of the navigation laws. He helped them to promote the
principle of religious liberty by the bill for the emancipation of
the Jews. One important measure was his own. While in
office he had probed, by the Devon commission of inquiry, the
sores of Ireland connected with the ownership and occupation of

land. In 1849, in a speech on the Irish Poor Laws, he first
suggested, and in the next year he aided in establishing, a corn-
mission to facilitate the sale of estates in a hopeless state of
encumbrance. The Encumbered Estates Act made no attempt,
like later legislation, to secure by law the uncertain customary
rights of Irish tenants, but it transferred the land from ruined
landlords to solvent owners capable of performing the duties of
property towards the people. On the aSth of June 1850 Sir
Robert Peel made a great speech on the Greek question against
Lord Palmerston's foreign policy of interference. This speech
was thought to show that if necessary he would return to office.
It was his last. On the following day he was thrown from his
horse on Constitution Hill, and mortally injured by the fall.
Three days he lingered and on the fourth (July 2, 1850) he
died. All the tributes which respect and gratitude could pay
were paid to him by the sovereign, by parliament, by public men
of all parties, by the country, by the press, and, above all, by
the great towns and the masses of the people to whom he had
given " bread unleavened with injustice." He would have been
buried among the great men of England in Westminster Abbey,
but his will desired that he might be laid in Drayton church. It
also renounced a peerage for his family, as he had before declined
the garter for himself when it was offered him by the queen
through Lord Aberdeen.

Those who judge Sir Robert Peel will remember that he was
bred a Tory in days when party was a religion; that he entered
parliament a youth, was in office at twenty-four and secretary
for Ireland at twenty-five; that his public life extended over a
long period rife with change; and that his own changes were all
forward and with the advancing intellect of the time. They will
enumerate the great practical improvements and the great acts
of legislative justice of those days, and note how large a share
Sir Robert Peel had, if not in originating, in giving thorough
practical effect to all. They will reflect that as a parliamentary
statesman he could not govern without a party, and that it is
difficult to govern at once for a party and for the whole people.
They will think of his ardent love of his country, of his abstinence
from intrigue, violence and faction, of his boundless labour
through a long life devoted to the public service. Whether he
was a model of statesmanship may be doubted. Models of
statesmanship are rare, if by a model of statesmanship is meant
a great administrator and party leader, a great political philo-
sopher and a great independent orator, all in one. But if the
question is whether he was a ruler loved and trusted by the
English people there is no arguing against the tears of a nation.

Those who wish to know more of him will consult his own post-
humous Memoirs (1856), edited by his literary executors Earl
Stanhope and Viscount Cardwell; his private correspondence,
edited by C. S. Parker (1891-1899) ; the four volumes of his speeches;
a sketch of his life and character by Sir Lawrence Peel (1860); an
historical sketch by Lord Dalling (1874); Guizot's Sir Robert Peel
(1.857); Kunzel's Leben und Reden Sir Robert Peel's (1851); Disraeli's
Life of Lord George Bentinck (1858); Morley's Life of Cobden; mono-
graphs by F. C. Montague (1888), J. R. Thursfeld (1891), and the
earl of Rosebery (1899); Peel and O'Connett, by Lord Eversley;
the Life of Sir J. Graham (1907), by C. S. Parker; Lord Stanmore's
Life of Lord Aberdeen (1893); and the general histories of the
time. (C. S. P.)

Four of Sir Robert's five sons attained distinction. The
eldest, SIR ROBERT PEEL (1822-1895), who became the 3rd
baronet on his father's death, was educated at Harrow and at
Christ Church, Oxford. He was in the diplomatic service from
1844 to 1850, when he succeeded his father as member of parlia-
ment for Tamworth, and he was chief secretary to the lord-
lieutenant of Ireland from 1861 to 1865. He represented Tam-
worth until the general election of 1880; in 1884 he became
member for Huntingdon and in 1885 for Blackburn, but after
1886 he ceased to sit in the. House of Commons. Sir Robert
described himself as a Liberal-Conservative, but in his later years
he opposed the policy of Gladstone, although after 1886 he
championed the cause of home rule for Ireland. In 1871 he sold
his father's collection of pictures to the National Gallery for
£75,000, and in his later life he was troubled by financial difficul-
ties. Sir Robert was interested in racing, and was known on the

44

PEEL— PEELE

turf as Mr F. Robinson. He died in London on the pth of May
1895, and was succeeded as 4th baronet by his son, Sir Robert
Peel (b. 1867).

SIR FREDERICK PEEL (1823-1906), the prime minister's second
son, was educated at Harrow and at Trinity College, Cambridge,
becoming a barrister in 1849. He entered parliament in that
year, and with the exception of the period between 1857 and 1859
he remained in the House of Commons until 1865. In 1851-1852
and again in 1853-1855 he was under-secretary for the colonies;
from 1855 to 1857 he was under-secretary for war; and from
1859 to 1865 he was secretary to the treasury. He became
a privy councillor in 1857 and was knighted in 1869. Sir
Frederick Peel's chief service to the state was in connexion with
the railway and canal commission. He was appointed a com-
missioner on the inception of this body in 1873, and was its
president until its reconstruction in 1888, remaining a member
of the commission until his death on the 6th of June 1906.

The third son was SIR WILLIAM PEEL (1824-1858), and the
youngest VISCOUNT PEEL (q.v.). Sir William was a sailor, who
distinguished himself in the Crimea, where he gained the Victoria
Cross, and also during the Indian Mutiny, being wounded at the
relief of Lucknow. He died on the 27th of April 1858. Sir
William wrote A Ride through the Nubian Desert (1852), giving
an account of his travels in 1851.

Two of Sir Robert Peel's brothers were also politicians of
note. WILLIAM YATES PEEL (1789-1858), educated at Harrow and
at St John's College, Cambridge, was a member of parliament
from 1817 to 1837, and again from 1847 to 1852; he was under-
secretary for home affairs in 1828, and was a lord of the treasury
in 1830 and again in 1834-1835. JONATHAN PEEL (1799-1879) was
first a soldier and then a member of parliament during the long
period between 1826 and 1868, first representing Norwich and then
Huntingdon. From 1841 to 1846 he was surveyor-general of the
ordnance, and in 1858-1859 and again in 1866-1867 he was a very
competent and successful secretary of state for war. General
Peel was also an owner of racehorses, and in 1844 his horse Orlando
won the Derby, after another horse, Running Rein, had been
disqualified.

For the history of the Peel family see Jane Ha worth, A Memoir
of the Family of Peel from the year 1000 (1836).

PEEL, a seaport and watering-place of the Isle of Man, on
the W. coast, n£ m. W.N.W. of Douglas by the Isle of Man
railway. Pop. (1901), 3304. It lies on Peel Bay, at the mouth
of the small river Neb, which forms the harbour. The old
town consists of narrow streets and lanes, but a modern resi-
dential quarter has grown up to the east. On the west side of the
river-mouth St Patrick's Isle is connected with the mainland
by a causeway. It is occupied almost wholly by the ruins of
Peel castle. St Patrick is said to have founded here the first
church in Man, and a small chapel, dedicated to him, appears
to date from the 8th or loth century. There is a round tower,
also of very early date, resembling in certain particulars the
round towers of Ireland. The ruined cathedral of St German
has a transitional Norman choir, with a very early crypt beneath,
a nave with an early English triplet at the west end, transepts,
and a low and massive central tower still standing. There
are remains of the bishops' palace, of the so-called Fenella's
tower, famous through Scott's Peveril of the Peak, of the palace
of the Lords of Man, of the keep and guardroom above the
entrance to the castle, and of the Moare or great tower, while
the whole is surrounded by battlements. There are also a large
artificial mound supposed to be a defensive earthwork of higher
antiquity than the castle, and another mound known as the
Giant's Grave. The guardroom is associated with the ghostly
apparition of the Moddey Dhoo (black dog), to which reference
is made in Peveril of the Peak. In 1397 Richard II. condemned
the earl of Warwick to imprisonment in Peel Castle for con-
spiracy, and in 1444 Eleanor, duchess of Gloucester, received
a like sentence on the ground of having compassed the death
of Henry VI. by magic. Peel has a long-established fishing
industry, which, however, has declined in modern times. In
the town the most notable building is the church of St German,
with a fine tower and spire. Peel was called by the Northmen
Holen (island, i.e. St Patrick's Isle) ; the existing name is Celtic,

meaning " fort " (cf. the peel towers of the borderland of England
and Scotland).

PEEL, (i) The skin or rind of a fruit; thus " to peel " is
to remove the outer covering of anything. The etymology
of the word is closely connected with that of " pill," to plunder,
surviving in " pillage." Both words are to be referred to
French and thence to Latin. In French peler and piller, though
now distinguished in meaning (the first used of stripping bark
or rind, the second meaning to rob), were somewhat confused
in application, and a similar confusion occurs in English till
comparatively late. The Latin words from which they are
derived are pellis, skin, and pilare, to strip of hair (pilus).
(2) The name of a class of small fortified dwelling-houses built
during the i6th century on the borders between Scotland and
England. They are also known as " bastel-houses," i.e.
" bastille-houses," and consist of a square massive tower with
high pitched roof, the lower part being vaulted, the upper
part containing a few living rooms. The entrance is on the
upper floor, access being gained by a movable ladder. The
vaulted ground-floor chamber served for the cattle when there
was danger of attack. The word appears in various forms,
e.g. pele, peil, and Latinized as pelum, &c. ; " pile " is also found
used synonymously, but the New English Dictionary (s.ii. pile)
considers the two words distinct. It seems more probable
that the word is to be identified with " pale," a stake (Lat.
palus). The earlier meaning of " peel " is a palisaded enclosure
used as an additional defence for a fortified post or as an
independent stronghold.

PEELE, GEORGE (1558-0. 1598), English dramatist, was
born in London in 1558. His father, who appears to have
belonged to a Devonshire family, was clerk of Christ's Hospital,
and wrote two treatises on book-keeping. George Peele was
educated at Christ's Hospital, and entered Broadgates Hall
(Pembroke College), Oxford, in 1571. In 1574 he removed
to Christ Church, taking his B.A. degree in 1577, and
proceeding M.A. in 1579. In 1579 the governors of Christ's
Hospital requested their clerk to " discharge his house of his
son, George Peele." It is not necessary to read into this
anything more than that the governors insisted on his beginning
to earn a livelihood. He went up to London about 1580, but
in 1583 when Albertus Alasco (Albert Laski), a Polish nobleman,
was entertained at Christ Church, Oxford, Peele was entrusted
with the arrangement of two Latin plays by William Gager
(fl. 1580-1619) presented on the occasion. He was also compli-
mented by Dr Gager for an English verse translation of one
of the Iphigenias of Euripides. In 1585 he was employed
to write the Device of the Pageant borne before Woolslon Dixie,
and in 1591 he devised the pageant in honour of another lord
mayor, Sir William Webbe. This was the Descensus Astraeae
(printed in the Harleian Miscellany, 1808), in which Queen
Elizabeth is honoured as Astraea. Peele had married as early
as 1583 a lady who brought him some property, which he
speedily dissipated. Robert Greene, at the end of his Groats-
worth of Wit, exhorts Peele to repentance, saying that he has,
like himself, " been driven to extreme shifts for a living." The
sorry traditions of his reckless life were emphasized by the use
of his name in connexion with the apocryphal Merrie conceited
Jests of George Peele (printed in 1607). Many of the stories
had done service before, but there are personal touches that
may be biographical. He died before 1598, for Francis Meres,
writing in that year, speaks of his death in his Palladis Tamia.

His pastoral comedy of The Araygnemenl of Paris, presented
by the Children of the Chapel Royal before Queen Elizabeth
perhaps as early as 1581, was printed anonymously in 1584.
Charles Lamb, sending to Vincent Novello a song from this
piece of Peek's, said that if it had been less uneven in execution
Fletcher's Faithful Shepherdess " had been but a second name
in this sort of writing." Peele shows considerable art in his
flattery. Paris is arraigned before Jupiter for having assigned
the apple to Venus. Diana, with whom the final decision
rests, gives the apple to none of the competitors but to a
nymph called Eliza, whose identity is confirmed by the further

PEEP-OF-DAY BOYS— PEERAGE

45

explanation, " whom some Zabeta call." The Famous Chronicle
of King Edward the first, sirnamed Edward Longshankes, with his
reiurne from the holy land. Also the life of Llcucllen, rebell
in Wales. Lastly, the sinking of Queen Elinor, who suncke
at Charingcrosse, and rose again at Potters-kith, now named
Queenehith (printed 1593). This " chronicle history," formless
enough, as the rambling title shows, is nevertheless an advance
on the old chronicle plays, and marks a step towards the Shake-
spearian historical drama. The Battell of Alcazar — with the death
of Captaine Stukeley (acted 1588-1589, printed 1594), published
anonymously, is attributed with much probability to Peele.
The Old Wives Tale, registered in Stationers' Hall, perhaps
more correctly, as "The Owlde wiies tale" (printed 1595),
was followed by The Love of King David and fair Bethsabe
(written c. 1588, printed 1599), which is notable as an example
of Elizabethan drama drawn entirely from scriptural sources.
Mr Fleay sees in it a political satire, and identifies Elizabeth
and Leicester as David and Bathsheba, Mary Queen of Scots
as Absalom. Sir Clyomon and Sir Clamydes (printed 1599)
has been attributed to Peele, but on insufficient grounds.
Among his occasional poems are " The Honour of the Garter,"
which has a prologue containing Peele's judgments on his
contemporaries, and " Polyhymnia " (1590), a blank- verse
description of the ceremonies attending the retirement of the
queen's champion, Sir Henry Lee. This is concluded by the
" Sonnet," " His golden locks time hath to silver turn'd,"
quoted by Thackeray in the 76th chapter of The Newcomes.
To the Phoenix Nest in 1593 he contributed "The Praise of
Chastity." Mr F. G. Fleay (Biog. Chron. of the Drama) credits
Peele with The Wisdom of Doctor Doddipoll (printed 1600),
Wily Beguiled (printed 1606), The Life and Death of Jack
Straw, a notable rebel (1587?), a share in the First and Second
Parts of Henry VI., and on the authority of Wood and
Winstanley, Alphonsus, Emperor of Germany.

Peele belonged to the group of university scholars who, in
Greene's phrase, " spent their wits in making playes." Greene
went on to say that he was " in some things rarer, in nothing
inferior," to Marlowe. Nashe in his preface to Greene's Mena-
phon called him " the chief supporter of pleasance now living,
the Atlas of Poetrie and primus iierborum artifex, whose first
encrease, the Arraignement of Paris, might plead to your
opinions his pregnant dexteritie of wit and manifold varietie
of invention, wherein (me judice) hee goeth a step beyond all
that write." This praise was not unfounded. The credit
given to Greene and Marlowe for the increased dignity of
English dramatic diction, and for the new smoothness infused
into blank verse, must certainly be shared by Peele. Professor
F. B. Gummere, in a critical essay prefixed to his edition of The
Old Wives Tale, puts in another claim for Peele. In the contrast
between the romantic story and the realistic dialogue he sees
the first instance of humour quite foreign to the comic " business "
of earlier comedy. The Old Wives Tale is a play within a play,
slight enough to be perhaps better described as an interlude.
Its background of rustic folk-lore gives it additional interest,
and there is much fun poked at Gabriel Harvey and Stany hurst.
Perhaps Huanebango,1 who parodies Harvey's hexameters,
and actually quotes him on one occasion, may be regarded as
representing that arch-enemy of Greene and his friends.

Peele's Works were edited by Alexander Dyce (1828, 1829-1839
and 1861); by A. H. Bullen (2 vols., 1888). An examination of
the metrical peculiarities of his work is to be found in F. A. R.
Lammerhirt's Georg Peele, Unlersuchungen liber sein Leben und
seine Werke (Rostock, 1882). See also Professor F. B. Gummere, in
Representative English Comedies (1903); and an edition of The
Battell of Alcazar, printed for the Malone Society in 1907.

PEEP-OF-DAY BOYS, an Irish Protestant secret society,
formed about 1785. Its object was to protect the Protestant
peasantry, and avenge their wrongs on the Roman Catholics.
The " Boys " gained their name from the hour of dawn which

1 Mr Fleay goes so far as to see in the preposterous names of
Huanebango's kith and kin puns on Harvey's father's trade.
" Polymachaeroplacidus " he interprets as " Polly-make-a-rope-
lass " !

they chose for their raids on the Roman Catholic villages.
The Roman Catholics in return formed the society of " The
Defenders."

PEEPUL, or PIPUL (Ficus religiosa), the " sacred fig " tree
of India, also called the Bo tree. It is not unlike the banyan,
and is venerated both by the Buddhists of Ceylon and the
Vaishnavite Hindus, who say that Vishnu was born beneath its
shade. It is planted near temples and houses; its sap abounds
in caoutchouc, and a good deal of lac is obtained from insects
who feed upon the branches. The fruit is about the size of a
walnut and is not much eaten.

PEERAGE (Fr. pairage, med. Lat. paragium; M.E. pere,
O. Fr. per, peer, later pair; Lat. paris, " equal "). Although
in England the terms " peerage," " nobility," " House of Lords "
are in common parlance frequently regarded as synonymous,
in reality each expresses a different meaning. A man may be
a peer and yet not a member of the House of Lords, a member
of the House of Lords and yet not strictly a peer; though all
peers (as the term is now understood) are members of the
House of Lords either in esse or in posse. In the United
Kingdom the rights, duties and privileges of peerage are
centred in an individual; to the monarchial nations of the
Continent nobility conveys the idea of family, as opposed to
personal, privilege.

Etymologically " peers " are " equals " (pares), and in Anglo-
Norman days the word was invariably so understood. The
feudal tenants-in-chief of the Crown were all the
peers of each other, whether lords of one manor or
of a hundred; so too a bishop had his ecclesiastical
peer in a brother bishop, and the tenants of a manor their
peers in their fellow-tenants. That even so late as the
reign of John the word was still used in this general sense is
clear from Magna Carta, for the term " judicium parium "
therein must be understood to mean that every man had a right
to be tried by his equals. This very right was asserted by the
barons as a body in 1233 on behalf of Richard, earl marshal,
who had been declared a traitor by the king's command, and
whose lands were forfeited without proper trial. In 1233 the
French bishop Peter des Roches, Henry III.'s minister, denied
the barons' right to the claim set up on the ground that the
king might judge all his subjects alike, there being, he said, no
peers in England (Math. Paris. 389). The English barons
undoubtedly were using the word in the sense it held in Magna
Carta, while the bishop probably had in his mind the French peers
(pairs de France) , a small and select body of feudatories possessed
of exceptional privileges. In England the term was general,
in France technical. The change in England was gradual,
and probably gathered force as the gulf between the greater
barons and the lesser widened, until in course of time, for judicial
purposes, there came to be only two classes, the greater barons
and the rest of the people. The barons remained triable by
their own order (i.e. by their peers), whilst the rest of the people
rapidly became subject to the general practice and procedure
of the king's justices. The first use of the word " peers " as
denoting those members of the baronage who were accustomed
to receive regularly a writ of summons to parliament is found
in the record of the proceedings against the Despensers in 1321
(Stubbs, Const. Hist. ii. 347), and from that time this restricted
use of the word has remained its ordinary sense.

Properly to understand the growth and constitution of the
peerage it is necessary to trace the changes which occurred in
the position of the Anglo-Norman baronage, first Anglo-
through the gradual strengthening of royal supre- Normaa
macy with the consequent decay of baronial power Baronage.
locally, and subsequently by the consolidation of parliamentary
institutions during the reigns of the first three Edwards.

Before the conquest the national assembly of England (see
PARLIAMENT) was the Witan, a gathering of notables owing
their presence only to personal influence and standing. The Saxon
The imposition of a modified feudal system resulted WHena-
in a radical alteration. Membership of the Great i*1"0'-
Councils of the Norman kings was primarily an incident of

46

PEERAGE

tenure, one of the obligations the tenants-in-chief were bound
to perform, although this membership gradually became restricted
by the operation of the Royal prerogative to a small section
of the Baronial class and eventually hereditary by custom. The
Norman Councils may have arisen from the ashes of a Saxon
Witenagemot, but there is little evidence of any historical
continuity between the two. The Church in England, as
in Christendom generally, occupied a position of paramount
importance and far-reaching influence; its leaders, not alone
from their special sanctity as ecclesiastics, but as practically
the only educated men of the period, of necessity were among
the chief advisers of every ruler in Western Europe. In
England churchmen formed a large proportion of the Witan,
the more influential of the great landowners making up the
rest of its membership.

In place of the scattered individual and absolute ownership
of Saxon days the Conqueror became practically the sole
Norman owner of the soil. The change, though not imme-
Feudai diately complete, followed rapidly as the country
Tenure. settled down and the power of the Crown extended
to its outlying frontiers. As Saxon land gradually passed
into Norman hands the new owners became direct tenants
of the king. Provided their loyal and military obligations
were duly performed they had fixity of tenure for themselves
and their heirs. In addition fixed money payments were exacted
on the succession of the heir, when the king's eldest son was
knighted, his eldest daughter married, or his person ransomed
from captivity. In like manner and under similar conditions
the king's tenants, or as they were termed tenants-in-chief,
sub-granted the greater portion of their holdings to their own
immediate followers. Under Norman methods the manor was
the unit of local government and jurisdiction, and when
land was given away by the king the gift invariably took the
form of a grant of one or more manors.

When he brought England into subjection the Conqueror's
main idea was to exalt the central power of the Crown at the
expense of its feudatories, and the first two centuries following
the conquest tell one long tale of opposition by the great tenants-
in-chief to a steadily growing and unifying royal pressure. With
this idea of royal supremacy firmly fixed in his mind, William's
grants, excepting outlying territory such as the marches of
Wales or the debateable ground of the Scottish border, which
needed special consideration, were seldom in bulk, but took the
form of manors scattered over many counties. Under such
conditions it was practically impossible for a great tenant to
set up a powerful imperium in imperio (such as the fiefs of
Normandy, Brittany and Burgundy), as his forces were dis-
tributed over the country, and could be reached by the long
arm of royal power, acting through the sheriff of every county,
long before they could effectively come together for fighting
purposes. The tenants-in-chief were termed generally barons
(see BARON) and may be regarded historically as the parents
of the peers of later days. The pages of Domesday (1086),
the early Norman fiscal record of England, show how unevenly
the land was distributed; of the fifteen hundred odd tenants
mentioned the majority held but two or three manors, while
a favoured few possessed more than a hundred each. Land
was then the only source of wealth, and the number of a
baron's manors might well be regarded as a correct index of his
importance.

The king's tenants owed yet another duty, the service of
attending the King's Court (curia regis), and out of this custom
The King's grew tlle Parliaments of later days. In theory all
Cou,^ the king's tenants-in-chief, great and small, had a
right to be present as incident to their tenure.
It has therefore been argued by some authorities that as the
Conqueror's system of tenure constituted him the sole owner
of the land, attendance at his courts was solely an incident of
tenure, the Church having been compelled to accept the same
conditions as those imposed on laymen. But, as already pointed
out, the change in tenure had not been immediate, and there
had been no general forfeiture suffered by ecclesiastical bodies;

consequently throughout the early years of William's reign
some of the English bishops and abbots attended his courts
as much by virtue of their personal and ecclesiastical importance
as by right of tenure. The King's Court was held regularly
at the three great festivals of the Church and at such other
times as were deemed advisable. The assembly for several
generations neither possessed nor pretended to any legislative
powers. Legislative power was a product of later years, and
grew out of the custom of the Estates granting supplies only
on condition that their grievances were first redressed. The
great bulk of the tenants were present for the purpose of assenting
to special taxation above and beyond their ordinary feudal
dues. When necessary a general summons to attend was sent
through the sheriff of every county, who controlled a system
of local government which enabled him to reach every tenant.
In course of time to a certain number of barons and high
ecclesiastics, either from the great extent of their possessions,
their official duties about the king or their personal importance,
it became customary to issue a personal writ of summons, thus
distinguishing them from the general mass summoned through
the sheriff. That this custom was in being within a century
of the Conquest is clear from an incident in the bitter fight for
supremacy between Archbishop Becket and Henry II. in 1164
(Stubbs, Const. Hist. i. 504), it being recorded that the king
withheld the Archbishop's personal summons to parliament,
and put upon him the indignity of a summons through the sheriff.
During the succeeding fifty years the line becomes even more
definite, though it is evident that the Crown sometimes dis-
regarded the custom, as the barons are found complaining that
many of their number deemed entitled to a personal summons
had frequently been overlooked.

The sequel to these complaints is found in Magna Carta,
wherein it is provided that the archbishops, bishops, abbots,
earls and greater barons are to be called up to the Magaa Carta
council by writ directed to each severally; and all and Personal
who hold of the king in chief, below the rank of Summons
greater barons, are to be summoned by a general ^afores
writ addressed to the sheriff of their shire.1 Magna Bar-ones.
Carta thus indicates the existence of two definite
sections of the king's tenants, a division which had evidently
persisted for some time. The " greater barons " are the
immediate parents of the peerages of later days, every member
of which for more than four centuries had a seat in the House
of Lords. As for the rest of the tenants-in-chief, poorer in
estate and therefore of less consequence, it is sufficient here to
note that they fell back into the general mass of country families,
and that their representatives, the knights of the shire, after
some hesitation, at length joined forces with the city and burgher
representatives to form the House of Commons.

In 1254, instead of the general summons through the sheriff
to all the lesser tenants-in-chief, the king requires them to elect
two knights for each shire to attend the council as
the accredited representative of their fellows. In
the closing days of 1264 Simon de Montfort sum-
moned to meet him early in 1 265 the first parliament worthy of
the name, a council in which prelates, earls and greater barons,
knights of the shire, citizens and burghers were present, thus
constituting a representation of all classes of people. It has been
argued that this assembly cannot be regarded as a full parlia-
ment, inasmuch as Simon de Montfort summoned personally
only such members of the baronage as were favourable to his
cause, and issued writs generally only to those counties and
cities upon which he could rely to return representatives in
support of his policy. Stubbs holds the view that the first
assembly we ought to regard as a full parliament was the Model
Parliament which met at Westminster in 1295. This Model
parliament, unlike Simon's partisan assembly of Parliament
1 265, was free and representative. To every spiritual Oil29s-

1 Et ab habendum commune consilium regni . . . summoneri
faciemus archiepiscopos, episcopos, abbates, comites et majores
barones sigillatim per litteras nostras et praeterea faciemus summoneri
in general! per vicecomes et ballivos nostros omnes illos qui de
nobis tenent in capite (cited in Stubbs, Const. Hist. i. 547 n.).

Parliament
of!2S4.

PEERAGE

47

and temporal baron accustomed to receive an individual
writ, one was issued. Every county elected its knights and
every city or borough of any importance was instructed
by the sheriff to elect and to return its allotted number of
representatives. Stubbs's view (Const. Hist. ii. 223) may prob-
ably be regarded as authoritative, inasmuch as it was adopted
by Lord Ashbourne in the Norfolk peerage case of 1906 (Law
Reports [rgoy], A.C. at p. 15). Edward I. held frequent parlia-
ments throughout his reign, and although many must be
regarded as merely baronial councils, nevertheless year after
year, on all important occasions, the knights of the shire and
the citizens appear in their places. The parliament of Shrews-
bury in 1283, for instance, has been claimed as a full parliament
in several peerage cases, but no clear decision on the point
has ever been given by the Committee for Privileges. It may
be taken for granted, however, that any assembly held
since 1295, which did not conform substantially to the model
of that year, cannot be regarded constitutionally as a full
parliament. The point is even of modern importance, as in
order to establish the existence of a barony by writ it must
be proved that the claimant's ancestor was summoned by
individual writ to a full parliament, and that either he himself
or one of his direct descendants was present in parliament.
It is now convenient to consider the various grades into
which the members of the peerage are grouped, and their
relative positions. An examination of the early writs
issued to individuals shows that the baronage con-
sisted of archbishops, bishops, abbots, priors, earls
and barons. In course of time every member of these classes
came to hold his land by feudal tenure from the Crown, and
eventually in every instance the writs issued as an incident
of tenure. It is therefore necessary to discover, if possible,
what combination of attributes clothed the greater baron with
a right to receive the king's personal writ of summons. While
the archbishops and bishops received their writs with regularity,
the summonses to heads of ecclesiastical houses and greater
barons were intermittent. The prelate held an office which
lived on regardless of the fate of its temporary holder, and if
by reason of death, absence or translation the office became
vacant, a writ still issued to the " Guardian of the Spiritualities."
The abbot, on the other hand, often outside the jurisdiction of
the English Church, and owing allegiance to a foreign order,
was but the personal representative of a land-holding community.
It has already been pointed out that the amount of land held
direct from the king by individuals varied greatly, and that
the extent of his holding must have had something to do with
a man's importance. A landless noble in those days was
inconceivable. The conclusion, then, may be drawn that in
theory the issue of a writ was at the pleasure of the Crown, and
that in practice the moving factor in the case of the prelates
was office and personal importance, and in the case of abbots
and barons probably, in the main, extent of possession. There
is nothing however to show that in the early years of the custom
any person had a right to claim a writ if it were the king's
pleasure or caprice to withhold it and to treat everyone not
summoned individually as being duly summoned under the
general writs issued to the sheriff of the county.

The next point for consideration is when did the peerage,
as the baronage subsequently came to be called, develop into
a body definitely hereditary ? Here again growth
was gradual and somewhat obscure. Throughout
the reigns of the Edwards summonses were not
always issued to the same individual for successive parliaments;
and it is quite certain that the king never considered the issue
of one writ to an individual bound the Crown to its repetition
for the rest of his life, much less to his heirs in perpetuity.
Again we must look to tenure for an explanation. The custom
of primogeniture tended to secure estates in strict family
succession, an'd if extent of possession had originally extracted
the acknowledgment of a personal summons from the Crown
it is more than probable that as successive heirs came into their
inheritance they too would similarly be acknowledged. In

early days the summons was a burden to be suffered of necessity,
an unpleasant incident of tenure, in itself undesirable, and
probably so regarded by the majority of recipients during at
least the two centuries following the Conquest. The age of the
Edwards was in the main a rule of settled law, of increase in
population generally, of growing power in the large landowners
and of opportunities for those about the person of the king.
The times were changing, and in place of the idea of the writ
being a burden, its receipt gradually came to be looked upon
as a mark of royal favour, a recognition of position and an
opportunity leading on to fortune. Once such a view was
established it is easy to understand how desirous any individual
would be to preserve so valuable a privilege for his posterity;
and primogeniture with its strict settlement of estates pointed
out an easy way. The Crown was itself an hereditary dignity;
and what more natural than that it should be surrounded by an
hereditary peerage ? Thus the free and indiscriminate choice
of the Crown became fettered by the custom that once a
summons had been issued to an individual to sit in parliament
and he had obeyed that summons he thereby acquired a right
of summons for the rest of his lifetime; and in later years when
the doctrine of nobility of blood became established his
descendants were held to have acquired the same privilege by
hereditary right.

The earl's position in the baronage needs some explanation.
Various suggestions have been made as to Saxon or Norman
origin of a high official nature, but historical opinion
seems generally to incline towards the theory that
the term was a name of dignity conferred by royal prerogative
on a person already classed among the greater barons. At first
the dignity was official and certainly not hereditary, and the name
of a county of which he is said to have been an officer in the king's
name was not essential to his dignity as an earl. There were
also men who, though Scottish and Norman earls, and commonly
so addressed and summoned to parliament, were rated in
England as barons (Lords Reports, ii. 116, 120; Earldom of
Norfolk Peerage Case, Law Reports [1907], A.C. p. 18). Earls
received individual summonses to parliament by the name of
Earl (q.v.) ; but there is reason to believe, as already mentioned,
that in early days at any rate they sat not in right of their
earldoms but by tenure as members of the baronage.

If we review the political situation at the beginning of the
I4th century a great change is evident. The line between
those members of the baronage in parliament and writ
the rest of the people is firmly and clearly drawn. Supersedes
Tenure as the sole qualification for presence in the Teaure-
national assembly has disappeared, and in its place there
appears for the baronage a system of royal selection and for
the rest of the people one of representation. The rules and
customs of law relating to the baronage slowly crystallized so
as to provide the House of Lords, the history of which for
generations is the history of the peerage of England, whilst
the representative part of parliament, after shedding the lower
clergy, ultimately became the House of Commons.

Until the reign of Richard II. there is no trace of any use
of the term baron (q.v.) as importing a personal dignity existing
apart from the tenure of land, barons owing their seats in parlia-
ment to tenure and writ combined. This is borne out by the
fact that a husband was often summoned to parliament in his
wife's right and name, and while she lived fulfilled those feudal,
military and parliamentary obligations attached to her lands
which the physical disabilities of sex prevented her from carrying
out in her own person (Pike, House of Lords, p. 103).

Primogeniture, a custom somewhat uncertain in early Anglo-
Norman days, had rapidly developed into a definite rule of law.
As feudal dignities were in their origin inseparable peerage
from the tenure of land it is not surprising that they becomes a
too followed a similar course of descent, although Personal
as the idea of a dignity being exclusively personal Dl*nlty-
gradually emerged, some necessary deviations from the rules of
law relating to the descent of land inevitably resulted. In the
eleventh year of his reign Richard II. created by letters patent

48

PEERAGE

John Beauchamp " Lord de Beauchamp and baron of Kydder-
mynster, to hold to him and the heirs of his body." These letters
patent were not founded on any right by tenure of land possessed
by Beauchamp, for the king makes him " for his good services and
in respect of the place which he had holden at the coronation (i.e.
steward of the household) and might in future hold in the king's
councils and parliaments, and for his noble descent, and his
abilities and discretion, one of the peers and barons of the king-
dom of England; willing that the said John and the heirs-male
of his body issuing, should have the state of baron and should
be called by the name of Lord de Beauchamp and Baron of
Kyddermynster." The grant rested wholly on the grace and
favour of the Crown and was a personal reward for services
rendered. Here then is a barony entirely a personal dignity
and quite unconnected with land. From Richard's reign to
the present day baronies (and indeed all other peerage honours)
have continued to be conferred by patent. The custom of
summons by writ was not in any way interfered with, the patent
operating merely to declare the dignity and to define its devolu-
tion. Summons alone still continued side by side for many
generations with summons founded on patent; but after the
reign of Henry VIII. the former method fell into disuse, and
during the last two hundred and fifty years there have been
no new creations by writ of summons alone.1 So from the
reign of Richard II. barons were of two classes, the older, and
more ancient in lineage summoned by writ alone, the honours
descending to heirs-general, and the newer created by letters
patent, the terms of which governed the issue of the summons
and prescribed the devolution of the peerage in the line almost
invariably of the direct male descendants of the person
first ennobled. The principle of hereditary succession so clearly
recognized in the Beauchamp creation is good evidence to show
that a prescriptive right of hereditary summons probably existed
in those families whose members had long been accustomed to
receive individual writs. By the time the House of Lancaster
was firmly seated on the throne it may be taken that the peerage
had become a body of men possessing well-defined personal
privileges and holding personal dignities capable of descending
to their heirs.

The early origin of peerages was so closely connected with
the tenure of land that the idea long prevailed that there were
Ptera s b or'8inally peerages by tenure only, i.e. dignities
Tenure. * or titles annexed to the possession (and so following
it on alienation) of certain lands held in chief of the
king. The older writers, Glanville (bk. ix. cc. 4, 6) and Bracton
(bk. ii. c. 16), lend some colour to the view. They are followed,
but not very definitely, by Coke, Selden and Madox. Black-
stone, who discusses the question in his Commentaries (bk. i.
c. xii.), seems to believe that such dignities existed in pre-
parliamentary days but says further: " When alienations grew
to be frequent, the dignity of peerage was confined to the lineage
of the party ennobled, and instead of territorial became per-
sonal." The Earldom of Arundel case, in 1433, at first sight seems
to confirm the theory, but it may be noted that when in later
years this descent came to be discussed the high authority of
an act of parliament was found necessary to confirm the succes-
sion to the dignity. The case is discussed at some length in the
Lords Reports (ii. 115), the committee regarding it as an anomaly
from which no useful precedent can be drawn. Other cases
discussed in the same Report are those of De Lisle, Abergavenny,
Fitzwalter and Berkeley. The Berkeley case of 1858-1861 (better
reported 8 H.L.C. 21) is essential for the student who wishes
to examine the question carefully; and may be regarded as
finally putting an end to any idea of bare tenure as an existing
means of establishing a peerage right (see also Cruise on Dignities,
2nd ed. pp. 60 et seq.).

The main attribute of a peerage is that hereditary and inalien-
1 Not intentional at any rate. In some cases where it was in-
tended to call a son up in his father's barony, a mistake in the name
has been made with the result that a new peerage by writ of sum-
mons has been created. The barony of Buller, of Moore Park
(cr. 1663), now in abeyance, is said to be an instance of such a
mistake.

able quality which ennobles the blood of the holder and his
heirs, or, as a great judge put it in 1625 in the Earldom of
Oxford case, " he cannot alien or give away this in-
heritance because it is a personal dignity annexed toafleniWe.
to the posterity and fixed in the blood " (Dodridge,
J., at p. 123, Sir W. Jones's Reports). Were the theory of barony
by tenure accepted it would be possible for the temporary
holder of such a barony to sell it or even to will it away to a
stranger possessing none of the holder's blood, with the effect
that, in the words of Lord Chancellor Campbell (Berkeley case,
8 H.L.C. 77), " there might be various individuals and various
lines of peers successively ennobled and created peers of parlia-
ment by a subject," an impossible condition of affairs in a
country where the sovereign has always been the' fountain of
honour. Moreover, while no peerage honour can be extinguished
or surrendered, the owner of lands can freely dispose of such
rights as he possesses by sale or transfer. Finally we may accept
the verdict in the Fitzwalter case of 1669 (Cruise, ibid. p. 66),
which was adopted by the House of Lords in the Berkeley case:
" and the nature of a barony by tenure being discussed, it
was found to have been discontinued for many ages, and not in
being, and so not fit to be revived or to admit any pretence or
right of succession thereupon."

Until the reign of Edward III. the peerage consisted only of
high ecclesiastics, earls and barons. The earls were barons
with their special name of dignity added, and their Dukes
names always appear on the rolls before those of the
barons. In 1337 King Edward created his son, the Black
Prince, duke of Cornwall, giving him precedence over the rest
of the peerage. The letters patent (under which the present
heir to the throne now holds the dukedom) limited the dignity
in perpetuity to the first-born son of the king of England.2
Subsequently several members of the royal family were created
dukes, but no subject received such an honour until fifty years
later, when Richard II. created his favourite Robert de Vere,
earl of Oxford, duke of Ireland (for life). The original intention
may have been to confine the dignity to the blood royal, as with
the exception of de Vere it was some years before a dukedom
was again conferred on a subject.

In 1385 Richard II. had created Robert de Vere marquess of
Dublin, thus importing an entirely new and unknown title into
the peerage. The grant was, however, only for life, Marquesses
and was in fact resumed by the Crown in 1387, when
its recipient was created duke of Ireland. It was not until 1397
that another creation was made, this time in favour of one of
the blood royal, John de Beaufort, eldest legitimated son of
John of Gaunt, who became marquess of Dorset. His title was
shortly afterwards taken away by Henry IV 's first parliament.
Subsequently creations were made only at long intervals, that
of Winchester (1551) being the only one (of old date) under
which an English marquess at present sits in the House of Lords
(see MARQUESS).

Under the name of viscount (q.v.) Henry VI. added yet another
order, and the last in point of time, to the peerage, creating in
1440, John, Baron Beaumont, Viscount Beaumont Vlscouatti
and giving him precedence next above the barons.
The name of this dignity was also borrowed from the Continent,
having been in use for some time as a title of honour in the king's
French possessions. None of the new titles above mentioned
ever carried with them any official position; they were conferred
originally as additional honours on men who were already
members of the peerage.

The application of the hereditary principle to temporal
peerages early differentiated their holders from the spiritual
peers. Both spiritual and temporal peers were
equally lords of parliament, but hereditary preten-
sions on the one side and ecclesiastical exclusiveness
on the other soon drew a sharp line of division between the two
orders. Gradually the temporal peers, strong in* their doctrine
of " ennobled " blood, came to consider that theirs was an order

* .... principi ct ipsius et haeredum suorum Regum Angliae
filiis primogenitis (The Prince's Case, 8 Co. Rep. 273; 77 E.R. 513).

PEERAGE

49

above and beyond all other lords of parliament, and before long,
arrogated to themselves the exclusive right to be called peers,
and as such the only persons entitled to the privileges of peerage.

In early parliamentary days it had been the custom to summon
regularly to attend the Lords for deliberative purposes another
body of men — the judges. Less important than the prelates,
they also owed their summons to official position, and like them
were eventually overshadowed by the hereditary principle.
The force of hereditary right gave to ennobled blood a position
never possessed by either judge or prelate. It is true the prelate,
in point of antiquity, was senior to both earl and baron, and in
many cases superior in extent of possessions; but these attributes
belonged to his office, the resignation or deprivation of which
would at any time have caused him to lose his writ of summons.
The writ issued really to the office. The judge's position was
even worse. His judicial office evoked the writ, but at any
moment he might be deprived of that office at the arbitrary
pleasure of the Crown. It is doubtful whether the judges ever
had voice and vote in the same sense as the other lords of
parliament, and even if they had they soon came to be regarded
merely as counsellors and assessors.

The pretensions of the lay peers were not admitted without
a struggle on the part of the prelates, who made the mistake
of aiming at the establishment of a privileged position for their
own order while endeavouring to retain every right possessed
by their lay brethren. They fell between two stools, lost their
position as peers, and were beaten back in their fight for eccle-
siastical privilege. In the reign of Richard II. the prelates are
found clearly defining their position. Neville, archbishop of
York, de Vere, duke of Ireland and others, were " appealed "
for treason, and the archbishop of Canterbury took the oppor-
tunity in parliament of making clear the rights of his order.
He said " of right and by the custom of the realm of England
it belongeth to the Archbishop of Canterbury for the time being
as well as others his suffragans, brethren and fellow bishops,
abbots and priors and other prelates whatsoever, holding of
our lord'the king by barony, to be present in person in all the
king's parliaments whatsoever as Peers of the Realm aforesaid,
and there with the other Peers of the Realm, and with other
persons having the right to be there present, to advise, treat,
ordain, establish and determine as to the affairs of the realm
and other matters there wont to be treated and to do all else
which there presses to be done." After this he went on to say
that as to the particular matters in question they intended to
be present and to take their part in all matters brought before
parliament " save our estate and order and that of each of the
prelates in all things. But because in the present parliament
there is question of certain matters, in which it is not lawful
for us or anyone of the prelates according to the institute of the
Holy Canons in any manner, to take part personally " we intend
to retire " saving always the rights of our peerage " (Rot. Parl.
ii Rich. II. No. 6 — printed iii. 236-237). At the desire of the
prelates this statement of their rights was duly enrolled in parlia-
ment, but their claim to be peers was neither denied nor admitted,
and the proceedings went on without them. For themselves
Churchmen never claimed the privilege of trial by peers.
Whenever they were arraigned they claimed to be altogether
outside secular jurisdiction, and it was therefore a matter of
small concern to them whether they were in the hands of peers
or peasants. Such was the attitude of Becket towards Henry II.
(Stubbs, Const. Hist. i. 504), of Archbishop Stratford towards
Edward III. (Pike, pp. 188 seq.), and it was probably with
the history of these two cases in his mind that the archbishop
of Richard II. 's reign speaks of the saving rights of his order.
These rights were never willingly admitted in England, and as
the pope's power for interference waned so the prelates were
forced under the ordinary law of the land. Henry VIII. cer-
tainly never regarded ecclesiastics as peers, as may be gathered
from a grant early in his reign to the then abbot of Tavistock
for himself and each succeeding abbot the right to be " one of
the spiritual and religious lords of parliament." As to abbots,
the subsequent dissolution of the monasteries put an end to the

discussion. In this reign also Cranmer and Fisher, though the
former was archbishop of Canterbury, were tried by a common
jury, and they certainly claimed no privilege of peerage. The
Standing Orders of the House of Lords for 1625 contain the
statement that " Bishops are only Lords of Parliament and not
Peers " (Lords Journals, iii. 349). In 1640 the " Lords Spiritual "
were altogether excluded from the House of Lords by act of
parliament, and were not brought back until the second year
of the Restoration. From that period there has been no ques-
tion as to their position. Peers and holders by barony when
parliaments first met, by the end of the isth century they had put
themselves outside the pale of the peerage. To-day their ancient
lands are vested in trustees (Ecclesiastical Commissioners),
and office alone constitutes a bishop's qualification, and
that only if he occupies one of the five great sees of Canterbury,
York, London, Durham and Winchester, or is of sufficient
seniority in appointment to fill one of the remaining twenty-one
places on the bench of bishops in the house — for there are now
only twenty-six seats for thirty-six prelates.

The reign of Henry VIII. brought about far-reaching changes
in the position of the peerage. When that king ascended the
throne the hereditary element was in a decided Henry vm.
minority, but the balance was gradually redressed and the
until at length a bare hereditary majority was Peerage.
secured and the dissolution of the monasteries made
possible. The peers, many now grown fat on abbey lands,
at once began to consolidate their position; precedents were
eagerly sought for, and the doctrine of ennobled blood began
to find definite and vigorous expression. So long, the peers
declared, as there is any ennobled blood, a peerage
must exist; and it can be extinguished only by act Blood *
of parliament, failure of heirs, or upon corruption
of blood by attainder. Stubbs writes with some contempt of
the doctrine (Const. Hist. iii. 458 n.), apparently on the ground
that it is absurd to speak of ennobled blood so long as the children
of a peer still remain commoners. The doctrine is neither
unreasonable nor illogical. By it is meant blood in which
there always exists a capacity to inherit a particular peerage,
and every person in whose veins the ennobled blood runs is
competent to occupy the peerage if the chances of nature should
remove those who are senior to him in the line of descent. A
good illustration is the popular use of the term " blood royal,"
which of course does not mean that an individual of the blood
royal necessarily occupies a throne but that he or she is in the
line of succession to it. Similarly, persons of " ennobled blood "
are not necessarily peers but in the line of descent to peerages,
to which they may or may not succeed. (See NOBILITY.)

The English peer is not like the continental noble the member
of a caste, but the holder for life of an office clothed with high
and exceptional legislative and judicial attributes entirely
dependent on his office and exercisable only in conjunction
with his fellow peers in parliament assembled. Such privileges
as he possesses are due primarily to his office rather than to his
blood. His children are commoners, who though accorded
courtesy titles by the usage of society have no legal privileges
not shared with the humblest of British subjects. It is this
peculiar official quality of an English peerage which saved
England from the curse of a privileged noble caste such as that
which so long barred all progress in France and Germany. As
a result there are hundreds of families in the United Kingdom
who, commoners there, would yet, from their purity of blood,
position and influence, be accounted noble in any continental
country.

From the doctrine of nobility of blood is derived the rule
of law that no peerage (a Scots peerage is under Scots Law)
can be surrendered, extinguished, or in any way got
rid of unless the blood be corrupted. The rule is
well illustrated by the earldom of Norfolk case
(Law Reports [1007], A. C. 10) in which its development was
traced, and the principle authoritatively confirmed. In 1302
the hereditary earldom of Norfolk (created in 1135) was in the
possession of Hugh Bygod, one of the most powerful nobles of

PEERAGE

Plantagenet days. The earl got into difficulties, and as some
say, for a consideration, and others, to spite his brother and
debtor, surrendered his earldom and all the lands thereto
belonging, to King Edward I. from whom he subsequently
received it back with an altered limitation to himself and the
heirs of his body. As he was a childless old man this was practi-
cally a short life interest to the exclusion of all his relatives, the
nearest of whom but for the surrender would have succeeded.
Soon after Bygod died, and the earldom fell into the hands of
Edward II. who granted it to his brother Thomas of Brotherton
in 1312. Lord Mowbray, the lineal descendant of this Thomas,
recently came forward and claimed the earldom, but in 1906
the House of Lords decided against his claim on the ground
that in law Bygod's surrender was invalid, and that therefore
Edward II. had no valid power to grant this particular earldom
to Thomas of Brotherton. Historically there is little to support
such a decision, and indeed this rigid application of the law is
of comparatively recent date. Without doubt king, nobles and
lawyers alike were all agreed, right down to Tudor days, that
such surrenders were entirely valid. Many certainly were made,
but, according to the decision of 1906, any living heirs of line
of those nobles who thus got rid of their peerage honours can,
if their pedigrees be provable, come to the House of Lords with a
fair chance of reviving the ancient honours. Even as late as
1663 we find the Crown, naturally with the concurrence of its
legal advisers, stating in the barony of Lucas patent (1663) that,
on the appearance of co-heirs to a barony, the honour may be
suspended or extinguished at the royal pleasure. The royal view
of the law (at any rate as to extinction) was strongly objected
to by the Lords, who guarded their privileges in Stuart days
even more strictly than did the Commons. As early as 1626,
in the celebrated dispute over the earldom of Oxford, the lord
great chamberlainship and the baronies of Bolebec, Badlesmere
and Sandford, Mr Justice Dodridge, who had been called in by
the Lords to advise them, said that an earl could not give away
or alien his inheritance, because it was " a personal dignity
annexed to the posterity and fixed in the blood." Fourteen
years later, in the Grey de Ruthyn case, the Lords solemnly
resolved, " That no peer of the realm can drown or extinguish
his honour (but that it descends unto his descendants), neither
by surrender, grant, fine nor any other conveyance to the king."
In 1678 the Lords became, if possible, even more definite, in
view probably of the fact that the Crown had disregarded the
Grey de Ruthyn resolution, having in 1660 taken into its hands,
by surrender of Robert Villiers, 2nd viscount, the viscounty
of Purbeck. In 1676 the son of the second viscount applied
for his writ of summons, and on the advice of Sir William Jones,
the attorney-general, who reported that " this (surrender) was
a considerable question, never before resolved that he knew of,"
the king referred the whole matter to the Lords. The Lords
were very explicit, being " unanimously of the opinion, and do
resolve that no fine now levied, or at any time hereafter to be
levied by the king, can bar such title of honour (i.e. of a peer
of the realm), or the right of any person claiming under him that
levied, or shall levy such fine." On these resolutions passed in
the seventeenth century, the Lords of 1906 find illegal a surrender
of 1302. The result seems strange, but it is, at any rate, logical
from the legal point of view. It was urged that in 1302 no
real parliament, in the sense applied to those of later years,
was in existence; and consequently, a resolution founded on
parliamentary principles should not apply. To this answer
was made: Although it may be true that the law and practice
of parliament had not then crystallized into the definite shape
of even a hundred years later, the " Model Parliament " was
summoned seven years before Bygod's surrender, and it is neces-
sary to have some definite occurrence from which to date a
legal beginning — a point of law with which an historian can have
little sympathy.

Briefly, perhaps, from the teaching of the case it may be
permissible to state the rule as follows: In early days the
Norman and Plantagenet kings took upon themselves to deal
with the barons in a manner which, though illegal, was suffered

because no one dared oppose them; but as time went on, becom-
ing stronger and more determined to enforce their privileges
and exalt their order the peers were able to compel recognition
of their rights, and their resolutions in Stuart days were only
declaratory of law which had always existed, but had been
systematically disregarded by the Crown. This being so,
resolutions of the peers deliberately and expressly laid down
must, when in point, always be followed.

The application of the doctrine of corruption of blood to
peerages arises out of their close connexion with the tenure
of land, peerage dignities never having been regarded Attalaaer
as personal until well on into the I4th century. and cor-
Conviction for any kind of felony — and treason ruptloa of
originally was a form of felony — was always followed B/0°*
by attainder. This resulted in the immediate corruption of
the blood of the offender, and its capacity for inheritance was
lost for ever. Such corruption with all its consequences could
be set aside only by act of parliament. This stringent rule of
forfeiture was to some extent mitigated by the passing in 1285
of the statute De Donis Conditionalibus (Blackstone's Commen-
taries, ii. 1 1 6) which made possible the creation of estates tail,
and when a tenant-in-tail was attainted forfeiture extended only
to his life interest. The statute De Donis was soon applied
by the judges to such dignities as were entailed (e.g. dignities
conferred by patent with limitations in tail), but it never affected
baronies by writ, which were not estates in tail but in the nature
of estates in fee simple descendible to heirs general. In the
reign of Henry VIII. an act was passed (1534) which brought
estates tail within the law of forfeiture, but for high treason only.
The position then became that peerages of any kind were for-
feitable by attainder following on high treason, while baronies
by writ remained as before forfeitable for attainder following
on felony. In 1708, just after the Union with Scotland, an
act was passed by which on the death of the Pretender and three
years after Queen Anne's death the effects of corruption of blood
consequent on attainder for high treason were to be abolished,
and the actual offender only to be punished (stat. "7 Anne,
c. 21, § 10). Owing to the 1745 rising, the operation of this act
was postponed until the decease of the Pretender and all his
sons (stat. 17 Geo. II. c. 39, § 3). In 1814 forfeiture for every
crime other than high and petty treason and murder was re-
stricted to the lifetime of the person attainted (stat. 54 Geo.
III. c. 145). Finally in 1870 forfeiture, except upon outlawry,
was altogether abolished and it was provided that " no judgment
of or for any treason or felony should cause any attainder or
corruption of blood, or any forfeiture or escheat." The necessity
for ascertaining the exact condition of the law with regard to
attainder throughout the whole period of English parliamentary
history will be realized when it is remembered that there still
exist dormant and abeyant peerages dating from 1295 onwards
which may at any time be the subject of claim before the House
of Lords, and if any attainders exist in the history of such peerages
the law governing their consequences is not the law as it exists
to-day but as it existed when the attainder occurred. The
dukedom of Atholl case of 1764 is interesting as showing the
effect of attainder on a peerage where the person attainted does
not actually succeed. John first duke of Atholl died in 1725
leaving two sons James and George. George the younger was
attainted of treason in 1745 and died in 1760, leaving a son John.
James, the second son of the first duke, who had succeeded his
father in 1725 died in 1764 without issue. John his nephew then
claimed the dukedom, and was allowed it on the ground that
his father never having been in the possession of the dukedom
his attainder could not bar his son, who succeeds by reason
of his heirship to his uncle. It would have been otherwise
had the younger son outlived his brother, for he would then have
succeeded to the dukedom and so destroyed it by his attainder.

In many cases there have been passed special parliamentary
acts of attainder and forfeiture, and these, of course, operate
apart from the general law. In any event, attainder and
forfeiture of a dignity, whether resulting from the rules of the
common law or from special or general acts of parliament can

PEERAGE

only be reversed by act of parliament. The procedure in
reversing an attainder and recovering a dignity is as follows.
The Crown signifies its pleasure that a bill of restoration shall
be prepared and signs it. The bill is then brought in to the
House of Lords, passed there, and sent to the Commons for
assent. The last bills of the kind became law in 1876, when
Earl Cowper procured the removal of the attainder on one of his
Ormond ancestors and so by purging the blood of corruption
became entitled to, and was allowed, the barony of Butler of
Moore Park (created in 1663). There should also be noted the
Earldom of Mar Restitution Act 1885, which, while mainly con-
firmatory of a disputed succession, at the same time reversed
any attainders that existed.

The House of Lords grew steadily throughout the Tudor
period, and during the reign of the first two Stuarts underwent
a still greater increase. In the Great Rebellion the majority of
the peers were the king's stoutest supporters and thus inevitably
involved themselves in the ruin of the royal cause. Immediately
after the execution of Charles I. the Republicans proceeded
Common- to sweep away everything which savoured of mon-
weaith archy and aristocracy. The House of Commons
Abolition of votec} tne Lords " useless and dangerous," got rid of

e ° *" them as a part of parliament by the simple expedient
of a resolution (Comms. Journs. 1648-1649, vi. in) and placed
the sole executive power in Cromwell's hands, but there was
no direct abolition of the peerage as such. Evidently it took
Cromwell but little time to realize the fallacy, in practice, of
CromweiFs single-chamber government, as he is found ten
House of years after the " useless and dangerous " resolu-
Lords. jjon jjusv establishing a second chamber.1 What
to call it aroused much discussion, and eventually the unruly
Commons consented to speak of and deal with " the other
house." It is very difficult to realize what was the constitution
of this body, so short was its life and so contemptuous its treat-
ment by the Commons. The members of " the other house "
were summoned by writs under the Great Seal, similar in form
to those used to summon peers of past days. Some sixty writs
were issued, and presumably their recipients were entitled
thereby to sit for the duration of the parliament to which they
were summoned; but it may be considered as certain that
Cromwell's lords were never regarded as hereditary peers.
They were entitled to the courtesy appellation " Lord " and
appear to have been in the main substantial men — existing
peers, judges, distinguished lawyers and members of well-known
county families. Judging from Cromwell's speech at the
opening of parliament, and subsequent entries in Whitelock's
diaries, the new house appears to have had revising functions
both of a legislative and judicial nature and also the duty of
taking cognizance of foreign affairs. Cromwell certainly issued
two patents of hereditary peerage — the barony of Burnell
and the barony of Gilsland (with which went the viscounty of
Howard of Morpeth), but neither title was recognized on the
Restoration, and it does not appear that the possession of these
titles ever conferred on their holders any hereditary right to a
writ of summons to sit in "the other house." Whitelock
himself was promised a viscounty by Cromwell, but no patent
ever appears to have passed the Great Seal. Eventually business
between the two houses grew impossible, and Cromwell was
compelled to dissolve parliament. Richard's first parliament
also contained Lords as well as Commons, the latter considerately
voting " to transact business with the persons sitting in the
other house as an House of Parliament, saving the right of the
peers who had been faithful to the parliament," the saving
clause evidently a loophole for the future. The dissolution
of this parliament and the retirement of the protector Richard
into private life preceded by only a few months the restoration
to the throne of Charles II. With the king the peers returned
to their ancient places.

From the reign of William of Orange the peerage has been
freshened by a steady stream of men who as a rule have served

1 Whitelock's Memorials of English Affairs (in the reign of
Charles I. and up to the Restoration) (1853 ed. iv. 313).

their country as statesmen, lawyers and soldiers. Little of
note occurred in the history of the peerage until the reign of
Anne. By the Act of Union with Scotland (1707) Scottish
the Scottish parliament was abolished; but the Repnseata-
Scottish peerage were given the privilege of "vePeers-
electing, for each parliament of Great Britain, sixteen of
their number to represent them in the House of Lords.
Further creations in the Scottish peerage were no longer to be
made. The effect of this act was to leave the great majority
of the Scottish peers outside the House of Lords, as only sixteen
of their number were to become lords of parliament. Close
upon a hundred years later Ireland was united with Great
Britain, the Irish parliament being merged in the Irish Repre-
parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain sentative
and Ireland. Twenty-eight Irish peers were to be Peers~
elected for life by their order to represent it in the House of
Lords. One archbishop and three bishops were also chosen in
turn to represent the Irish Church in the House of Lords, but
when that Church was disestablished in 1867 the spiritual
lords lost their seats. The merger of the three kingdoms had
an important effect on their peerages. Every peer in his
own country had been a lord of parliament by hereditary right.
The English peer (and, as the Acts of Union were passed, the
peer of Great Britain and the peer of the United Kingdom)
continued by hereditary right a lord of parliament. The
Scottish and Irish peers lost this right though by the two Acts
of Union they retained every other privilege of peerage. Hence-
forth they were lords of parliament only as and when their
fellow peers elected them. Thus though not all were lords of
parliament in esse, every one was always so in posse, and in any
case it was the hereditary quality of the peerage which either
actually seated its holder in the House of Lords or made it
possible for him to get there by the votes of his fellows.

It now becomes possible to arrive at the modern meaning of
the term " a peerage," and we may define it as a dignity of
England, Scotland or Ireland, which, by its heredi- Modem
tary quality, confers on its holder for the time Meaniagot
being the right to be or not to be elected a lord of "Peer"**-"
parliament. The term " peerage " is also used in a collective
sense.

The reign of Anne is remarkable for an attempt made by the
House of Lords to limit its numbers by law. The queen,
in order to secure a majority for the court party, Queen Anne
had created a batch of twelve peers at one time, a aadPeerage
considerable number in relation to existing peerages; Limitation.
and it was feared this expedient might be used as a
precedent. A peerage limitation bill was introduced into the
House of Lords in 1719. Six new creations were to be allowed,
but after these the Crown, except in the case of royal princes,
was to create a new peerage only when an old one became
extinct. Twenty-five hereditary peerages in Scotland were
to take the place of the sixteen representative peers for all time.
The bill passed the Lords, but was eventually thrown out in the
House of Commons, though not by an overwhelming majority.

In 1856 it was desired to strengthen the judicial element
in the House of Lords, and the Crown issued letters patent
creating Sir James Parke, one of the barons of the
exchequer, Baron Wensleydale and a peer " for
and during the term of his natural life." The
burden of an hereditary peerage is heavy, and many men
thoroughly well qualified in legal attainments have been known
to refuse it on the ground of expense alone. This life-peerage
was thought to be a way out of the difficulty, and it was on
Lord Chancellor Cranworth's advice that the Crown issued the
Wensleydale patent. The House of Lords at once realized
that the creation of life-peers, at the will of the ministry of the
day, might put the hereditary section into an absolute minority,
and possibly in time, by form of law, get rid of it altogether.
Eventually it was decided by the house that " neither the said
letters patent nor the said letters patent with the usual writ of
summons enable the grantee to sit and vote in parliament,"
a formal resolution which closed the door in the face of every

ey *

PEERAGE

Judicial
Peers.

person whom the Crown might endeavour to make a life-peer.
The government of the day accepted the situation, and soon
afterwards a new patent was made out which followed the usual
limitation to heirs-male. The precedents in favour of the
Crown's action were not strong. The essential and outstanding
attribute of the house was its hereditary character. The whole
balance of the constitution worked on the pivot of the indepen-
dence of the peers. They existed as a moderating force in the
counsels of parliament, and the alteration of the hereditary
character of the House of Lords might easily have rendered
it amenable to whatever pressure the government of the day
might see fit to exercise. In such circumstances its position
as arbiter between people and government would tend to dis-
appear. A change fraught with so many serious possibilities
ought not, it was said, to be made by the simple prerogative
of the Crown. If so far-reaching an alteration in the law were
justifiable it was for parliament to make it. Further, it was
pointed out, there had been no life-creations for centuries, and
those that are recorded to have been conferred since the crys-
tallization of our parliamentary system were of such a nature
that the grantees never sat in the house by virtue of their life-
honours, inasmuch as they were existing peers or women. Soon
after the Wensleydale debates the government
introduced a bill into the House of Lords to authorize
the creation of two life-peers, who were to be persons
of at least five years' standing as judges. They were to sit as
lords of appeal but to be peers for life. Eventually the bill
disappeared in the House of Commons. In 1869 Earl Russell
introduced another life-peerage bill of far wider scope. Twenty-
eight life-peerages might be in existence at any one time, but
not more than four were to be created in any one year. The
life peers would be lords of parliament for life. They were to be
selected by the Crown from the peerages of Scotland and Ireland,
persons who had sat for ten years in the Commons, distinguished
soldiers, sailors, civil servants and judges or persons distinguished
in science, literature or art. The bill received a rough handling
in committee of the Lords, and the time was evidently not ripe
for change, as the bill failed to pass its third reading.

In 1870 attempts were made in the House of Lords to alter
the position of the Scottish and Irish representative peers. In
Suggested 1876 the need of further judicial strength in the
Reforms and Lords was tardily admitted, and an act was passed
Alterations, authorizing the creation of two lords of appeal in
ordinary, and power was reserved to appoint two more
as certain judicial vacancies occurred. They were to be
entitled to the rank of baron during their lives but were to sit
and vote in parliament only so long as they held their judicial
office. Their dignities lasted for life only. Eleven years later
another act enabled all retired lords of appeal to sit and vote as
members of the House of Lords for life. To those interested
in House of Lords reform the pages of Hansard's Parliamen-
tary Debates are the best authority. In 1888 reform bills were
introduced by Lords Dunraven and Salisbury, and in 1907 by
Lord Newton. In December 1908 the publication of a long
report with sweeping recommendations for reform ended the
labours of a House of Lords committee which had been appointed
to consider the question in detail. In the session of 1910,
following the general election, long discussions took place in
both houses of parliament. Opinion generally was freely
expressed that the time had arrived for diminishing the number
of lords of parliament and for putting into practice the principle
that hereditary right alone should no longer confer lordship of
parliament. (See PARLIAMENT.)

The Scottish peerage, like that of England, owes its origin

to feudalism. In Anglo-Norman days Scotland was a small

country, and for some generations after England

Peerage was settled tne Scottish king's writ ran little beyond

the foot of the Highlands, and even the Lord of the

Isles reckoned himself an independent sovereign until the

beginning of the isth century. The weak and usually ineffective

control of the Crown resulted in opportunities for acquiring

personal power which the nobles were not slow to take advantage

of. Seldom accustomed to act in concert, they soon developed
particularist tendencies which steadily increased the strength
of their territorial position. These conditions of existence
were entirely unfavourable to the establishment of any system
of parliamentary government such as centralization had made
possible in England, therefore it is not surprising to find that the
lesser barons were not relieved of their attendance at the national
assemblies until well on in the isth century (Burton's Scotland,
iii. in). Again, when the Scottish earls and barons came to
parliament, they did not withdraw themselves from the rest
of the people, it being the custom for the estates of Scotland
to deliberate together, and this custom persisted until the
abolition of their parliament by the Act of Union in 1707. The
territorial spirit of the nobles inevitably led them to regard the
honour as belonging to, and inseparable from, their land, and
until comparatively late in Scottish history there is nowhere
any record of the conferment of a personal dignity unattached
to land such as that conferred in England on Beauchamp by
Richard II. This explains the frequent surrenders and altered
grants which are so common in Scottish peerage history, and
which, in sharp distinction to the English rule of law, are there
regarded as perfectly legal. To-day there exists no Scottish
dukedom (except the royal dukedom of Rothesay), marquessate
or viscounty created before the reign of James VI. of Scotland
(and I. of England). Of the existing Scottish peerages sixty-
three were created in the period between James's accession to
the English throne and the Act of Union. There are now only
eighty-seven in all. Unlike one of the English peerages owing its
origin exclusively to a writ of summons, ancient Scottish
peerages do not fall into abeyance, and when there are only
heirs-general, the eldest heir of line succeeds.

Whenever a new parliament is summoned, proclamation is
made in Scotland summoning the peers to meet at Holyrood
to elect sixteen of their number to represent them in such
parliament. The Scottish peerages are recorded on a roll,
and this is called over by the lord clerk register before the
assembled peers seated at a long table. Each peer answers to
the name of the peerage (it may be one or more) he possesses.
The roll is then read again and each peer in turn (but only once)
rises and reads out the list of those sixteen peers for whom he
votes. Proxies are allowed for absent peers and are handed in
after the second roll-call. The votes are counted and the lord
clerk register reads out the names of those elected, makes a
return, and signs and seals it in the presence of the peers
assembled. The return eventually finds its way to the House of
Lords. The Scottish representative peer so elected receives no
writ of summons to parliament, but attends the House of Lords
to take the oath, his right to sit being evidenced by the return
made. It might be thought that the rules of election in so
important a matter would be more stringent, but the fact
remains that it is quite possible for an entirely unqualified person
to attend and vote at Holyrood. No evidence of identity or
of a man's right to be present is required and the lord clerk
register is compelled to receive any vote tendered except in
respect of peerages for which no vote has been given since 1800,
these being struck off the roll (10 & n Viet. c. 52). Any
person claiming to represent such a peerage must prove his
right before the House of Lords, as was done in the case of the
barony of Fairfax in 1908. It is true that by the act last cited
any two peers may protest against a vote at Holyrood, and the
lord clerk register thereupon reports the proceedings to the
House of Lords, who will consider the question if application
be made for an inquiry, but nothing is done unless an application
is made. The right to vote certainly needs better proof than
that now accepted. For many years the House of Lords main-
tained that the Crown could not confer a new peerage of Great
Britain on a Scottish peer, the ground being that the Scottish
peerage was only entitled to the sixteen representative peers
given it by the Act of Union, but eventually in 1782 in the case
of the duke of Hamilton this contention was given up.

The Anglo-Norman conquerors of Ireland carried with them
the laws and the system of tenure to which they were accustomed

PEERAGE

53

Irish
Peerage.

in England, and consequently the growth of the baronage
and the establishment of parliamentary government in Ireland
proceeded on parallel lines with the changes which
occurred in England. Until the reign of Henry VIII.
the Irish were without representation in par-
liament, but gradually the Irish were admitted, and by the
creation of new parliamentary counties and boroughs were
enabled to elect representatives. In 1613 the whole country
shared in representation (Ball's Legislative Systems of Ireland).
Just as James I. had added many members to the Scottish
peerage, so he increased the number of Irish peers.

In 1800 the Union of Great Britain and Ireland abolished
the parliament of Ireland. By the Act of Union the Irish peers
became entitled to elect twenty-eight of their number to repre-
sent them in the House of Lords. The election is for life, and
only those peers are entitled to vote at elections of representative
peers who have proved their right of succession to the satisfaction
of the lord chancellor, who issues his notice to that effect after
each individual proof. The names of such peers are added to
the voting-roll of the peerage, and when voting papers are
distributed — the Irish peers do not meet for election purposes
as do those of Scotland — they are sent only to those peers who
have proved their right to vote. If any claim to the right to
vote is rejected by the lord chancellor the claimant must prove
his case before the Committee for Privileges (barony of Graves,
1907). When an Irish peer has been elected a representative
peer he receives, as a matter of course, a writ of summons at
the beginning of each parliament. The great bulk of the Irish
peerage owes its existence to creations during the last two
centuries, only seven of the existing peerages dating back
beyond the xyth century; of the rest twenty-two were created
during the year of Union, and thirty-three have been added
since that date. Some hundred or more years ago ministers
found the Irish peerage a useful means of political reward, in
that it was possible to bestow a title of honour, with all
its social prestige, and yet not to increase the numbers of the
House of Lords.

On the death of a representative peer of Scotland or Ireland
a vacancy occurs and a new election takes place, but in accor-
dance with modern practice promotion to a United Kingdom
peerage does not vacate the holder's representative position
(May's Parliamentary Practice, p. n n.). Scottish and Irish
peers, if representative, possess all the privileges of peerage
and parliament enjoyed by peers of the United Kingdom; if
non-representative all privileges of peerage, except the right to
a writ of summons to attend parliament and to be present at and
vote in the trial of peers. A Scottish peer, if non-representa-
tive, is in the anomalous position of being disabled from serving
his country in either house of parliament, but an Irish peer
may sit for any House of Commons constituency out of Ireland,
though while a member of the Commons his peerage privileges
abate.

Though many peers possess more than one peerage, and
frequently of more than one country, only that title is publicly
used which is first in poirft of precedence. It was once argued
that whenever a barony by writ came into the possession of a
person already a peer of higher rank, the higher peerage " at-
tracted" or overshadowed the lower, which thenceforth followed
the course of descent of the dignity which had attracted it.
This doctrine is now exploded and cannot be regarded as apply-
ing to any case except that of the Crown (Baronies of Fitzwalter,
1660, and De Ros, 1666; Collins's Claims, 168, 261). Every
peerage descends according to the limitations prescribed in its
patent of creation or its charter, and where these are non-
existent (as in the case of baronies by writ) to heirs-general.
(See ABEYANCE.)

In dealing with English dignities it is essential to realize
the difference between a mere title of honour and a peerage.
The Crown as the fountain of honour is capable of conferring
upon a subject not only any existing title of honour, but
may even invent one for the purpose. So James I. instituted
an order of hereditary knights which he termed baronets,

and Edward VII. created the duchess of Fife " Princess
Royal " — a life dignity. The dignities of prince of Wales,
earl marshal and lord great chamberlain have been creation*
for centuries hereditary, and though of high court and must be
social precedence, of themselves confer no right to according
a. seat in the House of Lords — they are not peerages.
The grant of a peerage is a very different matter; its holder
becomes thereby a member of the Upper House of Parlia-
ment, and therefore the prerogative of the Crown in creat-
ing such an office of honour must be exercised strictly in
accordance with the law of the land. The Crown's prerogative
is limited in several directions. The course of descent must be
known to the law; and so, in the first place, it follows that a peer
cannot be created for life with a denial of succession to his
descendants (unless it be as one of the lords of appeal in ordinary
under the acts of 1876 and 1887). The courses of descent of
modern patents are invariably so marked out as ultimately
to fix the peerage in some male line according to the custom of
primogeniture, though the immediate successor of the first holder
may be a woman or even a stranger in blood. The following
instances may be cited; Amabell, Baroness Lucas, was in 1816
created Countess de Grey with a limitation to the heirs-male of
her sister; a nephew afterwards succeeded her and the earldom
is now held by the marquess of Ripon. Other courses of descent
known to the law are as follows: Fee simple, which probably
operates as if to heirs-general, earldoms of Oxford (1155) and
Norfolk (1135), both probably now in abeyance; and Bedford
(1367), extinct; to a second son, the eldest being alive, dukedom
of Dover (1708), extinct, and earldom of Cromartie (1861) called
out of abeyance in 1895; a son-in-law and his heirs-male by the
daughter of the first grantee, earldom of Northumberland (1747) ;
to an elder daughter and her heirs-male, earldom of Roberts
(1901); to an elder or younger brother and his heirs-male,
viscounty of Kitchener (1902) and barony of Grimthorpe (1886).
It is, however, not lawful for the Crown to make what is called
a shifting limitation to a peerage, i.e. one which might vest a
peerage in an individual, and then on a certain event happening
(e.g. his succession to a peerage of higher rank) shift it from him
to the representative of some other line. Such a limitation
was held illegal in the Buckhurst case (1864). A peerage may
not be limited to the grantee and " his heirs-male for ever."
Such a grant was that of the earldom of Wiltes in 1398. The
original grantee died without issue, but left a male heir-at-law,
whose descendants in 1869 claimed the earldom, but the original
limitation was held invalid.

There is no limitation on the power of the Crown as to the
number of United Kingdom peerages which may be created.
As to Scotland, the Act of Union with that country operates to
prevent any increase in the number of Scottish peerages, and
consequently there have been no creations since 1707, with the
result that the Scottish peerage, as a separate order, is gradually
approaching extinction. The Irish peerage is supposed always
to consist of one hundred exclusively Irish peers, and the Crown
has power to grant Irish peerages up to the limit. When the
limit is reached no more peerages may be granted until existing
ones become extinct or their holders succeed to United Kingdom
peerages. Only four lords of appeal in ordinary may hold
office at any one time. The number of archbishops and bishops
capable of sitting in the House of Lords is fixed by various
statutes at twenty-six, but, as pointed out previously, the
spiritual lords are not now regarded as peers.

Since party government became the rule, the new peerages have
usually been created on the recommendation of the prime
minister of the day, though the Crown, especially
in considering the claims of royal blood, is believed /v>i«n*ers?
in some instances to take its own course; and
constitutionally such action is entirely legal. By far the
greater number of peerage honours granted during the last
two centuries have been rewards for political services. Usually
these services are well known, but there exists several instances
in which_ the reasons for conferring the honour have not been
quite clear. Until the reign of George III. the peerage was

54

PEERAGE

comparatively small, but that monarch issued no fewer than
388 patents of peerage. Many of these have become extinct
or obscured by higher titles, but the general tendency is in the
direction of a steady increase, and where the peers of Tudor times
might be counted by tens their successors of 1910 were numbered
in hundreds. The full body would be 546 English peers.
There are also 12 ladies holding English peerages. The Irish
peerage has 175 members, but 82 of these are also peers of the
United Kingdom, leaving 28 representative and 65 without
seats in the House of Lords. Of 87 Scottish peers 51 hold United
Kingdom peerages, the remainder consisting of 16 representative
and 20 without seats.

As centuries have gone by and customs changed, many
privileges once keenly asserted have either dropped out of

use or been forgotten. The most important now
at Peerage m being are a seat in the House of Lords and the

right to trial by peers. The right to a seat in
parliament is one sanctioned by centuries of constitutional
usage. The right of a peer in England to a seat in parliament
was not, as pointed out in the early part of this article, entirely
admitted by the Crown until late in the Plantagenet period,
the king's pleasure as to whom he should summon always
having been a very material factor in the question. Charles I.
made a deliberate attempt to recover the ancient discretion
of the Crown in the issue of writs of summons. The earl of
Bristol was the subject of certain treasonable charges, and
though he was never put on his trial the king directed that
his writ of summons should not issue. The excluded peer
petitioned the Lords, as for a breach of privilege, and a com-
mittee to whom the matter was referred reported that there
was no instance on record in which a peer capable of sitting in
parliament had been refused his writ. There was a little delay,
but the king eventually gave in, and the earl had his writ
(Lords Journals, iii. 544).

At the beginning of a new parliament every peer entitled
receives a writ of summons issued under the authority of the
Great Seal; he presents his writ at the table of the House of
Lords on his first attendance, and before taking the oath. If
the peer be newly created he presents his letters-patent creating
the peerage to the lord chancellor on the woolsack, together
with the writ of summons which the patent has evoked. A
peer on succession presents his writ in 'the ordinary way, the
Journals recording, e.g. that Thomas Walter, Viscount Hampden,
sat first in Parliament after the death of his father (Lords
Journals, cxxxix. 4). The form of writ now issued (at the
beginning of a parliament: for the variation when parliament
is sitting see Lords Journals, cxxxix. 185) corresponds closely
to that in use so long ago as the i4th century. It runs as
follows: —

George the Fifth by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom of
Great Britain and Ireland and of the British Dominions beyond
the seas King Defender of the Faith to our right trusty and well-
beloved Greeting Whereas by the advice and consent of our Council
for certain arduous and urgent affairs concerning us the state and
the defence of our said United Kingdom and the Church we have
ordered a certain Parliament to be holden at our City of Westminster
on the . . . day of ... next ensuing and there to treat and
have conference with the prelates great men and peers of our realm
We strictly enjoining command you upon the faith and allegiance
by which you are bound to us that the weightiness of the said
affairs and imminent perils considered (waiving all excuses) you be.
at the said day and place personally present with us and with the
said prelates great men and peers to treat and give your counsel
upon the affairs aforesaid. And this as you regard us and our
honour and the safety and defence of the said United Kingdom
and_Church and despatch of the said affairs in no wise do you omit.

Formerly all peers were required to attend parliament, and
there are numerous recorded instances of special grants of leave
of absence, but nowadays there is no compulsion.

After the right to a summons the principal privilege possessed
n. TW j by a peer is his right to be tried by his peers on a

rcers l rteu ... , „« . .

by Peer*. charge of treason or felony. Whatever the origin

of this right, and some writers date it back to

Saxon times (Trial of Lord Morley, 1678, State Trials vii.

145), Magna Carta has always been regarded as its con-
firmatory authority. The important words are: —

" nullus liber homo capiatur imprisonetur aut disseisiatur de libero
tenemento suo vel libertatibus seu liberis consuetudinibus suis,
aut utlagetur aut exuletur nee aliquo modo distruatur nee dominus
rex super ipsum ibit nee super eum mittet nisi per legale judicium
parium suorum vel per legem terrae."

The peers have always strongly insisted on this privilege
of trial by their own order, and several times the heirs of those
wrongly condemned recovered their rights and heritage on the
ground that there had been no proper trial by peers (R.D.P.,
v. 24). In 1442 the privilege received parliamentary con-
firmation (stat. 20 Henry VI. c. 9). If parliament is sitting
the trial takes place before the House of Lords in full session,
i.e. the court of our lord the king in parliament, if not then
before the court of the lord high steward. The office of lord
high steward was formerly hereditary, but has not been so for
centuries and is now only granted pro hoc vice. When necessity
arises the Crown issues a special commission naming some peer
(usually the lord chancellor) lord high steward pro hoc vice
(Blackstone's Comm. iv. 258). When a trial takes place in
full parliament a lord high steward is also appointed, but his
powers there are confined to the presidency of the court, all
the peers sitting as judges of law as well as of fact. Should
the lord high steward be sitting as a court out of parliament
he summons a number of peers to attend as a jury, but rules
alone on all points of law and practice, the peers present being
judges of fact only. Whichever kind of trial is in progress it
is the invariable practice to summon all the judges to attend
and advise on points of law. The distinction between the two
tribunals was fully discussed and recognized in 1760 (Trial of
Earl Ferrers, Foster's Criminal Cases, 139) . The most recent trial
was that of Earl Russell for bigamy (reported 1901, A.C. 446).
Among others are the Kilmarnock, Cromarty and Balmerino
treason trials in parliament in 1746 (State Trials xviii. 441), and
in the court of the lord high steward, Lord Morley (treason, 1666,
State Trials vi. 777), Lord Cornwallis (murder, 1678 State
Trials vii. 145), Lord Delamere (1686, treason, State Trials xi.
510). Recently some doubt has been expressed as to the
origin of the court of the lord high steward. It is said that
the historical document upon which the practice is founded
is a forgery. The conflicting views are set forth in Vernon
Harcourt's His Grace the Steward and Trial of Peers, p. 429,
and in Pike's Constitutional History of the House of Lords, p. 213.
In any case, whatever its historical origin, the court for
centuries as a matter of fact has received full legal recognition
as part of the constitution. The right to trial By peers
extends only to cases of treason and felony, and not to those
of misdemeanour; nor can it be waived by any peer (Co. 3
Inst. 29; Kelyng's Rep. 56). In the case of R. v. Lord Graves
(1887), discussed in Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, 3rd series,
vol. cccx. p. 246, Lord Halsbury points out that the question
of trial by peers is one of jurisdiction established by law rather
than a claim of privilege in the discretion of the accused.
Scottish and Irish peers, whether possessing seats in the House
of Lords or not, are entitled to trial by peers, the same procedure
being followed as in the case of members of the House of Lords.

Peers with a seat in the House of Lords possess practically
the same parliamentary privileges as do members of the House
of Commons. Among other privileges peculiar to themselves
they have the right of personal access to the sovereign (Anson's
Law of the Constitution, i. 227). In the House of Lords,
when a resolution is passed contrary to his sentiments, any peer,
by leave of the house, may " protest," that is, enter his dissent
on the journals of the house (Blackstone, Comm. i. 162).
Formerly a peer might vote by proxy (Blackstone, ibid.), but
since 1868 there has been a standing order discontinuing this
right. In accordance with resolutions passed by the two
houses, neither house has power by any vote or declaration
to clothe itself with new privileges unknown to the law and
customs of parliament (Commons Journal, xiv. 555). Peeresses
and non-representative peers of Ireland and Scotland have,

PEERLKAMP— PEESEMSKY

55

with the exception of the right to sit in the House of Lords and
its attendant parliamentary privileges, every peerage privilege:
a widowed peeress retains her privilege of peerage while un-
married, but loses it if she marries a commoner (Co. Litt. 166;
Cowley v. Cowley [1901] A.C. 450). Dissolution of marriage
probably deprives a peeress of all peerage privileges which she
acquired by marriage.

The children of peers are commoners. The eldest son of a peer
of the rank of earl (and above) is usually known socially by the
Position of name °f n's father's next peerage, but the courtesy
Families of nature °f such title is clearly indicated in every public
Peers or 'eSa' document, the phraseology employed being

" John Smith, Esq., commonly known as Viscount
Blackacre." Several cases are on record in which peers' eldest
sons have actually borne courtesy titles not possessed as peerage
honours by their fathers, but inasmuch as such are only accorded
by courtesy, no question of peerage privilege arises. The yoifnger
sons of dukes and marquesses are entitled to the prefix Lord "
before their Christian names, and all the daughters of earls as well
as of dukes and marquesses are entitled similarly to style them-
selves " Lady," on the principle that all the daughters are equal
in rank and precedence. The younger sons of earls and all the
younger children of viscounts and barons are entitled to the prefix

Honourable." Usually when the direct heir of a peer dies his
children are given, by the Crown, on the death of the peer, the
courtesy titles and precedence they would have enjoyed had their
father actually succeeded to the peerage.

An alien may be created a peer, but while remaining an alien
cannot sit in the House of Lords, nor, if a Scottish or Irish peer,
can he vote at elections for representative peers. Peer-
01 ages may be created (l) by writ of summons, (2) by
Peerages, patent. The writ of summons method is not now used
except in the case of calling up an eldest son in the barony of his
father. This does not create a new peerage but only accelerates
the heir's appearance in the House of Lords. On the father's
death the peerage remains vested in the son. Should the son die
without heir the peerage revests in the father. The invariable
method of creation in all ordinary cases is by patent. The letters
patent describe the name of the dignity, the person upon whom it
is conferred, and specify its course of descent.

Claims to peerages are of two kinds: (l) of right, (2) of grace.
In theory the Crown, as the fountain of honour, might settle any
claim without reference to the House of Lords and
* ° issue a writ of summons to its petitioner. This would
Peerages. not m any way prevent the House of Lords from
examining the patent and writ of summons when the favoured
petitioner or any heir claiming through him came to take his
seat. If of opinion that the patent was illegal the house might
refuse admittance, as it did in the Wensleydale case. In the case
of a petitioner who has persuaded the Crown to terminate in his
favour as a co-heir the abeyance of an ancient barony and who
has received his writ of summons, the matter is more difficult.
The house cannot refuse to admit any person properly summoned
by the Crown, as the prerogative is unlimited in point of numbers;
but it can take into account the precedence of the newcomer. If
he has an old barony he naturally expects its proper place on the
bench of barons; but if the house thought fit they might compel
him to prove his pedigree before according any precedence. If
he refused to do this they would still be bound to admit him, but
it would be as the junior baron of the house with a peerage dating,
for parliamentary purposes, from the day of his summons. The
general result is that the Crown, unless there can be no question
as to pedigree, seldom terminates an abeyance without referring
the matter to the House of Lords, and invariably so refers all
claims which are disputed or which involve any question of law.1
The procedure is as follows: The claimant petitions the Crown
through the home secretary, setting forth his pedigree and stating
the nature of his claim. The Crown then refers the petition to its
legal adviser, the attorney-general. The petitioner then in course
of time appears before the attorney-general with his proofs. Finally
the attorney-general reports that a prima facie case is, or is not, made
out. If a case be made out, the Crown, if it does not take immediate
action, refers the whole matter to the House of Lords, who pass it on
to their Committee for Privileges for examination and report.

The Committee for Privileges, which for peerage claims is usually
constituted of the law lords and one or two other lords interested
Committee m peerage history, sits as an ordinary court of justice
forPrlvl- an° follows all the rules of law and evidence. The
leges. attorney-general attends as adviser to the committee

and to watch the interests of the Crown. According to
the nature of the case the Committee reports to the house, and
the house to the Crown, that the petitioner (if successful) (l) has
made out his claim and is entitled to a writ of summons, or (2)

1 This was not done in the case of the earldom of Cromartie
called out of abeyance in 1895. The holder of the title being a
lady the house has had, as yet, no opportunity of considering the
validity of the Crown's action.

has proved his co-heirship to an existing peerage, and has also
proved the descent of all existing co-heirs. In the first case the
writ of summons is issued forthwith, but the second, being one of
abeyance, is a matter for the pleasure of the Crown, which need
not be exercised at all, but, if exercised, may terminate the abeyance
in favour of any one of the co-heirs. The seniority of a co-heir
(though this alone is of little moment), his power to support the
dignity, and the number of existing co-heirs, are all factors which
count in the chances of success.

Reference has already been made in the earlier part of this article
to the reply of Bishop Peter de Roches to the English barons
who claimed trial by their peers, and, as was suggested Peers ol
the bishop probably had in his mind the peers of France. France
Possibly the word pares, as eventually used in England,
was borrowed from this source, but this is uncertain. The great
men known originally as the twelve pairs de France, were the feudal
holders of large territories under the nominal sway of the king of
France. They were the (archbishop) duke of Rheims, the (bishop)
dukes of Langres and Laon, the (bishop) counts of Beauvais, Noyon
and Chalons, the dukes of Burgundy, Normandy and Aquitaine,
and the counts of Flanders, Toulouse and Champagne. These
magnates, nominally feudatories, were practically independent
rulers, and their position can in no way be compared to that of
the English baronage. It is said that this body of peers was in-
stituted in the reign of Philip Augustus, though some writers even
ascribe its origin to Charlemagne. Some of the peers were present
at Philip's coronation in 1179, and later again at the alleged trial
of John of England when his fief of Normandy, was adjudged
forfeit to the French Crown.

As the central power of the French kings grew, the various fiefs
lost their independence and became united to the Crown, with the
exception of Flanders which passed into the hands of the emperor
Charles V. In the I4th century the custom arose for the sovereign
to honour his more important nobles by granting them the title
of Peer of France. At first the grant was confined to the royal
dukes, but later it was conferred on others, amongst whom late
in the 1 7th century appears the archbishop of Paris. To several
counties and baronies the honour of a peerage was added, but
most of these eventually became reunited with the Crown. As a
legislative body a chamber of peers in France was first founded
by Louis XVIII. in 1814; it was hereditary anrt modelled on the
English House of Lords. The revolution of 1830 reduced its
hereditary quality to life tenure, and in the troubles of 1848 the
chamber itself finally disappeared.

Austria, Hungary and Portugal are other countries possessing
peerages which to some extent follow the English model , In
Austria there is a large hereditary nobility and those other
members of it in whose families the legislative dignity Peerages
is hereditary by nomination of the emperor sit in the
Herrenhaus or Austrian Upper Chamber, together with certain pre-
lates and a large number of nominated life-members. In Hungary
all those nobles who possess the right of hereditary peerage (as
admitted by the act of 1885 and subsequent acts) and who pay
a land tax of certain value, are members of the House of Magnates,
of which they form a large majority, the remainder of the mem-
bers being Roman Catholic prelates, representatives of Protestant
churches and life peers. In Portugal until recent years the House
of Peers was an hereditary body,, but it is now practically a
chamber of life-peers. (G. E.)

PEERLKAMP, PETRUS HOFMAN (1786-1865), Dutch
classical scholar and critic, descended from a family of French
refugees named Perlechamp, was born at Groningen on the
and of February 1786. He was professor of ancient literature
and universal history at Leiden from 1822 to 1849, when
he resigned his post and retired to Hilversum near Utrecht,
where he died on the 27th of March 1865. He was the founder
of the subjective method of textual criticism, which consisted
in rejecting in a classical author whatever failed to come up to
the standard of what that author, in the critic's opinion, ought to
have written. His ingenuity in this direction, in which he went
much farther than Bentley, was chiefly exercised on the Odes
of Horace (the greater part of which he declared spurious),
and the Aeneid of Virgil. He also edited the Ars poetica and
Satires of Horace, the Agricola of Tacitus, the romance of
Xenophon of Ephesus, and was the author of a history of the
Latin poets of the Netherlands (De vita, doctrina, et facilitate
N ederlandorum qui carmina latino, composuerunt, 1838).

See L. M tiller, Gesch. der klassischen Philologie in den Niederlanden
(1869), and J. E. Sandys, Hist, of Class. Schol. (1908), iii. 276.

PEESEMSKY, ALEXEY FEOFILACTOVICH (1820-1881),
Russian novelist, was born on his father's estate, in the province
of Kostroma, on the ioth/22nd of March 1820. In his auto-
biography he describes his family as belonging to the ancient

PEGASUS— PEGMATITE

Russian nobility, but his more immediate progenitors were all
very poor, and unable to read or write. His grandfather
ploughed the fields as a simple peasant, and his father, as
Peesemsky himself said, was washed and clothed by a rich
relative, and placed as a soldier in the army, from which he retired
as a major after thirty years' service. During childhood
Peesemsky read eagerly the translated works of Walter Scott
and Victor Hugo, and later those of Shakespeare, Schiller,
Goethe, Rousseau, Voltaire and George Sand. From the
gymnasium of Kostroma he passed through Moscow University,
and in 1884 entered the government service as a clerk in the
office of the Crown domains in his native province. Between
1854 and 1872, when he finally quitted the civil service, he
occupied similar posts in St Petersburg and Moscow. His
early works exhibit a profound disbelief in the higher qualities
of humanity, and a disdain for the other sex, although he appears
to have been attached to a particularly devoted and sensible
wife. His first novel, Boyarstchina, was forbidden for its
unflattering description of the Russian nobility. His principal
novels are Tufak ("A Muff"), 1850; Teesicha doush ("A
Thousand Souls "), 1862, which is considered his best work of
the kind; and Vzbalomoucheneoe more (" A Troubled Sea "),
giving a picture of the excited state of Russian society about
the year 1862. He also produced a comedy, Gorkaya soudbina
(" A Bitter Fate "), depicting the dark sides of the Russian
peasantry, which obtained for him the Ouvaroff prize of the
Russian Academy. In 1856 he was sent, together with other
literary men, to report on the ethnographical and commercial
condition of the Russian interior, his particular field of inquiry
having been Astrakhan and the region of the Caspian Sea.
His scepticism in regard to the liberal reforms of the 'sixties
made him very unpopular among the more progressive writers
of that time. He died at Moscow on the 2nd of February 1881
(Jan. 21, Russian style).

PEGASUS (from Gr. Tnjybs, compact, strong), the famous
winged horse of Greek fable, said to have sprung from the trunk
of the Gorgon Medusa when her head was cut off by Perseus.
Belleropbon caught him as he drank of the spring Peirene on
the Acrocorinthus at Corinth, or received him tamed and
bridled at the hands of Athena (Pindar, 01. xiii. 63; Pausanias
ii. 4). Mounted on Pegasus, Bellerophon slew the Chimaera
and overcame the Solymi and the Amazons, but when he tried
to fly to heaven on the horse's back he threw him and continued
his heavenward course (Apollodorus ii. 3). Arrived in heaven,
Pegasus served Zeus, fetching for him his thunder and lightning
(Hesiod, Theog. 281). Hence some have thought that Pegasus
is a symbol of the thundercloud. According to O. Gruppe
(Griechische Mythologie, i. 75, r23) Pegasus, like Arion the
fabled offspring of Demeter and Poseidon, was a curse-horse,
symbolical of the rapidity with which curses were fulfilled. In
later legend he is the horse of Eos, the morning. The erroneous
derivation from 70^17, " a spring of water," may have given
birth to the legends which connect Pegasus with water; e.g.
that his father was Poseidon, that he was born at the springs
of Ocean, and that he had the power of making springs rise
from the ground by a blow of his hoof. When Mt Helicon,
enchanted by the song of the Muses, began to rise to heaven,
Pegasus stopped its ascent by stamping on the ground (Antoninus
Liberalis 9), and where he struck the earth Hippocrene (horse-
spring), the fountain of the Muses, gushed forth (Pausanias
ii. 31, ix. 31). But there are facts that speak for an independent
mythological connexion between horses and water, e.g. the
sacredness of the horse to Poseidon, the epithets Hippios and
Equester applied to Poseidon and Neptune, the Greek fable
of the origin of the first horse (produced by Poseidon striking
the ground with his trident), and the custom in Argolis of
sacrificing horses to Poseidon by drowning them in a well.
From his connexion with Hippocrene Pegasus has come to be
regarded as the horse of the Muses and hence as a symbol of
poetry. But this is a modern attribute of Pegasus, not known
to the ancients, and dating only from the Orlando innamorato
of Boiardo.

See monograph by F. Hannig, Breslauer philologische Abhand-
lungen (1902), vol. viii., pt. 4.

PEGAU, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony,
situated in a fertile country, on the Elster, 18 m. S.W. from
Leipzig by the railway to Zeitz. Pop. (1905), 5656. It has
two Evangelical churches, that of St Lawrence being a fine
Gothic structure, a 16th-century town-hall; a very old hospital
and an agricultural school. Its industries embrace the manu-
facture of felt, boots and metal wares.

Pegau grew up round a monastery founded in 1096, but does
not appear as a town before the close of the I2th century.
Markets were held here and its prosperity was further enhanced
by its position on a main road running east and west. In the
monastery, which was dissolved in 1539, a valuable chronicle
was compiled, the Annales pegatiienses, covering the period
from 1039 to 1227.

See Filssel, Anfang und Ende des Klosters St Jacob zu Pegau
(Leipzig, 1857) ; and Dillner, Grossel and Gunther, Altes und neues
aus Pegau (Leipzig, 1905). The Annales pegavienses are published
in Bd. XVI. of the Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scriptores.

PEGMATITE (from Gr. Tnjyua, a bond), the name given by
Haiiy to those masses of graphic granite which frequently occur
in veins. They consist of quartz and alkali feldspars in crystalline
intergrowth (see PETROLOGY, Plate II. fig. 6). The term was
subsequently used by Naumann to signify also the coarsely
crystalline veins rich in quartz, feldspar and muscovite, which
often in great numbers ramify through outcrops of granite and
the surrounding locks. This application of the name has now
obtained general acceptance, and has been extended by many
authors to include vein-rocks of similar structure and geological
relationships, which occur with syenites, diorites and gabbros.
Only a few of these pegmatites have graphic structure or mutual
intergrowth of their constituents. Many of them are exceedingly
coarse-grained; in granite-pegmatites the feldspars may be
several feet or even yards in diameter, and other minerals such
as apatite and tourmaline often occur in gigantic crystals. Peg-
matites consist of minerals which are found also in the rocks
from which they are derived, e.g. granite-pegmatites contain
principally quartz and feldspar while gabbro-pegmatites
consist of diallage and plagioclase. Rare minerals, however,
often occur in these veins in exceptional amount and as very
perfect crystals. The minerals of the pegmatites are always
those which were last to separate out from the parent rock.
As the basic minerals are the first formed the pegmatites contain
a larger proportion of the acid or more siliceous components
which were of later origin. In granite-pegmatites there is little
hornblende, biotite or sphene, but white mica, feldspar and quartz
make up the greater part of the veins. In gabbro-pegmatites
olivine seldom occurs, but diallage and plagioclase occur in
abundance. In this respect the pegmatites and aplites agree;
both are of more acid types than the average rock from which
they came, but the pegmatites are coarsely crystalline while
the aplites are fine-grained. Segregations of the early minerals
of a rock are frequent as nodules, lumps and streaks scattered
through its mass, and often dikes of basic character (lampro-
phyres, &c.) are injected into the surrounding country. These
have been grouped together as intrusions of melanocrate facies
(/wXaj, black, Kp&ros, strength, predominance) because in
them the dark basic minerals preponderate. The aplites and
pegmatites, on the other hand, are leucocrate (Xew6s, white),
since they are of acid character and contain relatively large
amounts of the white minerals quartz and feldspar.

Pegmatites are associated with plutonic or intrusive rocks and
were evidently formed by slow crystallization at considerable
depths below the surface: nothing similar to them is known
in lavas. They are very characteristic of granites, especially
those which contain muscovite and much alkali feldspar; in
gabbros, diorites and syenites piegmatite dikes are comparatively
rare. The coarsely crystalline structure may be ascribed to
slow crystallization; and is partly the result of the rocks, in
which the veins lie, having been at a high temperature when the
minerals of the pegmatites separated out. In accordance
with this we find that pegmatite veins are nearly always restricted

PEGNITZ— PEGOLOTTI

57

to the area occupied by the parent rock (e.g. the granite), or
to its immediate vicinity, and within the zone which has been
greatly heated by the plutonic intrusion, viz. the contact aureole.
Another very important factor in producing the coarse crystal-
lization of the pegmatite veins is the presence of abundant
water vapour and other gases which served as mineralizing
agents and facilitated the building together of the rock molecules
in large crystalline individuals.

Proof that these vapours were important agents in the forma-
tion of pegmatites is afforded by many of the minerals con-
tained in the veins. Boron, fluorine, hydrogen, chlorine and
other volatile substances are essential components of some of
these minerals. Thus tourmaline, which contains boron and
fluorine, may be common in the pegmatites but rare in the
granite itself. Fluorine or chlorine are present in apatite,
another frequent ingredient of granite pegmatites. Muscovite
and gilbertite both contain hydrogen and fluorine; topaz is
rich in fluorine also and all of these are abundant in some
pegmatites. The stimulating effect which volatile substances
exert on crystallizing molten masses is well known to experi-
mental geologists who, by mixing tungstates and fluorides with
fused powders, have been able to produce artificial minerals
which they could not otherwise obtain. Most pegmatites are
truly igneous rocks so far as their composition goes, but in their
structure they show relations to the aqueous mineral veins.
Many of them for example have a comby structure, that is to
say, their minerals are columnar and stand perpendicular to the
walls of the fissure occupied by the vein. Sometimes they have
a banding owing to successive deposits having been laid down
of different character; mica may be external, then feldspar, and
in the centre a leader or string of pure quartz. In pegmatite
veins also there are very frequently cavities or vugs, which are
lined by crystals with very perfect faces. These bear much
resemblance to the miarolitic or drusy cavities common in
granite, and like them were probably filled with the residual
liquid which was left over after the mineral substances were
deposited in crystals.

Pegmatites are very irregular not only in distribution, width
and persistence, but also in composition. The relative abun-
dance of the constituent minerals may differ rapidly and much
from point to point. Sometimes they are rich in mica, in
enormous crystals for which the rock is mined or quarried
(India). Other pegmatites are nearly pure feldspar, while others
are locally (especially near their terminations) very full of
quartz. They may in fact pass into quartz veins (alaskites)
some of which are auriferous (N. America). Quartz veins of
another type are very largely developed, especially in regions
of slate and phyllite; they are produced by segregation of
dissolved silica from the country rock and its concentration
into cracks produced by stretching of the rock masses during
folding. In these segregation veins, especially when the beds
are of feldspathic nature, crystals of albite and orthoclase may
appear, in large or small quantity. In this v/ay a second type
of pegmatite (segregation pegmatite) is formed which is very
difficult to distinguish from true igneous veins. These two
have, however, much in common as regards the conditions
under which they were formed. Great pressures, presence of
water, and a high though not necessarily very high temperature
were the principal agencies at work.

Granite pegmatites are laid down after their parent mass had
solidified and while it was cooling down: sometimes they contain
such minerals as garnet, not found in the main mass, and showing
that the temperature of crystallization was comparatively low.
Another special feature of these veins is the presence of minerals
containing precious metals or rare earths. Gold occurs in not a few
cases; tin in others, while sulphides such as copper pyrites are found
also. Beryl is the commonest of the minerals of the second group :
spodumene is another example, and there is much reason to hold
that diamond is a native of some of the pegmatites of Brazil and
India, though this is not yet incontestably proved. The syenite-
pegmatites of south Norway are remarkable both for their coarse
crystallization and for the great number of rare rfiinerals they have
yielded. Among these may be mentioned laavenite, rinkite, rosen-
buschite, mosandrite, pyrochlore, perofskite and lamprophyllite.

Dpnyllite
(J. S. F.

PEGNITZ, a river of Germany. It rises near Lindenhard
in Upper Franconia (Bavaria) from two sources. At first it
is called the Fichtenohe, but at Buchau it takes the name of the
Pegnitz, and flowing in a south-westerly direction disappears
below the small town of Pegnitz in a mountain cavern. It
emerges through three orifices, enters Middle Franconia, and
after flowing through the heart of the city of Nuremberg falls
into the Regnitz at Furth.

See Specht, Das Pegnitzgebiet in Bezug auf seinen Wasserhaushalt
(Munich, 1905).

The Pegnitz Order (Order of the society of Pegnitz shepherds),
also known as " the crowned flower order on the Pegnitz," was
one of the societies founded in Germany in the course of the I7th
century for the purification and improvement of the German
language, especially in the domain of poetry. Georg Philipp
Harsdorffer and Johann Klaj instituted the order in Nuremberg
in 1644, and named it after the river. Its emblem was the passion
flower with Pan's pipes, and the motto Mil Nutzen erfreulich,
or Alle zu einem Ton einslimmig. The members set themselves
the task of counteracting the pedantry of another school of
poetry by imagination and gaiety, but lacking imagination
and broad views they took refuge in allegorical subjects and
puerile trifling. The result was to debase rather than to raise
the standard of poetic art in Germany. At first the meetings
of the order were held in private grounds, but in 1681 they were
transferred to a forest near Kraftshof or Naunhof. In 1794
the order was reorganized, and it now exists merely as a literary
society.

See Tittman, Die niirnberger Dichterschule (Gottingen, 1847);
and the Festschrift zur 2$o-jahrigen Jubelfeier des pegnesischen
Blumenordens (Nuremberg, 1894).

PEGOLOTTI, FRANCESCO BALDUCCI (fl. 1315-1340),
Florentine merchant and writer, was a factor in the service
of the mercantile house of the Bardi, and in this capacity we
find him at Antwerp from 1315 (or earlier) to 1317; in London
in 1317 and apparently for some time after; in Cyprus from
1324 to 1327, and again (or perhaps in unbroken continuation
of his former residence) in 1335. In this last year he obtained
from the king of Little Armenia (i.e. medieval Cilicia, &c.) a grant
of privileges for Florentine trade. Between 1335 and 1343,
probably in 1339-1340, he compiled his Libra di divisamenti
di paesi e di misuri di mercalanzie e d'altre cose bisognevoli di
sapere a' mercatanti, commonly known as the Pratica delta
mercatura (the name given it by Pagnini). Beginning with a
sort of glossary of foreign terms then in use for all kinds of taxes
or payments on merchandise as well as for " every kind of place
where goods might be bought or sold in cities," the Pralica
next describes some of the chief trade routes of the i4th century,
and many of the principal markets then known to Italian
merchants; the imports and exports of various important
commercial regions; the business customs prevalent in each of
those regions; and the comparative value of the leading moneys,
weights and measures. The most distant and extensive trade
routes described by Pegolotti are: (i) that from Tana or Azov
to Peking via Astrakhan, Khiva, Otrar, Kulja and Kanchow
(Gittarchan, Organci, Ottrarre, Armalecco and Camexu in the
Pratica); (2) that from Lajazzo on the Cilician coast to Tabriz
in north Persia via Sivas, Erzingan and Erzerum (Salvastro,
Arzinga and Arzerone); (3) that from Trebizond to Tabriz.
Among the markets enumerated are: Tana, Constantinople,
Alexandria, Damietta, and the ports of Cyprus and the Crimea.
Pegolotti's notices of ports on the north of the Black Sea are very
valuable; his works show us that Florentine exports had now
gained a high reputation in the Levant. In other chapters
an account is given of 14th-century methods of packing goods
(ch. 29); of assaying gold and silver (ch. 35); of shipment;
of "London in England in itself" (ch. 62); of monasteries
in Scotland and England (" Scotland of England," Scozia di
Inghilterra) that were rich in wool (ch. 63). Among the latter
are Newbattle, Balmerino, Cupar, Dunfermline, Dundrennan,
Glenluce, Coldingham, Kelso, Newminster near Morpeth,
Furness, Fountains, Kirkstall, Kirstead, Swineshead, Sawley

PEGU— PEIRCE

and Calder. Pegolotti's interest in England and Scotland is
chiefly connected with the wool trade.

There is only one MS. of the Pratica, viz. No. 2441 in the Riccar-
dian Library at Florence (241 fob., occupying the whole volume),
written in 1471 ; and one edition of the text, in vol. iii. of Gian
Francesco Pagnini's Delia Decima e delle altre gravezze impaste dal
commune di Firenze (Lisbon and Lucca — really Florence— -1766) ;
Sir Henry Yule, Cathay, ii. 279-308, translated into English the
most interesting sections of Pegolotti, with valuable commentary
(London, Hakluyt Society, 1866). See also W. Heyd, Commerce
du Levant, ii., 12, 50, 58, 78-79, 85-86, 112-119 (Leipzig, 1886); H.
Kiepert, in Silzungsberichte der philos.-hist. Cl. der berliner Akad.,
p. 901, &c. (Berlin, 1881); C. R. Beazley, Dawn of Modern
Geography, iii. 324-332, 550, 555 (Oxford, 1906).

PEGU, a town and former capital of Lower Burma, giving
its name to a district and a division. The town is situated
on a river of the same name, 47 m. N.E. of Rangoon by rail;
pop. (1901), 14,132. It is still surrounded by the old walls,
about 40 ft. wide, on which have been built the residences of
the British officials. The most conspicuous object is the Shwe-
maw-daw pagoda, 324 ft. high, considerably larger and even
more holy than the Shwe-dagon pagoda at Rangoon. Pegu
is said to have been founded in 573, as the first capital of the
Takings; but it was as the capital of the Toungoo dynasty
that it became known to Europeans in the i6th century. About
the middle of the i8th century it was destroyed by Alompra;
but it rose again, and was important enough to be the scene
of fighting in both the first and second Burmese Wars. It gave
its name to the province (including Rangoon) which was annexed
by the British in 1852.

The district, which was formed in 1883, consists of an alluvial
tract between the Pegu Yoma range and the Sittang river:
area, 4276 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 339,572, showing an increase of
43% in the decade. Christians numbered nearly 9000, mostly
Karens. Almost the only crop grown is rice, which is exported
in large quantities to Rangoon. The district is traversed by
the railway, and also crossed by the Pegu-Sittang canal, navi-
gable for 85 m., with locks.

The division of Pegu comprises the five districts of Rangoon
city, Hanthawaddy, Tharrawaddy, Pegu and Prome, lying east
of the Irrawaddy: area 13,084 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 1,820,638.

Pegu has also given its name to the Pegu Yoma, a range of hills
running north and south for about 200 m., between the Irrawaddy
and Sittang rivers. The height nowhere exceeds 2000 ft.
but the slopes are steep and rugged. The forests yield teak
and other valuable timber. The Pegu river, which rises in
this range, falls into the Rangoon river just below Rangoon
city, after a course of about 180 m.

PEILE, JOHN (1838-1910), English philologist, was born
at Whitehaven on the 24th of April 1838. He" was educated at
Repton and Christ's College, Cambridge. After a distinguished
career (Craven scholar, senior classic and chancellor's medallist),
he became fellow and tutor of his college, reader of comparative
philology in the university (1884-1891), and in 1887 was elected
master of Christ's. He took a great interest in the higher
education of women and became president of Newnham College.
He was the first to introduce the great philological works of
George Curtius and Wilhelm Corssen to the English student
in his Introduction to Greek and Latin Etymology (1869). He
died at Cambridge on the Qth of October 1910, leaving
practically completed his exhaustive history of Christ's College.

PEINE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Hanover, 16 m. by rail N.W. of Brunswick, on the railway to
Hanover and Hamburg. Pop. (1905), 15,421. The town has
a Roman Catholic and a Protestant church and several schools.
Its industries include iron and steel works, breweries, distilleries
and brickyards, and the manufacture of starch, sugar, malt,
machinery and artificial manure. There are also large horse
and cattle markets held here. Peine was at one time a strongly
fortified place, and until 1803 belonged to the bishopric of
Hildesheim.

PEINE FORTE ET DURE (French for "hard and severe
punishment "), the term for a barbarous torture inflicted on those
who, arraigned of felony, refused to plead and stood silent, or

challenged more than twenty jurors, which was deemed a con-
tumacy equivalent to a refusal to plead. By early English law
a prisoner, before he could be tried, must plead " guilty " or
" not guilty." Before the i3th century it was usual to imprison
and starve till submission, but in Henry IV. 's reign the peine
was employed. The prisoner was stretched on his back, and
stone or iron weights were placed on him till he either submitted
or was pressed to death. Pressing to death was abolished in
1772; " standing mute " on an arraignment of felony being then
made equivalent to conviction. By an act of 1828 a plea of
" not guilty " was to be entered against any prisoner refusing
to plead, and that is the rule to-day. An alternative to the
peine was the tying of the thumbs tightly together with whip-
cord until pain forced the prisoner to speak. This was said to be
a common practice at the Old Bailey up to the igth century.

Among recorded instances of the' infliction of the peine are:
Juliana Quick (1442) for high treason in speaking derisively of
Henry VI.; Margaret Clitherow, "the martyr of York" (1586);
Walter Calverly, of Calverly, Yorks, for the murder of his children
(1605); and Major Strangways at Newgate, charged with murder of
his brother-in-law (1657). In this last case it is said that upon the
weights being placed in position several cavalier friends of Strang-
ways sprang on his body and put him out of his pain. In 1721 one
Nathaniel Hawes lay under a weight of 250 Ib for seven minutes,
finally submitting. The peine was last employed in 1741 at
Cambridge assizes, when a prisoner was so put to death ; the penalty
of thumb-tying having first been tried. In 1692 at Salem, Massa-
chusetts, Giles Corey, accused of witchcraft, refusing to plead, was
pressed to death. This is believed to be the only instance of the
infliction of the penalty in America.

PEIPUS, or CHUDSKOYE OZERO, a lake of north-west Russia,
between the governments of St Petersburg, Pskov, Livonia and
Esthonia. Including its southern extension, sometimes known
as Lake Pskov, it has an area of 1356 sq. m. Its shores are
flat and sandy, and in part wooded; its waters deep, and they
afford valuable fishing. The lake is fed by the Velikaya, which
enters it at its southern extremity, and by the Embach, which
flows in half way up its western shore; it drains into the Gulf of
Finland by the Narova, which issues at its north-east corner.

PEIRAEUS, or PIRAEUS (Gr. Ueipaievs), the port town
of Athens, with which its history is inseparably connected.
Pop. (1907), 67,982. It consists of a rocky promontory, contain-
ing three natural harbours, a large one on the north-west which
is still one of the chief commercial harbours of the Levant, and
two smaller ones on the east, which were used chiefly for naval
purposes. Themistocles was the first to urge the Athenians
to take advantage of these harbours, instead of using the sandy
bay of Phaleron ; and the fortification of the Peiraeus was begun
in 493 B.C. Later on it was connected with Athens by the Long
Walls in 460 B.C. The town of Peiraeus was laid out by the
architect Hippodamus of Miletus, probably in the time of
Pericles. The promontory itself consisted of two parts — the
hill of Munychia, and the projection of Acte; on the opposite
side of the great harbour was the outwork of Eetioneia. The
most stirring episode in the history of the Peiraeus is the seizure
of Munychia by Thrasybulus and the exiles from Phyle, and the
consequent destruction of the " 30 tyrants " in 404 B.C. The
three chief arsenals of the Peiraeus were named Munychia,
Zea and Cantharus, and they contained galley slips for 82, 196
and 94 ships respectively in the 4th century B.C.

See under ATHENS. Also Angelopoulos, Hepl UtipatSis «<u rSir
\i/j.ivav aiiTou (Athens, 1898).

PEIRCE, BENJAMIN (1809-1880), American mathematician
and astronomer, was born at Salem, Massachusetts, on the
4th of April 1809. Graduating at Harvard College in 1829,
he became mathematical tutor there in 1831 and professor in
1833. He had already assisted Nathaniel Bowditch in his
translation of the Mecanique celeste, and now produced a series
of mathematical textbooks characterized by the brevity and
terseness which made his teaching unattractive to inapt pupils.
Young men of talent, on the contrary, found his instruction
most stimulating, and after Bowditch's death in 1838 Peirce
stood first among American mathematicians. His researches
into the perturbations of Uranus and Neptune (Proc. Amer.

PEISANDER— PEISISTRATUS

59

Acad., 1848) gave him a wider fame; he became in 1849 con-
sulting astronomer to the American Nautical Almanac, and for
this work prepared new tables of the moon (1852). A discussion
of the equilibrium of Saturn's rings led him to conclude in 1855
that they must be of a fluid nature. From 1867 to r8;4 he was
superintendent of the Coast Survey. In 1857 he published his
best known work, the System of Analytical Mechanics, which
was, however, surpassed in brilliant originality by his Linear
Associative Algebra (lithographed privately in a few copies,
1870; reprinted in the Amer. Journ. Math., 1882). He died at
Cambridge, Mass., on the 6th of October 1880.

See New Amer. Cyclopaedia (Ripley and Dana), vol. xiii. (1861);
T. J. J. See, Popular Astronomy, iii. 49; Nature, xxii. 607; R. Grant,
Hist, of Phys. Astronomy, pp. 205, 292; J. C. Ppggendorff, Biog.
lit. Handworterbuch; Month. Notices Roy. Astr. Society, xli. 191.

PEISANDER, of Camirus in Rhodes, Greek epic poet, sup-
posed to have flourished about 640 B.C. He was the author
of a Heracleia, in which he introduced a new conception of the
hero, the lion's skin and club taking the place of the older
Homeric equipment. He is also said to have fixed the number
of the " labours of Hercules " at twelve. The-work, which accord-
ing to Clement of Alexandria (Stromata, vi. ch. 2) was simply
a plagiarism from an unknown Pisinus of Lindus, enjoyed
so high a reputation that the Alexandrian critics admitted the
author to the epic canon. From an epigram (20) of Theocritus
we learn that a statue was erected in honour of Peisander by
his countrymen. He is to be distinguished from Peisander
of Laranda in Lycia, who lived during the reign of Alexander
Severus (A.D. 222-235), ar>d wrote a poem on the mixed marriages
of gods and mortals, after the manner of the Eoiai of Hesiod.

See fragments in G. Kinkel, Epicorum graecorum fragmenta (1878) ;
also F. G. Welcker, Kleine Schriften, vol. i. (1844), on the twelve
labours of Hercules in Peisander.

PEISISTRATUS, (6057-527 B.C.), Athenian statesman, was
the son of Hippocrates. He was named after Peisistratus, the
youngest son of Nestor, the alleged ancestor of his family; he
was second cousin on his mother's side to Solon, and numbered
among his ancestors Codrus the last great king of Athens. Thus
among those who became " tyrants " in the Greek world he
gained his position as one of the old nobility, like Phalaris of
Agrigentum, and Lygdamis of Naxos; but unlike Orthagoras of
Sicyon, who had previously been a cook. Peisistratus, though
Solon's junior by thirty years, was his lifelong friend (though this
is denied), nor did their friendship suffer owing to their political
antagonism. From this widely accepted belief arose the almost
certainly false statement that Peisistratus took part in Solon's
successful war against Megara, which necessarily took place
before Solon's archonship (probably in 600 B.C.). Aristotle's
Constitution of Athens (ch. 17) carefully distinguishes Solon's
Megarian War from a second in which Peisistratus was no doubt
in command, undertaken between 570 and 565 to recapture
Nisaea (the port of Megara) which had apparently been recovered
by the Megarians since Solon's victory (see Sandys on The
Constitution of Athens, ch. 14, i, note, and E. Abbott, History
of Greece, vol. i. app. p. 544). Whatever be the true explanation
of this problem, it is certain (i) that Peisistratus was regarded
as a leading soldier, and (2) that his position was strengthened
by the prestige of his family. Furthermore (3) he was a man
of great ambition, persuasive eloquence and wide generosity;
qualities which especially appealed at that time to the classes
from whom he was to draw his support — hence the warning of
Solon (Frag. II. B) : " Fools, you are treading in the footsteps
of the fox; can you not read the hidden meaning of these charm-
ing words?" Lastly, (4) and most important, the times were
ripe for revolution. In the article on SOLON (ad fin.) it is shown
that the Solonian reforms, though they made a great advance
in some directions, failed on the whole. They were too moderate
to please the people, too democratic for the nobles. It was
found that the government by Boule and Ecclesia did not mean
popular control in the full sense; it meant government by the
leisured classes, inasmuch as the industrious farmer or herdsman
could not leave his work to give his vote at the Ecclesia, or do
his duty as a councillor. Partly owing to this, and partly to

ancient feuds whose origin we cannot trace, the Athenian people
was split up into three great factions known as the Plain (Pedieis)
led by Lycurgus and Miltiades, both of noble families; the Shore
(Par alt) led by the Alcmaeonidae, represented at this time by
Megacles, who was strong in his wealth and by his recent marriage
with Agariste, daughter of Cleisthenes of Sicyon; the Hill or
Upland (Diacreis, Diacrii) led by Peisistratus, who no doubt
owed his influence among these hillmen partly to the possession
of large estates at Marathon. In the two former divisions
the influence of wealth and birth predominated; the hillmen
were poorly housed, poorly clad and unable to make use of the
privileges which Solon had given them.1 Hence their attachment
to Peisistratus, the " man of the people," who called upon them
to sweep away the last barriers which separated rich and poor,
nobles and commoners, city and countryside. Lastly, there
was a class of men who were discontented with the Solonian
constitution: some had lost by his Seisachtheia, others had
vainly hoped for a general redistribution. These men saw their
only hope in a revolution. Such were the factors which enabled
him to found his tyranny.

To enter here into an exhaustive account of the various theories
which even before, though especially after, the appearance of
the Constitution of Athens have been propounded as to the
chronology of the Peisistratean tyranny, is impossible. For
a summary of these hypotheses see J. E. Sandys's edition of the
Constitution of Athens (p. 56, c. 14 note). The following is in
brief the sequence of events: In 560 B.C. Peisistratus drove
into the market-place, showed to an indignant assembly marks
of violence on himself and his mules, and claimed to be the
victim of assault at the hands of political enemies. The people
unhesitatingly awarded their " champion " a bodyguard of
fifty men (afterwards four hundred) armed with clubs. With
this force he proceeded to make himself master of the Acropolis
and tyrant of Athens. The Alcmaeonids fled and Peisistratus
remained in power for about five years, during which Solon's
death occurred. In 555 or 554 B.C. a coalition of the Plain
and the Coast succeeded in expelling him. His property was
confiscated and sold by auction, but in his absence the strife
between the Plain and the Coast was renewed, and Megacles,
unable to hold his own, invited him to return. The condition
was that their families should be allied by the marriage of
Peisistratus to Megacles' daughter Coesyra. A second coup d'etat
was then effected. A beautiful woman, it is said, by name
Phya, was disguised as Athena and drove into the Agora with
Peisistratus at her side, while proclamations were made that
the goddess herself was restoring Peisistratus to Athens. The
ruse was successful, but Peisistratus soon quarrelled with
Megacles over Coesyra. By a former marriage he already had
two sons, Hippias and Hipparchus, now growing up, and in his
first tyranny or his first exile he married an Argive, Timonassa,
by whom he had two other sons lophon and Hegesistratus, the
latter of whom is said to be identical with Thessalus (Ath. Pol.
c. 17), though from Thucydides and Herodotus we gather that
they were distinct — e.g. Herodotus describes Hegesistratus as
a bastard, and Thucydides says that Thessalus was legitimate.
Further it is suggested that Peisistratus was unwilling to have
children by one on whom lay the curse of the Cylonian outrage.
The result was that in the seventh year (or month, see Ath. Pol.
c. 15. i, Sandys's note) Megacles accused him of neglecting his
daughter, combined once more with the third faction, and
drove the tyrant into an exile lasting apparently for ten or eleven
years. During this period he lived first at Rhaecelus and later
near Mt Pangaeus and on the Strymon collecting resources of
men and money. He came finally to Eretria, and, with the help
of the Thebans and Lygdamis of Naxos, whom he afterwards
made ruler of that island, he passed over to Attica and defeated
the Athenian forces at the battle of Pallenis or Pellene. From
this time till his death he remained undisputed master of Athens.
The Alcmaeonids were compelled to leave Athens, and from

1 It is suggested with probability that the Diacrii were rather
the miners of the Laurium district (P. M. Ure, Journ. Hell. Stud.,
1906, pp. 131-142).

6o

PEKIN

the other noble families which remained he exacted 400 hostages
whom he put in the care of his ally Lygdamis.

In the heyday of the Athenian democracy, citizens both
conservative and progressive, politicians, philosophers and
historians were unanimous in their denunciation of " tyranny."
Yet there is no doubt that the rule of Peisistratus was most
beneficial to Athens both in her foreign and in her internal
relations, (i) During his enforced absence from Athens he
had evidently acquired a far more extended idea of the future
of Athens than had hitherto dawned on the somewhat parochial
minds of her leaders. He was friendly with Thebes and Argos;
his son Hegesistratus he set in power at Sigeum (see E. Abbott,
Hist, of Gr. vol. i. xv. 9) and his friend Lygdamis at Naxos.
From the mines of Thrace, and perhaps from the harbour dues
and from the mines of Laurium, he derived a large revenue;
under his encouragement, Miltiades had planted an Athenian
colony on the shores of the Thracian Chersonese; he had even
made friends with Thessaly and Macedonia, as is evidenced by
the hospitality extended by them to Hippias on his final ex-
pulsion. Finally, he did not allow his friendliness with Argos
to involve him in war with Sparta, towards whom he pursued a
policy of moderation. (2) At home it is admitted by all authori-
ties that his rule was moderate and beneficent, and that he was
careful to preserve at least the form of the established constitu-
tion. It is even said that, being accused of murder, he was ready
to be tried by the Areopagus. Everything which he did during
his third period of rule was in the interests of discipline and order.
Thus he hired a mercenary bodyguard, and utilized for his own
purposes the public revenues; he kept the chief magistracies
(through which he ruled) in the hands of his family; he imposed
a general tax1 of 10% (perhaps reduced by Hippias to 5%)
on the produce of the land, and thus obtained control over the
fleet and spread the burden of it over all the citizens (see the
spurious letter of Peisistratus to Solon, Diog. La'ert. i. 53 ; Thuc.
vi. 54 and Arnold's note ad loc.; Boeckh iii. 6; Thirlwall c. xi.,
pp. 72-74; and Grote). But the great wisdom of Peisistratus is
shown most clearly in the skill with which he blinded the people
to his absolutism. Pretending to maintain the Solonian con-
stitution (as he could well afford), he realized that people would
never recognize the deception if a sufficient degree of prosperity
were ensured. Secondly, he knew that the greater the propor-
tion of the Athenians who were prosperously at work in the
country and therefore did not trouble to interfere in the work
of government the less would be the danger of sedition, whose seeds
are in a crowded city. Hence he appears to have encouraged
agriculture by abating the tax on small farms, and even by
assisting them with money and stock. Secondly, he established
deme law-courts to prevent people from having recourse to
the city tribunals; it is said that he himself occasionally " went
on circuit," and on one of these occasions was so struck by the
plaints of an old farmer on Hymettus, that he remitted all
taxation on his land. Thus Athens enjoyed immunity from
war and internecine struggle, and for the first time for years
was in enjoyment of settled financial prosperity (see Constitution
of Athens, c. 16. 7 6 «ri Kpbvov /3ios).

The money which he accumulated he put to good use in the
construction of roads and public buildings. Like Cleisthenes
of Sicyon and Feriander of Corinth, he realized that one great
source of strength to the nobles had been their presidency over
the local cults. This he diminished by increasing the splendour
of the Panathenaic festival every fourth year and the Dionysiac2
rites, and so created a national rather than a local religion.
With the same idea he built the temple of the Pythian Apollo and
began, though he did not finish, the temple of Zeus (the magni-
ficent columns now standing belong to the age of Hadrian).

* It should be noted as against this, the general account, that
Thucydides, speaking apparently with accuracy, describes the tax
as tUoffTTi (5%); the Constitution of Athens speaks of (the familiar)
HCKHTJI (10%).

2 Dionysus, as the god of the rustics, was especially worshipped
at Icaria, near Marathon, and so was the god of the Diacrii. It
seems likely that Peisistratus, to please his supporters, originated
the City-Dionysia.

To him are ascribed also the original Parthenon on the Acropolis,
afterwards burned by the Persians, and replaced by the Parthenon
of Pericles. It is said that he gave a great impetus to the
dramatic representations which belonged to the Dionysiac
cult, and that it was under his encouragement that Thespis
of Icaria, by impersonating character, laid the foundation of
the great Greek drama of the 5th and 4th centuries. Lastly,
Peisistratus carried out the purification of Delos, the- sacred
island of Apollo of the lonians; all the tombs were removed
from the neighbourhood of the shrine, the abode of the god of
light and joy.

We have spoken of his services to the state, to the poor, to
religion. It remains to mention his alleged services to literature.
All we can reasonably believe is that he gave encouragement
to poetry as he had done to architecture and the drama; Onoma-
critus, the chief of the Orphic succession, and collector of the
oracles of Musaeus, was a member of his household. Honestly,
or to impress the people, Peisistratus made considerable use of
oracles (e.g. at the battle of Pellene), and his descendants, by
the oracles of Onomacritus, persuaded Darius to undertake
their restoration. As to the library of Peisistratus, we have no
good evidence; it may perhaps be a fiction of an Alexandrian
writer. There is strong reason for believing the story that he
first collected the Homeric poems and that his was the text
which ultimately prevailed (see HOMER).

It appears that Peisistratus was benevolent to the last, and,
like Julias Caesar, showed no resentment against enemies and
calumniators. What Solon said of him in his youth was true
throughout, " there is no better-disposed man in Athens, save
for his ambition." He was succeeded by his sons Hippias
and Hipparchus, by whom the tyranny was in various ways
brought into disrepute.

It should be observed that the tyranny of Peisistratus is one
of the many epochs of Greek history on which opinion has almost
entirely changed since the age of Grote. Shortly, his services
to Greece and to the world may be summed up under three heads:
In foreign policy, he sketched out the plan on which Athens
was to act in her external relations. He advocated (a) alliances
with Argos, Thessaly and Macedon, (6) ascendancy in the Aegean
(Naxos and Delos), (c) control of the Hellespontine route
(Sigeum and the Chersonese), (d) control of the Strymon valley
(Mt Pangaeus and the Strymon). Further, his rule exemplifies
what is characteristic of all the Greek tyrannies — the advantage
which the ancient monarchy had over the republican form
of government. By means of his sons and his deputies (or
viceroys) and by his system of matrimonial alliances he gave
Athens a widespread influence in the centres of commerce,
and brought her into connexion with the growing sources
of trade and production in the eastern parts of the Greek
world. (2) His importance in the sphere of domestic policy
has been frequently underrated. It may fairly be held that
the reforms of Solon would have been futile had they not been
fulfilled and amplified by the genius of Peisistratus. (3) It
was under his auspices that Athens began to take the lead in
literature. From this period we must date the beginning
of Athenian literary ascendancy. But see ATHENS.

AUTHORITIES. — Ancient: Herod, i. 50; Plut. Solon 30; Arist.
Politics, v. 12, 5-1315 b.; Constitution of Athens (Ath. Pol.) cc. 14-19.
On the chronological problems see also P. Meyer, Arist. Pol. and
the Ath. Pol. pp. 48-9; Gomperz, Die Schrift v. Staatswesen, &c.
(1891); Bauer, Lit. and hist. Forsch. z. Arist. Ath. Pol. (50 sqq.).
On the characteristics of the Peisistratid tyranny see Greenidge,
Handbook of Creek Constitutional History, pp. 26 sqq. ; and the histories
of Greece. On the question of the family of Peisistratus see Wilamo-
witz-Moellendorff, Aristoteles und Athen (Berlin, 1893) and a criticism
by E. M. Walker in the Classical Review, vol. viii. p. 206, col. 2.

(J. M. M.)

PEKIN, a city and the county-seat of Tazewell county,
Illinois, U.S.A., on the Illinois river, in the central part of the
state, about u m. S. of Peoria, and about 56 m. N. of Springfield.
Pop. (1910), 9897. It is served by the Atchison, Topeka
& Santa Fe, the Chicago & Alton, the Chicago, Peoria &
St Louis, the Illinois Central, the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago
& St Louis, the Peoria Railway Terminal Company, the Peoria

PEKING

61

& Pekin Union and (for freight between Peoria and Pekin) the
Illinois Valley Belt railways. Situated in a rich agricultural
region and in the Illinois coalfields, Pekin is a shipping point
and grain market of considerable importance, and has various
manufactures. The value of the factory products in 1905 was
$1,121,130. Pekin was first settled about 1830, was incorpor-
ated in 1839, and re-incorporated in 1874.

PEKING, or PEKIN, the capital of the Chinese Empire, situated
in 39° 57' N. and 116° 29' E., on the northern extremity of the
great alluvial delta which extends southward from its walls for
700 m. For nine centuries Peking, under various names and
under the dominion of successive dynasties, has, with some
short intervals, remained an imperial city. Its situation near
the northern frontier recommended it to the Tatar invaders as
a convenient centre for their power, and its peculiarly fortunate
position as regards the supernatural terrestrial influences per-
taining to it has inclined succeeding Chinese monarchs to accept
it as the seat of their courts. In 986 it was taken by an invading
force of Khitan Tatars, who adopted it as their headquarters
and named it Nanking, or the " southern capital." During the
early part of the 1 2th century the Chinese recaptured it and re-
duced it from the rank of a metropolis to that of a provincial
city of the first grade, and called it Yen-shan Fu. In 1151 it
fell into the hands of the Kin Tatars, who made it a royal
residence under the name of Chung-tu, or " central capital."
Less than a century later it became the prize of Jenghiz Khan,
who, having his main interests centred on the Mongolian steppes,
declined to move his court southwards. His great successor,
Kublai Khan (1280-1294), rebuilt the town, which he called
Yenking, and which became known in Chinese as Ta-tu, or
" great court," and in Mongolian as Khanbalik (Cambaluc), or
" city of the khan." During the reign of the first emperor of
the dynasty (1368-1399) which succeeded that founded by
Jenghiz Khan the court resided at the modern Nanking, but
the succeeding sovereign Yung-lo (1403-1425) transferred his
court to Pe-king (i.e. " north-court "), which has ever since been
the seat of government. For further history see CAMBALUC.

During the periods above mentioned the extent and boundaries
of the city varied considerably. Under the Kin dynasty the
walls extended to the south-west of the Tatar portion of the
present city, and the foundations of the northern ramparts of
the Khan-balik of Kublai Khan are still to be traced at a distance
of about 2 m. north beyond the existing walls. The modern
city consists of the nei ch' eng, or inner city, commonly known to
foreigners as the " Tatar city," and the wai ch'Sng, or outer
city, known in the same way as the " Chinese city." These
names are somewhat misleading, as the inner city is not enclosed
within the outer city, but adjoins its northern wall, which, being
longer than the nei ch'eng is wide, outflanks it considerably at
both ends. The outer walls of the double city contain an area
of about 25 sq. m., and measure 30 m. in circumference. Unlike
the walls of most Chinese cities, those of Peking are kept in
perfect order. Those of the Tatar portion, which is the oldest
part of the city, are 50 ft. high, with a width of 60 ft. at the base
and 40 ft. at the top, while those of the Chinese city, which were
built by the emperor Kia-tsing in 1543, measure 30 ft. in height,
and have a width of 25 ft. at the base and 15 ft. at the top. The
terre-plein is well and smoothly paved, and is defended by a
crenellated parapet. The outer faces of the walls are strength-
ened by square buttresses built out at intervals of 60 yds., and
on the summits of these stand the guard-houses for the troops
on duty. Each of the sixteen gates of the city is protected by
a semi-circular enceinte, and is surmounted by a high tower
built in galleries and provided with countless loopholes.

Peking suffered severely during the Boxer movement and the
siege of the legations in the summer of 1900. Not only were
most of the foreign buildings destroyed, but also a large number
of important Chinese buildings in the vicinity of the foreign
quarter, including the ancient Hanlin Yuen, the boards of war,
rites, &c. Almost the whole of the business quarter, the
wealthiest part of the Chinese city, was laid in ashes (see
CHINA: History).

The population of Peking is reckoned to be about 1,000,000,
a number which is out of all proportion to the immense area
enclosed within its walls. This disparity is partly accounted
for by the facts that large spaces, notably in the Chinese city,
are not built over, and that the grounds surrounding the imperial
palace, private residences and temples are very extensive. One
of such enclosures constitutes the British legation, and most
of the other foreign legations are similarly, though not so
sumptuously, lodged. Viewed from the walls Peking looks like
a city of gardens. Few crowded neighbourhoods are visible,
and the characteristic features of the scene which meets the eye
are the upturned roofs of temples, palaces, and mansions, gay
with blue, green and yellow glazed tiles, glittering among the
groves -of trees with which the city abounds. It is fortunate
that the city is not close-built or crowded, for since the first
advent of foreigners in Peking in 1860 nothing whatever had been
done until 1900 to improve the streets or the drainage. The
streets as originally laid out were wide and spacious, but being
unpaved and undrained they were no better than mud tracks
diversified by piles of garbage and foul-smelling stagnant pools.
Such drainage as had at one time existed was allowed to get
choked up, giving rise to typhoid fever of a virulent type. Some
attempt has been made to improve matters by macadamizing
one of the principal thoroughfares, but it will be the labour of a
Hercules to cleanse this vast city from the accumulated filth of
ages of neglect.

Enclosed within the Tatar city is the Hwang ch'tng, or
" Imperial city," which in its turn encloses the Tsze-kin ch'Sng,
or " Forbidden city," in which stands the emperor's palace.
On the north of the Tsze-kin ch'tng, and separated from it by
a moat, is an artificial mound known as the Kings/tan, or " Pros-
pect Hill." This mound, which forms a prominent object in
the view over the city, is about 150 ft. high, and is topped with
five summits, on each of which stands a temple. It is encircled
by a wall measuring upwards of a mile in circumference, and is
prettily planted with trees, on one of which the last emperor
of the Ming dynasty (1644), finding escape from the Manchu
invaders impossible, hanged himself. On the west of Prospect
Hill is the Si yuan, or " Western Park," which forms part of
the palace grounds. This park is tastefully laid out, and is
traversed by a lake, which is mainly noticeable from the remark-
ably handsome marble bridge which crosses it from east to west.
Directly northwards from Prospect Hill stands the residence of
the T'itu, or "governor of the city," and the Bell and the Drum
Towers, both of which have attained celebrity from the nature
of their contents — the first from the huge bell which hangs in it,
and the second from the appliances it contains for marking the
time. The bell is one of five which the emperor Yung-lo ordered
to be cast. In common with the others, it weighs 120,000 Ib,
is 14 ft. high, 34 ft. in circumference at the rim, and 9 in. thick.
It is struck by a wooden beam swung on the outside, and only
at the changes of the night-watches, when its deep tone may be
heard in all parts of the city. In the Drum Tower incense-sticks,
specially prepared by the astronomical board, are kept burning
to mark the passage of time, in which important duty their
accuracy is checked by a clepsydra. Another of Yung-lo's
bells is hung in a Buddhist temple outside the north-west angle
of the city wall, and is covered both on the inside and outside
with the Chinese texts of the Lankavatara Sutra, and the Sad-
dharma pundarika Sutra.

Turning southwards we come again to the Forbidden City, the
central portion of which forms the imperial palace, where, in halls
which for the magnificence of their proportions and barbaric
splendour are probably not to be surpassed anywhere, the Son
of Heaven holds his court. In the eastern and western portions
of this city are situated the residences of the highest dignitaries
of the empire; while beyond its confines on the south stand the
offices of the six official boards which direct the affairs of the
eighteen provinces. It was in the " yamen " of one of these
boards — the Li Pu or board of rites— that Lord Elgin signed
the treaty at the conclusion of the war in 1860 — an event which
derives especial interest from the fact of its having been the first

62

PELAGIA, ST— PELAGIUS (POPES)

occasion on which a European plenipotentiary ever entered
Peking accompanied by all the pomp and circumstance of his
rank.

Outside the Forbidden City the most noteworthy building is
the Temple of Heaven, which stands in the outer or Chinese
city. Here at early morning on the zist of December the
emperor offers sacrifice on an open altar to Shang-ti, and at
periods of drought or famine presents prayers for relief to the
same supreme deity. The altar at which these solemn rites
are performed consists of a triple circular marble terrace, 210 ft.
wide at the base, 150 in the middle and 90 at the top. The
uppermost surface is paved with blocks of the same material
forming nine concentric circles, the innermost consisting of nine
blocks, and that on the outside of eighty-one blocks. On the
central stone, which is a perfect circle, the emperor kneels.
In the same temple stands the altar of prayer for good harvests,
which is surmounted by a triple-roofed circular structure 99 ft.
in height. The tiles of these roofs are glazed porcelain of the
most exquisite deep-blue colour, and add a conspicuous element
of splendour to the shrine.

The other powers of nature have shrines dedicated to them in
the altar: to the Earth on the north of the city, the altars to the
Sun and Moon outside the north-eastern and north-western
angles respectively of the Chinese city, and the altar of agricul-
ture inside the south gate of the Chinese city. Next to these
in religious importance comes the Confucian temple, known as
the Kwo-tsze-kien. Here there is no splendour; everything is
quite plain; and one hall contains all that is sacred in the
building. There the tablets of " the soul of the most holy
ancestral teacher, Confucius," and of his ten principal disciples
stand as objects of worship for their countless followers. In one
courtyard of this temple are deposited the celebrated ten stone
drums which bear poetical inscriptions commemorative of the
hunting expeditions of King Suan (827-781 B.C.), in whose reign
they are believed, though erroneously, to have been cut; and
in another stands a series of stone tablets on which are inscribed
the names of all those who have obtained the highest literary
degree of Tsin-shi for the last five centuries.

In the south-eastern portion of the Tatar city used to stand
the observatory, which was built by order of Kublai Khan in
1296. During the period of the Jesuit ascendancy in the reign
of K'ang-hi (1661-1721), the superintendence of this institution
was confided to Roman Catholic missionaries, under whose
guidance the bronze instruments formerly existing were con-
structed. The inhabitants of Peking being consumers only,
and in no way producers, the trade of the city is very small,
though the city is open to foreign commerce. In 1897 a railway
was opened between Tientsin and Peking. This was only
effected after great opposition from the ultra-Conservatives,
but once accomplished the facilities were gladly accepted by all
classes, and the traffic both in goods and passengers is already
enormous. Out of deference to the scruples of the ultra-Conser-
vatives, the terminus was fixed at a place called Lu-Kou-ch'iao,
some 4 m. outside the walls, but this distance has since been
covered by an electric tramway. The trunk line constructed
by the Franco-Belgian syndicate connects Lu-Kou-ch'iao, the
original terminus, with Hankow — hence the name Lu-Han by
which this trunk line is generally spoken of, Lu being short for
Lu-Kou-ch'iao and Han for Hankow.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — A Williamson, Journeys in North China, Man-
churia and Eastern Mongolia (2 vols., London, 1870) ; S. W. Williams,
The Middle Kingdom, revised ed. (New York, 1883); A Favier,
Peking, histoire et description (Peking, 1900 — contains over 800
illustrations, most of them reproductions of the work of Chinese
artists) ; N. Oliphant, A Diary of the Siege of the Legations in Peking
during the Summer of 1900 (London, 1901); A. H. Smith, China in
Convulsion (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1902). (R. K. D.)

PELAGIA, ST. An Antiochene saint of this name, a virgin of
fifteen years, who chose death by a leap from the housetop
rather than dishonour, is mentioned by Ambrose (De virg. iii.
7, 33! Ep. xxxvii. ad Simplic.), and is the subject of two sermons
by Chrysostom. Her festival was celebrated on the 8th of
October (Wright's Syriac Marlyrology). In the Greek synaxaria

the same day is assigned to two other saints of the name of
Pelagia — one, also of Antioch, and sometimes called Margarito
and also " the sinner "; the other, known as Pelagia of Tarsus,
in Cilicia. The legend of the former of these two is famous.
She was a celebrated dancer and courtesan, who, in the full
flower of her beauty and guilty sovereignty over the youth of
Antioch, was suddenly converted by the influence of the holy
bishop Nonnus, whom she had heard preaching in front of a
church which she was passing with her gay train of attendants
and admirers. Seeking out Nonnus, she overcame, his canonical
scruples by her tears of genuine penitence, was baptized, and,
disguising herself in the garb of a male penitent, retired to a
grotto on the Mount of Olives, where she died after three years
of strict penance. This story seems to combine with the name
of the older Pelagia some traits from an actual history referred
to by Chrysostom (Horn, in Malth. Ixvii. 3). In associating
St Pelagia with St Marina, St Margaret (q.v.), and others, of
whom either the name or the legend recalls Pelagia, Hermann
Usener has endeavoured to show by a series of subtle deductions
that this saint is only a Christian travesty of Aphrodite. But
there is no doubt of the existence of the first Pelagia of Antioch,
the Pelagia of Ambrose and Chrysostom. The legends which
have subsequently become connected with her name are the
result of a very common development in literary history.

See Acta sanctorum, October, iv. 248 seq.; H. Usener, Legenden
der heiligen Pelagia (Bonn, 1879); H. Delehaye, The Legends of the
Saints (London, 1907), pp. 197-205. (H. DE.)

PELAGIUS, the name of two popes.

PELAGIUS I., pope from 555 to 561, was a Roman by birth,
and first appears in history at Constantinople in the rank of
deacon, and as apocrisiarius of Pope Silverius, whose over-
throw in favour of Vigilius his intrigues promoted. Vigilius
continued him in his diplomatic appointment, and he was
sent by the emperor Justinian in 542 to Antioch on eccle-
siastical business; he afterwards took part in the synod at
Gaza which deposed Paul of Alexandria. He had amassed some
wealth, which on his return to Rome he so employed among the
poor as to secure for himself great popularity; and, when Vigilius
was summoned to Byzantium in 544, Pelagius, now archdeacon,
was left behind as his vicar, and by his tact in dealing with Totila,
the Gothic invader, saved the citizens from murder and outrage.
He appears to have followed his master to Constantinople, and
to have taken part in the Three Chapters controversy; in 553,
at all events, he signed the " constitutum " of Vigilius in favour
of these, and for refusing, with him, to accept the decrees of the
fifth general council (the 2nd of Constantinople, 553) shared
his exile. Even after Vigilius had approved the comdemnation
of the Three Chapters, Pelagius defended them, and even pub-
lished a book on the subject. But when Vigilius died (June 7,
555), he accepted the council, and allowed himself to be desig-
nated by Justinian to succeed the late pope. It was in these
circumstances that he returned to Rome; but most of the clergy,
suspecting his orthodoxy, and believing him to have had some
share in the removal of his predecessor, shunned his fellowship.
He enjoyed, however, the support of Narses, and, after he had
publicly purged himself of complicity in Vigilius's death in the
church of St Peter, he met with toleration in his own immediate
diocese. The rest of the western bishops, however, still held
aloof, and the episcopate of Tuscany caused his name to be
removed from the diptychs. This elicited from him a circular,
in which he asserted his loyalty to the four general councils,
and declared that the hostile bishops had been guilty of schism.
The bishops of Liguria and Aemilia, headed by the archbishop
of Milan, and those of Istria and Venice, headed by Paulinus of
Aquileia, also withheld their fellowship; but Narses resisted
the appeals of Pelagius, who would have invoked the secular
arm. Childebert, king of the Franks, also refused to interfere.
Pelagius died on the 4th of March 561, and was succeeded by
John III.

PELAGIUS II., a native of Rome, but of Gothic descent, was
pope from 579 to 590, having been consecrated successor of
Benedict I., without the sanction of the emperor, on the 26th of

PELAGIUS

November. To make his apologies for this irregularity he sent
Deacon Gregory, who afterwards became Pope Gregory the Great,
as his apocrisiarius to Constantinople. In 585 he sought to
heal the schism which had subsisted since the time of Pelagius I.
in connexion with the Three Chapters, but his efforts were
without success. In 588 John, patriarch of Constantinople, by
reviving the old and disputed claim to the title of oecumenic
patriarch, elicited a vigorous protest from Pelagius; but the
decretal which professes to convey the exact words of the
document is now known to be false. He died in January 590,
and was succeeded by Gregory I.

PELAGIUS (c. 360- c. 420), early British theologian. Of the
origin of Pelagius almost nothing is known. The name is
supposed to be a graecized form of the Cymric Morgan (sea-
begotten). His contemporaries understood that he was of
British (probably of Irish) birth, and gave him the appellation
Brito. He was a large ponderous person, heavy both in body
and mind (Jerome, " stolidissimus et Scotorum pultibus prae-
gravatus "). He was influenced by the monastic enthusiasm
which had been kindled in Gaul by Athanasius (336), and which,
through the energy of Martin of Tours (361), rapidly communi-
cated itself to the Britons and Scots. For, though Pelagius
remained a layman throughout his life, and though he never
appears in any strict connexion with a coenobite fraternity,
he yet adhered to monastic discipline ("veluti monachus "),
and distinguished himself by his purity of life and exceptional
sanctity (" egregie Christianus ")• He seems to have been one
of the earliest, if not the very earliest, of that remarkable series
of men who issued from the monasteries of Scotland and Ireland,
and carried back to the Continent in a purified form the religion
they had received from it. Coming to Rome in the beginning of
the 5th century (his earliest known writing is of date 405), he
found a scandalously low tone of morality prevalent. But his
remonstrances were met by the plea of human weakness. To
remove this plea by exhibiting the actual powers of human
nature became his first object. It seemed to him that the
Augustinian doctrine of total depravity and of the consequent
bondage of the will both cut the sinew of all human effort and
threw upon God the blame which really belonged to man. His
favourite maxim was, " If I ought, I can."

The views of Pelagius did not originate in a conscious reaction
against the influence of the Augustinian theology, although each
of these systems was developed into its ultimate form by the
opposition of the other. Neither must too much weight be
allowed to the circumstance that Pelagius was a monk, for he was
unquestionably alive to the delusive character of much that
passed for monkish sanctity. Yet possibly his monastic training
may have led him to look more at conduct than at character,
and to believe that holiness could be arrived at by rigour
of discipline. This view of things suited his matter-of-fact
temperament. Judging from the general style of his writings,
his religious development had been equable and peaceful, not
marked by the prolonged mental conflict, or the abrupt transi-
tions, which characterized the experience of his great opponent.
With no great penetration he saw very clearly the thing before
him, and many of his practical counsels are marked by sagacity,
and are expressed with the succinctness of a proverb (" corpus
non frangendum, sed regendum est "). His interests were
primarily ethical; hence his insistence on the freedom of the will
and his limitation of the action of divine grace.

The peculiar tenets of Pelagius, though indicated in the
commentaries which he published at Rome previous to 409,
might not so speedily have attracted attention had they not
been adopted by Coelestius, a much younger and bolder man than
his teacher. Coelestius, probably an Italian, had been trained
as a lawyer, but abandoned his profession for an ascetic life.
When Rome was sacked by the Goths (410) the two friends
crossed to Africa. There Pelagius once or twice met with
Augustine, but very shortly sailed for Palestine, where he justly
expected that his opinions would be more cordially received.
Coelestius remained in Carthage with the view of receiving
ordination. But Aurelius, bishop of Carthage, being warned

against him, summoned a synod, at which Paulinus, a deacon
of Milan, charged Coelestius with holding the following six
errors: (i) that Adam would have died even if he had not sinned;
(2) that the sin of Adam injured himself alone, not the human
race; (3) that new-born children are in the same condition in
which Adam was before the fall; (4) that the whole human race
does not die because of Adam's death or sin, nor will the race
rise again because of the resurrection of Christ; (5) that the law
gives entrance to heaven as well as the gospel; (6) that even before
the coming of Christ there were men who were entirely without
sin. To these propositions a seventh is sometimes added, " that
infants, though unbaptized, have eternal life," a corollary from
the third. Coelestius did not deny that he held these opinions,
but he maintained that they were open questions, on which the
Church had never pronounced. The synod, notwithstanding,
condemned and excommunicated him. Coelestius, after a futile
appeal to Rome, went to Ephesus, and there received ordination.
In Palestine Pelagius lived unmolested and revered, until in
415 Orosius, a Spanish priest, came from Augustine, who in the
meantime had written his De peccatorum mentis, to warn Jerome
against him. The result was that in June of that year Pelagius
was cited by Jerome before John, bishop of Jerusalem, and
charged with holding that man may be without sin, if only he
desires it. This prosecution broke down, and in December of
the same year Pelagius was summoned before a synod of fourteen
bishops at Diospolis (Lydda). The prosecutors on this occasion
were two deposed Gallican bishops, Heros of Aries and Lazarus
of Aix, but on account of the illness of one of them neither could
appear. The proceedings, being conducted in various languages
and by means of interpreters, lacked certainty, and justified
Jerome's application to the synod of the epithet " miserable."
But there is no doubt that Pelagius repudiated the assertion of
Coelestius, that " the divine grace and help is not granted to
individual acts, but consists in free will, and in the giving of the
law and instruction." At the same time he affirmed that a
man is able, if he likes, to live without sin and keep the command-
ments of God, inasmuch as God gives him this ability. The
synod was satisfied with these statements, and pronounced
Pelagius to be in agreement with Catholic teaching. Pelagius
naturally plumed himself on his acquittal, and provoked Augus-
tine to give a detailed account of the synod, in which he shows
that the language used by Pelagius was ambiguous, but that,
being interpreted by his previous written statements, it involved
a denial of what the Church understood by grace and by man's
dependence on it. The North African Church as a whole
resented the decisions of Diospolis, and in 416 sent up from
their synods of Carthage and Mileve (in Numidia) an appeal to
Innocent, bishop of Rome, who, flattered by the tribute thus
paid to the see of Rome, decided the question in favour of the
African synods. And, though his successor Zosimus wavered
for some time, he at length fell in with what he saw to be the
general mind of both the ecclesiastical and the civil powers.
For, simultaneously with the largely attended African synod
which finally condemned Pelagianism in the West, an imperial
edict was issued at Ravenna by Honorius on the 3oth of April
418, peremptorily determining the theological question and
enacting that not only Pelagius and Coelestius but all who
accepted their opinions should suffer confiscation of goods
and irrevocable banishment. Thus prompted, Zosimus drew
up a circular inviting all the bishops of Christendom to subscribe
a condemnation of Pelagian opinions. Nineteen Italian bishops
refused, among them Julian of Eclanum in Apulia, a man of good
birth, approved sanctity and great capacity, who now became
the recognized leader of the movement. But not even his
acuteness and zeal could redeem a cause which was rendered
hopeless when the Eastern Church (Ephesus, 431) confirmed the
decision of the West. Pelagius himself disappears after 420;
Coelestius was at Constantinople seeking the aid of Nestorius
in 428.

Pelagianism. — The system of Pelagius is a consistent whole,
each part involving the existence of every other. Starting from
the idea that " ability limits obligation," and resolved that men

64

PELAGIUS

should feel their responsibility, he insisted that man is able to do
all that God commands, and that there is, and can be, no sin where
the will is not absolutely free-^-able to choose good or evil. The
favourite Pelagian formula, " Si necessitatis est, peccatum non est;
si voluntatis, vitari potest," had an appearance of finality which
imposed on superficial minds. The theory of the will involved in
this fundamental axiom of Pelagianism is that which is commonly
known as the " liberty of indifference," or " power of contrary
choice " — a theory which affirms the freedom of the will, not in the
sense that the individual is self-determined, but in the sense that in
each volition and at each moment of life, no matter what the previous
career of the individual has been, the will is in equipoise, able to
choose good or evil. We are born characterless (non pleni), and with
no bias towards good or evil (ut sine virtute, ita et sine vitio). It
follows that we are uninjured by the sin of Adam, save in so far as
the evil example of our predecessors misleads and influences us (non
propagine sed exemplo). There is, in fact, no such thing as original
sin, sin being a thing of will and not of nature; for if it could be of
nature our sin would be chargeable on God the creator. This will,
capable of good as of evil, being the natural endowment of man, is
found in the heathen as well as in the Christian, and the heathen may
therefore perfectly keep such law as they know. But, if all men have
this natural ability to do and to be all that is required for perfect
righteousness, what becomes of grace, of the aid of the Holy Spirit,
and, in a word, of Christianity ? Pelagius vacillates considerably
in his use of the word " grace." Sometimes he makes it equivalent
to natural endowment. Indeed one of his most careful statements
is to this effect: " We distinguish three things — the ability, the will,
the act (posse, velle, esse). The ability is in nature, and must be
referred to God, who has bestowed this on His creature; the other
two, the will and the act, must be referred to man, because they flow
from the fountain of free will " (Aug., De gr. Christi, ch. 4). But at
other times he admits a much wider range to grace, so as to make
Augustine doubt whether his meaning is not, after all, orthodox.
But, when he speaks of grace " sanctifying," " assisting," and so
forth, it is only that man may " more easily " accomplish what he
could with more difficulty accomplish without grace. A decisive
passage occurs in the letter he sent to the see of Rome along with his
Confessio fidei : " We maintain that free will exists generally in all
mankind, in Christians, Jews and Gentiles; they have all equally
received it by nature, but in Christians only is it assisted by grace.
In others this good of their original creation is naked and unarmed.
They shall be judged and condemned because, though possessed of
free will, by which they might come to the faith and merit the grace
•of God, they make an ill use of their freedom ; while Christians shall
be rewarded because, by using their free will aright, they merit the
grace of the Lord and keep His commandments ' (ibid. chs. 33, 34).
Pelagius allowed to grace everything but the initial determining
movement towards salvation. He ascribed to the unassisted human
will power to accept and use the proffered salvation of Christ. It
was at this point his departure from the Catholic creed could be
made apparent: Pelagius maintains, expressly and by implication,
that it is the human will which takes the initiative, and is the
•determining factor in the salvation of the individual; while the
Church maintains that it is the divine will that takes the initiative
by renewing and enabling the human will to accept and use the
aid or grace offered.

Semipelagianism. — It was easy for Augustine to show that this
was an " impia opinio " ; it was easy for him to expose the defective
character of a theory of the will which implied that God was not
holy because He i§ necessarily holy ; it was easy for him to show that
the positions of Pelagius were anti-Scriptural (see AUGUSTINE) ;
but, though his arguments prevailed, they did not wholly convince,
and the rise of Semipelagianism — an attempt to hold a middle course
between the harshness of Augustinianism and the obvious errors of
Pelagianism — is full of significance. This earnest and conciliatory
movement discovered itself simultaneously in North Africa and in
southern Gaul. In the former Church, which naturally desired to
adhere to the views of its own great theologian, the monks of Adrum-
etum found themselves either sunk to the verge of despair or pro-
voked to licentiousness by his predestinarian teaching. When this
was reported to Augustine he wrote two elaborate treatises to show
that when God ordains the end He also ordains the means, and if
any man is ordained to life eternal he is thereby ordained to holiness
and zealous effort. But meanwhile some of the monks themselves
had struck out a via media which ascribed to God sovereign grace
and yet left intact man's responsibility. A similar scheme was
adopted by Cassian of Marseilles (hence Semipelagians are often
spoken of as Massilians), and was afterwards ably advocated by
Vincent of Lerins and Faustus of Rhegium. These writers, in
opposition to Pelagius, maintained that man was damaged by
the fall, and seemed indeed disposed to purchase a certificate of
orthodoxy by the abusive epithets they heaped upon Pelagians
(ranae, muscae moriturae, &c.). The differentia of Semipelagianism
is the tenet that in regeneration, and all that results from it, the divine
and the human will are co-operating (synergistic) coefficient factors.
After finding considerable acceptance, this theory was ultimately
condemned, because it retained the root-principle of Pelagianism —
that man has some ability to will good and that the beginning of
salvation may be with man. The Councils of Orange and Valence

(529), however, which condemned Semipelagianism, did so with
the significant restriction that predestination to evil was not to be
taught — a restriction so agreeable to the general feeling of the
Church that, three centuries after, Gottschalk was sentenced to be
degraded from the priesthood, scourged and imprisoned for teaching
reprobation. The questions raised by Pelagius continually recur,
but, without tracing the strife as sustained by Thomists and Jansen-
ists on the one side and the Jesuits and Armmians on the other, this
article can only indicate the general bearing of the controversy on
society and the Church.

The anthropology of Pelagius was essentially naturalistic. It
threatened to supersede grace by nature, to deny all immediate
divine influence, and so to make Christianity practically useless.
Pelagius himself did not carry his rationalism through to its issues;
but the logical consequence of his system was, as Augustine per-
ceived, the denial of the atonement and other central truths of
revealed religion. And, while the Pelagians never existed as a sect
separate from the Church Catholic, yet wherever rationalism has
infected any part of the Church there Pelagianism has sooner or
later appeared; and the term " Pelagian " has been continued to
denote views which minimize the effects of the fall and unduly
magnify man's natural ability. These views and tendencies have
appeared in theologies which are not in other respects rationalistic,
as, e.g. in Arminianism; and their presence in such theologies is
explained by the desire to remove everything which might seem to
discourage human effort.

It is not easy to determine how far the vices which ate so deeply
into the life of the Church of the middle ages were due to the sharp-
ness with which some of the severer features of the Augustinian
theology were defined during the Pelagian controversy. The
pernicious belief in the magical efficacy of the sacraments and the
consequent detective ethical power of religion, the superstitious
eagerness to accept the Church's creed without examining or really
believing it, the falsity and cruelty engendered and propagated
by the idea that in the Church's cause all weapons were justifiable,
these vices were undoubtedly due to the belief that the visible church
was the sole divinely-appointed repository of grace. And the
sharply accentuated tone in which Augustinianism affirmed man's
inability quickened the craving for that grace or direct agency of
God upon the soul which the Church declared to be needful and
administered through her divinely appointed persons and sacra-
ments, and thus brought a decided impulse to the development of
the sacerdotal system.

Again, although it may fairly be doubted whether, as Baur
supposes, Augustine was permanently tainted with the Manichaean
notion of the inherent evil of matter, it can scarcely be questioned
that his views on marriage as elicited by the Pelagian controversy
gave a considerable impulse to the already prevalent idea of the
superiority of virginity. When the Pelagians declared that Augus-
tine's theory of original sin discredited marriage by the implication
that even the children of the regenerate were born in sin, he could
only reply (De nuptiis et concupiscentia) that marriage now cannot
partake of the spotless purity of the marriage of unfallen man, and
that, though what is evil in concupiscence is made a good use of in
marriage, it is still a thing to be ashamed of — not only with the
shame of natural modesty (which he does not take into account)
but with the shame of guilt. So that, even although he is careful
to point out the advantages of marriage, an indelible stigma is still
left even on the lawful procreation of children.

" The Pelagians deserve respect," says Harnack, " for their
purity of motive, their horror of the Manichaean leaven and the
opus operatum, their insistence on clearness, and their intention
to defend the Deity. But we cannot but decide that their doctrine
fails to recognize the misery of sin and evil, that in its deepest roots
it is godless, that it knows, and seeks to know, nothing of redemption
and that it is dominated by an empty formalism (a notional mytho-
logy), which does justice at no single point to actual quantities,
and on a closer examination consists of sheer contradictions. In the
form in which this doctrine was expressed by Pelagius — and in fact
also by Julian-^-i.e. with all the accommodations to which he
condescended, it was not a novelty. But in its fundamental
thought it was; or rather, it was an innovation because it abandoned
in spite of all accommodations in expression, the pole of the
mystical doctrine of redemption, which the Church had steadfastly
maintained side by side with the doctrine of freedom."

In the Pelagian controversy some of the fundamental differences
between the Eastern and Western theologies appear. The former laid
stress on " the supernatural character of Christianity as a fact in
the objective world " and developed the doctrines of the Trinity and
the Incarnation; the Western emphasized " the supernatural charac-
ter of Christianity as an agency in the subjective world " and
developed the doctrines of sin and grace. All the Greek fathers
from Origen to Chrysostum had been jealous for human freedom and
loath to make sin a natural power, though of course admitting a
general state of sinfulness. The early British monasteries had been
connected with the Orient. Pelagius was familiar with the Greek
language and theology, and when he came to Rome he was much in
the company of Rufinus and his circle who were endeavouring to
propagate Greek theology in the Latin Church.

LITERATURE. — Pelagius's Gommentarii in epistolas Pauli, Libellus

PELASGIANS— PELEUS

fidei ad Innocenlium and Epistola ad Demetriadem are preserved
in Jerome's works (vol. v. of Martiani's ed., vol. xi. of Vallarsi's).
The last-named was also published separately by Semler (Halle,
1775). There are of course many citations in the Anti-Pelagian
Treatises of Augustine. On the Commentaries see Journal of Theol.
Studies, vii. 568, viii. 526; an edition is being prepared for the
Cambridge Texts and Studies by A. Souter.

See also F. Wiggers, Darstellung des Augustinismus und Pelagianis-
mus (2 vols., Berlin, 1831-1832 ; Eng. trans, of vol. i., by R. Emerson,
Andover, 1840); J. L. Jacobi, Die Lehre d. Pelagius (Leipzig, 1842);
F. Klasen, Die innere Entivickelung des Pelagianismus (Freiburg,
1882) ; B. B. Warfield, Two Studies in the History of Doctrine (New
York, 1893) ; A. Haniack, History of Dogma, Eng. trans., v. 168-202 ;
F. Loofs, Dogmengeschischte and art. in Hauck-Herzog's Real-
encyklo. fur prot. Theologie u. Kirche (end of vol. xv.), where a full
bibliography is given. (M. D.)

PELASGIANS, a name applied by Greek writers to a pre-
historic people whose traces were believed to exist in Greek lands.
If the statements of ancient authorities are marshalled in order
of their date it will be seen that certain beliefs cannot be traced
back beyond the age of this or that author. Though this does
not prove that the beliefs themselves were not held earlier, it
suggests caution in assuming that they were. In the Homeric
poems there are Pelasgians among the allies of Troy: in the
catalogue, Iliad, ii. 840-843, which is otherwise in strict geogra-
phical order, they stand between the Hellespontine towns and
the Thracians of south-east Europe, i.e. on the Hellespontine
border of Thrace. Their town or district is called Larissa and
is fertile, and they are celebrated for their spearmanship. Their
chiefs are Hippothous and Pylaeus, sons of Lethus son of
Teutamus. Iliad, x. 428-429, describes their camping ground
between the town of Troy and the sea; but this obviously
proves nothing about their habitat in time of peace. Odyssey,
xvii. 175-177, notes Pelasgians in Crete, together with two appa-
rently indigenous and two immigrant peoples (Achaeans and
Dorians), but gives no indication to which class the Pelasgians
belong. In Lemnos (Iliad, vii. 467; xiv. 230) there are no
Pelasgians, but a Minyan dynasty. Two other passages (Iliad,
ii. 681-684; xvi. 233-235) apply the epithet " Pelasgic " to a
district called Argos about Mt Othrys in south Thessaly, and
to Zeus of Dodona. But in neither case are actual Pelasgians
mentioned; the Thessalian Argos is the specific home of Hellenes
and Achaeans, and Dodona is inhabited by Perrhaebians and
Aenianes (Iliad, ii. 750) who are nowhere described as Pelasgian.
It looks therefore as if " Pelasgian " were here used connota-
tively, to mean either " formerly occupied by Pelasgian " or
simply " of immemorial age."

Hesiod expands the Homeric phrase and calls Dodona " seat
of Pelasgians " (fr. 225); he speaks also of a personal Pelasgus
as father of Lycaon, the culture-hero of Arcadia; and a later
epic poet, Asius, describes Pelasgus as the first man, whom
the earth threw up that there might be a race of men. Hecataeus
makes Pelasgus king of Thessaly (expounding Iliad, ii. 681-684) ;
Acusilaus applies this Homeric passage to the Peloponnesian
Argos, and engrafts the Hesiodic Pelasgus, father of Lycaon,
into a Peloponnesian genealogy. Hellanicus a generation later
repeats this blunder, and identifies this Argive and Arcadian
Pelasgus with the Thessalian Pelasgus of Hecataeus. For
Aeschylus (Supplices i, sqq.) Pelasgus is earthborn, as in Asius,
and rules a kingdom stretching from Argos to Dodona and the
Strymon; but in Prometheus 879, the " Pelasgian " land simply
means Argos. Sophocles takes the same view (Inachus, fr. 256)
and for the first time introduces the word " Tyrrhenian " into
the story, apparently as synonymous with Pelasgian.

Herodotus, like Homer, has a denotative as well as a conno-
tative use. He describes actual Pelasgians surviving and
mutually intelligible (a) at Placie and Scylace on the Asiatic
shore of the Hellespont, and (b) near Creston on the Strymon;
in the latter area they have " Tyrrhenian " neighbours. He
alludes to other districts where Pelasgian peoples lived on under
changed names; Samothrace and Antandrus in Troas are
probably instances of this. In Lemnos and Imbros he describes
a Pelasgian population who were only conquered by Athens
shortly before 500 B.C., and in this connexion he tells a story of
earlier raids of these Pelasgians on Attica, and of a temporary
xxi. 3

settlement there of Hellespontine Pelasgians, all dating from a
time " when the Athenians were first beginning to count as
Greeks." Elsewhere " Pelasgian " in Herodotus connotes
anything typical of, or surviving from, the state of things in
Greece before the coming of the Hellenes. In this sense all
Greece was once " Pelasgic "; the clearest instances of Pelasgian
survival in ritual and customs and antiquities are in Arcadia,
the " Ionian " districts of north-west Peloponnese, and Attica,
which have suffered least from hellenization. In Athens itself
the prehistoric wall of the citadel and a plot of ground close
below it were venerated in the 5th century as " Pelasgian "; so
too Thucydides (ii. 17). We may note that all Herodotean
examples of actual Pelasgi lie round, or near, the actual Pelasgi
of Homeric Thrace; that the most distant of these is confirmed
by the testimony of Thucydides (iv. 106) as to the Pelasgian
and Tyrrhenian population of the adjacent seaboard: also
that Thucydides adopts the same general Pelasgian theory of
early Greece, with the refinement that he regards the Pelasgian
name as originally specific, and as having come gradually into
this generic use.

Ephorus, relying on Hesiodic tradition of an aboriginal Pelas-
gian type in Arcadia, elaborated a theory of the Pelasgians as a
warrior- people spreading (like " Aryans ") from a " Pelasgian
home," and annexing and colonizing all the parts of Greece
where earlier writers had found allusions to them, from Dodona
to Crete and the Troad, and even as far as Italy, where again
their settlements had been recognized as early as the time of
Hellanicus, in close connexion once more with " Tyrrhenians."

The copious additional information given by later writers
is all by way either of interpretation of local legends in the light
of Ephorus's theory, or of explanation of the name" Pelasgoi ";
as when Philochorus expands a popular etymology " stork-folk "
(ireXacryoi — 7reXap7of) into a theory of their seasonal migrations;
or Apollodorus says that Homer calls Zeus Pelasgian " because
he is not far from every one of us," &n TTJS 77}$ TeXas tariv.
The connexion with Tyrrhenians which began with Hellanicus,
Herodotus and Sophocles becomes confusion with them in the
3rd century, when the Lemnian pirates and their Attic kinsmen
are plainly styled Tyrrhenians, and early fortress-walls in Italy
(like those on the Palatine in Rome) are quoted as " Arcadian "
colonies.

Modern writers have either been content to restate or amplify
the view, ascribed above to Ephorus, that " Pelasgian " simply
means " prehistoric Greek," or have used the name Pelasgian
at their pleasure to denote some one element in the mixed
population of the Aegean — Thracian, Illyrian (Albanian) or
Semitic. G. Sergi (Origine e diffusions delta stirpe mcditer-
ranea, Rome, 1895; Eng. trans. The Mediterranean Race,
London, 1901), followed by many anthropologists, describes
as " Pelasgian " one branch of the Mediterranean or Eur-African
race of mankind, and one group of types of skull within that race.
The character of the ancient citadel wall at Athens, already
mentioned, has given the name " Pelasgic masonry " to all
constructions of large unhewn blocks fitted roughly together
without mortar, from Asia Minor to Spain.

For another view than that here taken see ACHAEANS; also
GREECE: Ancient History, § 3, " Homeric Age."

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Besides sections on the subject in all principal
histories of Greece and bibliographies in G. Busolt, Gr. Geschichte,
i2 (Gotha, 1893, 164-182) ; and K. F. Hermann (Thumser), Gr. Staats-
alterthumer, § 6, see S. Bruck, Quae veteres de Pelasgis tradiderint
(Breslau, 1884) ; B. Giseke, Thrakisch-pelasgische Stdmme auf der
Balkanhalbinsel (Leipzig, 1858); F. G. Hahn, Albanesische Studien
(Jena, 1854); P. Volkmuth, Die Pelasger als Semiten (Schaffhausen,
1860); H. Kiepert, Monatsbericht d. berl. Akademie (1861), pp. 114
sqq.; K. Pauli, Eine vorgriechische^ InschriU auf Lemnos (Leipzig,
1886); E. Meyer, " Die Pelasger " in Forschungen z. alien Geschichte
(Halle, 1892), i. 124; W. Ridgeway, Early Age of Greece (Cambridge,
1901), vol. i. ; J. L. Myres, " A History of the Pelasgian Theory "
(in Journal of Hellenic Studies, xxvii. 170); H. Marsh, Horae
pelasgicae (Cambridge, 1815); L. Benloew, La Greet avant les Grecs
(Paris, 1877). (J. L. M.)

PELEUS, in Greek legend, king of the Myrmidones of Phthia
in Thessaly, son of Aeacus, king of Aegina, and brother (or

66

PELEW ISLANDS— PELHAM (FAMILY)

intimate friend) of Telamon. The two brothers, jealous of the
athletic prowess of their step-brother Phocus, slew him; but the
crime was discovered, and Peleus and Telamon were banished.
Peleus took refuge in Phthia with his uncle Eurytion, who
purified him from the guilt of murder, and gave him his daughter
Antigone to wife, and a third of the kingdom as her dowry.
Having accidentally killed his father-in-law at the Calydonian
boar-hunt, Peleus was again obliged to flee, this time to lolcus,
where he was purified by Acastus. The most famous event in
the life of Peleus was his marriage with the sea-goddess Thetis,
by whom he became the father of Achilles. The story ran that
both Zeus and Poseidon had sought her hand, but, Themis
(or Prometheus or Proteus) having warned the former that a
son of Thetis by Zeus would prove mightier than his father,
the gods decided to marry her to Peleus. Thetis, to escape a
distasteful union, changed herself into various forms, but at
last Peleus, by the instructions of Chiron, seized and held her
fast till she resumed her original shape, and was unable to
offer further resistance. The wedding (described in the fine
Epilhalamium of Catullus) took place in Chiron's cave on Mt
Pelion. Peleus survived both his son Achilles and his grandson
Neoptolemus, and was carried away by Thetis to dwell for ever
among the Nereids.

See Apollodorus iii. 12, 13; Ovid, Metam. xi; Pindar, 'Isthmia,
viii. 70, Nemea, iv. 101; Catullus, Ixiv.; schol. Apoll. Rhod. iv. 816;
Euripides, Andromache, 1242-1260.

PELEW ISLANDS (Ger. Palauinseln, also Palao), a group of
twenty-six islands in the western Pacific Ocean, between 2° 35'
and 9° N., and 130° 4' and 134° 40' E., belonging to Germany.
They lie within a coral barrier reef, and in the south the islands
are of coral, but in the north of volcanic rocks. They are well
wooded, the climate is healthy, and the water-supply good.
A few rats and bats represent the indigenous mammals, but the
sea is rich in fish and molluscs; and Dr Otto Finsch (Journ. des
Museum Godefroy, 1875) enumerated 56 species of birds, of
which 12 are peculiar to the group. The total area is 175 sq. m.,
the largest islands being Babeltop (Babelthuap, Baobeltaob and
other variants), Uruktapi (Urukthopel), Korror, Nyaur, Peleliu
and Eilmalk (Irakong). The population is about 3100. The
natives are Micronesians, and are darker and shorter than their
kinsmen, the Caroline Islanders. They usually have the frizzly
hair of the Melanesians, and paint their bodies in brilliant colours,
especially yellow. The men vary in height from 5 ft. to 5 ft. 5 in.,
the women from 4 ft. 9 to 5 ft. 2 in. The skull shows a strong
tendency to brachycephalism. Two curious customs may be
noted — the institution of an honourable order bestowed by the
king, called klilt; and a species of mutual aid society, sometimes
confined to women, and possessing considerable political influ-
ence. There are five kinds of currency in the islands, consisting
of beads of glass and enamel, to which a supernatural origin is
ascribed.

The islands were sighted in 1543 by Ruy Lopez de Villalobos,
who named them the Arrecifos. The origin of the
name Islas Palaos is doubtful. The islands were bought by
Germany from Spain in 1899, and are administered together
with the western Carolines, Yap being the administrative
centre.

See K. Semper, Die Palau-Inseln (Leipzig, 1873); J. S. Kubary,
Die sozialen Einrichtungen der Palauer (Berlin, 1885) ; A. A. Marche,
et Palouan (Paris, 1887).

PELF, a term now chiefly used of money and always in a
derogatory sense. The word originally meant plunder, pillage
(O. Fr. Pelfre, probably from Lat. pilare, to deprive of hair, pilus),
and this significance is still kept in the related word " pilfer," to
make petty thefts.

PELHAM, the name of an English farrfily, derived from Pelham
in Hertfordshire, which was owned by a certain Walter de
Pelham under Edward I., and is alleged to have been in the
possession of the same family before the Norman conquest.
The family dignities included the barony of Pelham of Laughton
(1706-1768), the earldom of Clare (1714-1768), the dukedom of
Newcastle (1715-1768), the barony of Pelham of Stanmer from

1762, the earldom of Chichester from 1801 and the earldom of
Yarborough from 1837.

JOHN DE PELHAM, who was one of the captors of John II. of
France at Poitiers, acquired land at Winchelsea by his marriage
with Joan Herbert, or Finch. His son, JOHN DE PELHAM (d.
1429), was attached to the party of John of Gaunt and his son
Henry IV. In 1393 he received a life appointment as constable
of Pevensey Castle, an honour subsequently extended to his
heirs male, and he joined Henry on his invasion in 1399, if he
did not actually land with him at Ravenspur. He was knighted
at Henry's coronation, and represented Sussex in parliament
repeatedly during the reign of Henry IV., and again in 1422 and
1427. As constable of Pevensey he had at different times the
charge of Edward, duke of York, in 1405; Edmund, earl of
March, with his brother Roger Mortimer in 1406; James I. of
Scotland in 1414; Sir John Mortimer in 1422, and the queen
dowager, Joan of Navarre, from 1418 to 1422. He was con-
stantly employed in the defence of the southern ports against
French invasion, and his powers were increased in 1407 by his
appointment as chief butler of Chichester and of the Sussex
ports, and in 1412 by the grant of the rape of Hastings. He
was treasurer of England in 1412-1413, and although he was
superseded on the accession of Henry V. he was sent in the
next year to negotiate with the French court. He was included
among the executors of the wills of Henry IV., of Thomas, duke
of Clarence, and of Henry V. He died on the I2th of February
1429, and was succeeded by his son John, who took part in
Henry V.'s expedition to Normandy in 1417.

In the reign of Queen Elizabeth Sir WILLIAM PELHAM (c. 1530-
1587), third son of Sir William Pelham (d. 1538) of Laughton,
Sussex, became lord justice of Ireland. He was captain of
pioneers at the siege of Leith in 1560, and served at the siege
of Havre in 1562, and with Coligny at Caen in 1563. He then
returned to Havre, at that time occupied by English troops,
and was one of the hostages for the fulfilment of its surrender
to Charles IX. in 1564. After his return to England he fortified
Berwick among other places, and was appointed lieutenant-
general of ordnance. He was sent to Ireland in IS79, when he
was knighted by Sir William Drury, the lord justice. Drury
died in October, and Pelham was provisionally made his
successor, an appointment subsequently confirmed by Elizabeth.
Alarmed by the proceedings of Gerald Fitzgerald, i$th earl of
Desmond, and his brother John Desmond, he proclaimed the
earl a traitor. Elizabeth protested strongly against Pelham's
action, which was justified by the sack of Youghal by Desmond.
Thomas Butler, loth earl of Ormonde, was entrusted with the
campaign in Munster, but Pelham joined him in February 1 580,
when it was believed that a Spanish descent was about to be
made in the south-west. The English generals laid waste
northern Kerry, and proceeded to besiege Carrigafoyle Castle,
which they stormed, giving no quarter to man, woman or child.
Other strongholds submitted on learning the fate of Carrigafoyle,
and were garrisoned by Pelham, who hoped with the concourse
of Admiral Winter's fleet to limit the struggle to Kerry. He
vainly sought help from the gentry of the county, who sym-
pathized with Desmond, and were only brought to submission by
a series of " drives." After the arrival of the new deputy, Lord
Grey of Wilton, Pelham returned to England on the ground of
health. He had retained his office as lieutenant-general of
ordnance, and was now made responsible for debts incurred
during his absence. Leicester desired his services in the Nether-
lands, but it was only after much persuasion that Elizabeth set
him free to join the army by accepting a mortgage on his estates
as security for his liabilities. The favour shown by Leicester
to Pelham caused serious jealousies among the English officers,
and occasioned a camp brawl in which Sir Edward Norris
was injured. Pelham was wounded at Doesburg in 1586, and
accompanied Leicester to England in 1587. Returning to the
Netherlands in the same year he died at Flushing on the 24th of
November 1587. His half-brother, Sir Edmund Pelham (d.
1606), chief baron of the exchequer in Ireland, was the first
English judge to go on circuit in Ulster.

PELHAM, H.— PELIAS

67

Sir William married Eleanor, daughter of Henry Neville,
earl of Westmorland, and was the ancestor of the Pelhams of
Brocklesby, Lincolnshire. In the fourth generation Charles
Pelham died in 1763 without heirs, leaving his estates to his
great-nephew Charles Anderson (1749-1823), who thereupon
assumed the additional name of Pelham, and was created Baron
Yarborough in 1794. His son Charles (1781-1846), who was
for many years commodore of the Royal Yacht Squadron, was
created earl of Yarborough and Baron Worsley in 1837. Charles
Alfred Worsley, the 4th earl (b. 1859), exchanged the name of
Anderson- Pelham for that of Pelham in 1905. He married in
1886 Marcia Lane-Fox, eldest daughter of the izth Baron
Conyers, who became in 1892 Baroness Conyers in her own
right.

Sir NICHOLAS PELHAM (1517-1560), an elder half-brother of
Sir William Pelham, defended Seaford against the French in
1545, and sat for Arundel and for Sussex in parliament. He
was the ancestor of the earls of Chichester. His second son,
Sir THOMAS PELHAM (d. 1 6 24) , was created a baronet in 1 6 1 1 . His
descendant, Sir THOMAS PELHAM, 4th baronet (c. 1650-1712),
represented successively East Grinstead, Lewes and Sussex in
parliament, and was raised to the House of Lords as Baron
Pelham of Laughton in 1706. By his second marriage with
Grace (d. 1700), daughter of Gilbert Holies, 3rd earl of Clare,
and sister of John Holies, duke of Newcastle, he had five daugh-
ters, and two sons — Thomas Pelham, earl of Clare, duke of
Newcastle-on-Tyne and ist duke of Newcastle-under-Lyme (see
NEWCASTLE, DUKES OF), and Henry Pelham (q.v.Y The duke
of Newcastle died without heirs, and the dukedom of Newcastle-
under-Lyme descended to his nephew, Henry Fiennes Clinton,
afterwards known as Pelham-Clinton, and his heirs, but the
barony of Pelham of Laughton became extinct. In 1762
Newcastle had been created Baron Pelham of Stanmer, with
reversion to his cousin and heir-male, THOMAS PELHAM (1728-
1805), who became commissioner of trade (1754), lord of the
admiralty (1761-1764), comptroller of the household (1765-
1774), privy councillor (1765), surveyor-general of the customs
of London (1773-1805), chief justice in eyre (1774-1775) and
keeper of the wardrobe (1775-1782), and was created earl of
Chichester in 1801. His third son, George (1766-1827), was
successively bishop of Bristol, Exeter and Lincoln. THOMAS
PELHAM, 2nd earl of Chichester (1756-1826), son of the ist
earl, was surveyor-general of ordnance in Lord Rockingham's
ministry (1782), and chief secretary for Ireland in the coalition
ministry of 1783. In 1795 he became Irish chief secretary
under Pitt's government, retiring in 1798; he was home secre-
tary from July 1801 to August 1803 under Addington, who
made him chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster in 1803.
Pelham went out of office in 1804, and in the next year
succeeded to the earldom. He was joint postmaster-general
from 1807 to 1823, and for the remaining three years of his
life postmaster-general. His son and heir, HENRY THOMAS
PELHAM (1804-1886), 3rd earl, was an ecclesiastical commissioner
from 1850 until his death, and was greatly interested in various
religious, philanthropic and educational movements; and two
other sons were well-known men — Frederick Thomas Pelham
(1808-1861), who became a rear-admiral in 1858, and subse-
quently lord-commissioner of the admiralty, and John Thomas
Pelham (1811-1894), who was bishop of Norwich from 1857 to
1893. The third earl's son, Walter John Pelham (1838-1892),
succeeded his father in 1886, and his nephew Jocelyn Brudenell
Pelham (b. 1871) became 6th earl of Chichester in 1905.

PELHAM, HENRY (1696-1754), prime minister of England,
younger brother of Thomas Holies Pelham, duke of Newcastle,
was born in 1696. He was a younger son of Thomas, ist Baron
Pelham of Laughton (1650-1712; cr. 1706) and of Lady Grace
Holies, daughter of the 3rd earl of Clare (see above). He was
educated by a private tutor and at Christ Church, Oxford,
which he entered in July 1710. As a volunteer he served in
Dormer's regiment at the battle of Preston in 1715, spent some
time on the Continent, and in 1717 entered parliament for
Seaford, Sussex. Through strong family influence and the

recommendation of Walpole he was chosen in 1721 a lord of the
Treasury. The following year he was returned for Sussex county.
In 1724 he entered the ministry as secretary of war, but this
office he exchanged in 1730 for the more lucrative one of
paymaster of the forces. He made himself conspicuous by
his support of Walpole on the question of the excise, and in
1743 a union of parties resulted in the formation of an adminis-
tration in which Pelham was prime minister, with the office of
chancellor of the exchequer; but rank and influence made his
brother, the duke of Newcastle, very powerful in the cabinet,
and, in spite of a genuine attachment, there were occasional
disputes between them, which led to difficulties. Being strongly
in favour of peace, Pelham carried on the war with languor and
indifferent success, but the country, wearied of the interminable
struggle, was disposed to acquiesce in his foreign policy almost
without a murmur. The king, thwarted in his favourite
schemes, made overtures in 1746 to Lord Bath, but his purpose
was upset by the resignation of the two Pelhams (Henry and
Newcastle), who, however, at the king's request, resumed office.
Pelham remained prime minister till his death on the 6th of
March 1754, when his brother succeeded him. His very defects
were among the chief elements of Pelham's success, for one with
a strong personality, moderate self-respect, or high conceptions
of statesmanship could not have restrained the discordant
elements of the cabinet for any length of time. Moreover, he
possessed tact and a thorough acquaintance with the forms of the
house. Whatever quarrels or insubordination might exist
within the cabinet, they never broke out into open revolt. Nor
can a high degree of praise be denied to his financial policy,
especially his plans for the reduction of the national debt and
the simplification and consolidation of its different branches.
He had married in 1 726 Lady Catherine Manners, daughter of the
2nd duke of Rutland; and one of his daughters married Henry
Fiennes Clinton, 2nd duke of Newcastle.

See W. Coxe, Memoirs of the Pelham Administration. (2 vols.,
1829). For the family history see Lower, Pelham Family (1873);
also the Pelham and Newcastle MSS. in the British Museum.

PELHAM, HENRY FRANCIS (1846-1907), English scholar
and historian, was born at Berg Apton, Norfolk, on the igth
of September 1846, son of the Hon. John Thomas Pelham
(1811-1894), bishop of Norwich, third son of the 2nd earl of
Chichester. He was educated at Harrow and at Trinity College,
Oxford, where he took a first class in literae humaniores in
1869. He was a tutor of Exeter College from 1869 to 1890. In
1887 he became university reader in ancient history, and two
years later was elected to the Camden professorship. He
became curator of the Bodleian library in 1892, and in 1897
president of Trinity College. He was also a fellow of Brasenose
College, honorary fellow of Exeter, a fellow of the British
Academy and of other learned societies, and a governor of
Harrow School. His chief contribution to ancient history was
his article on Roman history in the gth edition of the Encyclo-
paedia Britannica (1886), which was republished with additions
as the Outlines of Roman History (1890). His university lectures,
though perhaps lacking in inspiration, were full of original
research and learning. His death on the I3th of February 1907
not only prevented the publication in systematic form of his own
important researches, but also delayed the appearance of much
that had been left in MS. by H. Furneaux and A. H. J. Greenidge,
and was at the time under his charge. Apart from the Outlines
he published only The Imperial Domains and the Colonate (1890),
The Roman Frontier System (1895), and articles in periodicals
of which the most important was an article in the Quarterly
Review on the early Caesars (April, 1905). He did much for the
study of archaeology at Oxford, materially assisted the Hellenic
Society and the British School at Athens, and was one of the
founders of the British School at Rome. He married in 1873
Laura Priscilla, daughter of Sir Edward North Buxton.

PELIAS, in Greek legend, son of Poseidon and Tyro, daughter
of Salmoneus. Because Tyro afterwards married her father's
brother Cretheus, king of lolcus in Thessaly, to whom she bore
Aeson, Pheres and Amythaon, Pelias was by some thought to be

68

PELICAN— PELISSIER

the son of Cretheus. He and his twin-brother Neleus were
exposed by their mother, but were nurtured by a herdsman.
When grown to manhood they were acknowledged by their
mother. After the death of Cretheus, Pelias made himself master
of the kingdom of lolous, having previously quarrelled with
Neleus, who removed to Messenia, where he founded Pylos.
In. order to rid himself of Jason, Pelias sent him to Colchis in
quest of the golden fleece, and took advantage of his absence
to put to death his father, Aeson, his mother and brother.
When Jason returned he sought to avenge the death of his
parents, and Medea persuaded the daughters of Pelias to cut in
pieces and boil their father, assuring them that he would thus
be restored to youth. Acastus, son of Pelias, drove out Jason
and Medea and celebrated funeral games in honour of his father,
which were celebrated by the poet Stesichorus and represented
on the chest of Cypselus. The death of Pelias was the subject
of Sophocles' Rhizotomoi (Root-cutters), and in the Tyro he
treated another portion of the legend. Peliades (the daughters
of Pelias) was the name of Euripides' first play.

PELICAN (Fr. Pelican; Lat. Pelecanus or Pdicanus), a large
fish-eating water-fowl, remarkable for the enormous pouch
formed by the extensible skin between the lower jaws of its long,
and apparently formidable but in reality very weak, bill. The
ordinary pelican, the Onocrotalus of the ancients, to whom it was
well known, and the Pelecanus onocrotalus of ornithologists,
is a very abundant bird in some districts of south-eastern
Europe, south-western Asia and north-eastern Africa, occasionally
straying, it is believed, into the northern parts of Germany and
France; but the possibility of such wanderers having escaped
from confinement is always to be regarded,1 since few zoological
gardens are without examples. Its usual haunts are the shallow
margins of the larger lakes and rivers, where fishes are plentiful,
since it requires for its sustenance a vast supply of them. The
nest is formed among reeds, placed on the ground and lined with
grass. Therein two eggs, with white, chalky shells, are com-
monly laid. The young during the first twelvemonth are of a
greyish-brown, but when mature almost the whole plumage,
except the black primaries, is white, deeply suffused by a rich
blush of rose or salmon-colour, passing into yellow on the crest
and lower part of the neck in front. A second and somewhat
larger species, Pelecanus crispus, also inhabits Europe, but has
a more eastern distribution. This, when adult, is readily dis-
tinguishable from the ordinary bird by the absence of the blush
from its plumage, and by the curled feathers that project from
and overhang each side of the head, which with some difference
of coloration of the bill, pouch, bare skin round the eyes and
irides give it a wholly distinct expression. Two specimens of the
humerus have been found in the English fens (Ibis, 1868, p. 363;
Proc. Zool. Society, 1871, p. 702), thus proving the existence of
the bird in England at no very distant period, and one of them
being that of a young example points to its having been bred
in this country. It is possible from their large size that they
belonged to P. crispus. Ornithologists have been much divided
in opinion as to the number of living species of the genus Pele-
canus (cf. op. til., 1868, p. 264; 1869, p. 571; 1871, p. 631) — the
estimate varying from six to ten or eleven; but the former is the
number recognized by M. Dubois (Bull. Mus. de Belgique, 1883).
North America has one, P. erythrorhynchus, very similar to
P. onocrotalus both in appearance and habits, but remarkable
for a triangular, horny excrescence developed on the ridge of the
male's bill in the breeding season, which falls off without leaving
trace of its existence when that is over. Australia has P.
conspicillatus, easily distinguished by its black tail and wing-
coverts. Of more marine habit are P. philippensis and P.fuscus,
the former having a wide range in Southern Asia, and, it is said,
reaching Madagascar, and the latter common on the coasts of
the warmer parts of both North and South America.
The genus Pelecanus as instituted by Linnaeus included the
1 This caution was not neglected by the prudent, even so long ago
as Sir Thomas Browne's days; for he, recording the occurrence of a
pelican in Norfolk, was careful to notice that about the same time one
of the pelicans kept by the king (Charles II.) in St James's Park,
had been lost.

cormorant (q.v.) and gannet (q.v.) as well as the true pelicans,
and for a long while these and some other distinct groups, as the
snake-birds (q.v.), frigate-birds (q.v.) and tropic -birds (q.v.),
which have all the four toes of the foot connected by a web, were
regarded as forming a single family, Pelecanidae; but this name
has now been restricted to the pelicans only, though all are
still usually associated in the suborder Steganopodes of Ciconii-
form birds. It may be necessary to state that there is no founda-
tion for the venerable legend of the pelican feeding her young
with blood from her own breast, which has given it an important
place in ecclesiastical heraldry, except that, as A. D. Bartlett
suggested (Proc. Zool. Society, 1869, p. 146), the curious bloody
secretion ejected from the mouth of the flamingo may have
given rise to the belief, through that bird having been mistaken
for the " Pelican of the wilderness."2 (A. N.)

PELION, a wooded mountain in Thessaly in the district of
Magnesia, between Volo and the east coast. Its highest point
(mod. Plessidi) is 5340 ft. It is famous in Greek mythology;
the giants are said to have piled it on Ossa in order to scale
Olympus, the abode of the gods; it was the home of the centaurs,
especially of Chiron, who had a cave near its summit, and
educated many youthful heroes; the ship " Argo " was built
from its pine-woods. On its summit was an altar of Zeus
Actaeus, in whose honour an annual festival was held in the
dog-days, and worshippers clad themselves in skins.

PELISSE (through the Fr. from Lat. pellicia: sc. veslis, a
garment made of fur, pellis, skin), properly a name of a cloak
made of or lined with fur, hence particularly used of the fur-
trimmed " dolman " worn slung from the shoulders by hussar
regiments. The word is now chiefly employed as the name of a
long-sleeved cloak of any material worn by women and children.

PEllSSIER, AIMABLE JEAN JACQUES (1794-1864), duke
of Malakoff, marshal of France, was born on the 6th of November
1794 at Maromme (Seine Inferieure), of a family of prosperous
artisans or yeoman, his father being employed in a powder-
magazine. After attending the military college of La Fleche
and the special school of St Cyr, he in 1815 entered the army as
sub-lieutenant in an artillery regiment. A brilliant examination
in 1819 secured his appointment to the staff. He served as
aide-de-camp in the Spanish campaign of 1823, and in the
expedition to the Morea in 1828-29. In 1830 he took part in
the expedition to Algeria, and on his return was promoted to
the rank of chef d'escadron. After some years' staff service in
Paris he was again sent to Algeria as chief of staff of the province
of Oran with the rank of lieutenant-colonel, and remained there
till the Crimean War, taking a prominent part in many important
operations. The severity of his conduct in suffocating a whole
Arab tribe in the Dahra or Dahna caves, near Mustaganem, where
they had taken refuge (June 18, 1845), awakened such indig-
nation in Europe that Marshal Soult, the minister of war, publicly
expressed his regret; but Marshal Bugeaud, the governor-general
of Algeria, not only gave it his approval, but secured
for Pelissier the rank of general of brigade, which he held till
1850, when he was promoted general of division. After the
battles of October and November 1854 before Sevastopol,
Pelissier was sent to the Crimea, where on the i6th of May 1855
he succeeded Marshal Canrobert as commander-in-chief of the
French forces before Sevastopol (see CRIMEAN WAR). His
command was marked by relentless pressure of the enemy and
unalterable determination to conduct the campaign without
interference from Paris. His perseverance was crowned with

1 The legend was commonly believed in the middle ages.
Epiphanius, bishop of Constantly, in his Physiologus (1588), writes
that the female bird, in cherishing her young, wounds them with
loving, and pierces their sides, and they die. After three days the
male pelican comes and finds them dead, and his heart is pained.
He smites his own side, and as he stands over the wounds of the dead
young ones the blood trickles down, and thus are they made alive
again. The pelican " in his piety "— -4.e. in this pious act of reviving
his offspring — was a common subject for 15th-century emblem
books; it became a symbol of self-sacrifice, a type of Christian
redemption and of the Eucharistic doctrine. The device was
adopted by Bishop Fox in 1516 for his new college of Corpus Christi,
Oxford.— [H. CH.l

PELL— PELLETAN

69

success in the storming of the Malakoff on the 8th of September.
On the 1 2th he was promoted to be marshal. On his return to
Paris he was named senator, created duke of Malakoff (July 22,
1856), and rewarded with a grant of 100,000 francs per annum.
From March 1858 to May 1859 he was French ambassador in
London, whence he was recalled to take command of the army
of observation on the Rhine. In the same year he became
grand chancellor of the Legion of Honour. In 1860 he was
appointed governor-general of Algeria, and he died there on the
2 and of May 1864.

See Marbaud, Le Marechal Pelissier (1863); Castillo, Portraits
historiques, 2nd series (1859).

PELL, JOHN (1610-1685), English mathematician, was born
on the ist of March 1610 at Southwick in Sussex, where his
father was minister. He was educated at Steyning, and entered
Trinity College, Cambridge, at the age of thirteen. During his
university career he became an accomplished linguist, and even
before he took his M.A. degree (in 1630) corresponded with
Henry Briggs and other mathematicians. His great reputation
and the influence of Sir William Boswell, the English resident,
with the states-general procured his election in 1643 to the chair
of mathematics in Amsterdam, whence he removed in 1646,
on the invitation of the prince of Orange, to Breda, where he
remained till 1652.

From 1654 to 1658 Pell acted as Cromwell's political agent
to the Protestant cantons of Switzerland. On his return to
England he took orders and was appointed by Charles II. to
the rectory of Fobbing in Essex, and in 1673 he was presented
by Bishop Sheldon to the rectory of Laindon in the same county.
His devotion to mathematical science seems to have interfered
alike with his advancement in the Church and with the proper
management of his private affairs. For a time he was confined
as a debtor in the king's bench prison. He lived, on the
invitation of Dr Whistler, for a short time in 1682 at the College
of Physicians, but died on the I2th of December 1685 at the
house of Mr Cothorne, reader of the church of St Giles-in-the
Fields. Many of Pell's manuscripts fell into the hands of Dr
Busby, master of Westminster School, and afterwards came into
the possession of the Royal Society; they are still preserved in
something like forty folio volumes, which contain, not only
Pell's own memoirs, but much of his correspondence with the
mathematicians of his time.

The Diophantine analysis was a favourite subject with Pell;
he lectured on it at Amsterdam; and he is now best remembered
for the indeterminate equation ai2 + l=y2, which is known by his
name. This problem was proposed by Pierre de Fermat first to
Bernhard Frenicle de Bessy, and in 1657 to all mathematicians.
Pell's connexion with the problem simply consists of the publication
of the solutions of John Wallis and Lord Brounker in his edition of
Branker's Translation of Rhonius's Algebra (1668). His chief works
are: Astronomical History of Observations of Heavenly Motions and
Appearances (1634); Ediptica prognostica (1634); Controversy with
Longomontanus concerning the Quadrature of the Circle (1646?);
An Idea of the Matliematics, I2mo (1650); A Table of Ten Thousand
Square Numbers (fol. ; 1672).

PELLA, the capital of ancient Macedonia under Philip II.
(who transferred the seat of government hither from Edessa)
and Alexander the Great, who was born here. It seems to have
retained some importance up to the time of Hadrian. Scanty
remains exist and some springs in the neighbourhood are still
known as the baths of Pel. The site (identified by Leake) is
occupied by the village of Neochori (Turk. Yeni-Keui) about
32m. north-west of Salonika.

PELLAGRA (Ital. pelle agra, smarting skin), the name given,
from one of its early symptoms, to a peculiar disease, of com-
paratively modern origin. For some time it was supposed to
be practically confined to the peasantry in parts of Italy (particu-
larly Lombardy) and France, and in the Asturias (mal de la
rosa), Rumania and Corfu. But it has recently been identified
in various outlying parts of the British Empire (Barbadoes,
India) and in both Lower and Upper Egypt; also among the
Zulus and Basutos. In the United States sporadic cases had
been observed up to 1906, but since then numerous cases have
been reported. It is in Italy, however, that it has been most

prevalent. The malady is essentially chronic in character.
The indications usually begin in the spring of the year, declining
towards autumn, and recurring with increasing intensity and
permanence in the spring seasons following. A peasant who
is acquiring the malady feels unfit for work, suffers from head-
aches, giddiness, singing in the ears, a burning of the skin,
especially in the hands and feet, and diarrhoea. At the same
time a red rash appears on the skin, of the nature of erysipelas,
the red or livid spots being tense and painful, especially where
they are directly exposed to the sun. About July or August
of the first season these symptoms disappear, the spots on the
skin remaining rough and dry. The spring attack of the year
following will probably be more severe and more likely to leave
traces behind it; with each successive year the patient becomes
more like a mummy, his skin shrivelled and sallow, or even
black at certain spots, as in Addison's disease, his angles pro-
truding, his muscles wasted, his movements slow and languid,
and his sensibility diminished. Meanwhile there are more special
symptoms relating to the nervous system, including drooping
of the eyelid, dilatation of the pupil, and other disorders of
vision, together with symptoms relating to the digestive system,
such as a red and dry tongue, a burning feeling in the mouth,
pain on swallowing, and diarrhoea. After a certain stage the
disease passes into a profound disorganization of the nervous
system; there is a tendency to melancholy, imbecility, and a
curious mummified condition of body. After death a general
tissue degeneration is observed.

The causation of this obscure disease has recently come up
for new investigation in connexion with the new work done in
relation to sleeping-sickness and other tropical diseases. So
long as it was supposed to be peculiar to the Italian peasantry,
it was associated simply with their staple diet, and was regarded
as due to the eating of mouldy maize. It was by his views in
this regard that Lombroso (q.v.) first made his scientific reputa-
tion. But the area of maize consumption is now known to be
wider than that of pellagra, and pellagra is found where maize
is at least not an ordinary diet. In 1905 Dr L. W. Sambon, at
the meeting of the British Medical Association, suggested that
pellagra was probably protozoal in origin, and subsequently
he announced his belief that the protozoon was communicated
by sand-flies, just as sleeping-sickness by the tsetse fly; and this
opinion was supported by the favourable action of arsenic in
the treatment of the disease. His hypothesis was endorsed
by Sir Patrick Manson, and in January 1910 an influential
committee was formed, to enable Dr Sambon to pursue his
investigations in a pellagrous area.

PELLETAN, CHARLES CAMILLE (1846- ), French
politician and journalist, was born in Paris on the 28th of June
1846, the son of Eugene Pelletan (1813-1884), a writer of some
distinction and a noted opponent of the Second Empire.
Camille Pelletan was educated in Paris, passed as licentiate
in laws, and was qualified as an " archiviste paleographe."
At the age of twenty he became an active contributor to
the press, and a bitter critic of the Imperial Government.
After the war of 1870-71 he took a leading place among
the most radical section of French politicians, as an opponent
of the " opportunists " who continued the policy of Gambetta.
In 1880 he became editor of Justice, and worked with success
to bring about a revision of the sentences passed on the
Communards. In 1881 he was chosen member for the tenth
arrondissement of Paris, and in 1885 for the Bouches du
Rhone, being re-elected in 1889, 1893 and 1898; and he was
repeatedly chosen as " reporter " to the various bureaus. Dur-
ing the Nationalist and Dreyfus agitations he fought vigorously
on behalf of the Republican government and when the coalition
known as the "Bloc" was formed he took his place as a Radical
leader. He was made minister of marine in the cabinet of
M. Combes, June 1902 to January 1905, but his administration
was severely criticized, notably by M. de Lanessan and other naval
experts. During the great sailors' strike at Marseilles in 1904
he showed pronounced sympathy with the socialistic aims and
methods of the strikers, and a strong feeling was aroused that

PELLICANUS— PELLICO

his Radical sympathies tended to a serious weakening of the
navy and to destruction of discipline. A somewhat violent
controversy resulted, in the course of which M. Pelletan's
indiscreet speeches did him no good; and he became a common
subject for ill-natured caricatures. On the fall of the Combes
ministry he became less prominent in French politics.

PELLICANUS, CONRAD (1478-1556), German theologian,
was born at Ruffach in Alsace, on the 8th of January 1478.
His German name, Kursner, was changed to Pellicanus by his
mother's brother Jodocus Gallus, an ecclesiastic connected with
the university of Heidelberg, who supported his nephew for sixteen
months at the university in 1491-1492. On returning to Ruffach,
he taught gratis in the Minorite convent school that he might
borrow books from the library, and in his sixteenth year resolved
to become a friar. This step helped his studies, for he was sent
to Tubingen in 1496 and became a favourite pupil of the guardian
of the Minorite convent there, Paulus Scriptoris, a man of
considerable general learning. There seems to have been at
that time in south-west Germany a considerable amount of
sturdy independent thought among the Franciscans; Pellicanus
himself became a Protestant very gradually, and without any
such revulsion of feeling as marked Luther's conversion. At
Tubingen the future " apostate in three languages " was able
to begin the study of Hebrew. He had no teacher and no
grammar; but Paulus Scriptoris carried him a huge codex of
the prophets on his own shoulders all the way from Mainz. He
learned the letters from the transcription of a few verses in the
Star of the Messiah of Petrus Niger, and, with a subsequent hint
or two from Reuchlin, who also lent him the grammar of Moses
Kimhl, made his way through the Bible for himself with the help
of Jerome's Latin. He got on so well that he was not only
a useful helper to ReuchHn but anticipated the manuals of the
great Hebraist by composing in 1501 the first Hebrew grammar
in the European tongue. It was printed in 1503, and afterwards
included in Reysch's Margarita philosophica. Hebrew remained
a favourite study to the last. Pellican's autobiography de-
scribes the gradual multiplication of accessible books on the
subjects, and he not only studied but translated a vast mass of
rabbinical and Talmudic texts, his interest in Jewish literature
being mainly philological. The chief fruit of these studies is
the vast commentary on the Bible (Zurich, 7 vols., 1532-1539),
which shows a remarkably sound judgment on questions of the
text, and a sense for historical as opposed to typological exegesis.

Pellicanus became priest in 1501 and continued to serve his
order at Ruffach, Pforzheim, and Basel till 1526. At Basel
he did much laborious work for Froben's editions, and came to
the conclusion that the Church taught many doctrines of which
the early doctors of Christendom knew nothing. He spoke his
views frankly, but he disliked polemic; he found also more
toleration than might have been expected, even after he became
active in circulating Luther's books. Thus, supported by the
civic authorities, he remained guardian of the convent of his
order at Basel from 1519 till 1524, and even when he had to
give up his post, remained in the monastery for two years,
professing theology in the university. At length, when the
position was becoming quite untenable, he received through
Zwingli a call to Zurich as professor of Greek and Hebrew, and
formally throwing off his monk's habit, entered on a new life.
Here he remained till his death on the 6th of April 1556.

Pellicanus's scholarship, though not brilliant, was really
extensive; his sound sense, and his singularly pure and devoted
character gave him a great influence. He was remarkably free
from the pedantry of the time, as is shown by his views about
the use of the German vernacular as a vehicle of culture (Chron.
I3S> 36). As a theologian his natural affinities were with
Zwingli, with whom he shared the advantage of having grown
up to the views of the Reformation, by the natural progress
of his studies and religious life. Thus he never lost his sym-
pathy with humanism and with its great German representative,
Erasmus.

Pellicanus's Latin autobiography (Chronicon C.P.R.) is one of the
most interesting documents of the period. It was first published

by Riggenbach in 1877, and in this volume the other sources for his
life are registered. See also Emil Silberstein, Conrad Pellicanus;
ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Studiums der hebr. Sprache (Berlin,
1900).

PELLICIER, GUILLAUME (c. 1490-1568), French prelate
and diplomatist, was educated by his uncle, the bishop of
Maguelonne, whom he succeeded in 1529. In 1536 he had
the seat of his bishopric transferred to Montpellier. Appointed
ambassador at Venice in 1539, he fulfilled his mission to the
entire satisfaction of Francis I., but on the discovery of the
system of espionage he had employed the king had to recall him
in 1542. Returning to his diocese, he was imprisoned in the
chateau of Beaucaire for his tolerance of the Reformers, so he
replaced his former indulgence by severity, and the end of his
episcopate was disturbed by religious struggles. He was a
man of wide learning, a humanist and a friend of humanists,
and took a keen interest in the natural sciences.

See].2£l\er,LaDiplomatiefranc,aise . . . d'apres le correspondence
de G. Pellicier (Paris, 1881); and A. Tausserat-Radel, Correspondance
politique de Guillaume Pellicier (Paris, 1899).

PELLICO, SILVIO (1788-1854), Italian dramatist, was born
at Saluzzo in Piedmont on the 24th of June 1788, the earlier
portion of his life being passed at Pinerolo and Turin under
the tuition of a priest named Manavella. At the age of ten
he composed a tragedy under the inspiration of Caesarotti's
translation of the Ossianic poems. On the marriage of his twin
sister Rosina with a maternal cousin at Lyons he went to reside
in that city, devoting himself during four years to the study of
French literature. He returned in 1810 to Milan, where he
became professor of French in the Collegio degli Orfani Militari.
His tragedy Francesca da Rimini, was brought out with success
by Carlotta Marchionni at Milan in 1818. Its publication was
followed by that of the tradegy Eitfemio da Messina, but the
representation of the latter was forbidden. Pellico had in the
meantime continued his work as tutor, first to the unfortunate
son of Count Briche, and then to the two sons of Count Porro
Lambertenghi. He threw himself heartily into an attempt to
weaken the hold of the Austrian despotism by indirect educa-
tional means. Of the powerful literary executive which gathered
about Counts Porro and Confalonieri, Pellico was the able
secretary — the management of the Conciliatore, which appeared
in 1818 as the organ of the association, resting largely upon him.
But the paper, under the censorship of the Austrian officials,
ran for a year only, and the society itself was broken up by the
government. In October 1820 Pellico was arrested on the
charge of carbonarism and conveyed to the Santa Margherita
prison. After his removal to the Piombi at Venice in February
1821, he composed several Cantiche and the tragedies Ester d'En-
gaddi and Iginia d'Asti. The sentence of death pronounced
on him in February 1822 was finally commuted to fifteen years
carcere duro, and in the following April he was placed in the
Spielberg at Briinn. His chief work during this part of his
imprisonment was the tragedy Leoniero da Derlona, for the
preservation of which he was compelled to rely on his memory.
After his release in 1830 he commenced the publication of his
prison compositions, of which the Ester was played at Turin
in 1831, but immediately suppressed. In 1832 appeared his
Gismonda da Mendrizio, Erodiade and the Leoniero, under the
title of Tre nuovi tragedie, and in the same year the work which
gave him his European fame, Le Mie prigioni, an account of
his sufferings in prison. The last gained him the friendship
of the Marchesa di Barolo, the reformer of the Turin prisons,
and in 1834 he accepted from her a yearly pension of 1200 francs.
His tragedy Tommaso Moro had been published in 1833, his
most important subsequent publication being the Opere inedite
in 1837. On the decease of his parents in 1838 he was received
into the Casa Barolo, where he remained till his death, assisting
the marchesa in her charities, and writing chiefly upon religious
themes. Of these works the best known is the Dei Doveri degli
uomini, a series of trite maxims which do honour to his piety
rather than to his critical judgment. A fragmentary biography
of the marchesa by Pellico was published in Italian and English
after her death. He died on the 3ist of January 1854, and was

PELLISSON— PELOPONNESIAN WAR

buried in the Campo Santo at Turin. His writings are defective
in virility and breadth of thought, and his tragedies display
neither the insight into character nor the constructive power
of a great dramatist. It is in the simple narrative and naive
egotism of Le Mie prigioni that he has established his strongest
claim to remembrance, winning fame by his misfortunes rather
than by his genius.

See Piero Maroncelli, Addizioni alle mie prigioni (Paris, 1834);
the biographies by Latour; Gabriele Rosselli ; Didier, Revue des
deux mondes (September 1842) ; De Lomenie, Galerie des contemp.
illustr. iv. (1842); Chiala (Turin, 1852); Nollet-Fabert (1854);
Giorgio Briano (1854); Bourdon (1868); Rivieri (1899-1901).

PELLISSON, PAUL (1624-1693), French author, was born at
B6ziers on the 3oth of October 1624, of a distinguished Calvinist
family. He studied law at Toulouse, and practised at the bar
of Castres. Going to Paris with letters of introduction to
Valentin Conrart, who was a co-religionist, he became through
him acquainted with the members of the academy. Pellisson
undertook to be their historian, and in 1653 published a Relation
contenant I'histoire de I'academie franfaise. This panegyric
was rewarded by a promise of the next vacant place and by
permission to be present at their meetings. In 1657 Pellisson
became secretary to the minister of finance, Nicolas Fouquet,
and when in 1661 the minister was arrested, his secretary was
imprisoned in the Bastille. Pellisson had the courage to stand
by his fallen patron, in whose defence he issued his celebrated
Memoir e in 1661, with the title Discours au roi, par un de ses
fideles sujets sur le proces de M. de Fouquet, in which the facts
in favour of Fouquet are marshalled with great skill. Another
pamphlet, Seconde defense de M. Fouquet, followed. Pellisson
was released in 1666, and from this date sought the royal favour.
He became historiographer to the king, and in that capacity
wrote a fragmentary Histoire de Louis XIV., covering the years
1660 to 1670. In 1670 he was converted to Catholicism and
obtained rich ecclesiastical preferment. He died on the 7th
of February 1693. He was very intimate with Mile de
Scudery, in whose novels he figures as Herminius and Acante.
His sterling worth of character made him many friends and
justified Bussy-Rabutin's description of him as " encore plus
honnete homme que bel esprit."

See Sainte-Beuve, Causeries du lundi, vol. xiv. ; and F. L. Marcon,
£tude sur la vie el les ceuvres de Pellisson (1859).

PELLITORY, in botany, the common name for a small hairy
perennial herb which grows on old walls, bedgebanks and
similar localities, and is known botanically as Parietaria offici-
nalis (Lat. paries, a wall). It has a short woody rootstock from
which spring erect or spreading stems i to 2 ft. long, bearing
slender leafy branches, and axillary clusters of small green
flowers. It belongs to the nettle order (Urticaceae), and is
nearly allied to the nettle, Urtica, but its hairs are not stinging.

PELLOUX, LUIGI (1830- ), Italian general and politician,
was born on the ist of March 1839, at La Roche, in Savoy, of
parents who retained their Italian nationality when Savoy was
annexed to France. Entering the army as lieutenant of artillery
in 1857, he gained the medal for military valour at the battle
of Custozza in 1866, and in 1870 commanded the brigade of
artillery which battered the breach in the wall of Rome at Porta
Pia. He was elected to the Chamber in 1881 as deputy for
Leghorn, which he represented until 1895, and joined the party
of the Left. He had entered the war office in 1870, and in 1880
became general secretary, in which capacity he introduced many
useful reforms in the army. After a succession of high military
commands he received the appointment of chief of the general
staff in 1896. He was minister of war in the Rudini and Giolitti
cabinets of 1891-1893. In July 1896 he resumed the portfolio
of war in the Rudini cabinet, and was appointed senator. In
May 1897 he secured the adoption of the Army Reform Bill,
fixing Italian military expenditure at a maximum of £9,560,000
a year, but in December of that year he was defeated in the
Chamber on the question of the promotion of officers. Resigning
office, he was in May 1898 sent as royal commissioner to Bari,
where, without recourse to martial law, he succeeded in restoring

public order. Upon the fall of Rudini in June 1898, General
Pelloux was entrusted by King Humbert with the formation
of a cabinet, and took for himself the post of minister of the
interior. He resigned office in May 1899, but was again en-
trusted with the formation of the ministry. He took stern
measures against the revolutionary elements in southern Italy,
and his new cabinet was essentially military and conservative.
The Public Safety Bill for the reform of the police laws, taken
over by him from the Rudini cabinet, and eventually promul-
gated by royal decree, was fiercely obstructed by the Socialist
party, which, with the Left and Extreme Left, succeeded in
forcing General Pelloux to dissolve the Chamber in May 1900,
and to resign office after the general election in June. In the
autumn of 1901 he was appointed to the command of the Turin
army corps.

PELOMYXA, so named by R. Greeff, a genus of Lobose
Rhizopoda (q.v.), naked, multinucleate, with very blunt rounded
pseudopodia, formed by eruption (see AMOEBA), often containing
peculiar vesicles (glycogen?), and full of a symbiotic bacterium.
It inhabits the ooze of decomposing organic matter at the
bottom of ponds and lakes.

PELOPIDAS (d. 364 B.C.), Theban statesman and general.
He was a member of a distinguished family, and possessed
great wealth which he expended on his friends, while content
to lead the life of an athlete. In 385 B.C. he served in a Theban
contingent sent to the support of the Spartans at Mantineia,
where he was saved, when dangerously wounded, by Epami-
nondas (q.v.}. Upon the seizure of the Theban citadel by the
Spartans (383 or 382) he fled to Athens, and took the lead in a
conspiracy to liberate Thebes. In 379 his party surprised and
killed their chief political opponents, and roused the people
against the Spartan garrison, which surrendered to an army
gathered by Pelopidas. In this and subsequent years he was
elected boeotarch, and about 375 he routed a much larger Spartan
force at Tegyra (near Orchomenus). This victory he owed
mainly to the valour of the Sacred Band, a picked body of 300
infantry. At the battle of Leuctra (371) he contributed greatly
to the success of Epaminondas's new tactics by the rapidity
with which he made the Sacred Band close with the Spartans.
In 370 he accompanied his friend Epaminondas as boeotarch
into Peloponnesus. On their return both generals were unsuc-
cessfully accused of having retained their command beyond
the legal term. In 369, in response to a petition of the Thessa-
lians, Pelopidas was sent with an army against Alexander,
tyrant of Pherae. After driving Alexander out, he passed into
Macedonia and arbitrated between two claimants to the throne.
In order to secure the influence of Thebes, he brought home
hostages, including the king's brother, afterwards Philip II.,
the conqueror of Greece. Next year Pelopidas was again
called upon to interfere in Macedonia, but, being deserted by
his mercenaries, was compelled to make an agreement with
Ptolemaeus of Alorus. On his return through Thessaly he was
seized by Alexander of Pherae, and two expeditions from
Thebes were needed to secure his release. In 367 Pelopidas
went on an embassy to the Persian king and induced him to
prescribe a settlement of Greece according to the wishes of the
Thebans. In 364 he received another appeal from the Thessalian
towns against Alexander of Pherae. Though an eclipse of the
sun prevented his bringing with him more than a handful of
troops, he overthrew the tyrant's far superior force on the ridge
of Cynoscephalae; but wishing to slay Alexander with his own
hand, he rushed forward too eagerly and was cut down by the
tyrant's guards.

Plutarch and Nepos, Pelopidas; Diodorus xv. 62-81; Xenophon,
Hellenica, vii. I. See also THEBES. (M. O. B. C.)

PELOPONNESIAN WAR, in Greek history, the name given
specially to the struggle between Athens at the head of the
Delian League and the confederacy of which Sparta was the
leading power.1 According to Thucydides the war, which was

1 Some historians prefer to call it the Second Peloponnesian War,
the first being that of 457, which ended with the Thirty Years'
Peace.

PELOPONNESIAN WAR

in his view the greatest that had ever occurred in Greece, lasted
from 431 to the downfall of Athens in 404. The genius of
Thucydides has given to the struggle the importance of an
epoch in world history, but his view is open to two main criti-
cisms— (i) that the war was in its ultimate bearings little
more than a local disturbance, viewed from the standpoint
of universal history; (2) that it cannot be called a war in the
strict sense. The former of these criticisms is justified in the
article on GREECE: History (q.v.). Unless we are to believe
that the Macedonian supremacy is directly traceable to the
mutual weakening of the Greek cities in 431-403, it is difficult
to see what lasting importance attaches to the war. As regards
the second, a few chief difficulties may be indicated. The very
narrative even of Thucydides himself shows that the " war "
was not a connected whole. It may be divided into three main
periods — (i) from 431 to 421 (Lysias calls it the " Archidamian "
War), when the Peace of Nicias, not merely formally, but actually
produced a cessation of hostilities; (2) from 421 till the inter-
vention of Sparta in the Sicilian War; during these years there
was no " Peloponnesian War," and there were several years in
which there was in reality no fighting at all: the Sicilian expedi-
tion was in fact a side issue; (3) from 413 to 404, when fighting
was carried on mainly in the Aegean Sea (Isocrates calls this
the " Decelean " War). The disjointed character of the struggle
is so obvious from Thucydides himself that historians have come
to the conclusion that the idea of treating the whole struggle as
a single unit was ex post facto (see GREECE: History, § A,
" Ancient " ad fin.).

The book itself affords evidence which goes far to justify this
view. A very important problem is presented by bk. v., which is
obviously put in as a connecting link to prove a theory. Thucy-
dides expressly warns us not to regard the period of this book
as one of peace, and yet the very contents of the book refute
his argument. In 419 and 417 there is practically no fighting:
the Mantinean War of 418 is a disconnected episode which did
not lead to a resumption of hostilities: in 420 there are only
obscure battles in Thrace: in 416 there is only the expedition
to Melos; and finally from 421 to 413 there is official peace.
Other details may be cited in corroboration. Book v. (ch. 26)
contains a second introduction to the subject; 65€ 6 ir6Xe/io$ in
i. 23 and iv. 48 is the Archidamian or Ten Years' War; in v. 26
we read of a irptoros iroXe/jos, a uorepos TroXe^os and an a.va.Kux'h-
Some critics think on these and other grounds that Thucydides
wrote and published bks. i.-v. 25 by itself, then bks. vi. and
vii. (Sicilian expedition), and finally revising his view joined
them into one whole by the somewhat unsatisfactory bk. v. 26
and following chapters, and began to round off the story with
the incomplete bk. viii. (on this see GREECE: History, as above).
It is perhaps most probable that he retained notes made con-
temporarily and worked them up some time after 404, in a few
passages failing to correct inconsistencies and dying before
bk. viii. was completed. The general introduction in bk. i.
was unquestionably written shortly after 404.

The causes of the war thus understood are complex. The
view taken by Thucydides that Sparta was the real foe of
Athens has been much modified by modern writers. The key
to the situation is in fact the commercial rivalry of the Corin-
thians, whose trade (mainly in the West) had been seriously
limited by the naval expansion of the Delian League. This
rivalry was roused to fever heat by the Athenian intervention
in 434-33 on behalf of Corcyra, Corinth's rebellious colony (see
CORFU) and from that time the Corinthians felt that the Thirty
Years' Truce was at an end. An opportunity soon offered for
making a counter attack. Potidaea, a Dorian town on the
western promontory of Chalcidice in Thrace, a tributary ally
of Athens — to which however Corinth as metropolis still sent
annual magistrates — was induced to revolt,1 with the support
of the Macedonian king Perdiccas, formerly an Athenian ally.
The Athenian Phormio succeeded in blockading the city so that

1 The importance of this revolt lay in the fact that it immediately
involved danger to Athens throughout the Chalcidic promontories,
and her north-east possessions generally.

its capture was merely a question of time, and this provided the
Corinthians with an urgent reason for declaring war.

Prior to these episodes Athens had not been in hostile contact
with any of the Peloponnesian confederate states for more than
ten years, and Pericles had abandoned a great part of his imperial
policy. He now laid an embargo upon Megara by which the
Megarians were forbidden on pain of death to pursue trading
operations with any part of the Athenian Empire. The circum-
stances of this decree (or decrees) are not material to the present
argument (see Grote, History of Greece, ed. 1907, p. 370
note) except that it turned special attention to the commercial
supremacy which Athens claimed to enjoy. In 432 a conference
of Peloponnesian allies was summoned and the Corinthian envoys
urged the Spartans to declare war on the ground that the power
of Athens was becoming so great as to constitute a danger to the
other states. This might have been urged with justice before
the Thirty Years' Truce (447) ; but by that truce Athens gave
up all her conquests in Greece proper except Naupactus and
Plataea, while her solitary gains in Amphipolis and Thurii
were compensated by other losses. The fact that the Corinthian
argument failed to impress Sparta and many of the delegates
is shown by the course of the debate. What finally impelled
the Spartans to agree to the war was the veiled threat by the
Corinthians that they would be driven into another alliance
(i.e. Argos, i. 71). We can hardly regard Sparta as the deter-
mined enemy of Athens at this time. Only twice since 461 had
she been at war with Athens — in 457 (Tanagra) and 447, when she
deliberately abstained from pushing the advantage which the
revolt in Euboea provided; she had refused to help the oli-
garchs of Samos in 440. Corinth however had not only strong,
but also immediate and urgent reasons (Potidaea and Corcyra)
for desiring war. It has been argued that the war was ulti-
mately a struggle between the principles of oligarchy and
democracy. This view, however, cannot be taken of the early
stages of the war when there was democracy and oligarchy on
both sides (see ad fin.) ; it is only in the later stages that the
political difference is prominent.

The Opposing Forces. — The permanent strength of the
Peloponnesian confederacy lay in the Peloponnesian states, all
of which except Argos and Achaea were united under Sparta's
leadership. But it included also extra-Peloponnesian states —
viz. Megara, Phocis, Boeotia and Locris (which had formed
part of the Athenian land empire), and the maritime colonies
round the Ambracian Gulf. The organization was not elaborate.
The federal assembly with few exceptions met only in time of
war, and then only when Sparta agreed to summon it. It
met in Sparta and the delegates, having stated their views
before the Spartan Apella, withdrew till the Apella had come
to a decision. The delegates were then invited to return and
to confirm that decision. It is clear that the link was purely
one of common interest, and that Sparta had little or no control
over, e.g. so powerful a confederate as Corinth. Sparta was
the chief member of the confederacy (hegemon), but the states
were autonomous. In time of war each had to provide two-thirds
of its forces, and that state in whose territory the war was to take
place had to equip its whole force.

The Athenian Empire is described elsewhere (DELIAN LEAGUE,
ATHENS). Here it must suffice to point out that there was
among the real and technical allies no true bond of interest, and
that many of the states were in fact bound by close ties to
members of the Peloponnesian confederacy (e.g. Potidaea to
Corinth). Sparta could not only rely on voluntary co-operation
but could undermine Athenian influence by posing as the
champion of autonomy. Further, Thucydides is wrong on his
own showing in saying that Sparta refused to tolerate democratic
government in confederate cities: it was not till after 418 that
this policy was adopted. Athens, on the other hand, had un-
doubtedly interfered in the interest of democracy in various
allied states (see DELIAN LEAGUE).

No detailed examination of the comparative military and
naval resources of the combatants can here be attempted. On
land the Peloponnesians were superior: they had at least 30,000

PELOPONNESIAN WAR

73

hoplites not including 10,000 from Central Greece and Boeotia:
these soldiers were highly trained. The Athenian army was
undoubtedly smaller. There has been considerable discussion
as to the exact figures, the evidence in Thucydides being highly
confusing, but it is most probable that the available fighting
force was not more than half that of the Peloponnesian confed-
eracy. Even of these we learn (Thuc. iii. 87) that 4400 died
in the great plague. The only light-armed force was that of
Boeotia at Delium (10,000 with 500 peltasts). Of cavalry Athens
had looo, Boeotia a similar number. The only other cavalry
force was that of Thessaly, which, had it been loyal to Athens,
would have meant a distinct superiority. In naval power the
Athenians undoubtedly had an overwhelming advantage at the
beginning, both in numbers and in training.

Financially Athens had an enormous apparent advantage.
She began with a revenue of 1000 talents (including 600 from
<rujti^axot) , and had also, in spite of the heavy expense which
the building schemes of Pericles had involved, a reserve of 6000
talents. The Peloponnesians had no reserve and no fixed
revenue assessment. On the other hand the Peloponnesian
armies were unpaid, while Athens had to spend considerable
sums on the payment of crews and mercenaries. In the last
stages of the war the issue was determined by the poverty of
Athens and Persian gold.

The events of the struggle from 43 1 to 404 may be summarized
in the three periods distinguished above.

i. The Ten Years' or Archidamian War. — The Spartans sent
to Athens no formal declaration of war but rather sought first
to create some specious casus belli by sending requisitions to
Athens. The first, intended to inflame the existing hostilities
against Pericles (q.v.) in Athens, was that he should be expelled
the city as being an Alcmaeonid (grand-nephew of Cleisthenes)
and so implicated in the curse pronounced on the murderers
of Cylon nearly 200 years before. This outrageous demand
was followed by three others — that the Athenians should (i)
withdraw from Potidaea, (2) restore autonomy to Aegina, and
(3) withdraw the embargo on Megarian commerce. Upon the
refusal of all these demands Sparta finally made the maintenance
of peace contingent upon the restoration by Athens of autonomy
to all her allies. Under the guidance of Pericles Athens replied
that she would do nothing on compulsion, but was prepared
to submit difficulties to amicable arbitration on the basis of
mutual concessions. Before anything could come of this
proposal, matters were precipitated (end of March 431) by the
attack of Thebes upon Plataea (q.v.), which immediately sought
and obtained the aid of Athens. War was begun. The Spartan
king Archidamus assembled his army, sent a herald to announce
his approach, marched into Attica and besieged Oenoe.

Meanwhile Pericles had decided to act on the defensive, i.e.
to abandon Attica, collect all its residents in Athens and treat
Athens as an island, retaining meanwhile command of the sea
and making descents on Peloponnesian shores. The policy,
which Thucydides and Grote commend, had grave defects —
though it is by no means easy to suggest a better; e.g. it meant
the ruin of the landed class, it tended to spoil the moral of those
who from the walls of Athens annually watched the wasting of
their homesteads, and it involved the many perils of an over-
crowded city — a peril increased by, if not also the cause of, the
plague. Moreover sea power was not everything, and delay
exhausted the financial reserves of the state, while financial
considerations, as we have seen, were comparatively unimportant
to the Peloponnesians. The descents on the Peloponnese were
futile in the extreme.

Archidamus, having wasted much territory, including Achar-
nae, retired at the end of July. The Athenians retaliated by
attacking Methone (which was secured by Brasidas),by successes
in the West, by expelling all Aeginetans from Aegina (which was
made a cleruchy), and by wasting the Megarid.

In 430 Archidamus again invaded Attica, systematically
wasting the country. Shortly after he entered Attica plague
broke out in Athens, borne thither by traders from Carthage
or Egypt (Holm, Greek History, ii. 346 note). The effect upon

the overcrowded population of the city was terrible. Of the
1 200 cavalry (including mounted archers) 300 died, together with
4400 hoplites: altogether the estimate of Diodorus (xii. 58) that
more than 10,000 citizens and slaves succumbed is by no means
excessive. None the less Pericles sailed with 100 triremes, and
ravaged the territory near Epidaurus. Subsequently he re-
turned and the expedition proceeded to Potidaea. But the plague
went with them and no results were achieved. The enemies of
Pericles, who even with the aid of Spartan intrigue had hitherto
failed to harm his prestige, now succeeded in inducing the
desperate citizens to fine him for alleged malversation. The
verdict, however, shocked public feeling and Pericles was
reinstated in popular favour as strategus (c. Aug. 430). About
a year later he died. In the autumn of 430 a Spartan attack
on Zacynthus failed and the Ambraciots were repulsed from
Amphilochian Argos. In reply Athens sent Phormio to Nau-
pactus to watch her interests in that quarter. In the winter
Potidaea capitulated, receiving extremely favourable terms.

In 429 the Peloponnesians were deterred by the plague from
invading Attica and laid siege to Plataea in the interests of
Thebes. The Athenians failed in an expedition to Chalcidice
under Xenophon, while the Spartan Cnemus with Chaonian
and Epirot allies was repulsed from Stratus, capital of Acarnania,
and Phormio with only 20 ships defeated the Corinthian fleet
of 47 sail in the Gulf of Corinth. Orders were at once sent from
Sparta to repair this disaster and 77 ships were equipped. Help
sent from Athens was diverted to Crete, and after much
manoeuvring Phormio was compelled to fight off Naupactus.
Nine of his ships were driven ashore, but with the other n he
subsequently defeated the enemy and recovered the lost nine.
With the reinforcement which arrived afterwards he established
complete control of the western seas. A scheme for operating
with Sitalces against the Chalcidians of Thrace fell through,
and Sitalces joined Perdiccas.

The year 428 was marked by a third invasion of Attica and
by the revolt of Lesbos from Athens. After delay in fruitless
negotiations the Athenian Cleippides, and afterwards Paches,
besieged Mytilene, which appealed to Sparta. The Pelopon-
nesian confederacy resolved to aid the rebels both directly and
by a counter demonstration against Athens. The Athenians,
though their reserve of 6000 talents was by now almost exhausted
(except for 1000 talents in a special reserve), made a tremendous
effort (raising 200 talents by a special property tax), and not
only prevented an invasion by a demonstration of 100 triremes
at the Isthmus, but sent Asopius, son of Phormio, to take his
place in the western seas. In spring 427 the Spartans again
invaded Attica without result. The winter of 428-427 was
marked by the daring escape of half the Plataean garrison under
cover of a stormy night, and by the capitulation of Mytilene, which
was forced upon the oligarchic rulers by the democracy. The
Spartan fleet arrived too late and departed without attempting
to recover the town. Paches cleared the Asiatic seas of the
enemy, reduced the other towns of Mytilene and returned to
Athens with upwards of 1000 prisoners. An assembly was
held and under the invective of Cleon (q.v.) it was decided to kill
all male Mytileneans of military age and to sell the women an*}
children as slaves. This decree, though in accordance with <.ie
rigorous customs of ancient warfare as exemplified by the treat-
ment which Sparta shortly afterwards meted out to the Plat ieans,
shocked the feelings of Athens, and on the next day it was
(illegally) rescinded just in time to prevent Paches carrying it
out. The thousand1 oligarchic prisoners were however executed,
and Lesbos was made a cleruchy.

Meanwhile there occurred civil war in Corcyra, in which
ultimately, with the aid of the Athenian admiral Ev.rymedon,
the democracy triumphed amid scenes of the wildest savagery.
In the autumn of the year Nicias fortified Minoa at the mouth
of the harbour of Megara. Shortly afterwards the Spartans

1 So Thuc. iii. 50. It is suggested that this number is an error
for 30 or 50 (i.e., A or N for A). It seems incredible that 1000
could be described as " ringleaders " out of a population of perhaps
5000.

74

PELOPONNESIAN WAR

planted an unsuccessful colony at Heraclea in the Trachinian
territory north-west of Thermopylae.

In the summer of 426 Nicias led a predatory expedition along
the north-west coast without achieving any positive victory.
More important, though equally ineffective, was the scheme of
Demosthenes to march from Naupactus through Aetolia, sub-
duing the wild hill tribes, to Cytinium in Doris (in the upper
valleys of the Cephissus) and thence into Boeotia, which was
to be attacked simultaneously from Attica. The scheme was
crushed by the courage and skill of the Aetolians, who thereupon
summoned Spartan and Corinthian aid for a counter attack on
Naupactus. Demosthenes averted this, and immediately after-
wards by superior tactics inflicted a complete defeat at Olpae
in Acarnania on Eurylochus at the head of a Spartan and
Ambracian force. An Ambracian reinforcement was annihilated
at one of the peaks called Idomene, and a disgraceful truce was
accepted by the surviving Spartan leader Menedaeus. This
was not only the worst disaster which befell any powerful state
up to the peace of Nicias (as Thucydides says), but was a serious
blow to Corinth, whose trade on the West was, as we have seen,
one of the chief causes of the war.

The year 425 is remarkable for the Spartan disaster of Pylos
(q.v.). The Athenians had despatched 40 triremes under
Eurymedon and Procles to Sicily with orders to call first at
Corcyra to prevent an expected Spartan attack. Meantime
Demosthenes had formed the plan of planting the Messenians of
Naupactus in Messenia — now Spartan territory — and obtained
permission to accompany the expedition. The fleet was, as it
chanced, delayed by a storm in the Bay of Navarino, and rough
fortifications were put up by the sailors on the promontory of
Pylos. Demosthenes was left behind in this fort, and the
Spartans promptly withdrew from their annual raid upon
Attica and their projected attack on Corcyra to dislodge him.
After a naval engagement (see PYLOS) a body of Spartan hoplites
were cut off on Sphacteria. So acutely did Sparta feel their
. position that an offer of peace was made on condition that the
hoplites should go free. The eloquence of Cleon frustrated the
peace party's desire to accept these terms, and ultimately to the
astonishment of the Greek world the Spartan hoplites to the
number of 292 surrendered unconditionally (see CLEON).

Thus in 424 the Athenians had seriously damaged the prestige
of Sparta, and broken Corinthian supremacy in the north-west,
and the Peloponnesians had no fleet. This was the zenith of
their success, and it was unfortunate for them that they declined
the various offers of peace which Sparta made. The next
two years changed the whole position. The doubling of the
tribute in 425 pressed hardly on the allies (see DELIAN LEAGUE):
Nicias failed in a plot with the democratic party in Megara to
seize that town; and the brilliant campaigns of Brasidas (q.v.)
in the north-east, culminating in the capture of Amphipolis (422),
finally destroyed the Athenian hopes of recovering their land
empire, and entirely restored the balance of success and Spartan
prestige. Moreover, the admirably conceived scheme for a
simultaneous triple attack upon Boeotia at Chaeronea in the
north, Delium in the south-east, and Siphae in the south-west
had fallen through owing to the inefficiency of the generals.
'1 l->e scheme, which probably originated with the atticizing party
in Yhebes, resulted in the severe defeat of Hippocrates at Delium
by U e, Boeotians under Pagondas, and was a final blow to the
policy of, an Athenian land empire.

The. e disasters at Megara, Amphipolis and Delium left Athens
withonJy one trump card — the possession of the Spartan hoplites
captured in Sphacteria. This solitary success had already in
the spring of 423 induced Sparta in spite of the successes which
Brasidas was achieving in Thrace to accept the " truce of
Laches " — which, however, was rendered abortive by the refusal
of Brasidas to. surrender Scione. The final success of Brasidas
at Amphipolis, where both he and Cleon were killed, paved
the way for a more permanent agreement, the peace parties at
Athens and Sparta being in the ascendant.

2. From 421 to 41,3. — Peace was signed in March 421 on the
basis of each side's Surrendering what had been acquired by

the war, not including those cities which had been acquired by
capitulation. It was to last for fifty yeais. Its weak points,
however, were numerous. Whereas Sparta had been least of
all the allies interested in the war, and apart from the campaigns
of Brasidas had on the whole taken little part in it, her allies
benefited least by the terms of the Peace. Corinth did not
regain Sollium and Anactorium, while Megara and Thebes
respectively were indignant that Athens should retain Nisaea
and receive Panactum. These and other reasons rapidly led
to the isolation of Sparta, and there was a general refusal to
carry out the terms of agreement. The history of the next
three years is therefore one of complex inter-state intrigues
combined with internal political convulsions. In 421 Sparta
and Athens concluded a defensive alliance; the Sphacterian
captives were released and Athens promised to abandon Pylos.
Such a peace, giving Sparta everything and Athens nothing
but Sparta's bare alliance, was due to the fact that Nicias and
Alcibiades were both seeking Sparta's friendship. At this
time the Fifty Years' Truce between Sparta and Argos was
expiring. The Peloponnesian malcontents turned to Argos
as a new leader, and an alliance was formed between Argos,
Corinth, Elis, Mantinea and the Thraceward towns (420).
This coalition between two different elements — an anti-oligarchic
party and a war party — had no chance of permanent existence.
The war party in Sparta regained its strength under new ephors
and negotiations began for an alliance between Sparta, Argos
and Boeotia. The details cannot here be discussed. The result
was a re-shuffling of the cards. The democratic states of the
Peloponnese were driven, partly by the intrigues of Alcibiades,
now anti-Laconian, into alliance with Athens, with the object of
establishing a democratic Peloponnese under the leadership of
Argos. These unstable combinations were soon after upset
by Alcibiades himself, who, having succeeded in displacing
Nicias as strategus in 419, allowed Athenian troops to help in
attacking Epidaurus. For a cause not easy to determine
Alcibiades was defeated by Nicias in the election to the post of
strategus in the next year, and the suspicions of the Pelopon-
nesian coalition were roused by the inadequate assistance sent
by Athens, which arrived too late to assist Argos when the
Spartan king Agis marched against it. Ultimately the Spartans
were successful over the coalition at Mantinea, and soon
afterwards an oligarchic revolution at Argos led to an alliance
between that city and Sparta (c. Feb. 417). This oligarchy
was overthrown again in June, and the new democracy having
vainly sought an agreement with Sparta rejoined Athens.
It was thus left to Athens to expend men and money on
protecting a democracy by the aid of which she had hoped
practically to control the Peloponnesus. All this time, however,
the alliance between her and Sparta was not officially broken.

The unsatisfactory character of the Athenian Peloponnesian
coalition was one of the negative causes which led up to the
Sicilian Expedition of 415. Another negative cause may be
found in the failure of an attempt or attempts to subdue the
Thraceward towns. By combining the evidence of Plutarch (in
his comparison of Nicias and Crassus), Thuc. v. 83, and the in-
scription which gives the treasury payments for 418-415 (Hicks
and Hill, Gr. Hist. Inscr. 70), we can scarcely doubt that there
were expeditions in 4-18 (Euthydemus) and the summer of 417
(Nicias), and that in the winter of 417 a blockading squadron
under Chaeremon was despatched. This policy — which was
presumably that of Nicias in opposition to Alcibiades— having
failed, the way was cleared for a reassertion of that policy of
western conquest which had always had advocates from
Themistocles onward in Athens,1 and was part of the
democratic programme.

The tragic fiasco of the Sicilian expedition, involving the death

1 In 454 Athens made a treaty with Segesta (inscr. Hicks and
Hill, Greek Hist. Inscr. 34) : in 433 with Rhegium and Leontini
(Hicks and Hill, 51 and 52; cf. Thuc. iii. 86, ira\ai& avunaxia with
Chalcidic towns in Sicily) : in 444 the colony of Thurii was founded:
in 427 (see above) 60 ships were sent to Sicily; and if we may
believe Aristophanes (Eq. 1302) Hyperbolus asked for too triremes
for Carthage.

PELOPONNESIAN WAR

75

of Nicias and the loss of thousands of men and hundreds of ships,
was a blow from which Athens never recovered (see under
SYRACUSE and SICILY). Even before the final catastrophe
the Spartans had reopened hostilities. On the advice of
Alcibiades (q.i>.), exiled from Athens in 415, they had fortified
Decelea in Attica within fifteen miles of Athens. This place
not only served as a permanent headquarters for predatory
expeditions, but cut off the revenue from the Laurium mines,
furnished a ready asylum for runaway slaves, and rendered the
transference of supplies from Euboea considerably more difficult
(i.e. by the sea round Cape Sunium). Athens thus entered
upon the third stage of the conflict with exceedingly poor
prospects.

3. The Ionian or Dccelean War. — From the Athenian stand-
point this war may be broken up into three periods: (i) period of
revolt of allies (413-411), (2) the rally (410-408), (3) the relapse
(407-404). As contrasted with the Archidamian War, this
war was fought almost exclusively in the Aegean Sea, the enemy
was primarily Sparta, and the deciding factor was Persian gold.
Furthermore, apart from the gradual disintegration of the
empire, Athens was disturbed by political strife.

In 412 many Ionian towns revolted, and appealed either to
Agis at Decelea or to Sparta direct. Euboea, Lesbos, Chios,
Erythrae led the way in negotiation and revolt, and simul-
taneously the court of Susa instructed the satraps Pharnabazus
and Tissaphernes to renew the collection of tribute from the
Greek cities of Asia Minor. The satraps likewise made over-
tures to Sparta. The revolt of the Ionian allies was due in part
to Alcibiades also, whose prompt action in co-operation with his
friend the ephor Endius finally confirmed the Chian oligarchs
in their purpose. In 411 a treaty was signed by Sparta and
Tissaphernes against Athens: the treaty formally surrendered
to the Persian king all territory which he or his predecessors
had held. It was subsequently renewed in a form somewhat
less disgraceful to Greek patriotism by the Spartans Astyochus
and Theramenes. On the other hand, a democratic rising in
Samos prevented the rebellion of that island, which for the
remainder of the war was invaluable to Athens as a stronghold
lying between the two great centres of the struggle.

After the news of the Sicilian disaster Athens was compelled
at last to draw on the reserve of 1000 talents which had lain
untouched in the treasury.1 The revolt of the Ionian allies,
and (in 411) the loss of the Hellespontine, Thracian and Island
tributes (see DELIAN LEAGUE), very seriously crippled her
finances. On the other hand, Tissaphernes undertook to pay
the Peloponnesian sailors a daily wage of one Attic drachma
(afterwards reduced to 2 drachma). In Attica itself Athens
lost Oenoe and Oropus, and by the end of 411 only one quarter
of the empire remained. In the meanwhile Tissaphernes began
to play a double game with the object of wasting the strength
of the combatants. Moreover Alcibiades lost the confidence
of the Spartans and passed over to Tissaphernes, at whose
disposal he placed his great powers of diplomacy, at the same
time scheming for his restoration to Athens. He opened
negotiations with the Athenian leaders in Samos and urged
them to upset the democracy and establish a philo-Persian
oligarchy. After elaborate intrigues, in the course of which
Alcibiades played false to the conspirators by forcing them to
abandon the idea of friendship with Tissaphernes owing to the
exorbitant terms proposed, the new government by the Four
Hundred was set up in Athens (see THERAMENES). This
government (which received no support from the armament in
Samos) had a brief life, and on the final revolt of Euboea was
replaced by the old democratic system. Alcibiades (q.v.) was
soon afterwards invited to return to Athens.

The war, which, probably because of financial trouble, the
Spartans had neglected to pursue when Athens was thus in the
throes of political convulsion, was now resumed. After much
manoeuvring and intrigues a naval battle was fought at Cynos-

1 She had already abolished the system of tribute in favour of
a 5% ad valorem tax on all imports and exports carried by sea
between her ports and those of the allies.

sema in the Hellespont in which victory on the whole rested
with the Athenians (Aug. 411), though the net result was
inconsiderable. About this time the duplicity of Tissaphernes —
who having again and again promised a Phoenician fleet and
having actually brought it to the Aegean finally dismissed it
on the excuse of trouble in the Levant — and the vigorous honesty
of Pharnabazus definitely transferred the Peloponnesian forces
to the north-west coast of Asia Minor and the Hellespont.
There they were regularly financed by Pharnabazus, while the
Athenians were compelled to rely on forced levies. In spite of this
handicap Alcibiades, who had been seized and imprisoned by
Tissaphernes at Sardis but effected his escape, achieved a remark-
able victory over the Spartan Mindarus at Cyzicus (about April
410). So complete was the destruction of the Peloponnesian
fleet that, according to Diodorus, peace was offered by Sparta
(see ad fin.)a.nd would have been accepted but for the warlike
speeches of the " demagogue " Cleophon representing the
extreme democrats.2 Another result was the return to allegiance
(4og) of a number of the north-east cities of the empire. Great
attempts were made by the Athenians to hold the Hellespont
and then to protect the corn-supply from the Black Sea. In
Greece these gains were compensated by the loss of Pylos and
Nisaea.

In 408 Alcibiades effectively invested Chalcedon, which
surrendered by agreement with Pharnabazus, and subsequently
Byzantium also fell into his hands with the aid of some of its
inhabitants.

Pharnabazus, weary of bearing the whole cost of the war for
the Peloponnesians, agreed to a period of truce so that envoys
might visit Susa, but at this stage the whole position was changed
by the appointment of Cyrus the Younger as satrap of Lydia,
Greater Phrygia and Cappadocia. His arrival coincided with
the appointment of Lysander (c. Dec. 408) as Spartan admiral — -
the third of the three great commanders (Brasidas and Gylippus
being the others) whom Sparta produced during the war. Cyrus
promptly agreed on the special request of Lysander (q.v.) to pay
slightly increased wages to the sailors, while Lysander established
a system of anti-Athenian clubs and oligarchic governments
in various cities. Meanwhile Alcibiades (May 407), having
exacted levies in Caria, returned at length to Athens and was
elected strategus with full powers (see STRATEGUS). He raised
a large force of men and ships and endeavoured to draw Lysander
(then at Ephesus) into an engagement. But Cyrus and Lysander
were resolved not to fight till they had a clear advantage, and
Alcibiades took a small squadron to Phocaea. In spite of his
express orders his captain Antiochus in his absence provoked a
battle and was defeated and killed at Notium. This failure and
the refusal of Lysander to fight again destroyed the confidence
which Alcibiades had so recently regained. Ten strategi were
appointed to supersede him and he retired to fortified ports in
the Chersonese which he had prepared for such an emergency
(c. Jan. 406). At the same time Lysander's year of office expired
and he was superseded by Callicratidas, to the disgust of all those
whom he had so carefully organized in his service. Callicratidas,
an honourable man of pan-Hellenic patriotism, was heavily
handicapped in the fact that Cyrus declined to afford him the
help which had made Lysander powerful, and had recourse to
the Milesians and Chians, with whose aid he fitted out a fleet of
140 triremes (only 10 Spartan). With these he pursued Conon
(chief of the ten new Athenian strategi), captured 30 of his 70
ships and besieged him in Mytilene. Faced with inevitable
destruction, Conon succeeded in sending the news to Athens,
where by extraordinary efforts a fleet of no ships was at once
equipped. Callicratidas, hearing of this fleet's approach, with-
drew from Mytilene, leaving Eteonicus in charge of the blockade.
Forty more ships were collected by the Athenians, who met
and defeated Callicratidas at Arginusae with a loss of more than
half his fleet. The immediate result was that Eteonicus left
Mytilene and Conon found himself free. Unfortunately the
victorious generals at Arginusae, through negligence or owing

- Xenophon, Hell, does not mention it : Thucydides's history
had by this time come to an end.

76

PELOPONNESUS— PELOTA

to a storm, failed to recover the bodies of those of their crews
who were drowned or killed in the action. They were therefore
recalled, tried and condemned to death, except two who had
disobeyed the order to return to Athens.

At this point Lysander was again sent out, nominally as
secretary to the official admiral Aracus. Cyrus, recalled to
Susa by the illness of Darius, left him in entire control of his
satrapy. Thus strengthened he sailed to Lampsacus on the
Hellespont and laid siege to it. Conon, now in charge of the
Athenian fleet, sailed against him, but the fleet was entirely
destroyed while at anchor at Aegospotami (Sept. 405), Conon
escaping with only 12 out of 180 sail to Cyprus. In April 404
Lysander sailed into the Peiraeus, took possession of Athens,
and destroyed the Long Walls and the fortifications of Peiraeus.
An oligarchical government was set up (see CRITIAS), and
Lysander having compelled the capitulation of Samos, the last
Athenian stronghold, sailed in triumph to Sparta.

Two questions of considerable importance for the full understand-
ing of the Peloponnesian War may be selected for special notice:
( I ) how far was it a war between two antagonistic theories of govern-
ment, oligarchic and democratic ? and (2) how far was Athenian
statesmanship at fault in declining the offers of peace which Sparta
made?

1. A common theory is that Sparta fought throughout the war
as an advocate of oligarchy, while Athens did not seek to interfere
with the constitutional preferences of her allies. The view is based
partly on Thuc. i. 19, according to which the Spartans took care that
their allies should adhere to a policy convenient to themselves. This
idea is disproved by Thucydides" own narrative, which shows that
down to 418 (the battle of Mantinea) Sparta tolerated democratic
governments in Peloponnesus itself— e.g. Elis, Mantinea, Sicyon,
Achaea. It was only after that date that democracy was suppressed
in the Peloponnesian League, and even then Mantinea remained
democratic. In point of fact, it was only when Lysander became
the representative of Spartan foreign policy — i.e. in the last years
of the war — that Sparta was identified with the oligarchic policy.

On the other hand, there is strong evidence that the Athenian
Empire at a much earlier date was based upon a uniform democratic
type of government (cf. Thuc. i. 19, viii. 64; Xen. Pol. i. 14, Hell.
iii. 47; Arist. Pol. viii. 69). It is true that we find oligarchic govern-
ment in Chios and Lesbos (up to 428) and in Samos (up to 440),
but this is discounted by the fact that all three were " autonomous "
allies. Moreover, in the case of Samos there was a democracy in
439, though in 412 the government was again oligarchic. The
case of Selymbria (see Hicks and Hill, op. cil. 77) is of little account,
because at that time (409) the Empire was in extremis. In general
we find that Athenian orators take special credit on the ground that
the Athenian had given to her allies the constitutional advantages
which they themselves enjoyed.

2. In view of the disastrous issue of the war, it is important to
notice that on three occasions — (a) after Pylos, (6) after Cyzicus,
(c) after Arginusae — Athens refused formal peace proposals from
Sparta, (a) Though Cleon was probably wise in opposing peace
negotiations before the capture of the Spartans in Sphactena, it
seems in the light of subsequent events that he was wrong to refuse
the terms which were offered after the hoplites had been captured.
No doubt, however, the temper in Athens was at that time pre-
dominantly warlike, and the surrender of the hoplites was a unique
triumph. Possibly, too, Cleon foresaw that peace would have
meant a triumph for the philo-Laconian party. (6) The peace
proposals of 410 are given by Diodorus, who says that the ephor
Endius proposed that a peace should be made on the basis of uti
possidetis, except that Athens should evacuate Pylos and Cythera,
and Sparta, Decelea. Cleophon, however, perhaps doubting
whether the offer was sincere (cf. Philochorus in Schol. ap. Eurip.
Orest. 371; Fragm. ed. Didot, 117, 1 1 8), demanded the status quo
ante (413 or 431). (c) The proposals of 406, mentioned by Ath. Pol.
34, were on the same lines, except that Athens no longer had Pylos
and Cythera, and had lost practically half her empire. At this time
peace must therefore have been advantageous to Athens as showing
the world that in spite of her losses she was still one of the great
powers of Greece. Moreover, an alliance with Sparta would have
meant a check to Persian interference. It is probable, again, that
party interest was a leading motive in Cleophon's mind, since a
peace would have meant the return of the oligarchic exiles and the
establishment of a moderate oligarchy.

AUTHORITIES.-^. Busolt, Griech. Gesch., Bd. iii., Teil ii. (1904),
" Der Peloponnesische Krieg " is essential. All histories of Greece
may be consulted (see GREECE: History, Ancient, section
" Authorities "). (J. M. M.)

PELOPONNESUS ("Island of Pelops "), the ancient and
modern Greek official name for the part of Greece south of the
Isthmus of Corinth. In medieval times it was called the Morea,

from its resemblance to a mulberry-leaf in shape, and this name
is still current in popular speech.

PELOPS, in Greek legend, the grandson of Zeus, son of Tantalus
and Dione, and brother of Niobe. His father's home was on
Mt Sipylus in Asia Minor, whence Pelops is spoken of as a
Lydian or a Phrygian. Tantalus one day served up to the
gods his own son Pelops, boiled and cut in pieces. The gods
detected the crime, and none of them would touch the food
except Demeter (according to others, Thetis), who, distracted by
the loss of her daughter Persephone, ate of the shoulder. The
gods restored Pelops to life, and the shoulder consumed by
Demeter was replaced by one of ivory. Wherefore the descen-
dants of Pelops had a white mark on their shoulder ever after
(Ovid, Metam. vi. 404; Virgil, Georgics, iii. 7). This tale is
perhaps reminiscent of human sacrifice amongst the Greeks.
Poseidon carried Pelops off to Olympus, where he dwelt with the
gods, till, for his father's sins, he was cast out from heaven.
Then, taking much wealth with him, he crossed over from Asia
to Greece. He went to Pisa in Elis as suitor of Hippodameia,
daughter of king Oenomaus, who had already vanquished in
the chariot-race and slain many suitors for his daughter's hand.
But by the help of Poseidon, who lent him winged steeds, or
of Oenomaus's charioteer Myrtilus, whom he or Hippodameia
bribed, Pelops was victorious in the race, wedded Hippodameia,
and became king of Pisa (Hyginus, Fab. 84). The race of
Pelops for his wife may be a reminiscence of the early practice of
marriage by capture. When Myrtilus claimed his promised
reward, Pelops flung him into the sea near Geraestus in Euboea,
and from his dying curse sprang those crimes and sorrows of the
house of Pelops which supplied the Greek tragedians with such
fruitful themes (Sophocles, Electro., 505, with Jebb's note).
Among the sons of Pelops by Hippodameia were Atreus, Thyestes
and Chrysippus. From Pisa Pelops extended his sway over the
neighbouring Olympia, where he celebrated the Olympian games
with a splendour unknown before. His power and fame were so
great that henceforward the whole peninsula was known to the
ancients as Peloponnesus, " island of Pelops " (VTJO-OS, island).
In after times Pelops was honoured at Olympia above all other
heroes; a temple was built for him by Heracles, his descendant
in the fourth generation, in which the annual magistrates sacri-
ficed to him a black ram.

From the reference to Asia in the tales of Tantalus, Niobe and
Pelops it has been conjectured that Asia was the original seat of
these legends, and that it was only after emigration to Greece that
the people localized a part of the tale of Pelops in their new home.
In the time of Pausanias the throne of Pelops was still shown on
the top of Mt Sipylus. The story of Pelops is told in the first
Olympian ode of Pindar and in prose by Nicolaus Damascenus.

PELOTA (Sp. " little ball," from Lat. pila), a ball game which,
originating centuries ago in the Basque provinces, has developed
into several forms of the sport. Epigrams of Martial show that
there were at least three kinds of pelota played in his time.
Blaid, practically hand fives against the back wall of a court, is
still played on both sides of the Pyrenees. It is so popular that
the authorities had to forbid its being played against the walls
of the cathedral at Barcelona. In uncovered courts of large size
there are two varieties of pelota. One, the favourite pastime of
the Basque, is played against a front wall (fronton), either bare-
handed, with a leather or wooden long glove-like protector
(cesla), or with a chistera strapped to the wrist, a sickle-shaped
wicker-work implement three feet long, much like a hansom-wheel
basket mud-guard, in the narrow groove of which the ball is
caught and from which, thanks to the leverage afforded, it can
be hurled with tremendous force. There are several players to a
side, frequently an uneven number to allow a handicap. The
score is announced by a cantara, whose melodious vocal efforts
make him not the least appreciated participant in the game. In
the other form of the game, played nearly exclusively by profes-
sionals (pelotaris), there are usually three players on each side,
two forwards and a back, distinguished by a coloured sash or cap.
The server (bulteur) slips off his chistera to serve, bouncing the
ball on the but, a kind of stool, about 30 ft. from the wall, and

PELOTAS— PEMBA

77

striking it low against the wall. The side that wins the toss has
the first service. The ball must be replayed by the opposing
side at the wall, which it must hit over a line 3 ft. from the
base of the wall and under the net fixed at the top of the wall.
The game is counted 15, 30, 40, game, reckoned by the number
of faults made by the opposing side. A fault is scored (a) when
after the service the ball is not caught on the volley or first
bounce, (6) when it does not on the return strike the wall within
the prescribed limits, (c) when it goes out of the prescribed limits
of the court, (d) when it strikes the net fixed at the top of the
court. The side making the fault loses the service. A game like
this has been played in England by Spanish professionals on a
court 250 ft. long, against a wall 30 ft. high and 55 ft. wide. The
ball used, a trifle smaller than a base-ball, is hard rubber wound
with yarn and leather-covered, weighing 5 ounces. The server
bounces the ball on the concrete floor quite near the fronton, and
hits it with his chislera against the wall with a force to make it
rebound beyond a line 80 ft. back. It usually goes treble that
distance.

PELOTAS, a city of the state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil,
on the left bank of the Sao Goncalo river near its entrance into
tne Lagda dos Patos, about 30 m. N.W. of the city of Rio
Grande. Pop. (1900), city, about 24,000; municipio (commune,
1037 sq. m.), 43,091. The Rio Grande-Bage railway communi-
cates with the city of Rio Grande, and with the railways extend-
ing to Bage, Cacequy, Santa Maria, Passo Fundo and Porto
Alegre. The Sao Goncalo river is the outlet of Lag6a Mirim,
and Pelotas is therefore connected with the inland water routes.
The city is built on an open grassy plain (campo) little above the
level of the lake (28 ft. above sea-level). The public buildings
include the church of Sao Francisco, dating from the early part
of the igth century, the municipal hall, a fine theatre, the
Misericordia hospital, a public library containing about 25,000
volumes and a great central market. Pelotas is the centre of the
xarque or earns secca (jerked beef) industry of Rio Grande do Sul.
In its outskirts and the surrounding country are an immense
number of xarqueadas (slaughter-houses), with large open yards
where the dressed beef, lightly salted, is exposed to the sun and
air. There are many factories or packing nouses where the by-
products are prepared for market. Pelotas was only a small
settlement at the beginning of the igth century and had no
parochial organization until 1812. It became a villa in 1830 and
a city in 1835.

PELOUZE, THEOPHILE JULES (1807-1867), French chemist,
was born at Valognes, in Normandy, on the 26th (or I3th) of
February 1807. His father, Edmond Pelouze (d. 1847), was an
industrial chemist and the author of several technical handbooks.
The son, after spending some time in a pharmacy at La Fere,
acted as laboratory assistant to Gay-Lussac and J. L. Lassaigne
(1800-1859) at Paris from 1827 to 1829. In 1830 he was ap-
pointed associate professor of chemistry at Lille, but returning
to Paris next year became repetiteur, and subsequently professor,
at the Ecole Fob/technique. He also held the chair of chemistry
at the College de France, and in 1833 became assayer to the mint
and in 1848 president of the Commission des Monnaies. After
the coup d'etat in 1851 he resigned his appointments, but con-
tinued to conduct a laboratory-school he had started in 1846.
He died in Paris on the ist of June 1867. Though Pelouze made
no discovery of outstanding importance, he was a busy investi-
gator, his work including researches on salicin, on beetroot sugar,
on various organic acids — gallic, malic, tartaric, butyric, lactic,
&c. — on oenanthic ether (with Liebig), on the nitrosulphates, on
gun-cotton, and on the composition and manufacture of glass.
He also carried out determinations of the atomic weights of
several elements, and with E. Fremy, published Trait6 de chimie
generde (1847-1850); Abrege de chimie (1848); and Notions
generales de chimie (1853).

PELTIER, JEAN CHARLES ATHANASE (1785-1845), French
physicist, was born at Ham (Somme) on the 22nd of February
1785. He was originally a watchmaker, but retired from
business about the age of thirty and devoted himself to experi-
mental and observational science. His papers, which are

numerous, are devoted in great part to atmospheric electricity,
waterspouts, cyanometry and polarization of skylight, the
temperature of water in the spheroidal state, and the boiling-
point at great elevations. There are also a few devoted to curious
points of natural history. But his name will always be associ-
ated with the thermal effects at junctions in a voltaic circuit.
His great experimental discovery, known as the " Peltier effect,"
was that if a current pass from an external source through a
circuit of two metals it cools the junction through which it passes
in the same direction as the thermo-electric current which would
be caused by directly heating that junction, while it heats the
other junction (see THERMO-ELECTRICITY). Peltier died in Paris
on the 27th of October 1845.

PELTUINUM [mod. Civita Ansidonia], a town of the Vestini,
on the Via Claudia Nova, 12 m. E.S.E. of Aquila. It was
apparently the chief town of that portion of the Vestini who
dwelt west of the main Apennine chain. Remains of the town
walls, of an amphitheatre, and of other buildings still exist.

PELUSIUM, an ancient city and port of Egypt, now repre-
sented by two large mounds close to the coast and the edge of
the desert, 20 m. E. of Port Said. It lay in the marshes at the
mouth of the most easterly (Pelusiac) branch of the Nile, which
has long since been silted up, and was the key of the land towards
Syria and a strong fortress, which, from the Persian invasion at
least, played a great part in all wars between Egypt and the East.
Its name has not been found on Egyptian monuments, but it may
be the Sin of the Bible and of Assur-bani-pal's inscription.
Pelusium (" the muddy ") is the Farama of the Arabs, Pere-
moun in Coptic; the name Tina which clings to the locality seems
etymologically connected with the Arabic word for clay or mud.
The site, crowned with extensive ruins of burnt brick of the
Byzantine or Arab period, has not yielded any important
remains. (F. LL. G.)

PELVIS (Lat. for " basin," cf. Gr. ir&Xw), in anatomy, the
bony cavity at the lower part of the abdomen in which much of
the genito-urinary apparatus and the lower part of the bowels are
contained (see SKELETON, § Appcndicidar).

PEMBA, an island in the Indian Ocean off the east coast of
Africa, forming part of the sultanate of Zanzibar. Pemba lies
30 m. N.N.E. of Zanzibar island between 4° 80' and 5° 30' S.,
and 39° 35' and 39° 50' E. It is some 40 m. long and 10 across
at its broadest part, and has an area of 380 sq. m. It is of coral-
line formation. On the side facing the mainland the coast is
much indented. From its luxuriant vegetation it gets its' Arabic
name of Al-huthera — " The Green." The interior is diversified
by hills, some of which exceed 600 ft. The land is chiefly owned
by great Arab proprietors, who work their plantations with
Swahili labour, and with negroes from the mainland. Prior to
1897 the labourers were all slaves. Their gradual manumission
was accomplished without injury to the prosperity of the island.
The population is estimated at between 50,000 and 60,000, of
whom 2000 to 3000 are Arabs. Most of the inhabitants are of
Bantu stock, and are known as Wapemba. In the ports there
are many Hindu traders and a few Europeans. The plantations
are nearly all devoted to cloves (the annual average output being
10,000,000 Ib) and coco-nut palms (for the preparation of
copra). The number of coco-nut plantations is very small
compared with those devoted to cloves. Yet cloves need much
care and attention and yield small profit, while the coco-nut
palm yields a fairly uniform crop of nuts and will grow almost
anywhere. The preponderance of clove plantations dates from
a cyclone which in 1872 destroyed nearly all the clove-trees in
the island of Zanzibar. Thereupon, to benefit from the great
rise in the price of cloves, the Pemba planters cut down their
palms and planted cloves. The value of the cloves exported in
1907 was £339,000, or 92 % of the total exports. India, Germany
and Great Britain are, in the order named, the chief purchasers.
Other exports include fire-wood, skins and hides, mother-of-pearl,
wax and small quantities of rubber, cowries, tortoiseshell and
so-called tortoise-nail. The " tortoise-nail " is the valve with
which a shell-fish closes its shell. The Llandolphia rubber-vine
is indigenous, and since 1906 Ceara rubber-trees have beea

PEMBROKE, EARLS OF

extensively planted. Rice, the chief of Pemba's imports, could
easily be grown on the island. Cotton cloths (Kangas) form the
next most considerable item in the imports.

Pemba has three ports, all on the west side of the island.
Shaki-Shaki, the capital and the centre of trade, is centrally
situated at the head of a shallow tidal creek partly blocked by
dense growths of mangroves. Mkoani is on the south-west
coast, Kishi-Kashi on the north-west coast; at the last-named
port there is a deep and well-sheltered harbour, approached
however by a narrow and dangerous channel.

Pemba is administered as an integral part of the Zanzibar
dominions, and yields a considerable surplus to the exchequer,
mainly from a 25% duty imposed on cloves exported. There is
a weekly steamship service to Zanzibar, and in 1907 the two
islands were connected by wireless telegraphy (see ZANZIBAR).

PEMBROKE, EARLS OF. The title of earl of Pembroke
has been held successively by several English families, the
jurisdiction and dignity of a palatine earldom being originally
attached to it. The first creation dates from 1138, when the
earldom of Pembroke was conferred by King Stephen on Gilbert
de Clare (d. 1148), son of Gilbert Fitz-Richard, who possessed
the lordship of Strigul (Estrighoiel, in Domesday Book), the
modern Chepstow. After the battle of Lincoln (1141), in which
he took part, the earl joined the party of the empress Matilda,
and he married Henry I.'s mistress, Isabel, daughter of Robert
de Beaumont, earl of Leicester.

RICHARD DE CLARE, 2nd earl of Pembroke (d. 1176), commonly
known as " Strongbow," son of the first earl, succeeded to his
father's estates in 1148, but had forfeited or lost them by 1168.
In that year Dermot, king of Leinster, driven out of his kingdom
by Roderick, king of Connaught, came to solicit help from
Henry II. He secured the services of Earl Richard, promising
him the hand of his daughter Eva and the succession to Leinster.
The earl crossed over in person (1170), took both Waterford and
Dublin, and was married to Eva. But Henry II., jealous of
this success, ordered all the troops to return by Easter 1171.
In May Dermot died; this was the signal of a general rising, and
Richard barely managed to keep Roderick of Connaught out of
Dublin. Immediately afterwards he hurried to England to
solicit help from Henry II., and surrendered to him all his lands
and castles. Henry crossed over in October 1172; he stayed in
Ireland six months, and put his own men into nearly all the
important places, Richard keeping only Kildare. In 1173 he
went in person to France to help Henry II., and was present at
Verneuil, being reinstated in Leinster as a reward. In 1174 he
advanced into Connaught and was severely defeated, but for-
tunately Raymond le Gros re-established his supremacy in
Leinster. Early in 1176 Richard died, just as Raymond had
taken Limerick for him. Strongbow was the statesman, as the
Fitzgeralds were the soldiers, of the conquest. He is vividly
described by Giraldus Cambrensis as a tall and fair man, of
pleasing appearance, modest in his bearing, delicate in features,
of a low voice, but sage in council and the idol of his soldiers.
He was buried in the cathedral church of Dublin, where his
effigy and that of his wife are still preserved.

See Giraldus Cambrensis, Expugnatio hibernica; and the Song of
Dermot, edited by G. H. Orpen (1892).

Strongbow having died without male issue, his daughter
ISABEL became countess of Pembroke in her own right, and the
title was borne by her husband, SIR WILLIAM MARSHAL, or
Le Marechal, second son of John le Marechal, by Sibylle, the
sister of Patrick, earl of Salisbury. John le Marechal was a
partisan of the empress Matilda, and died about 1164.

The date of Sir William Marshal's birth is uncertain, but his
parents were married not earlier than 1141, and he was a mere
child in 1152, when he attracted the notice of King Stephen.
In 1170 he was selected for a position in the household of Prince
Henry, the heir-apparent, and remained there until the death
of his young patron (1183). He undertook a pilgrimage to the
Holy Land, where he served as a crusader with distinction for
two years. Although he had abetted the prince in rebellion he
was pardoned by Henry II. and admitted to the royal service

about 1188. In 1189 he covered the flight of Henry II. from
Le Mans to Chinon, and, in a skirmish, unhorsed the undutiful
Richard Cceur de Lion. None the less Richard, on his accession,
promoted Marshal and confirmed the old king's 'licence for his
marriage with the heiress of Strigul and Pembroke. This match
gave Marshal the rank of an earl, with great estates in Wales
and Ireland, and he was included in the council of regency which
the king appointed on his departure for the third crusade (1190).
He took the side of Prince John when the latter expelled the
justiciar, William Longchamp, from the kingdom, but he soon
discovered that the interests of John were different from those
of Richard. Hence in 1193 he joined with the loyalists in
making war upon the prince. Richard forgave Marshal his first
error of judgment, allowed him to succeed his brother, John
Marshal, in the hereditary marshalship, and on his death-bed
designated him as custodian of Rouen and of the royal treasure
during the interregnum. Though he quarrelled more than once
with John, Marshal was one of the few English laymen who clung
to the royal side through the Barons' War. He was one of John's
executors, and was subsequently elected regent of the king and
kingdom by the royalist barons in 1 2 1 6. In spite of his advanced
age he prosecuted the war against Prince Louis and the rebels
with remarkable energy. In the battle of Lincoln (May 1217)
he charged and fought at the head of the young king's army, and
he was preparing to besiege Louis in London when the war was
terminated by the naval victory of Hubert de Burgh in the
straits of Dover. He was criticized for the generosity of the
terms he accorded to Louis and the rebels (September 1217);
but his desire for an expeditious settlement was dictated by
sound statesmanship. Self-restraint and compromise were the
key-notes of Marshal's policy. Both before and after the peace
of 1217 he reissued Magna Carta. He fell ill early in the year
1219, and died on the I4th of May at his manor of Caversham
near Reading. He was succeeded in the regency by Hubert de
Burgh, in his earldom by his five sons in succession.

See the metrical French life, Histoire de GuiUaume le Marechal
(ed. P. Meyer, 3 vols., Paris, 1891-1901) ; the Minority of Henry III.,
by G. J. Turner (Trans. Royal Hist. Soc., new series, vol. xviii.
pp. 245-295); and W. Stubbs, Constitutional History, chs. xii. and
xiv. (Oxford, 1896-1897).

Marshal's eldest son, WILLIAM MARSHAL (d. 1231), 2nd earl of
Pembroke of this line, passed some years in warfare in Wales and
in Ireland, where he was justiciar from 1224 to 1226; he also
served Henry III. in France. His second wife was the king's
sister, Eleanor, afterwards the wife of Simon de Montfort, but
he left no children. His brother RICHARD MARSHAL (d. 1234),
3rd earl, came to the front as the leader of the baronial party,
and the chief antagonist of the foreign friends of Henry III.
Fearing treachery he refused to visit the king at Gloucester in
August 1233, and Henry declared him a traitor. He crossed to
Ireland, where Peter des Roches had instigated his enemies to
attack him, and in April 1234 he was overpowered and wounded,
and died a prisoner. His brother GILBERT (d. 1241), who
became the 4th earl, was a friend and ally of Richard, earl of
Cornwall. When another brother, Anselm, the 6th earl, died
in December 1245, the male descendants of the great earl marshal
became extinct. The extensive family possessions were now
divided among Anselm's five sisters and their descendants, the
earldom of Pembroke reverting to the Crown.

The next holder of the lands of the earldom of Pembroke was
William de Valence (d. 1296), a younger son of Hugh de Lusignan,
count of La Marche, by his marriage with Isabella of Angouleme
(d. 1246), widow of the English king John, and was born at
Valence, near Lusignan. In 1247 William and his brothers,
Guy and Aymer, crossed over to England at the invitation of their
half-brother, Henry III. In 1250 Aymer (d. 1260) was elected
bishop of Winchester, and in 1247 Henry arranged a marriage
between William and Joan de Munchensi (d. 1307) a grand-
daughter of William Marshal, ist earl of Pembroke. The
custody of Joan's property, which included the castle and lordship
of Pembroke, was entrusted to her husband, who in 1295 was
summoned to parliament as earl of Pembroke. In South Wales

PEMBROKE, EARLS OF

79

Valence tried to regain the palatine rights which had been
attached to the earldom of Pembroke. But his energies were
not confined to South Wales. Henry III. heaped lands and
honours upon him, and he was soon thoroughly hated as one of
the most prominent of the rapacious foreigners. Moreover, some
trouble in Wales led to a quarrel between him and Simon de
Montfort, and this soon grew more violent. He would not
comply with the provisions of Oxford, and took refuge in Wolvesey
Castle at Winchester, where he was besieged and compelled to
surrender and leave the country. In 1259 he and Earl Simon
were formally reconciled in Paris, and in 1261 he was again in
England and once more enjoying the royal favour. He fought
for Henry at the battle of Lewes, and then, after a stay in France,
he landed in Pembrokeshire, and took part in 1265 in the siege
of Gloucester and the battle of Evesham. After the royalist
victory he was restored to his estates and accompanied Prince
Edward, afterwards Edward I., to Palestine. He went several
times to France on public business; he assisted in the conquest of
North Wales; and he was one of Edward's representatives in
the famous suit over the succession to the crown of Scotland in
1291 and 1292. He died at Bayonne on the I3th of June 1296,
his body being buried in Westminster Abbey. His eldest
surviving son, AYMER (c. 1265-1324), succeeded to his father's
estates, but was not formally recognized as earl of Pembroke
until after the death of his mother Joan about 1307. He was
appointed guardian of Scotland in 1306, but with the accession
of Edward II. to the throne and the consequent rise of Piers
Gaveston to power, his influence sensibly declined; he became
prominent among the discontented nobles and was one of those
who were appointed to select the lord ordainers in 1311. In
1312 he captured Gaveston at Scarborough, giving the favourite
a promise that his life should be spared. Ignoring this under-
taking, however, Guy Beauchamp, earl of Warwick, put Gaveston
to death, and consequently Pembroke left the allied lords and
attached himself to Edward II. Valence was present at Bannock-
burn; in 1317, when returning to England from Rome, he was
taken prisoner and was kept in Germany until a large ransom was
paid. In 1318 he again took a conspicuous part in making peace
between Edward and his nobles, and in 1322 assisted at the
formal condemnation of Earl Thomas of Lancaster, and received
some of his lands. His wife, Mary de Chatillon, a descendant
of King Henry III., was the founder of Pembroke College,
Cambridge.

In 1339 LAURENCE, LORD HASTINGS (d. 1348), a great-grand-
son of William de Valence, having inherited through the female
line a portion of the estates of the Valence earls of Pembroke
was created, or recognized as, earl of Pembroke. His son John
(d. 1376) married Margaret Plantagenet, daughter of King
Edward III., and on the death without issue of his grandson
in 1389 the earldom of Pembroke reverted again to the Crown,
while the barony of Hastings became dormant and so remained
till 1840.

In 1414 Humphrey Plantagenet, fourth son of King Henry
IV., was created duke of Gloucester and earl of Pembroke for
life, these titles being subsequently made hereditary, with a
reversion as regards the earldom of Pembroke, in default of
heirs to Humphrey, to William de la Pole, earl of Suffolk.
Accordingly, on the death of Humphrey, without issue, in 1447
this nobleman became earl of Pembroke. He was beheaded in
1450 and his titles were forfeited. In 1453 the title was given to
Sir Jasper Tudor, half-brother of King Henry VI. Sir Jasper
being a Lancastrian, his title was forfeited during the pre-
dominance of the house of York, but was restored on the
accession of Henry VII. On his death without heirs in 1495,
his title became extinct.

During his attainder Sir Jasper was taken prisoner by SIR
WILLIAM HERBERT (d. 1469), a zealous Yorkist, who had been
raised to the peerage as Baron Herbert by Edward IV., and for
this service Lord Herbert was created earl of Pembroke in 1468.
His son William (d. 1491) received the earldom of Huntingdon
in lieu of that of Pembroke, which he surrendered to Edward IV.,
who thereupon conferred it (1479) on his son Edward, prince

of Wales; and when this prince succeeded to the throne as
Edward V., the earldom of Pembroke merged in the crown.
ANNE BOLEYN, a few months previous to her marriage with
Henry VIII., was created marchioness of Pembroke in 1532.
It is doubted by authorities on peerage law whether the title
merged in the royal dignity on the marriage of the marchioness
to the king, or became extinct on her death in 1536.

The title of earl of Pembroke was ne'xt revived in favour of
SIR WILLIAM HERBERT (c. 1501-1570), whose father, Richard,
was an illegitimate son of the ist earl of Pembroke of the house
of Herbert. He had married Anne Parr, sister of Henry VIII. 's
sixth wife, and was created earl in 1551. The title has since been
held by his descendants.

An executor of Henry VIII. 's will and the recipient of valuable
grants of land, Herbert was a prominent and powerful personage
during the reign of Edward VI., both the protector Somerset and
his rival, John Dudley, afterwards duke of Northumberland,
angling for his support. He threw in his lot with Dudley, and
after Somerset's fall obtained some of his lands in Wiltshire and
a peerage. It has been asserted that he devised the scheme for
settling the English crown on Lady Jane Grey; at all events he
was one of her advisers during her short reign, but he declared for
Mary when he saw that Lady Jane's cause was lost. By Mary
and her friends Pembroke's loyalty was at times suspected, but
he was employed as governor of Calais, as president of Wales
and in other ways. He was also to some extent in the confidence
of Philip II. of Spain. The earl retained his place at court under
Elizabeth until 1569, when he was suspected of favouring the
projected marriage between Mary, queen of Scots, and the duke
of Norfolk. Among the monastic lands granted to Herbert was
the estate of Wilton, near Salisbury, still the residence of the
earls of Pembroke.

His elder son Henry (c. 1534-1601), who succeeded as 2nd earl,
was president of Wales from 1586 until his death. He married
in 1577 Mary Sidney, the famous countess of Pembroke (c. 1561-
1621), third daughter of Sir Henry Sidney and his wife Mary
Dudley. Sir Philip Sidney to whom she was deeply attached
through life, was her eldest brother. Sir Philip Sidney spent the
summer of 1580 with her at Wilton, or at Ivychurch, a favourite
retreat of hers in the neighbourhood. Here at her request he
began the Countess of Pembroke's Arcadia, which was intended
for her pleasure alone, not for publication. The two also worked
at a metrical edition of the Psalms. When the great sorrow of
her brother's death came upon her she made herself his literary
executor, correcting the unauthorized editions of the Arcadia
and of his poems, which appeared in 1590 and 1591. She also
took under her patronage the poets who had looked to her brother
for protection. Spenser dedicated his Ruines of Time to her,
and refers to her as Urania in Colin Clout's come home againe; in
Spenser's Astrophel she is " Clorinda." In 1599 Queen Elizabeth
was her guest at Wilton, and the countess composed for the
occasion a pastoral dialogue in praise of Astraea. After her
husband's death she lived chiefly in London at Crosby Hall,
where she died.

The Countess's other works include: A Discourse of Life and
Death, translated from the French of Plessis du Mornay (1593), and
Antoine (1592), a version of a tragedy of Robert Gamier.

WILLIAM HERBERT, 3rd earl of Pembroke (1580-1630), son of
the 2nd earl and his famous countess, was a conspicuous figure
in the society of his time and at the court of James I. Several
times he found himself opposed to the schemes of the duke of
Buckingham, and he was keenly interested in the colonization
of America. He was lord chamberlain of the royal household
from 1615 to 1625 and lord steward from 1626 to 1630. He was
chancellor of the university of Oxford in 1624 when Thomas
Tesdale and Richard Wightwick refounded Broadgates Hall and
named it Pembroke College in his honour. By some Shake-
spearian commentators Pembroke has been identified with the
" Mr W. H. " referred to as " the onlie begetter "of Shakespeare's
sonnets in the dedication by Thomas Thorpe, the owner of the
published manuscript, while his mistress, Mary Fitton (q.v.), has
been identified with the " dark lady " of the sonnets. In both

8o

PEMBROKE

cases the identification rests on very questionable evidence (see
SHAKESPEARE, WILLIAM). He and his brother Philip are the
" incomparable pair of brethren " to whom the first folio of
Shakespeare is inscribed. The earl left no sons when he died in
London on the loth of April 1630. Clarendon gives a very
eulogistic account of Pembroke, who appears, however, to have
been a man of weak character and dissolute hie. Gardiner
describes him as the Hamlet of the English court. He had
literary tastes and wrote poems; one of his closest friends
was the poet Donne, and he was generous to Ben Jonson,
Massinger and others.

His brother, PHILIP HERBERT, the 4th earl (1584-1650), was
for some years the chief favourite of James I., owing this position
to his comely person and his passion for hunting and for field
sports generally. In 1605 the king created him earl of Montgomery
and Baron Herbert of Shurland, and since 1630, when he succeeded
to the earldom of Pembroke, the head of the Herbert family has
carried the double title of earl of Pembroke and Montgomery.
Although Philip's quarrelsome disposition often led him into
trouble he did not forfeit the esteem of James I., who heaped
lands and offices upon him, and he was also trusted by Charles I.,
who made him lord chamberlain in 1626 and frequently visited
him at Wilton. He worked to bring about peace between the
king and the Scots in 1639 and 1640, but when in the latter year
the quarrel between Charles and the English parliament was
renewed, he deserted the king who soon deprived him of his office
of chamberlain. Trusted by the popular party, Pembroke was
made governor of the Isle of Wight, and he was one of the repre-
sentatives of the parliament on several occasions, notably during
the negotiations at Uxbridge in 1645 and at Newport in 1648, and
when the Scots surrendered Charles in 1647. From 1641 to 1643,
and again from 1647 to 1650, he was chancellor of the university
of Oxford; in 1648 he removed some of the heads of houses from
their positions because they would not take the solemn league
and covenant, and his foul language led to the remark that he was
more fitted " by his eloquence in swearing to preside over Bedlam
than a learned academy." In 1649, although a peer, he was
elected and took his seat in the House of Commons as member for
Berkshire, this " ascent downwards " calling forth many satirical
writings from the royalist wits. The earl was a great collector
of pictures and had some taste for architecture. His eldest
surviving son, Philip (1621-1669), became sth earl of Pembroke,
and 2nd earl of Montgomery; he was twice married, and was
succeeded in turn by three of his sons, of whom Thomas, the Sth
earl (c. 1656-1733), was a person of note during the reigns of
William III. and Anne. From 1690 to 1692 he was first lord
of the admiralty; then he served as lord privy seal until 1699,
being in 1697 the first plenipotentiary of Great Britain at the
congress of Ryswick. On two occasions he was lord high admiral
for a short period; he was also lord president of the council and
lord-lieutenant of Ireland, while he acted as one of the lords
justices seven times; and he was president of the Royal Society
in 1689-1690. His son Henry, the gth earl (c. 1689-1750), was a
soldier, but was better known as the " architect earl." He was
largely responsible for the erection of Westminster Bridge. The
title descended directly to Henry,ioth earl (1734-1794), a soldier,
who wrote the Method of Breaking Horses (1762); George
Augustus, nth earl (1759-1827), an ambassador extraordinary to
Vienna in 1807; and Robert Henry, i2th earl (1791-1862), who
died without issue. George Robert Charles, the I3th earl
(1850-1895), was a grandson of the nth earl and a son of Baron
Herbert of Lea (q.v.), whose second son Sidney (b. 1853) inherited
all the family titles at his brother's death.

See G. T. Clark, The Earls, Earldom and Castle of Pembroke (Tenby,
1880); J. R. Planch6, "The Earls of Strigul '" in vol. x. of the
Proceedings of the British Archaeological Association (1855); and
G. E. C(okayne), Complete Peerage, vol. vi. (London, 1895).

PEMBROKE, a town of Ontario, Canada, capital of Renfrew
county, 74 m. W.N.W., of Ottawa by rail on the south shore of
Allumette Lake, an expansion of the Ottawa river, and on the
Canadian Pacific and Canada Atlantic railways. Pop. (1901),
5156. It is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishopric, an

important centre in the lumber trade, and contains saw, grist
and woollen mills, axe factory, &c. The Muskrat river affords
excellent water-power.

PEMBROKE (Penfro), an ancient municipal borough, a
contributory parliamentary borough and county-town of Pem-
brokeshire, Wales, situated on a narrow peninsula at the head of
the Pennar tidal inlet or " pill " of Milford Haven. Pop. (1901),
4487; together with Pembroke Dock 15,853. Pembroke is a
station on the South Wales system of the Great Western railway.
The old-fashioned town, consisting chiefly of one long broad
street, retains portions of its ancient walls. A large mill-dam is
a conspicuous feature on the north of the town. St Mary's
church in the centre of the town possesses a massive tower of the
1 2th century. Near the ruined West Gate is the entrance to
Pembroke Castle, a splendid specimen of medieval fortified
architecture. The circular vaulted keep erected by Earl William
Marshal (c. 1200), remains almost intact. Close to the keep
stands the ruined chamber wherein, according to local tradition,
Henry VII. was born in 1457. Beneath the fine banqueting hall,
a flight of steps descends into " the Wogan," a vast subterranean
chamber giving access to the harbour. Facing the castle, on the
western side of the pill, stand the considerable remains of
Monkton Priory, a Benediction house founded by Earl William
Marshal as a cell to the abbey of Seez or Sayes in Normandy,
but under Henry VI. transferred to the abbey of St Albans.
The priory church, now the parish church of the suburb of
Monkton, contains monuments of the families of Meyrick of
Bush and Owen of Orielton. St Daniel's chapel forms a
prominent landmark on the ridge south of the town.

PEMBROKE DOCK (formerly known as Pater, or Paterchurch), a
naval dockyard and garrison town, is situated close to Hobb's
Point, at the eastern extremity of Milford Haven. It forms the
Pater Ward of Pembroke, from which it is distant 2 m. to the
north-west. The place owes its origin to the decision of the
government in 1814 to form a naval dep6t on Milford Haven.
The dockyard, enclosed by high walls and covering 80 acres, is
protected by a powerful fort — the construction and repairing of
ironclads are extensively carried on here. There is a submarine
depot at Pennar Gut, and also accommodation for artillery and
infantry. Ferry boats ply frequently between Pembroke Dock
and Neyland on the opposite shore of the Haven.

Pembroke is probably an Anglo-Norman form of the Cymric
Penfro, the territory lying between Milford Haven and the
Bristol Channel, now known as the Hundred of Castlemartin.
During the invasion of South Wales under William Rufus,
Arnulf de Montgomeri, fifth son of Roger earl of Shrewsbury,
seems to have erected a fortress of stone (c. 1090) on the site of
the castle. The first castellan of this new stronghold was
Giraldus de Windsor, husband of the Princess Nest of South
Wales and grandfather of Giraldus Cambrensis. Throughout
the 1 2th and i3th centuries the castle was strengthened and
enlarged under successive earls palatine of Pembroke, who made
this fortress their chief seat. As the capital of the palatinate
and as the nearest port for Ireland, Pembroke was in Plantagenet
times one of the most important fortified cities in the kingdom.
The town, which had grown up under the shadow of the almost
impregnable castle, was first incorporated by Henry I. in 1109
and again by Earl Richard de Clare in 1 1 54 (who also encircled
the town with walls), and these privileges were confirmed and
extended under succeeding earls palatine and kings of England.
In 1835 the corporation was remodelled under the Municipal
Corporations Act. Henry II. occasionally visited Pembroke,
notably in 1172, and until the close of the Wars of the Roses,
both town and castle played a prominent part in the history of
Britain. With the passing of the Act of Union of Wales and
England in 1536 however, the jura regalia of the county palatine
of Pembroke were abolished, and the prosperity of the town
began to decline. Although acknowledged as the county town
of Pembrokeshire, Pembroke was superseded by Haverfordwest
as the judicial and administrative centre of the shire on account
of the more convenient position of the latter place. By the act
of 1536 Pembroke was declared the leading borough in the

PEMBROKESHIRE

81

Pembroke parliamentary district, yet the town continued to
dwindle until the settlement of the government dockyard and
works on Milford Haven. At the outbreak of the Civil Wars the
town and castle were garrisoned for parliament by the mayor,
John Poyer, a leading Presbyterian, who was later appointed
governor, with Rowland Laugharne of St Brides for his lieu-
tenant. But at the time of the Presbyterian defection in 1647,
Poyer and his lieutenant-governors, Laugharne and Powell,
declared for Charles and held the castle in the king's name. In
June 1648 Cromwell himself proceeded to invest Pembroke
Castle, which resisted with great obstinacy. But after the
water-supply of the garrison had been cut off, the besieged were
forced to capitulate, on the nth of July 1648, on the condition of
surrendering up the three chief defenders of the castle. Poyer,
Laugharne and Powell were accordingly brought to London,
but finally only Poyer was executed. The magnificent ruin of
Pembroke Castle is the nominal property of the Crown, but has
been held on lease since the reign of James II. by the family of
Pryse of Gogerddan in Cardiganshire.

PEMBROKESHIRE (Sir Benfro, Dyfed), the most westerly
county of South Wales, bounded N.E. by Cardigan, E.by Carmar-
then, S. by the Bristol Channel and W. and N.W. by St Bride's
Bay and Cardigan Bay of St George's Channel. Area 613 sq. m.
The whole coast is extremely indented, extending over 140 m. in
length. The principal inlets are Milford Haven, St Bride's Bay,
Freshwater Bay, Fishguard Bay and Newport Bay. The chief
promontories are Cemmaes, Dinas, Strumble, St David's, St
Ann's and St Gowan's Heads. Five islands of moderate size lie
off the coast, viz. Ramsey, Grassholm, Skomer and Skokholm
in St Bride's Bay, and Caldy Island (Ynys Pyr) opposite Tenby;
the last named having a population of about 70 persons. Rare
birds, such as peregrine falcons, ravens and choughs are not
uncommon, while guillemots, puffins and other sea-fowl breed in
immense numbers on the Stack Rocks, on Ramsey Island and at
various points of the coast. Seals are plentiful in the caves of
St Bride's Bay and Cardigan Bay. The county is undulating,
and large tracts are bare, but the valleys of the Cleddau, the
Nevern, the Teifi and the Gwaun are well-wooded. The
Preselley Mountains stretch from Fishguard to the border of
Carmarthen, the principal heights being Preselley Top (1760 ft.)
and Cam Englyn (1022 ft.). Treffgarn Rock in the Plumstone
Mountains is popularly supposed to mark the northern limit of
the ancient settlement of the Flemings. The principal rivers are
the Teifi, forming the northern boundary of the county from
Abercych to Cardigan Bay; the Nevern and the Gwaun, both
falling into Cardigan Bay; and the Eastern and Western Cleddau,
forming the Daugleddau after their junction below Haverford-
west. All these streams contain trout and salmon. There are
no lakes, but the broad tidal estuaries of the Daugleddau and
other rivers, which fall into Milford Haven and are locally called
" pills," constitute a peculiar feature of south Pembrokeshire

scenery.

Geology. — Pembrokeshire is divisible into a northern portion
occupied mainly by Ordovician and Silurian strata, which have been
subjected to pressures from the north, the strike of the beds being
south-west-north-east ; and a southern portion, the westerly con-
tinuation of the South Wales coalfield, with associated Lower
Carboniferous, Old Red Sandstone and narrow belts of Silurian
rocks, the whole having been considerably folded and faulted by
pressure from the south, which has produced a general north- west-
south-east strike. In the neighbourhood of St Davids are the Pre-
Cambrian granitic rocks (Dimetian) and volcanic rocks (Pebedian).
These are surrounded by belts of unconformable Cambrian strata
(Lingula Flags, Tremadoc beds), followed by Ordovician (Arenig,
Llandeilo and Bala beds) with associated igneous rocks. These
comprise gabbros and diabases of Strumble Head, Fishguard,
Llanwnda, Prescelly; diorites north-west of St Davids, bostonites
and porphyrites about Abercastle and the basaltic laccolite of Pen
Caer, besides various contemporaneous acid lavas and tuffs. The
Ordovician and Silurian rocks extend southward to the neighbour-
hood of Narberth and Haverfordwest, where Arenig, Llandeilo and
Bala beds (Slade and Red Hill beds; Sholeshook and Robeston
Walthen Limestone) and Llandovery beds are recorded. The Coal
Measures, highly inclined and anthracitic, stretch across from
Carmarthen Bay to the shore of St Bride's Bay ; they are bordered
on the north and south-east by the Millstone Grits, Carboniferous
Limestone series and Old Red Sandstone. On account of the folding

the limestone appears again farther south at Pembroke, Caldy
Island and St Gowan's Head; most of the remaining ground about
Milford Haven being occupied by Old Red Sandstone with infolded
strips of Silurian. A fairly large tract of blown-sand occurs in
Freshwater Bay south of Milford Haven. Silver-bearing lead has
been mined at Llanfyrnach.

Climate and Industries. — The climate is everywhere mild, and
in the sheltered valleys near the coast sub-tropical vegetation
flourishes in the open air. In the south the rainfall is small, and
the districts round Pembroke suffer from occasional droughts.
The chief industry is agriculture, wherein stock-raising is
preferred to the growing of cereals. Of cattle the long-horned,
jet-black Castlemartin breed is everywhere conspicuous. South
Pembroke has long been celebrated for its horses, which are bred
in great numbers by the farmers. The deep-sea fisheries of
Tenby and Milford are valuable; and fresh fish of good quality
is exported by rail to the large towns. Oysters are found at
Langwm and near Tenby; lobsters and crabs abound on the
western coast. The South Wales coalfield extends into south
Pembroke, and coal is worked at Saundersfoot, Begelly, Temple-
ton, Kilgetty and other places. There are slate quarries at
Glogue, Cilgerran and elsewhere; copper has been worked near St
Davids, and lead at Llanfyrnach.

Communications. — The South Wales branch of the Great
Western railway enters Pembrokeshire from the east near
Clynderwen Junction, whence the main line leads to Fishguard
Harbour with its important Irish traffic. Other lines proceed
to Neyland and Milford Haven by way of Haverfordwest, and
a branch line from Clynderwen to Goodwick joins the main line
at Letterston. The Whitland- Cardigan branch traverses the
north-east by way of Crymmych and Cilgerran. Another line
running south-west from Whitland proceeds by way of Narberth
and Tenby to Pembroke Dock.

Population and Administration. — The area of Pembrokeshire
is 395,151 acres with a population in 1891 of 89,138 and 1901
of 88,732, showing a slight decrease. The municipal boroughs
are Pembroke (pop. 15,853); Haverfordwest (6007); and
Tenby (4400). The hamlet of Bridgend and a part of St
Dogmell's parish are included within the municipal limits of
Cardigan. Newport (Trefdraeth) (1222), the chief town of
the barony of Kernes, or Cemmaes, still possesses a mayor and
corporation under a charter granted in 1215 by Sir Nicholas
Marteine, lord of Kernes, whose hereditary representative
still nominates the mayor and aldermen, but its surviving
municipal privileges are practically honorary. Milford Haven
(5102), Narberth (1070) and Fishguard (2002) are urban districts.
Other towns are St Davids (1710), St Dogmells (Llandudoch)
(1286); and Cilgerran (1038). Pembrokeshire lies in the South
Wales circuit, and assizes are held at Haverfordwest. Two
members are returned to parliament; one for the county, and
one for the united boroughs of Pembroke, Haverfordwest,
Tenby, Fishguard, Narberth, Neyland, Milford and Wiston
(Castell Gwys). Ecclesiastically, the county contains 153
parishes and lies wholly in the diocese of St Davids.

History. — Pembrokeshire, anciently known to the Welsh
as Dyfed, was originally comprised in the territory of the
Dimetae, conquered by the Romans. During the 6th century
St David, or Dewi Sant, moved the chief seat of South Welsh
monastic and ecclesiastical life from Caerleon-on-Usk to his
native place Menevia, which, known in consequence as Tyddewi,
or St Davids, continued a centre of religious and educational
activity until the Reformation, a period of 1000 years. On
the death of Rhodri Mawr in 877, Dyfed fell nominally under the
sway of the princes of Deheubarth, or South Wales; but their
hold was never very secure, nor were they able to protect the
coast towns from the Scandinavian pirates. In 1081 William
the Conqueror penetrated west as far as St Davids, where he is
said to have visited St David's shrine as a devout pilgrim.
In 1092 Arnulf de Montgomeri, son of Roger, earl of Shrewsbury,
did homage to the king for the Welsh lands of Dyfed. With
the building of Pembroke Castle, of which Gerald de Windsor
was appointed castellan, the Normans began to spread over
southern Dyfed; whilst Martin de Tours, landing in Fishguard

PEMBROKESHIRE

Bay and building the castle of Newport at Trefdraeth, won for
himself the extensive lordship of Kemes (Cemmaes) between
the river Teifi and the Preselley Mountains. The systematic
planting of Flemish settlers in the hundred of Rhos, or Roose,
in or about the years 1106, 1108 and mi with the approval
of Henry I., and again in 1156 under Henry II., marks an
all-important episode in the history of Pembrokeshire. The
castles of Haverfordwest and Tenby were now erected to protect
these aliens, and despite the fierce attacks of the Welsh princes
their domain grew to be known as " Little England beyond
Wales," a district whereof the language, customs and people
still remain characteristic. In 1138 Gilbert de Clare, having
previously obtained Henry I.'s permission to enjoy all lands
he might win for himself in Wales, was created earl of Pembroke
in Stephen's reign with the full powers of an earl palatine in
Dyfed. The devolution of this earldom is dealt with in a
separate article.

In 1536, by the Act of Union (27 Henry VIII.), the king
abolished all special jurisdiction in Pembrokeshire, which he
placed on an equal footing with the remaining shires of Wales,
while its borders were enlarged by the addition of Kemes,
Dewisland and other outlying lordships. By the act of 1536
the county returned to parliament one knight for the shire
and two burgesses; one for the Pembroke boroughs and one
for the town and county of Haverfordwest, both of which since
1885 have been merged in the] Pembroke-and-Haverfordwest
parliamentary division. The Reformation deprived the county
of the presence of the bishops of St Davids, who on the partial
dismantling of the old episcopal palace at St Davids removed
their chief seat of residence to Abergwiliy, near Carmarthen.
Meanwhile the manor of Lamphey was granted to the family
of Devereux, earls of Essex, and other episcopal estates were
alienated to court favourites, notably to Sir John Perrot of
Haroldstone (1517-1592), afterwards lord-deputy of Ireland.
During the Civil Wars the forces of the parliament, commanded
by Colonel Laugharne and Captain Swanley, reduced the royal
forts at Tenby, Milford and Haverfordwest. In February
1797 some French frigates appeared off Fishguard Bay and
landed about 1400 Frenchmen at Llanwnda. The invaders
soon capitulated to the local militia, practically without striking
a blow. The ipth century saw the establishment of the naval
dockyard at Paterchurch and the building of docks and quays
at Neyland and Milford. In 1906 extensive works for cross-
traffic with Ireland were opened at Fishguard Harbour.

Many of the old Pembrokeshire families, whose names appear
prominent in the county annals, are extinct in the county itself.
Amongst these may be mentioned Perrot of Haroldstone,
Devereux of Lamphey, Barlow of Slebech, Barrett of Gilliswick,
Wogan of Wiston, Elliot of Amroth and Owen of Henllys.
Amongst ancient families still existing are Philipps of Lydstep
and Amroth (descendants of the old Welsh lords of Cilsant);
Philipps of Picton Castle (a branch of the same house in the
female line); Lort of Stackpole Court, now represented by Earl
Cawdor; Scourfield of Moate; Bowen of Llwyngwair; Edwardes,
Lords Kensington, of St Brides; Meyrickof Bush; Lort-Philipps
of Lawrenny; Colby of Ffynone; Stokes of Cuffern; Lloyd of
Newport Castle (in which family is vested the hereditary lord-
ship of the barony of Kemes); Saunders-Davies of Pentre; and
Gower of Castle Malgwyn.

Antiquities. — There are few remaining traces in the county
of the Roman occupation of Dimetia, but in British encamp-
ments, tumuli, cromlechs and monumental stones Pembrokeshire
is singularly rich. Of the cromlechs the best preserved are those
at Longhouse, near Mathry; at Pentre Evan in the Nevern
Valley; and at Llech-y-dribedd, near Moylgrove; whilst of the
many stone circles and alignments, that known as Pare-y-Marw,
or " The Field of the Dead," near Fishguard, is the least injured.
Stones inscribed in Ogam characters are not uncommon, and
good examples exist at Caldy Island, Bridell, St Dogmells
and Cilgerran. There are good specimens of Celtic floriated
churchyard crosses at Carew, Penally and Nevern. Interesting
examples of medieval domestic architecture are the ruins

of the former episcopal mansions at Llawhaden, St Davids
and Lamphey, the two latter of which were erected by Bishop
Gower between the years 1328-1347. With the exception of
the cathedral at St Davids and the principal churches of Haver-
fordwest and Tenby, the parish churches of Pembrokeshire
are for the most part small, but many are ancient and possess
fine monuments or other objects of interest, especially in
" Little England beyond Wales." Amongst the more note-
worthy are the churches at Stackpole Elidur, Carew, Burton,
Gumfreston, Nevern, St Petrox and Rudbaxton, the last-named
containing a fine Jacobean monument of the Hayward family.
Pembrokeshire has long been famous for its castles, of which the
finest examples are to be observed at Pembroke; Manorbier,
built in the izth century and interesting as the birthplace and
home of Giraldus Cambrensis; Carew, exhibiting many interest-
ing features both of Norman and Tudor architecture; and
Picton, owned and inhabited by a branch of the Philipps family.
Other castles are the keep of Haverfordwest and the ruined for-
tresses at Narberth, Tenby, Newport, Wiston, Benton, Upton and
Cilgerran. There are some remains of monastic houses at Tenby
and Pembroke, but the most important religious communities
were the priory of the Augustinian friars at Haverfordwest
and the abbey of the Benedictines at St Dogmells. Of this
latter house, which was founded by Martin de Tours, first lord
of Kemes, at the close of the nth century, and who owned the
priories of Pill and Caldy, considerable ruins exist near the left
bank of the Teifi about i m. below Cardigan. Of the ancient
preceptory of the Knights of St John at Slebech scarcely a trace
remains, but of the college of St Mary at St Davids founded by
Bishop Houghton in 1377, the shell of the chapel survives in
fair preservation. Pembrokeshire contains an unusually large
number of county seats, particularly in the south, which includes
Stackpole Court, the residence of Earl Cawdor, a fine mansion
erected in the i8th century; Picton Castle; Slebech, once the
seat of the Barlows; Orielton, formerly belonging to the Owens;
and Ffynone, the residence of the Colby family.

Customs, 6"c. — The division of Pembrokeshire ever since the
1 2th century into well-defined Englishry and Welshry has
produced two distinct sets of languages and customs within the
county. Roughly speaking, the English division, the Anglia
Transwalliana of Camden, occupies the south-eastern half and
comprises the hundreds of Roose, Castlemartin, Narberth and
Dungleddy. In the Welshry, which includes the hundreds of
Dewisland and Cilgerran together with the old barony of Kemes,
the language, customs, manners and folk-lore of the inhabitants
are almost identical with those of Cardigan and Carmarthen.
The old Celtic game of Knappan, a pastime partaking of the
nature both of football and hockey, in which whole parishes
and even hundreds were wont to take an active part, was pre-
valent in the barony of Kemes so late as the i6th century,
as George Owen of Henllys, the historian and antiquary, records;
and the playing of knappan lingered on after Owen's day.
Amongst the settlers of the Englishry, who are of mingled Anglo-
Saxon, Flemish, Welsh and perhaps Scandinavian descent,
many interesting superstitions and customs survive. The
English spoken by these dwellers in " Little England beyond
Wales " contains many curious idioms and words and the pronun-
ciation of some of the vowels is peculiar. Certain picturesque
customs, many of them dating from pre-Reformation times,
are still observed, notably in the neighbourhood of Tenby.
Such are the sprinkling of persons with dewy evergreens on
New Year's morning; the procession of the Cutty Wren on St
Stephen's day, and the constructing of little huts at Lammastide
by the farm boys and girls. As early as the opening years of
the I9th century, cripples and ophthalmic patients were in the
habit of visiting the ancient hermitage at St Gowan's Head to
bathe in its sacred well; and Richard Fenton, the county historian
alludes (c. 1808) to the many crutches left at St Gowan's chapel
by grateful devotees. Belief in ghosts, fairies, witches, &c.,
is still prevalent in the more remote places, and the dress of
the fishwives of Langwm near Haverfordwest is highly picturesque
with its short skirt, scarlet shawl and buckled shoes.

PEMMICAN— PEN

AUTHORITIES. — -Richard Fenton, A Historical Tour throng
Pembrokeshire (London, 1810); Edward Laws, History of Little Eng
land beyond Wales (London, 1888) ; Basil Jones and E. A. Freeman
History and Antiquities of St David's (London, 1856), &c.

PEMMICAN, a North American Indian (Cree) word for a
meat prepared in such a way as to contain the greatest amoun
of nourishment in the most compact form. As made by th<
Indians it was composed of the lean parts of the meat, dried in
the sun, and pounded or shredded and mixed into a paste with
melted fat. It is flavoured with acid berries. If kept dry it
will keep for an indefinite time, and is thus particularly service
able in arctic or other explorations.

PEMPHIGUS (Gr. miJ.<t>i£, a bubble), a skin disease, in which
large blebs appear, on a red base, containing a clear or yellowish
fluid; the blebs occasion much irritation, and when they burst
leave raw ulcerated surfaces. The disease is principally known
in unhealthy or neglected children. A variety of the malady
pemphigus foliaceous, affects the whole body, and gradually
proves fatal. Pemphigus of an acute septicaemic type occurs
in butchers or those who handle hides, and a diplococcus has
been isolated by William Bullock. The treatment is mainly
constitutional, by means of good nourishment, warm baths,
local sedatives and tonics. In chronic pemphigus, streptococci
have been found in the blebs, and the opsonic index was low
to streptococci. Improvement has been known to take place
on the injection of a vaccine of streptococci.

PEN (Lat. penna, a feather, pen), an instrument for writing
or for forming lines with an ink or other coloured fluid. The
English word, as well as its equivalents in French (plume) and in
German (Feder), originally means a wing-feather, but in ancient
times the implements used for producing written characters
were not quills. The earliest writing implement was probably
the stilus (Gr. -ypa^ij), a pointed bodkin of metal, bone or ivory,
used for producing incised or engraved letters on boxwood
tablets covered with wax. The calamus (Gr. KaXa/xos) or arundo,
the hollow tubular stalk of grasses growing in marshy lands,
was the true ancient representative of the modern pen; hollow
joints of bamboo were similarly employed.

An early specific allusion to the quill pen occurs in the writings
of St Isidore of Seville (early part of the 7th century),1 but there
is no reason to assume that it was not in use at a still more
remote date. The quills still largely employed among Western
communities as writing instruments are obtained principally
from the wings of the goose (see FEATHER). In 1809 Joseph
Bramah devised and patented a machine for cutting up the
quill into separate nibs by dividing the barrel into three or even
four parts, and cutting these transversely into " two, three,
four and some into five lengths." Bramah's invention first
familiarized the public with the appearance and use of the nib
slipped into a holder. In 1818 Charles Watt obtained a patent
for gilding and preparing quills and pens, which may be regarded
as the precursor of the gold pen. But a more distinct advance
was effected in 1822, when J. I. Hawkins and S. Mordan patented
the application of horn and tortoise-shell to the formation of
pen-nibs, the points of which were rendered durable by small
pieces of diamond, ruby or other very hard substance, or by
lapping a small piece of thin sheet gold over the end of the
tortoise-shell.

Metallic pens, though not unknown in classical times — a
bronze pen found at Pompeii is in the Naples Museum — were
SteeiPeas ''tt^e use(^ until the igth century and did not
become common till near the middle of that cen-
tury. It is recorded that a Birmingham split-ring manufacturer,
Samuel Harrison, made a steel pen for Dr Joseph Priestley
in 1780. Steel pens made and sold in London by a certain
Wise in 1803 were in the form of a tube or barrel, the edges of
which met to form the slit, while the sides were cut away as in
the case of an ordinary quill. Their price was about five shillings
each, and as they were hard, stiff and unsatisfactory instruments
they were not in great demand. A metallic pen patented by
" Instrumenta scribae calamus et penna; ex his enim verba
paginis mfiguntur ; sed calamus arboris est, penna avis, cujus acumen
dividitur in duo."

Bryan Donkin in 1808 was made of two separate parts, flat or
nearly so, with the flat sides placed opposite each other to form
the slit, or alternatively of one piece, flat and not cylindrical as in
the usual form, bent to the proper angle for insertion in the
tube which constituted the holder. To John Mitchell prob-
ably belongs the credit of introducing machine-made pens,
about 1822, and James Perry is believed to have been the first
maker of steel slip pens. In 1828 Josiah Mason, who had been
associated with Samuel Harrison, in the manufacture of split
rings, saw Perry's pens on sale in Birmingham, and after examin-
ing them saw his way both to improve and to cheapen the process
of making them. He therefore put himself in communication
with Perry, and the result was that he began to make barrel
pens for him in 1828 and slip pens in 1829. Perry, who did much
to popularize the steel pen and bring it into general use, in his
patent of 1830 sought to obtain greater flexibility by forming
a central hole between the points and the shoulders and by
cutting one or more lateral slits on each side of the central
slit; and Joseph Gillot, in 1831 described an improvement
which consisted in forming elongated points on the nibs of
the pens.

The metal used consists of rolled sheets of cast steel of the
finest quality made from Swedish charcoal iron. These sheets,
after being cut into strips of suitable width, annealed in a muffle-
furnace and pickled in a bath of dilute sulphuric acid to free
the surface from oxidized scale, are rolled between steel rollers till
they are reduced to ribbons of an even thickness, about ifa in.
From these ribbons the pen blanks are next punched out, and
then, after being embossed with the name of the maker or other
marks, are pierced with the central perforation and the side or
shoulder slits by which flexibility is obtained. After another
annealing, the blanks, which up to this point are flat, are
" raised " or rounded between dies into the familiar semi-
cylindrical shape. The next process is to harden and temper
them by heating them in iron boxes in a muffle-furnace, plunging
them in oil, and then heating them over a fire in a rotating
cylindrical vessel till their surfaces attain the dull blue tint
characteristic of spring-steel elasticity. Subsequently they
are " scoured " in a bath of dilute acid, and polished in a
revolving cylinder. The grinding of the points with emery
follows, and then the central slit is cut by the aid of two
very fine-edged cutters. Finally the pens are again polished,
are coloured by being heated over a fire in a revolving
cylinder, and in some cases are coated with a varnish of shellac
dissolved in alcohol. Birmingham was the first home of the
steel-pen industry, and continues its principal centre. The
manufacture on a large scale was begun in the United States
about 1860 at Camden, N.J., where the Esterbrook Steel Pen
Manufacturing Company was incorporated in 1866.

Metals other than steel have frequently been suggested by
nventors, those most commonly proposed being gold, silver,
zinc, German silver, aluminium and aluminium
bronze. Dr W. H. Wollaston, it is recorded, had a°'dpeas-
a gold pen composed of two thin strips of gold tipped
with rhodium, apparently made on the principle patented by
Donkin in 1808, and Lord Byron used one in 1810. Gold
being extremely resistant to corrosion, pens made of it are very
durable, but the metal is too soft for the points, which wear
quickly unless protected by some harder material. For this
>urpose iridium is widely employed, by fusing the gold round
t with a blowpipe.

Various devices have been adopted in order to increase the

ime for which a pen can be used without a fresh supply of ink.

These fall into" two main classes. In one, the form

of the nib itself is modified, or some attachment %,"™'r

s added, to enlarge the ink capacity; in the other,

which is by far the more important, the holder of the pen is

utilized as a cistern or reservoir from which ink is supplied

o the nib. Pens of the second class, which have the further

advantage of being portable, are heard of under the name of

' fountain inkhorns " or " fountain pens " so far back as the

jeginning of the i8th century, but it was not till a hundred

PENALTY— PENANG

years later that inventors applied themselves seriously to their
construction. Joseph Bramah patented several plans; one was
to employ a tube of silver or other metal so thin that it could
be readily squeezed out of shape, the ink within it being thus
forced out to the nib, and another was to fit the tube with a
piston that could slide down the interior and thus eject ink.
In modern fountain pens a feed bar conveys, by capillary action,
a fresh supply of ink to replace that which has been left on the
paper in the act of writing, means being also provided by which
air can pass into the reservoir and fill the space left empty by
the outflowing ink. In another form of reservoir pen, which
is usually distinguished by the name stylograph, there is no
nib, but the ink flows out through a minute hole at the end
of the holder, which terminates in a conical point. An iridium
needle, held in place by a fine spring, projects slightly through
the hole and normally keeps the aperture closed; but when
the pen is pressed on the paper, the needle is pushed back and
allows a thin stream of ink to flow out.

See J. P. Maginnis, " Reservoir, Stylographic and Fountain
Pens," Cantor Lectures, Society of Arts (1905).

PENALTY (Lat. poena, punishment), in its original meaning,
a punishment inflicted for some violation of the law or rule
of conduct. Although still freely used in its original sense in
such phrases, for example, as " the death penalty," " the penalty
of rashness," &c., the more usual meaning attached to the word
is that of a pecuniary mulct. Penalty is used specifically for
a sum of money recovered by virtue of a penal statute, or re-
coverable in a court of summary jurisdiction for infringement
of a statute. A sum of money agreed upon to be paid in case
of non-performance of a condition in a bond or in breach of a
contract or any stipulation of it is also termed a penalty (see
DAMAGES).

PENANCE (Old Fr. penance, fr. Lat. poenitentia, penitence),
strictly, repentance of sins. Thus in the Douai version of the
New Testament the Greek word jueravoia is rendered " penance,"
where the Authorized Version has " repentance." The two
words, similar in their derivation and original sense, have
however come to be symbolical of conflicting views of the essence
of repentance, arising out of the controversy as to the respective
merits of " faith " and " good works." The Reformers, uphold-
ing the doctrine of justification by faith, held that repentance
consisted in a change of the whole moral attitude of the mind
and soul (eiriGTptfcadai, Matt. xiii. 15; Luke xxii. 32), and that
the Divine forgiveness followed true repentance and confession
to God without any reparation of " works." This is the view
generally held by Protestants. In the Roman Catholic Church
the sacrament of penance consists of three parts: contritio,
confessio, satisfactio. Contrilio is in fact repentance as Protestant
theologians understand it, i.e. sorrow for sin arising from love
of God, and long before the Reformation the schoolmen debated
the question whether complete "contrition" was or was not
in itself sufficient to obtain the Divine pardon. The Council
of Trent, however, decided that " reconciliation " could not
follow such contrition without the other parts of the sacrament,
which form part of it (sine sacramenti voto, quod in ilia includatur).
Contrition is also distinguished from " attrition " (attritio), i.e.
repentance due to fear of punishment. It was questioned
whether a state of mind thus produced would suffice for obtaining
the benefits of the sacrament; this point was also set at rest by
the Council of Trent, which decided that attrition, though not
in itself capable of obtaining the justification of the sinner, is
also inspired by God and thus disposes the soul to benefit by
the grace of the sacrament.

The word " penance," applied to the whole sacrament, is
also used of the works of satisfaction imposed by the priest on
the penitent, i.e. the temporal punishment (poena). This
varies with the character and heinousness of the offences com-
mitted. In the middle ages " doing penance " was often a
process as terrible and humiliating to the penitent as it was
possibly edifying to the Church. Public penances have, how-
ever, long been abolished in all branches of the Christian
Church. (See CONFESSION.)

PENANG (Pulau Pinang, i.e. Areca-nut Island), the town
and island which, after Singapore, form the most important
portion of the crown colony of the Straits Settlements. The
island is situated in 5° 24' N. and 100° 21' E., and distantabout
2^ m. from the west coast of the Malay Peninsula. The island is
about 15^ m. long by loj m. wide at its broadest point. Its area
is something over 107 sq. m. The town, which is built on a pro-
montory at a point nearest to the mainland, is largely occupied by
Chinese and Tamils, though the Malays are also well represented.
Behind the town, Penang Hill rises to a height of some 2700 ft.,
and upon it are built several government and private bungalows.
The town possesses a fine European club, a racecourse, and good
golf links. Coco-nuts are grown in considerable quantities
along the seashore, and rice is cultivated at Balek Pulau and in
the interior, but the jungle still spreads over wide areas. Penang
has an excellent harbour, but has suffered from its proximity
to Singapore. There are a Church of England and a Roman
Catholic church in the town, and a training college under the
Roman Catholic missionaries of the Societe des Missions
Etrangeres at Pulau Tikus, a few miles outside the town.

Administration. — Since 1867 Penang has been under the
administrative control of a resident councillor who is responsible
to the governor of the Straits. He is aided in his duties by
officers of the Straits Civil Service. Two unofficial members
of the legislative council of the colony, which holds its sittings
in Singapore, are nominated by the governor, with the sanction
of the secretary of state for the colonies, to represent Penang.
Their term of office is for five years. The official name of the
island is Prince of Wales Island and that of the town is George-
town; neither of these names, however, is in general use. Among
the Malays Penang is usually spoken of as Tanjong or " The
Cape," on account of the promontory upon which the town is
situated. The town is administered by a municipal council
composed of ex officio, nominated, and elected members.

Population. — The population of Penang at the time of the
census of 1901 was 128,830, of whom 85,070 were males (69,210
over and 15,860 under 15 years of age), and 43,760 were females
(28,725 over and 15,035 under 15 years of age). The population
was composed of 71,462 Chinese, 34,286 Malays, 18,740 Tamils
and other natives of India, 1649 Eurasians, 993 Europeans and
Americans, and 1699 persons of other nationalities. As in other
parts of the Straits Settlements the men are far more numerous
than the women. The total population of the settlement of
Penang, which includes not only the island but Province
Wellesley and the Dindings, was 248,207 in 1901.

Shipping. — The number of ships which entered and left the port
of Penang during 1906 was 2324 with an aggregate tonnage of
2,868,459. Of these 1802 were British with an aggregate tonnage of
1 ,966,286. These figures reveal a considerable falling-off during the
past decade, the number of vessels entering and leaving the port
in 1898 being 5114 with an aggregate tonnage of 3,761,094. This
is mainly due to the construction of the railway which runs from a
point on the mainland opposite to Penang, through the Federated
Malay States of Perak, Selangor and the Negri Sembilan to Malacca,
and has diverted to other ports and eventually to Singapore much
of the coastal traffic which formerly visited Penang.

Finance and Trade. — The revenue of Penang, that is to say, not
only of the island but of the entire settlement, amounted in 1906
to $6,031,917, of which $2,014,033 was derived from the revenue
farms for the collection of import duties on opium, wine and spirits;
$160,047 from postal revenue; $119,585 from land revenue; $129,151
from stamps. The expenditure for 1906 amounted to $5,072,406,
of which $836,097 was spent on administrative establishments,
$301,252 on the upkeep of existing public works; $415,175 on the
construction of works and buildings, and of new roads, streets,
bridges, &c. The imports in 1906 were valued at $94,546,112;
the exports at $90,709,225. Of the imports $57,880,889 worth
came from the United Kingdom or from British possessions or
protectorates; $23,937,737 worth came from foreign countries;
and $3,906,241 from the Dindings, Malacca and Singapore. Of the
exports, $23,122,947 went to the United Kingdom, or to British
possessions or protectorates; $37,671,033 went to foreign countries;
and $2,754,238 went to the Dindings, Malacca or Singapore.

History — Penang was founded on the i7th of July 1786,
having been ceded to the East India Company by the Sultan
of Kedah in 1785 by an agreement with Captain Light, for an
annuity of $10,000 for eight years. In 1791 the subsidy was

PENARTH— PENATES

changed to $6ooc, in perpetuity; for some years later this was
raised to $10,000, and is still annually paid. This final addition
was made when Province Wellesley was purchased by the East
India Company for $2000 in 1798. At the time of the cession
Penang was almost uninhabited. In 1796 it was made a penal
settlement, and 700 convicts were transferred thither from the
Andaman Islands. In 1805 Penang was made a separate
presidency, ranking with Bombay and Madras; and when in
1826 Singapore and Malacca were incorporated with it, Penang
continued to be the seat of government. In 1829 Penang was
reduced from the rank of a presidency, and eight years later
the town of Singapore was made the capital of the Settlements.
In 1867 the Straits Settlements were created a Crown colony,
in which Penang was included.

See Straits Settlements Blue Book 1906 (Singapore, 1907); The
Straits Directory (Singapore, 1907) ; Sir Frank Swettenham, British
Malaya (London, 1906). (H. CL.)

PENARTH, an urban district and seaport in the southern
parliamentary division of Glamorganshire, Wales, 166 m. by rail
from London, picturesquely situated on rising ground on the
south side of the mouth of the Ely opposite Cardiff, from which
it is 4 m. distant by rail and 2 m. by steamer. Pop. (1901), 14,228.
The place derives its name from two Welsh words, " pen," a head,
and " garth," an enclosure. Penarth was a small and unimpor-
tant village until a tidal harbour at the mouth of the Ely was
opened in 1859, and a railway, 6 m. long, was made about the
same time, connecting the harbour with the Taff Vale railway
at Radyr. A dock, authorized in 1857, was opened in 1865,
when all three undertakings, which had cost £775,000, were
leased in perpetuity to the Taff Vale Railway Company. The
monopoly which the Bute Docks at Cardiff had previously
enjoyed in shipping coal from the valleys of the Taff and Rhondda
was thus terminated. The town is frequented in summer as a
bathing-place, and the Rhaetic beds at the head are of special
interest to geologists. On this head there stood an old church,
probably Norman, which served as a landmark for sailors.
The remains of an old chantry have been converted into a barn.
Besides two Established and one Roman Catholic church, the
principal buildings of Penarth are its various Nonconformist
chapels, intermediate and technical school (1894), custom house,
dock offices, and Turner House with a private art gallery which
is thrown open on certain days to the public. Three miles to
the west is Dinas Powis Castle. In 1880-1883 gardens were
laid out along the cliff, in 1894 a promenade and landing-pier
with a length of 630 ft. were constructed, and in 1900 a marine
subway open at all times for foot passengers was made under
the river Ely. The dock, as first constructed, comprised 17!
acres, was extended in 1884 at a cost of £250,000, and now
covers 23 acres with a basin of 3 acres. It is 2900 ft. in length,
has a minimum depth of 26 ft., and is furnished with every
modern appliance for the export of coal, of which from 20,000
to 30,000 tons can be stored in the sidings near by. The
Penarth-Ely tidal harbour has a water area of 55 acres with
a minimum depth of 20 ft., and a considerable import trade is
carried on here mainly by coasting vessels; but as only one of
its sides has wharves (about 3000 ft. along) scarcely more than 5 %
of the total shipping of the port is done here. It has commo-
dious warehouses, also tanks to hold about 6000 tons of oil.

PENATES (from Lat. penus, eatables, food), Roman gods of the
store-room and kitchen. The store-room over which they
presided was, in old times, beside the atrium, the room which
served as kitchen, parlour, and bedroom in one; but in later
times the store-room, was in the back part of the house. It was
sanctified by the presence of the Penates, and none but pure
and chaste persons might enter it, just as with the Hindus
the kitchen is sacred and inviolable. They had no individual
names, but were always known under the general designation,
Penates. Closely associated with the Penates were the Lares
(g.v.) another species of domestic deity, who seem to have
been the deified spirits of deceased ancestors. But while each
family had two Penates it had but one Lar. In the household
shrine the image of the Lar (dressed in a toga) was placed

between the two images of the Penates, which were represented
as dancing and elevating a drinking-horn in token of joy and
plenty. The three images together were sometimes called
Penates, sometimes Lares, and either name was used metaphori-
cally for "home." The shrine stood originally in the atrium,
but when the hearth and the kitchen were separated from the
atrium and removed to the back of the house, and meals were
taken in an upper storey, the position of the shrine was also
shifted. In the houses at Pompeii it is sometimes in the kitchen,
sometimes in the rooms. In the later empire it was placed
behind the house-door, and a taper or lamp was kept burning
before it. But the worship in the interior of the house was also
kept up even into Christian times; it was forbidden by an
ordinance of Theodosius (A.D. 392). The old Roman used, in
company with his children and slaves, to offer a morning sacrifice
and prayer to his household gods. Before meals the blessing
of the gods was asked, and after the meal, but before dessert,
there was a short silence, and a portion of food was placed on
the hearth and burned. If the hearth and the images were not
in the eating-room, either the images were brought and put
on the table, or before the shrine was placed a table on which
were set a salt-cellar, food and a burning lamp. Three days
in the month, viz. the Calends, Nones and Ides (i.e. the first,
the fifth or seventh, and the thirteenth or fifteenth), were set
apart for special family worship, as were also the Caristia
(Feb. 22) and the Saturnalia in December. On these days as
well as on such occasions as birthdays, marriages, and safe
returns from journeys, the images were crowned and offerings
made to them of cakes, honey, wine, incense, and sometimes a
pig. As each family had its own Penates, so the state, as a
collection of families, had its public Penates. Intermediate
between the worship of the public and private Penates were
probably the rites (sacra) observed by each clan (gens) or collec-
tion of families supposed to be descended from a common
ancestor. The other towns of Latium had their public Penates as
well as Rome. The sanctuary of the whole Latin league was at
Lavinium. To these Penates at Lavinium the Roman priests
brought yearly offerings, and the Roman consuls, praetors
and dictators sacrificed both when they entered on and when
they laid down their office. To them, too, the generals sacrificed
before departing for their province. Alba Longa, the real
mother-city of Latium, had also its ancient Penates, and the
Romans maintained the worship on the Alban mount long after
the destruction of Alba Longa. The Penates had a temple of
their own at Rome. It was on the Velia near the Forum, and
has by some been identified with the round vestibule of the
church of SS. Cosma e Damiano. In this and many other temples
the Penates were represented by two images of youths seated
holding spears. The Penates were also worshipped in the neigh-
bouring temple at Vesta. To distinguish the two worships
it has been supposed that the Penates in the former temple
were those of Latium, while those in the temple of Vesta were
the Penates proper of Rome. Certainly the worship of the
Penates, whose altar was the hearth and to whom the kitchen
was sacred, was closely connected with that of Vesta, goddess
of the domestic hearth.

The origin and nature of the Penates was a subject of much
discussion to the Romans themselves. They were traced to the
mysterious worship of Samothrace; Dardanus, it was said, took
the Penates from Samothrace to Troy, and after the destruction
of Troy, Aeneas brought them to Italy and established them at
Lavinium. From Lavinium Ascanius carried the worship to
Alba Longa, and from Alba Longa it was brought to Rome.
Equally unsatisfactory with this attempt to connect Roman
religion with Greek legend are the vague and mystic speculations
in which the later Romans indulged respecting the nature of
the Penates. Some said they were the great gods to whom we
owe breath, body and reason, viz. Jupiter representing the
middle ether, Juno the lowest air and the earth, and Minerva
the highest ether, to whom some added Mercury as the god
of speech (Servius, on Aen. ii. 296; Macrobius, Sat. iii. 4, 8;
Arnobius, Adv. Nat. iii. 40). Others identified them with Apollo

86

PENCIL— PENDA

and Neptune (Macrob. iii. 4, 6; Arnob. loc. cit.; Servius, on
Aen. iii. 1 19). The Etruscans held the Penates to be Ceres, Pales
and Fortuna, to whom others added Genius Jovialis (Servius on
Aen. ii. 325; Arnob. loc. cit.). The late writer Martianus Capella
records the view that heaven was divided into sixteen regions, in
the first of which were placed the Penates, along with Jupiter,
the Lares, &c. More fruitful than these misty speculations is
the suggestion, made by the ancients themselves, that the
worship of these family gods sprang from the ancient Roman
custom (common to many savage tribes) of burying the dead
in the house. But this would account for the worship of the
Lares rather than of the Penates. A comparison with other
primitive religious beliefs suggests the conjecture that the
Penates may be a remnant of fetishism or animism. The Roman
genii seem certainly to have been fetishes and the Penates were
perhaps originally a species of genii. Thus the Penates, as
simple gods of food, are probably much more ancient than
deities like Jupiter, Neptune, Apollo and Minerva.

With the Penates we may compare the kindly household gods
of old Germany; they too had their home on the kitchen hearth-
and received offerings of food and clothing. In the castle of
Hudemiihlen (Hanover) there was a kobold for whom a cover
was always set on the table. In Lapland each house had one
or more spirits. The souls of the dead are regarded as house-
spirits by the Russians; they are represented as dwarfs, and are
served with food and drink. Each house in Servia has its
patron-saint. In the mountains of Mysore every house has its
bhuta or guardian deity, to whom prayer and sacrifices are
offered. The Chinese god of the kitchen presents some curious
analogies to the Penates: incense and candles are burnt before
him on the first and fifteenth of the month; some families burn
incense and candles before him daily; and on great festivals,
one of which is at the winter solstice (nearly corresponding to
the Saturnalia), he is served with cakes, pork, wine, incense,
&c., which are placed on a table before him.

See ROMAN RELIGION. Q. G. Fs. ; X.)

PENCIL (Lat. penkillus, brush, literally little tail), a name
originally applied to a small fine-pointed brush used in painting,
and still employed to denote the finer camel's-hair and sable
brushes used by artists, but now commonly signifying solid
cones or rods of various materials used for writing and drawing.
It has been asserted that a manuscript of Theophilus, attributed
to the 13th century, shows signs of having been ruled with a
black-lead pencil; but the first distinct allusion occurs in the
treatise on fossils by Conrad Gesner of Zurich (1565), who
describes an article for writing formed of wood and a piece of
lead, or, as he believed, an artificial composition called by some
stimmi anglicanum (English antimony). The famous Borrowdale
mine in Cumberland having been discovered about that time,
it is probable that we have here the first allusion to that great
find of graphite. While the supply of the Cumberland mine
lasted, the material for English pencils consisted simply of the
native graphite as taken from the mine. The pieces were
sawn into thin sheets, which again were cut into the slender
square rods forming the " lead " of the pencil.

Strenuous efforts were made on the continent of Europe and
in England to enable manufacturers to become independent
of the product of the Cumberland mine. In Nuremberg, where
the great pencil factory of the Faber family (q.v.) was established
in 1760, pencils were made from pulverized graphite cemented
into solid blocks by means of gums, resins, glue, sulphur and
other such substances, but none of these preparations yielded
useful pencils. In the year 1795 N. J. Cont6 (q.v.), of Paris,
devised the process by which now all black-lead pencils, and
indeed pencils of all sorts, are manufactured. In 1843 William
Brockedon patented a process for compressing pure black-lead
powder into solid compact blocks by which he was enabled to
use the dust, fragments, and cuttings of fine Cumberland lead.
Brockedon's process would have proved successful but the
exhaustion of the Borrowdale supplies and the excellence of
Conte's process rendered it more of scientific interest than of
commercial value.

The pencil leads prepared by the Conte process consist of a
mixture of graphite and clay. The graphite, having been pulver-
ized and subjected to any necessary purifying processes, is
" floated " through a series of settling tanks, in each of which
the comparatively heavy particles sink, and only the still finer
particles are carried over. That which sinks in the last of the
series is in a condition of extremely fine division, and is used
for pencils of the highest quality. The clay, which must be free
from sand and iron, is treated in the same manner. Clay and
graphite so prepared are mixed together in varying propor-
tions with water to a paste, passed repeatedly through a
grinding mill, then placed in bags and squeezed in a
hydraulic press till they have the consistency of stiff dough,
in which condition they are ready for forming pencil rods. For
this purpose the plastic mass is placed in a strong upright
cylinder, from which a plunger or piston, moved by a screw,
forces it out through a perforated base-plate in a continuous '
thread. This thread is finally divided into suitable lengths,
which are heated in a closed crucible for some hours. The two
factors which determine the comparative hardness and blackness
of pencils are the proportions of graphite and clay in the leads
and the heat to which they are raised in the crucible. According
as the proportion of graphite is greater and the heat lower the
pencil is softer and of deeper black streak.

The wood in which the leads are cased is pencil cedar from
Juniperus virginiana for the best qualities, and pine for the
cheaper ones. A board of the selected wood, having a thickness
about equal to half the diameter of the finished pencil and as
wide as four or six pencils, is passed through a machine which
smooths the surface and cuts round or square grooves to receive
the leads. The leads being placed in the grooves the board is
covered with another similarly grooved board, and the two
are fastened together with glue. When dry they are taken
to rapidly revolving cutters which remove the wood between
the leads. The individual pencils thus formed only need to
be finished by being dyed and varnished and stamped with
name, grade, &c. Instead of wood, paper has been tried for
the casings, rolled on in narrow strips which are torn off to
expose fresh lead as the point becomes worn down by use.

Black pencils of an inferior quality are made from the dust of
graphite melted up with sulphur and run into moulds. Such, with
a little tallow added to give them softness, are the pencils commonly
used by carpenters. Coloured pencils consist of a mixture of clay,
with appropriate mineral colouring matter, wax, and tallow, treated
by the Conte method, as in making lead pencils. In indelible and
copying pencils the colouring matter is an aniline preparation mixed
with clay and gum. The mixture not only makes a streak which
adheres to the paper, but, when the writing is moistened with water,
it dissolves and assumes the appearance and properties of an ink.

PENDA, king of Mercia (d. 654 or 655), son of Pybba, probably
came to the throne in 626, but it is doubtful whether he actually
became king of Mercia until 633, the year of the defeat and death
of Edwin of Northumbria. According to the Anglo-Saxon
Chronicle he was eighty years old at his death, but the energy
of his administration and the evidence with regard to the ages
of his children and relatives render it almost impossible. In
628 the Chronicle records a battle between him and the West
Saxons at Cirencester in that year. In 633 Penda and Ceadwalla
ovei threw Edwin at Hatfield Chase; but after the defeat of
the Welsh king at Oswald at " Hefenfelth " in 634, Mercia
seems to have been for a time subject to Northumbria. In .
642 Penda slew Oswald at a place called Maerfeld. He was
continually raiding Northumbria and once almost succeeded
in reducing Bamborough. He drove Cenwalh of Wessex, who
had divorced his sister, from his throne. In 654 he attacked the
East Angles, and slew their king Anna (see EAST ANGLIA).
In 654 or 655 he invaded Northumbria in spite of the attempts
of Oswio to buy him off, and was defeated and slain on the
banks of the " Winwaed." In the reign of Penda the districts
corresponding to Cheshire, Shropshire and Herefordshire were
probably acquired, and he established his son Peada as a
dependent prince in Middle Anglia. Although a pagan, he
allowed his daughter Cyneburg to marry Alchfrith, the son of

PENDANT — PENDLETON, E.

87

Oswio, and it was in his reign that Christianity was introduced
into Middle Anglia by his son Peada.

See Bede, Hist. Eccl. (ed. C. Plummer, Oxford, 1896) ; Anglo-Saxon
Chronicle (ed. Earle and Plummer, Oxford, 1899).

PENDANT (through Fr. from Lat. pendere, to hang), any hang-
ing object, such as a jewel or other ornament hanging from
a brooch, bracelet, &c., or the loose end of a knight's belt left
hanging after passing through the buckle, and terminating in
an ornamental end. In architecture the word is applied to an
elongated boss, either moulded or foliated, such as hangs down
from the intersection of ribs, especially in fan tracery, or at the
end of hammer beams. Sometimes long corbels, under the wall
pieces, have been so called. The name has also been given to
the large masses depending from enriched ceilings, in the later
works of the Pointed style. " Pendants " or " Pendent posts "
are those timbers which are carried down the side of the wall
from the plate, and receive the hammer braces.

PENDENTIVE, the term given in architecture to the bridging
across the angles of a square hall, so as to obtain a circular base
for a dome or drain. This may be done by corbelling out in
the angles, in which case the pendentive may be a portion of a
hemisphere of which the half diagonal of the square hall is the
radius; or by throwing a series of arches across the angle, each
ring as it rises advancing in front of the one below and being
carried by it during its construction; in this case the base
obtained is octagonal, so that corbels or small pendentives
are required for each angle of the octagon, unless as in the church
of SS. Sergius and Bacchus at Constantinople a portion of the
dome is set back; or again, by a third method, by sinking a
semicircular niche in the angle. The first system was that
employed in St Sophia at Constantinople, and in Byzantine
churches generally, also in the domed churches of Perigord and
Aquitaine. The second is found in the Sassanian palaces of
Serbistan and Firuzabad, and in medieval architecture in
England, France and Germany, where the arches are termed
" squinches." The third system is found in the mosque at
Damascus, and was often adopted in the churches in Asia
Minor. There is still another method in which the pendentive
and cupola are part of the same hemispherical dome, and in
this case the ring courses lie in vertical instead of horizontal
planes, examples of which may be found in the vault of Magnesia
on Maeander in Asia Minor, and in the tomb at Valence known
as le pendentif de Valence. The problem is one which has taxed
the ingenuity of many builders in ancient times; the bas-reliefs
found at Nimrud show that in the pth century B.C. domes were
evidently built over square halls, and must have been carried
on pendentives of some kind.

FENDER, SIR JOHN (1816-1896), British cable pioneer, was
born in the Vale of Leven, Scotland, on the loth of September
1816, and after attending school in Glasgow became a successful
merchant in textile fabrics in that city and in Manchester.
His name is chiefly known in connexion with submarine cables,
of which on the commercial side he was an important promoter.
He was one of the 345 contributors who each risked a thousand
pounds in the Transatlantic Cable in 1857, and when the Atlantic
Telegraph Company was ruined by the loss of the 1865 cable he
formed the Anglo-American Telegraph Company to continue
the work, but it was not till he had given his personal guarantee
for a quarter of a million pounds that the makers would under-
take the manufacture of a new cable. But in the end he was
justified, and telegraphic communication with America became
a commercial success. Subsequently he fostered cable enter-
prise in all parts of the world, and at the time of his death,
which occurred at Footscray Place, Kent, on the yth of July
1896, he controlled companies having a capital of 15 millions
sterling and owning 73,640 nautical miles of cables. He repre-
sented Wick Burghs in parliament from 1872 to 1885 and from
1892 to 1896. He was made a K.C.M.G. in 1888 and was pro-
moted in 1892 to be G.C.M.G. His eldest son James (b. 1841),
who was M.P. for Mid Northamptonshire in 1895-1900, was
created a baronet in 1897; and his third son, John Denison
(b. 1855), was created a K.C.M.G. in 1901.

PENDLESIDE SERIES, in geology, a series of shales between
the upper division of the Carboniferous Limestone and the
Millstone Grits occurring in the Midlands between Stoke-on-
Trent and Settle. It consists of black limestones at the base,
followed by black shales with calcareous nodules, which pass
into sandy shales with ganister-like sandstones. In places
the series attains a thickness of 1500-1000 ft., and where it is
thickest the Millstone Grits also attain their maximum thickness.
The peculiarities of the series, which is characterized by a rich
fauna with Productus giganteus, P. slriatus, Dibunophyllum,
Cyalhaxonia cornu and Lonsdaleia floriformis, can be best
studied on the western slope of Pendle Hill, Lancashire, in the
valley of the Hodder, dividing the counties of Lancashire and
Yorkshire, at Mam Tor and the Edale valley in Derbyshire, and
Morredge, the Dane valley in north Staffordshire, Bagillt and
Teilia in North Wales, and Scarlett and Poolvash, Isle of Man.
The limestones at the base are hard, compact and fissile, often
cherty, and vary much in the amount of calcium carbonate which
they contain, at times passing into calcareous shales.

These limestones and shales contain a distinct fauna which
appears for the first time in the Midlands, characterized by
Pterinopecten papyraceus, Posidoniella laevis, Posidonomya
Becheri, Posidonomya membranacea, Nomismoceras rotiforme
and Glyphioceras slriatus. Immediately below beds with this
fauna are thin limestones with Prolecaniles compressus, Slrobo-
ceras bisidcatus, many trilobites, and corals referable to the
genera Cyathaxonia, Zaphrentis and Amplexizaphrentis. The
fauna characteristic of the Carboniferous Limestone becomes
largely extinct and is replaced by a shale fauna, but the
oncoming of the age of Goniatites is shown by the presence
in the upper part of the Carboniferous Limestone of numerous
species and genera of this group, Glyphioceras creneslria being
the most common and having the wider horizontal range.
The whole Pendleside series can be divided into zones by the
different species of Goniatites. At the base Prolecanites com-
pressus characterizes the passage beds between the Carboniferous
Limestone and the Pendlesides; Nomismoceras rotiforme and
Glyphioceras slrialus are found in a narrow zone immediately
above. Then Glyphioceras reticulatum appears and reaches
its maximum, and is succeeded by Glyphioceras diadema
and Glyphioceras spirals, while immediately below the
Millstone Grits Glyphioceras bilingue appears and passes up in
that series. The Millstone Grits are characterized by the
presence of Gaslrioceras Lisleri. The Pendleside series is
therefore characterized by an Upper Carboniferous fauna,
Pterinopecten papyraceus, Posidoniella laevis and some other
species which pass up right through the Coal Measures appearing
for the first time, and the base of the series marks the division
between Upper and Lower Carboniferous times.

The series passes eastward into Belgium and thence into
Germany, when the same fossil zones are found in the basin of
Namur and the valley of the Dill. Traced westward the series is
well developed in Co. Dublin and on the west coast of Cos. Clare
and Limerick. There can be no doubt that the Pendleside series
of the Midlands represents the Lower Culm of Codden Hill,
north Devon, and the Lower Culm of the continent of Europe.
The faunas in these localities have the same biological succession
as in the midlands.

See Wheelton Hind and J. Allen Howe, Quart. Journ. Geog.
Soc. vol. Ivii. (1901), and numerous other papers by the first-named
author. (W. Hi.)

PENDLETON, EDMUND (1721-1803), American lawyer and
statesman, was born, of English Royalist descent, in Caroline
county, Virginia, on the 9th of September 1721. He was
self-educated, but after reading law and being admitted to the
bar (1744) his success was immediate. He served in the
Virginia House of Burgesses from 1752 until the organization
of the state government in 1776, was the recognized leader of
the conservative Whigs, and took a leading part in opposing
the British government. He was a member of the Virginia
committee of correspondence in 1773, in 1774 was president
of the Virginia provincial convention, and a member of the first

88

PENDLETON, G. H.— PENGUIN

Continental Congress. In 1776, as president of the provincial
convention, which adopted a state constitution for Virginia,
he drew up the instructions to the Virginia members of Congress
directing them to advocate the independence of the American
colonies. In the same year he became president of the Virginia
committee of safety, and in October was chosen the first
speaker of the House of Delegates. With Jefferson and Chan-
cellor George Wythe he drew up a new law code for Virginia.
He was president of the court of chancery in 1777-1788, and
from 1779 until his death was president of the Virginia court of
appeals. He was an enthusiastic advocate of the Federal consti-
tution, and in 1 788 exerted strong influence to secure its ratifi-
cation by his native state. He was a leader of the Federalist
party in Virginia until his death at Richmond, Va., on the
23rd of October 1803.

PENDLETON, GEORGE HUNT (1825-1889), American lawyer
and legislator, was born in Cincinnati, Ohio, on the 25th of
July 1825. He was educated at the university of Heidelberg,
studied law, was admitted to the bar, and began to practise
at Cincinnati. He was a member of the Ohio Senate in 1854
and 1855, and from 1857 to 1865 was a Democratic member of
the national House of Representatives, in which he opposed
the war policy of Lincoln. In 1864 he was the Democratic
candidate for vice-president. After leaving Congress he became
one of the earliest champions of the " Ohio idea " (which
he is said to have originated), demanding that the government
should pay the principal of its s~2o-year 6% bonds in the
" greenback " currency instead of in coin. The agricultural
classes of the West regarded this as a means of relief, and
Pendleton became their recognized leader and a candidate for the
Democratic nomination to the presidency in 1868, but he failed
to receive the requisite two-thirds majority. In 1869 he was the
Democratic candidate for governor of Ohio, but was defeated
by Rutherford B. Hayes. For the next ten years he devoted
himself to the practice of law and to the supervision of the
Kentucky Railroad Company, of which he had become president
in 1869. From 1879 to 1885 he was a Democratic member of
the United States Senate, and introduced the so-called Pendleton
Act of 1883 for reforming the civil service, hostility to which
lost him his seat in 1885. He was minister to Germany from
1885 to the summer of 1889, and died at Brussels on the 24th
of November 1889.

PENELOPE, in Greek legend, wife of Odysseus, daughter of
Icarius and the nymph Periboea. During the long absence
of her husband after the fall of Troy many chieftains of Ithaca
and the islands round about became her suitors; and, to rid
herself of the importunities of the wooers, she bade them wait
till she had woven a winding-sheet for old Laertes, the father
of Odysseus. But every night she undid the piece which she
had woven by day. This she did for three years, till her maids
revealed the secret. She was relieved by the arrival of Odysseus,
who returned after an absence of twenty years, and slew the
wooers. The character of Penelope is less favourable in late
writers than in the Homeric story. During her husband's absence
she is said to have become the mother of Pan by Hermes, and
Odysseus, on his return, repudiated her as unfaithful (Herodotus
ii. 145 and schol.). She thereupon withdrew to Sparta and
thence to Mantineia, where she died and where her tomb was
shown. According to another account she married Telegonus
the son of Odysseus and Circe, after he had killed his father,
and dwelt with him in the island of Aeala or in the Islands of
the Blest (Hyginus, Feb. 127).

PENGELLY, WILLIAM (1812-1894), English geologist and
anthropologist, was born at East Looe in Cornwall on the I2th
of January 1812, the son of the captain of a small coasting vessel.
He began life as a sailor, after an elementary education in
his native village, but in 1828 he abandoned a seafaring life.
He had developed a passion for learning, and about 1836 he
removed to Torquay and started a school; in 1846 he became
a private tutor in mathematics and natural science. Geology
had in early years attracted his attention, but it was not until
he was about 30 years of age that he began seriously to cultivate

the study. In 1837 he was instrumental in the reorganization
of the Torquay Mechanics' Institute, in 1844 mainly owing to
his energy the Torquay Natural History Society was founded,
and in 1862 he assisted in founding the Devonshire Association
for the Advancement of Literature, Science and Art. Meanwhile
he had been occupied in collecting fossils from many parts
of Devon and Cornwall, and in 1860 the Baroness Burdett-
Coutts acquired and presented them to the Oxford Museum,
where they form "The Pengelly Collection." Through the
generosity of the same lady he was called upon to examine
the lignites and clays of Bovey Tracey, in conjunction with
Dr Oswald Heer, who undertook the determination of the
plant-remains. Their report was published by the Royal
Society (1862), and Pengelly was elected F.R.S. in 1863. He
aided in the investigations of the Brixham bone-cavern from
the date of its discovery in 1858, the full report being issued
in 1873; and he was the main explorer of Kent's Hole, Torquay,
and from 1864 for more than fifteen years he laboured with
unflagging energy in examining and recording the exact position
of the numerous organic remains that were disinterred during
a systematic investigation of this cave, carried on with the aid
of grants from the British Association. He first attended the
British Association at the Cheltenham meeting in 1856, and was
present at subsequent meetings (except that at Montreal in
1884) until 1889. His observations assisted in establishing
the important fact of the contemporaneity of Palaeolithic man
with various Pleistocene mammalia, such as the mammoth,
cave-bear, cave-lion, &c. He was awarded the Lyell medal
by the Geological Society of London in 1886. He died at
Torquay on the i6th of March 1894.

See Memoir of William Pengelly, edited by his daughter Hester
Pengelly, with a summary of his scientific work by the Rev. Pro-
fessor T. G. Bonney (1897).

PENGUIN, the name of a flightless sea-bird,1 but, so far as
is known, first given to one inhabiting the seas of Newfound-
land as in Hore's " Voyage to Cape Breton," 1536 (Hakluyt,
Researches, iii. 168-170), which subsequently became known
as the great auk or garefowl (q.v.) ; though the French equiva-
lent Pingouin* preserves its old application, the word penguin
is by English ornithologists always used for certain birds
inhabiting the Southern Ocean, called by the French Manckots,
the Sphenistidae of ornithologists. For a long while their
position was very much misunderstood, some systematists
having placed them with the Alcidae or Auks, to which they
bear only a relationship of analogy, as indeed had been perceived
by a few ornithologists, who recognized in the penguins a very
distinct order, Impennes. L. Stejneger (Standard Nat. Hist.
vol. iv., Boston, 1885) gave the Impennes independent rank
equivalent to the rest of Carinate birds; M. A. Menzbier
(Vergl. Osteal, d. Penguine, Moscow, 1887) took a similar
view; M. Furbringer was first to show their relation to
Procellariformes, and this view is now generally accepted.

1 Of the three derivations assigned to this name, the first is by
Drayton in 1613 (Polyolbion, Song 9), where it is said to be the Welsh
pen gwyn, or 'white head"; the second, which seems to meet
with Littr6's approval, deduces it from the Latin pinguis (fat),
which idea has given origin to the German name, Fettganse, for these
birds; the third supposes it to be a corruption of " pin-wing " (Ann.
Nat. History, 4th series, vol. iv. p. 133), meaning a bird that has under-
gone the operation of pinioning or, as in one part at least of England
it is commonly called, " pin-winging." The first hypothesis has
been supported on the ground that Breton sailors speaking a language
closely allied to Welsh were acquainted with the great auk, and
that the conspicuous white patches on the head of that bird
justified the name " white head." To the second hypothesis Skeat
(Dictionary, p. 433) objects that it " will not account for the suffix -in,
and is therefore wrong; besides which the ' Dutchmen ' [who were
asserted to be the authors of the name] turn out to be Sir Francis
Drake " and his men. In support of the third hypothesis Mr Reeks
wrote (Zoologist, 2nd series, p. 1854) that the people in Newfoundland
who used to meet with this bird always pronounced its name
"pin wing." Skeat's inquiry (loc. fit.), whether the name may not
after all be South American, is to be answered in the negative, since,
so far as evidence goes, it was given to the North- American bird
before the South-American was known in Europe.

2 Gorfou has also been used by some French writers, being a
corruption of Geirfugl or Garefowl.

PENHALLOW— PENINGTON

89

There is a total want of quills in their wings, which are incapable
of flexure, though they move freely at the shoulder-joint, and
some at least of the species occasionally make use of them for
progressing on land. In the water they are most efficient
paddles. The plumage, which clothes the whole body, generally
consists of small scale-like feathers, many of them consisting
only of a simple shaft without the development of barbs; but
several of the species have the head decorated with long cirrhous
tufts, and in some the tail-quills, which are very numerous,
are also long.1 In standing these birds preserve an upright
position, sometimes resting on the " tarsus " 2 alone, but in
walking or running this is kept neaihr vertical, and their weight
is supported by the toes alone. .-r

The most northerly limit of the penguins' range in the
Atlantic is Tristan d'Acunha, and in the Indian Ocean Amsterdam
Island, but they also occur off the Cape of Good Hope and along
the coast of Australia, as well as on the south and east of New
Zealand, while in the Pacific one species at least extends
along the west coast of South America and to the Galapagos;
but north of the equator none are found. In the breeding
season they resort to the most desolate lands in higher southern
latitudes, and indeed have been met with as far to the south-
ward as navigators have penetrated. Possibly the Falkland
Islands are richest in species, though, as individuals, they

King- Penguin (Aptenodytes pennanti).

are not nearly so numerous there as in many other places. The
food of penguins consists of crustaceans, cephalopods and other
molluscs, varied by fish and vegetable matter. The birds
form immense breeding colonies, known as " rookeries." The
nest of grass, leaves, or where vegetation is scanty of stones
or rubbish, is placed on the ground or in holes. Two chalky
white or greenish eggs are laid. The young penguins, clad
in thick down, are born blind and are fed by the parents for
an unusually long time before taking to the water. Penguins
bite savagely when molested, but are easily trained and
display considerable intelligence.

The Spheniscidae have been divided into at least eight genera,
but three, or at most four, seem to be all that are needed, and

1 The pterylographical characters of the penguins are well
described by A. Hyatt (Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. History, 1871). A. D.
Bartlett has observed (Proc. Zool. Soc., 1879, pp. 6-9) that,
instead of moulting in the way that birds ordinarily do, penguins,
at least in passing from the immature to the adult dress, cast off
the short scale-like feathers from their wings in a manner that he
compares to " the shedding of the skin in a serpent."

2 The three metatarsals in the penguins are not, as in other birds,
united for the whole of their length, but only at'the extremities, thus
preserving a portion of their originally distinct existence, a fact
probably attributable to arrest of development, since the researches
of C. Gegenbaur show that the embryos of all birds, so far as is known,
possess these bones in an independent condition.

three can be well distinguished, as pointed out by E. Coues in
Proc. Acad. of Nat. Sci. of Philadelphia, 1872 (pp. 170-212),
by anatomical as well as by external characters. They are: (i)
Aptenodytes, easily recognized by its long and thin bill, slightly
decurved, from which Pygoscelis, as M. Watson has shown,
is hardly distinguishable; (2) Eudyptes, in which the bill is
much shorter and rather broad; and (3) Spheniscus, in which
the shortish bill is compressed and the maxilla ends in a conspi-
cuous hook. Aptenodytes contains the largest species, among
them those known as the " Emperor " and " King " penguins
A. patagonica and A. longirostris. Three others belong also
to this genus, if Pygoscelis be not recognized, but they seem
not to require any particular remark. Eudyptes, containing
the crested penguins, known to sailors as " Rock-hoppers "
or" Macaronis," would appear to have five species, and Sphenis-
cus four, among which S. mendiculus, which occurs in the
Galapagos, and therefore has the most northerly range of the
whole group, alone needs notice here. (A. N.)

The generic and specific distribution of the penguins is the subject
of an excellent essay by Alphonse Milne-Edwards in the Annales
des sciences naturelles for 1880 (vol. ix. art. 9, pp. 23-81); see also
the Records of the Antarctic Expedition, 1901—1904.

PENHALLOW, SAMUEL (1665-1726), American colonist
and historian, was born at St Mabon, Cornwall, England,
on the 2nd of July 1665. From 1683 to 1686 he attended a
school at Newington Green (near London) conducted by the
Rev. Charles Morton (1627-1698), a dissenting clergyman,
with whom he emigrated to Massachusetts in 1686. He was
commissioned by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel
in New England to study the Indian languages and to preach
to the Indians; but he was soon diverted from this work.
Removing to Portsmouth, New Hampshire, he there married a
daughter of John Cutt (1625-1681), president of the province
of New Hampshire in 1679-1680, a successful merchant and
mill-owner, and thus came into possession of considerable
property (including much of the present site of Portsmouth).
In 1700 he was speaker of the Assembly and in 1702 became a
member of the Provincial Council, but was suspended by
Lieut. -Governor George Vaughan (1676-1724). Penhallow,
however, was sustained by Governor Samuel Shute (1662-1742),
and Vaughan was removed from office in 1716. In 1714
Penhallow was appointed a justice of the superior court of
judicature, and from 1717 until his death was chief justice of that
court; and he also served as treasurer of the province in 1699-
1726, and as secretary of the province in 1714-1726. He died at
Portsmouth on the 2nd of December 1726. He wrote a valuable
History of the War of New England with the Eastern Indians,
or a Narrative of their Continued Perfidy and Cruelty (1726;
reprinted in the Collections of the New Hampshire Historical
Society, vol. i., 1824, and again at Cincinnati in 1859), which
covers the period from 1703 to 1726, and is a standard contem-
porary authority.

PENINGTON, SIR ISAAC (c. 1587-1661), lord mayor of London,
eldest son of Robert Penington, a London fishmonger, was born
probably in 1587. His father besides his London business had
landed estates in Norfolk and Suffolk, which Isaac inherited
in addition to a property in Buckinghamshire which he himself
purchased. In 1638 Isaac became an alderman and high
sheriff of London. In 1640 he was elected to the House of
Commons as member for the city of London, and immediately
took a prominent place among the Puritan party. In 1642
he was elected lord mayor of London, but retained his seat in
parliament by special leave of the Commons; and he was
elected lord mayor for a second term in the following year,
continuing while in office to raise large sums of money for the
opposition to the Court party. From 1642 to 1645 he was
lieutenant of the Tower, in which capacity he was present at
the execution of Laud; but, though one of the commissioners
for the trial of Charles I., he did not sign the death warrant.
After the king's death Penington served on Cromwell's council
of state, and on several committees of government. His
services were rewarded by considerable grants of land, and a

9o

PENINSULA— PENINSULAR WAR

knighthood conferred in 1649. He was tried and convicted
of treason at the Restoration, and died while a prisoner in the
Tower on the iyth of December 1661. He was twice married,
and had six children by his first wife, several of whom became
Quakers.

ISAAC PENINGTON (1616-1679), Sir Isaac's eldest son, was
one of the most notable of the 17th-century Quakers. He
was early troubled by religious perplexities, which found expres-
sion in many voluminous writings. No less than eleven religious
works, besides a political treatise in defence of democratic
principles, were published by him in eight years. He belonged
for a time to the sect of the Independents; but about 1657,
influenced probably by the preaching of George Fox, whom he
heard in Bedfordshire, Penington and his wife joined the Society
of Friends. His wife was daughter and heiress of Sir John
Proude, and widow of Sir William Springett, so that the worldly
position of the couple made them a valuable acquisition to the
Quakers. Isaac Penington was himself a man of very consider-
able gifts and sweetness of character. In 1661 he was imprisoned
for refusing to take the oath of allegiance, and on several subse-
quent occasions he passed long periods in Reading and Aylesbury
gaols. He died on the 8th of October 1679; his wife, who wrote
an account of his imprisonments, survived till 1682. In 1681
Penington's writings were published in a collected edition,
and several later editions were issued before the end of the i8th
century. His son John Penington (1655-1710) defended his
father's memory against attack, and published some con-
troversial tracts against George Keith. Edward Penington
(1667-1711), another of Isaac Penington's sons, emigrated to
Pennsylvania, where ha founded a family. Isaac Penington's
stepdaughter, Gulielma Springett, married William Penn.

See Maria Webb, The Penns and Peningtons of the l?th Century
(London, 1867); Lord Clarendon, History of the Rebellion and Civil
Wars in England (7 vols., Oxford, 1839); Bulstrode Whitelocke,
Memorials of English Affairs: Charles I. to the Restoration (London,
I732); J- Gurney Beyan, Life of Isaac Penington (London, 1784);
Thomas Ellwood, History of the Life of Ellwood by his own hand
(London, 1765); Willem Sewel, History of the Quakers (6th ed., 2
vols., London, 1834).

PENINSULA (Lat. paeninsida, from paene, almost, and insula,
an island), in physical geography, a piece of land nearly sur-
rounded by water. In its original sense it connotes attachment
to a larger land-mass by a neck of land (isthmus) narrower than
the peninsula itself, but it is often extended to apply to any
long promontory, the coast-line of which is markedly longer than
the landward boundary.

PENINSULAR WAR (1808-14). This important war, the
conduct and result of which greatly enhanced the prestige of
British arms, had for its main object the freedom of the Peninsula
of Spain and Portugal from the domination of Napoleon; and
hence it derives its name, though it terminated upon the soil
of France.

Nelson having destroyed the French fleet at Trafalgar,
Napoleon feared the possibility of a British army being landed
on the Peninsular coasts, whence in conjunction with Portuguese
and Spanish forces it might attack France from the south. He
therefore called upon Portugal, in August 1807, to comply with
his Berlin decree of the 2ist of November 1806, under which
continental nations were to close their ports to British subjects,
and have no communication with Great Britain. At the same
time he persuaded the weak king of Spain (Charles IV.) and
his corrupt minister Godoy to permit a French army to pass
through Spain towards Portugal; while under a secret treaty
signed at Fontainebleau on the 2 7th of October 1807 Spanish
troops were to support the French. Portugal was to be sub-
sequently divided between Spain and France, and a new princi-
pality of the Algarve was to be carved out for Godoy. Portugal
remonstrated against Napoleon's demands, and a French corps
(30,000) under General Junot was instantly despatched to
Lisbon. Upon its approach the prince regent fled, and the
country was occupied by Junot, most of the Portuguese troops
being disbanded or sent abroad. Napoleon induced the king
of Spain to allow French troops to occupy the country and to

send the flower of the Spanish forces (15,000) under the marquis
of Romana1 to assist the French on the Baltic. Then Dupont
de 1'Etang (25,000) was ordered to cross the Bidassoa on the
22nd of November 1807; and by the 8th of January 1808 he had
reached Burgos and Valladolid. Marshal Moncey with a corps
occupied Biscay and Navarre; Duhesme with a division entered
Catalonia; and a little later Bessieres with another corps had
been brought up. There were now about 100,000 French
soldiers in Spain, and Murat, grand duke of Berg, as " lieutenant
for the emperor," entered Madrid. During February and
March 1808 the frontier fortresses of Pampeluna, St Sebastian,
Barcelona and Figueras were treacherously occupied and Spain
lay at the feet of Napoleon. The Spanish people, in an outburst
of fury against the king and Godoy, forced the former to abdicate
in favour of his son Ferdinand; but the inhabitants of Madrid
having (May 2, 1808) risen against the French, Napoleon refused
to recognize Ferdinand; both he and the king were compelled
to renounce their rights to the throne, and a mercenary council
of regency having been induced to desire the French emperor to
make his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, king, he acceded to their
request.2

The mask was now completely thrown off, and Spain and
Portugal rose against the French. Provincial " juntas " (com-
mittees of government) were organized; appeals for assistance
made to the British government, which granted arms, money
and supplies, and it was resolved to despatch a British force
to the Peninsula. Before it landed, the French under Dupont,
Moncey and Marshal Bessieres (75,000) had occupied parts
of Biscay, Navarre, Aragon and the Castiles, holding Madrid
and Toledo, while General Duhesme (14,000) was in Catalonia.
Moncey (7000) had marched towards the city of Valencia, but
been repulsed in attempting to storm it (June 28); Bessieres
had defeated the Spanish general Joachim Blake at Medina
de Rio Seco (June 14, 1808) and Dupont (13,000) had been
detached (May 24) from Madrid to reduce Seville and Cadiz in
Andalusia. Spanish levies, numbering nearly 100,000 regulars
and militia, brave and enthusiastic, but without organization,
sufficient training, or a commander-in-chief, had collected
together; 30,000 being in Andalusia, a similar number in Gab'cia,
and others in Valencia and Estremadura, but few in the central
portion of Spain.

At this juncture Dupont, moving upon Cadiz, met with areverse
which greatly influenced the course of the Peninsular War. On
the 7th of June 1808 he had sacked Cordova; but while he was
laden with its spoils the Spanish general Castanos with the army
of Andalusia (30,000), and also a large body of armed peasantry,
approached. Falling back to Andujar, where he was reinforced
to 22,000 strong, Dupont detached a force to hold the mountain
passes in his rear, whereupon the Spaniards interposed between
the detachment and the main body and seized Baylen. Failing
to dislodge them, and surrounded by hostile troops and an
infuriated peasantry, Dupont capitulated with over Battle of
20,000 men. This victory, together with the in- Bayieo, July
trepid defence of Saragossa by the Spanish general ' ' ' ° '
Jose Palafox (June 15 to August 13, 1808) temporarily
paralysed the French and created unbounded enthusiasm in
Spain. Duhesme, having failed to take Gerona, was blockaded
in Barcelona, Joseph fled from Madrid (Aug. i, 1808), and the
French forces closed to their rear to defend their communications
with France. The British troops were directed towards Lisbon
and Cadiz, in order to secure these harbours, to prevent the
subjugation of Andalusia, and to operate up the basins of the
Guadiana, Tagus and Douro into Spain. The British force
consisted of 9000 men from Cork, under Sir Arthur Wellesley —
at first in chief command; 5000 from Gibraltar, under General
(Sir Brent) Spencer; and 10,000 under Sir John Moore coming
from Sweden; Wellesley and Moore being directed towards
Portugal, and Spencer to Cadiz. On the ist of August 1808

1 They subsequently escaped from Jutland, on British vessels,
and reached Santander in October 1808.

2 The king, the queen and Godoy were eventually removed to
Rome, and Ferdinand to Valencay in France.

PENINSULAR WAR

91

Wellesley began to land his troops, unopposed, near Figueira da
Foz at the mouth of the Mondego; and the Spanish victory of
Baylen having relieved Cadiz from danger, Spencer now joined
him, and, without waiting for Moore the army, under 15,000 in
all (which included some Portuguese)1 with 18 guns, advanced
towards Lisbon.

Campaign in Portugal, 1808. — The first skirmish took place
at Obidos on the isth of August 1808, against Delaborde's
division (5000 men with 5 guns), which fell back to Roleia
(Rorifa or Rolica). A battle took place here (Aug. 17) in which
Sir Arthur Wellesley attacked and drove him from two successive
positions. The allied loss was about 500: the French 600 and
three guns.1 On the 2Oth of August the Allies, strengthened
by the arrival of two more brigades (4000 men), occupied some
heights north of Vimiera (Vimeira or Vimeiro) where the roads
branch off to Torres Vedras and Mafra. Wellesley meant to
turn the defile of Torres Vedras by Mafra at once if possible;
but on this night Sir Harry Burrard, his senior, arrived off
Vimiera, and though he did not land, gave instructions to wait
for Sir John Moore. On the 2ist of August the Allies were
attacked by Junot at Vimiera, who, leaving a force at Lisbon,
had come up to reinforce Delaborde. In this battle the Allies
Battle of numbered about 18,000 with 18 guns, French nearly
Vimiera, 14,000, with 20 guns. Junot, believing the allied
August 21, ieft to be weakly held, attacked it without recon-
t808' noitring, but Wellesley's regiments, marched thither

behind the heights, sprang up in line; and under their volleys
and bayonet charge, supported by artillery fire, Junot's deep
columns were driven off the direct road to Lisbon. The losses
were: Allies about 800, French 2000 and 13 guns. It was now
again Wellesley's wish to advance and seize Torres Vedras; but
Sir Hew Dalrymple, having at this moment assumed command,
decided otherwise. On the 2nd of August Junot, knowing
of the approach of Moore with reinforcements, and afraid of
a revolt in Lisbon, opened negotiations, which resulted in the
Convention of Cintra2 (Aug. 30, 1808), under which the French
evacuated Portugal, on condition that they were sent with
their artillery and arms to France. Thus this campaign had been
rapidly brought to a satisfactory conclusion; and Sir Arthur
Wellesley had already given proof of his exceptional gifts as
a leader. In England however a cry was raised that Junot
should have been forced to an absolutely unconditional surrender;
and Sir Arthur Wellesley, Sir Hew Dalrymple and Sir Harry
Burrard3 were brought before a court of inquiry in London.
This acquitted them of blame, and Sir John Moore in the mean-
time after the departure of Dalrymple (Oct. 6, 1808) had assumed
command of the allied army in Portugal, now about 32,000
strong.

Moore's Campaign in Spain, 1808-9. — The British govern-
ment notified to Sir John Moore that some 10,000 men were
to be sent to Corunna under Sir David Baird; that he, with
20,000, was to join him, and then both act in concert with the
Spanish armies. As the conduct of this campaign was largely
influenced by the operations of the Spanish forces, it is necessary
to mention their positions, and also the fact that greater reliance
had been placed, both in England and Spain, upon them than
future events justified. On the 26th of October 1808, when
Moore's troops had left Lisbon to join Baird, the French still
held a defensive position behind the Ebro; Bessieres being in the
basin of Vitoria, Marshal Key north-west of Logrono, and Moncey
covering Pampeluna, and near Sanguessa. With the garrisons
of Biscay, Navarre, and a reserve at Bayonne, their strength
was about 75,000 men. Palafox (20,000) was near Saragossa and
•observing Sanguessa; Castanos with the victors of Baylen

1 In this account of the war the losses and numbers' engaged in
different battles are given approximately only; and the former
include killed, wounded and missing. Historians differ much on
these matters.

1 It was not, however, signed at Cintra, but at Lisbon, and was
mainly negotiated near Torres Vedras.

8 The two latter were recalled from the Peninsula ; Sir Arthur
Wellesley had proceeded to London upon leave, and had only signed
the armistice with Junot, not the convention itself.

(34,000) west and south of Tudela and near Logrono; Blake
(32,000) east of Reynosa, having captured Bilbao; Count de
Belvedere (11,000) near Burgos; reserves (57,000) were assem-
bling about Segovia, Talavera and Cordova; Catalonia was held
by 23,000, and Madrid had been reoccupied.

Moore had to decide whether to join Baird by sea or land.
To do so by sea at this season was to risk delay, while in moving
by land he would have the Spanish armies between him and the
French. For these reasons he marched by land; and as the
roads north of the Tagus were deemed impassable for guns, while
transport and supplies for a large force were also difficult to
procure, he sent Sir John Hope, with the artillery, cavalry and
reserve ammunition column, south of the river, through Badajoz
to Almaraz, to move thence through Talavera, Madrid and the
Escurial Pass, involving a considerable d6tour; while he himself
with the infantry, marching by successive divisions, took the
shorter roads north of the Tagus through Coimbra and Almeida,
and also by Alcantara and Coria to Ciudad Rodrigo and Sala-
manca. Baird was to move south through Galicia to meet him,
and the army was to concentrate at Valladolid, Burgos, or
whatever point might seem later on to be best. But as Moore
was moving forward, the whole situation in Spain changed.
Napoleon's forces, now increased to some 200,000 men present
and more following, were assuming the offensive, and he himself
on the 30th of October — had left Paris to place himself at
their head. Before them the Spaniards were routed in every
direction: Castanos was defeated near Logrono (Oct. 27);
Castanos and Palafox at Tudela (Nov. 23); Blake at Zornoza
(Oct. 29), Espinosa (Nov. n) and Reynosa (Nov. 13); and
Belvedere at Gamonal, near Burgos (Nov. 10). Thus when
Moore reached Salamanca (Nov. 28) Baird was at Astorga;
Hope at the Escurial Pass; Napoleon himself at Aranda; and
French troops at Valladolid, Arevalo and Segovia; so that the
French were nearer than either Baird or Hope to Moore at
Salamanca. Moore was ignorant of their exact position and
strength, but he knew that Valladolid had been occupied, and
so his first orders were that Baird should fall back to Galicia
and Hope to Portugal. But these were soon changed, and he
now took the important resolution of striking a blow for Spain,
and for the defenders of Madrid, by attacking Napoleon's
communications with France. Hope having joined him through
Avila, and magazines having been formed at Benavente, Astorga
and Lugo, in case of retreat in that direction, he moved
forward, and on the I3th of December approached the Douro,
at and near Rueda east of Toro. Here he learnt that Madrid
had fallen to Napoleon (Dec. 3) after he had by a brilliant
charge of the Polish lancers and chasseurs of the Guard forced
the Somosierra Pass (Nov. 30) and in another action stormed
the Retire commanding Madrid itself (Dec. 3) ; that the French
were pressing on towards Lisbon and Andalusia; that Napoleon
was unaware of his vicinity, and that Soult's corps, isolated on
the Carrion River, had been ordered towards Benavente. He
then finally decided to attack Soult (intending subsequently to
fall back through Galicia) and ordered up transports from
Lisbon to Corunna and Vigo; thus changing his base from
Portugal to the north-west of Spain; Blake's Spanish army,
now rallying under the marquis de la Romafia near Leon, was
to co-operate, but was able to give little effective aid.

On the 2oth of December Baird joined Moore near Mayorga,
and a brilliant cavalry combat now took place at Sahagun, in
which the British hussar brigade distinguished itself. But on
the 23rd of December, when Moore was at Sahagun and about
to attack Soult, he learnt that overwhelming French forces
were hastening towards him, so withdrew across the Esla, near
Benevente (Dec. 28), destroying the bridge there. Napoleon,
directly he realized Moore's proximity, had ordered Soult to
Astorga to cut him off from Galicia; recalled his other troops
from their march towards Lisbon and Andalusia, and, with
50,000 men and 150 guns, had left Madrid himself (Dec. 22). He
traversed over 100 m. in less than five days across the snow-
covered Escurial Pass, reaching Tordesillas on the Douro on the
26th of December. Hence he wrote to Soult, " If the English

PENINSULAR WAR

pass to-day in their position (which he believed to be Sahagun)
they are lost." But Moore had passed Astorga by the 3ist of
December, where Napoleon arrived on the ist of January 1809.
Thence he turned back, with a large portion of his army towards
France, leaving Soult with over 40,000 men to follow Moore.

On the " Retreat to Corunna " fatigue, wet and bitter cold,
combined with the sense of an enforced retreat, shook the
discipline of Moore's army; but he reached Corunna on the nth
of January 1809, where he took up a position across the road
from Lugo, with his left on the river Mero. On the I4th of
January the transports arrived; and on the i6th Soult attacked.
Battle of In this battle the French numbered about 20,000 with
Corunna, 40 guns; the British 15,000 with 9 very light guns.
January 16, goult failed to dislodge the British, and Moore was
1809' about to deliver a counter-attack when he himself

fell mortally wounded. Baird was also wounded, and as night
was approaching, Hope suspended the advance, and subse-
quently embarked the army, with scarcely any further loss. The
British casualties were about 1000, the French 2000. When the
troops landed in England, half clothed and half shod, their
leader's conduct of the campaign was at first blamed, but his
reputation as a general rests solidly upon these facts, that
when Napoleon in person, having nearly 300,000 men in Spain,
had stretched forth his hand to seize Portugal and Andalusia,
Moore with 30,000, forced him to withdraw it, and follow him to
Corunna, escaping at the same time from his grasp. Certainly a
notable achievement.

Campaign in Portugal and Spain, I Sop. — On the 2 2nd of April
1809 Sir Arthur Wellesley reached Lisbon. By this time,
French armies, to a great extent controlled by Napoleon from a
distance, had advanced — Soult from Galicia to capture Oporto
and Lisbon (with General Lapisse from Salamanca moving on
his left towards Abrantes) and Marshal Victor, still farther
to the left, with a siege train to take Badajoz, Merida and subse-
quently Cadiz. Soult (over 20,000), leaving Ney in Galicia, had
taken and sacked Oporto (March 29, 1809); but the Portuguese
having closed upon his rear and occupied Vigo, he halted,
detaching a force to Amarante to keep open the road to Braganza
and asked for reinforcements. Victor had crossed the Tagus, and
defeated Cuesta at Medellin (March 28, 1809); but, surrounded
by insurgents, he also had halted; Lapisse had joined him, and
together they were near Merida, 30,000 strong. On the allied
side the British (25,000), including some German auxiliaries,
were about Leiria: the Portuguese regular troops (16,000) near
Thomar; and some thousands of Portuguese militia were observ-
ing Soult in the north of Portugal, a body under Silveira being
at Amarante, which Soult was now approaching. Much progress
had been made in the organization and training of the Portuguese
levies; Major-General William Carr Beresford, with the rank of
marshal, was placed at their head. Of the Spaniards, Palafox,
after his defeat at Tudela had most gallantly defended Saragossa
a second time (Dec. 20, i8o8-Feb. 20, 1809); the Catalonians,
after reverses at Molins de Rey (Dec. 21, 1808) and at Vails
(Feb. 25, 1809) had taken refuge in Tarragona; and Rosas had
fallen (Dec. 5, 1808) to the French general Gouvion St Cyr who,
having relieved Barcelona, was besieging Gerona. Romana's
force was now near Orense in Galicia. A supreme junta had been
formed which could nominally assemble about 100,000 men,
but jealousy among its members was rife, and they still declined
to appoint any commander-in-chief.

On the sth of May 1809, Wellesley moved towards the
river Douro, having detached Beresford to seize Amarante,
from which the French had now driven Silveira. Soult
Passage of expected the passage of the Douro to be attempted
the Douro, near its mouth, with fishing craft; but Wellesley, by
May 12,1809. a Baring surprise, crossed (May 12) close above
Oporto, and also by a ford higher up. After some fighting
Oporto was taken, and Soult driven back. The Portuguese
being in his rear, and Wellesley closing with him, the only good
road of retreat available lay through Amarante, but he now
learned that Beresford had taken this important point from
Silveira; so he was then compelled, abandoning his guns and

much baggage, to escape, with a loss of some 5000 men, over the
mountains of the Sierra Catalina to Salamonde, and thence to
Orense.

During the above operations, Victor, with Lapisse, had forced
the passage of the Tagus at Alcantara but, on Wellesley return-
ing to Abrantes, he retired. News having been received that
Napoleon had suffered a serious check at the battle of Aspern,
near Vienna (May 22, 1809), Wellesley next determined — leaving
Beresford (20,000) near Ciudad Rodrigo — to move with 22,000
men, in conjunction with Cuesta's Spanish army (40,000)
towards Madrid against Victor, who, with 25,000 supported
by King Joseph (50,000) covering the capital, was near Talavera.
Sir Robert Wilson with 4000 Portuguese from Salamanca, and
a Spanish force under Venegas (25,000) from Carolina, were to
co-operate and occupy Joseph, by closing upon Madrid. Cuesta,
during the advance up the valley of the Tagus, was to occupy
the pass of Banos on the left flank; the Spanish authorities were
to supply provisions, and Venegas was to be at Arganda, near
Madrid, by the 22nd or 23rd of July; but none of these arrange-
ments were duly carried out, and it was on this that the remain-
der of the campaign turned. Writing to Soult from Austria,
Napoleon had placed the corps of Ney and Mortier under his
orders, and said: " Wellesley will most likely advance by the
Tagus against Madrid; in that case, pass the mountains, fall on
his flank and rear, and crush him."

By the 2oth of July Cuesta had joined Wellesley at Oropesa;
and both then moved forward to Talavera, Victor falling back
before them: but Cuesta, irritable and jealous,
would not work cordially with Welksley; Venegas — Talavera,
counter-ordered it is said by the Spanish junta — did July 27, 28,
not go to Arganda, and Wilson, though he advanced l809'
close to Madrid, was forced to retire, so that Joseph joined
Victor, and the united force attacked the Allies at Talavera
de la Reina on the Tagus. The battle lasted for two days,
and ended in the defeat of the French, who fell back towards
Madrid.1 Owing to want of supplies, the British had fought
in a half -starved condition; and Wellesley now learnt to his sur-
prise that Soult had passed the mountains and was in his rear.
Having turned about, he was on the march to attack him, when
he heard (Aug. 23) that not Soult's corps alone, but three French
corps, had come through the pass of Banos without opposition;
that Soult himself was at Naval Moral, between him and the
bridge of Almaraz on the Tagus, and that Cuesta was retreating
from Talavera. Wellesley's force was now in a dangerous
position: but by withdrawing at once across the Tagus at
Arzobispo, he reached Jaraicejo and Almaraz (by the south
bank) blowing up the bridge at Almaraz, and thence moved,
through Merida, northwards to the banks of the Agueda,
commencing to fortify the country around Lisbon.

Elsewhere in the Peninsula during this year, Blake, now
in Catalonia, after routing Suchet at Alcaniz (May 23, 1809),
was defeated by him at Maria (June 15) and at Belchite (June
18); Venegas, by King Joseph and Sebastiani, at Almonacid
on the nth of August; Del Parque (20,000), after a previous
victory near Salamanca (Oct. 18), was overthrown at Alba de
Tormes by General Marchand (Nov. 28) ; the old forces of Venegas
and Cuesta (50,000), now united under Areizaga, were decisively
routed by King Joseph at Ocafia (Nov. 19); and Gerona after
a gallant defence, had surrendered to Augereau (Dec. 10).

Sir Arthur Wellesley was for this campaign created Baron
Douro and Viscount Wellington. He was made captain-general
by Spain, and marshal-general by Portugal. But his experience
after Talavera had been akin to that of Moore; his expectations
from the Spaniards had not been realized; he had been almost
intercepted by the French, and he had narrowly escaped from a
critical position. Henceforth he resisted all proposals for joint
operations, on any large scale, with Spanish armies not under
his own direct command.

1 After the battle the Light Division, under Robert Craufurd,
joined Wellesley. In the endeavour to reach the field in time it
had covered, in heavy marching order, over 50 m. in 25 hours, in
hot July weather.

PENINSULAR WAR

93

Campaign in Portugal, 1810. — Napoleon, having avenged
Aspern by the victory of Wagram (July 6, 1809), despatched to
Spain large reinforcements destined to increase his army there
to about 370,000 men. Marshal Massena with 120,000, including
the corps of Ney, Junot, Reynier and some of the Imperial
Guard, was to operate from Salamanca against Portugal; but
first Soult, appointed major-general of the army in Spain
(equivalent to chief of the staff), was, with the corps of Victor,
Mortier and Sebastiani (70,000), to reduce Andalusia. Soult
(Jan. 31, 1810) occupied Seville and escaping thence to Cadiz,
the Supreme Junta resigned its powers to a regency of five
members (Feb. 2, 1810). Cadiz was invested by Victor's corps
(Feb. 4) , and then Soult halted, waiting for Massena, who arrived
at Valladolid on the isth of May.

In England a party in parliament were urging the withdrawal
of the British troops, and any reverse to the allied arms would
have strengthened its hands. Wellington's policy was thus
cautious and defensive, and he had already commenced the since
famous lines of Torres Vedras round Lisbon. In June 1810 his
headquarters were at Celorico. With about 35,000 British,
30,000 Portuguese regular troops and 30,000 Portuguese militia,
he watched the roads leading into Portugal past Ciudad Rodrigo
to the north, and Badajoz to the south of the Tagus, as also the line
of the Douro and the country between the Elga and the Ponsul.

Soult having been instructed to co-operate by taking Badajoz
and Elvas, Massena, early in June 1810, moved forward, and
Ciudad Rodrigo surrendered to him (June 10). Next pushing
back a British force under Craufurd, he invested Almeida,
taking it on the 27th of August. Then calling up Reynier,
who during this had moved on his left towards Alcantara,
he marched down the right bank of the Mondego, and
entered Viseu (Sept. 21). Wellington fell back before him
down the left bank, ordering up Rowland Hill's force from
the Badajoz road, the peasantry having been previously
called upon to destroy their crops and retire within the lines of
Torres Vedras. A little north of Coimbra, the -road which
Massena followed crossed the Sierra de Bussaco (Busaco), a very
strong position where Wellington resolved to offer him battle.
Massena, superior in numbers and over-confident, made a direct
attack upon the heights on the 27th of September 1810: his
Battle of strength being about 60,000, while that of the Allies
Busaco. was about 50,000, of whom nearly half were Portu-

September

27, 1810.

guese.

After a stern conflict the French were
the loss being five generals and nearly 5000
men, while the Allies lost about 1300. The next day Massena
turned the Sierra by the Boyalva Pass and Sardao, which latter
place, owing to an error, had not been occupied by the Portu-
guese, and Wellington then retreated by Coimbra and Leiria
to the lines, which he entered on the nth of October, having
within them fully 100,000 able-bodied men.

The celebrated " Lines of Torres Vedras " were defensive
works designed to resist any army which Napoleon could send
Lines of against them. They consisted of three great lines,
Torres strengthened by about 150 redoubts, and earthworks
Vedras, of various descriptions, mounting some 600 cannon;
1810-n. tne outer iinCi nearly 30 m. long, stretching over
heights north of Lisbon, from the Tagus to the sea. As Massena
advanced, the Portuguese closing upon his rear retook Coimbra
(Oct. 7), and when he neared the lines, astounded at their strength,
he sent General Foy to the emperor to ask for reinforcements.
After an effort, defeated by Hill, to cross the Tagus, he withdrew
(Nov. 15) to Santarem. This practically closed Wellington's
operations for the year 1810, his policy now being not to lose
men in battle, but to reduce Massena by hunger and distress.

In other parts of Spain, Augereau had taken Hostalrich (May
10); captured Lerida (May 14); Mequinenza (June 8); and
invested Tortosa (Dec. 15). The Spanish levies had been unable
to contribute much aid to the Allies; the French having subdued
almost all Spain, and being now in possession of Ciudad Rodrigo
and Almeida. On the other hand Wellington still held Lisbon
with parts of Portugal, Elvas and Badajoz, for Soult had not
felt disposed to attempt the capture of the last two fortresses.

Campaign of 1811. — Napoleon, whose attention was now
directed towards Russia, refused to reinforce Massena, but
enjoined Soult to aid him by moving against Badajoz. Soult,
therefore, leaving Victor before Cadiz, invested Badajoz (Jan.
26, 1811) and took it from the Spaniards (March 10). With the
hope of raising the blockade of Cadiz, a force under Sir Thomas
Graham (afterwards Lord Lynedoch [q.v.]) left that harbour by
sea, and joining with Spanish troops near Tarifa, advanced by
land against Victor's blockading force, a Spanish general, La
Pena, being in chief command. As they neared Barrosa, Victor
attacked them, the Allies numbering in the battle about 13,000
with 24 guns, 4000 being British; the French 9000, actually
engaged, with 14 guns; but with 5000 more a few miles off and
others in the French lines. Hard fighting, chiefly Battle of
between the French and British, now ensued, and Barrosa,
at one time the Barrosa ridge, the key of the position Marcbs,
left by La Pena's orders, practically undefended, I8tl'
fell into the French hands: but Graham by a resolute
counter-attack regained it, and Victor was in the end driven
back. La Pena, who had in the battle itself failed to give
proper support to Graham, would not pursue, and Graham
declining to carry on further operations with him, re-entered
Cadiz. The French afterwards resumed the blockade, so that
although Barrosa was an allied victory, its object was not
attained. The British loss was about 1200; the French 2000,
6 guns and an eagle.

On the day of the above battle Massena, having destroyed
what guns he could not horse, and skilfully gained time by a

feint against Abrantes, began his retreat from before .

A . • i T^ • i i TT- Masseaa's

the lines, through Coimbra and Espmhal. His getreat.

army was in serious distress; he was in want of food
and supplies; most of his horses were dead, and his men were
deserting. Wellington followed, directing the Portuguese to
remove all boats from the Mondego and Douro, and to break
up roads north of the former river. Beresford was detached
to succour Badajoz, but was soon recalled, as it had fallen to
Soult. Ney, commanding Massena's rearguard, conducted
the retreat with great ability. In the pursuit, Wellington
adhered to his policy of husbanding his troops for future offensive
operations, and let sickness and hunger do the work of the sword.
This they effectually did. Nothing could well exceed the horrors
of Massena's retreat. Rearguard actions were fought at Pombal
(March 10) , Redinha (March 1 2) and Condeixa (March 13) . Here
Ney was directed to make a firm stand; but, ascertaining that the
Portuguese were at Coimbra and the bridge there broken, and
fearing to be cut off also from Murcella, he burnt Condeixa,
and marched to Cazal Nova. An action took place here (March
14) and at Foz d'Arouce (March 15). Wellington now sent off
Beresford with a force to retake Badajoz; and Massena, sacri-
ficing much of his baggage and ammunition, reached Celorico
and Guarda (March 21). Here he was attacked by Wellington
(March 29) and, after a further engagement at Sabugal (April 3,
1811), he fell back through Ciudad to Salamanca, having lost
in Portugal nearly 30,000 men, chiefly from want and disease,
and 6000 in the retreat alone.

The key to the remaining operations of i8n lies in the impor-
tance attached by both Allies and French to the possession of
the fortresses which guarded the two great roads from Portugal
into Spain — Almeida and Ciudad Rodrigo on the northern, and
Badajoz and Elvas on the southern road; all these except Elvas
were in French hands. Wellington, on the gth of April 1811,
directed General Spencer to invest Almeida; he then set off
himself to join Beresford before Badajoz, but after reconnoitring
the fortress with his lieutenant he had at once to return north
on the news that Massena was moving to relieve Almeida. On
the 3rd of May Loison attacked him at Fuentes d'Onor near
Almeida, and Massena coming up himself made a more serious
attack on the sth of May. The- Allies numbered Battle of
about 33,000, with 42 guns; the French 45,000 with Fueates
30 guns. The battle is chiefly notable for the steadi- fOaor,
ness with which the allied right, covered by the Light "** ia
Division in squares, changed position in presence of the French

94

PENINSULAR WAR

cavalry; and for the extraordinary feat of arms of Captain
Norman Ramsay, R.H.A., in charging through the French cavalry
with his guns. Massena failed to dislodge the Allies, and on
the 8th of May withdrew to Salamanca, Almeida falling to
Wellington on the nth of May 1811. The allied loss in the
fighting on both days at Fuentes d'Onor was about 1500: the
French 3000.

In the meantime Soult (with 23,000 men and 50 guns), ad-
vancing to relieve Badajoz, compelled Beresford to suspend

Battle of tne S'e6e> anc* to ta^e UP a Posit*011 with aDout 30,000

Aibuera, men (of whom 7000 were British) and 38 guns
May 16, behind the river Albuhera (or Aibuera). Here
K"' Soult attacked him on the i6th of May. An unusu-

ally bloody battle ensued, in which the French efforts were
chiefly directed against the allied right, held by the Spaniards.
At one time the right appeared to be broken, and 6 guns were
lost, when a gallant advance of Sir Lowry Cole's division
restored the day, Soult then falling back towards Seville. The
allied loss was about 7000 (including about half the British
force) ; the French about 8000.

After this Wellington from Almeida rejoined Beresford and
the siege of Badajoz was continued: but now Marshal Marmont,
having succeeded Massena, was marching southwards to join
Soult, and, two allied assaults of Badajoz having failed, Welling-
ton withdrew. Subsequently, leaving Hill in the Alemtejo, he
returned towards Almeida, and with 40,000 men commenced
a blockade of Ciudad Rodrigo, his headquarters being at Fuente
Guinaldo. Soult and Marmont now fell back, the former to
Seville, the latter to the valley of the Tagus, south of the pass of
Bafios.

In September, Marmont joined with the army of the north
under General Dorsenne, coming from Salamanca — their total
force being 60,000, with 100 guns — and succeeded (Sept. 25) in
introducing a convoy of provisions into Ciudad Rodrigo. Before
so superior a force, Wellington had not attempted to maintain
the blockade; but on Marmont afterwards advancing towards
him, he fought a rearguard action with him at El Bodon (Sept.
25), notable, as was Fuentes d'Onor, for the coolness with which
the allied squares retired amidst the enemy's horsemen; and
again at Fuente Guinaldo (Sept. 25 and 26) he maintained for
30 hours, with 15,000 men, a bold front against Marmont's
army of 60,000, in order to save the Light Division from being
cut off. At Aldea de Ponte there was a further sharp engage-
ment (Sept. 27), but Wellington taking up a strong position near
Sabugal, Marmont and Dorsenne withdrew once more to the
valley of the Tagus and Salamanca respectively, and Wellington
again blockaded Ciudad Rodrigo.

Thus terminated the main operations of this year. On the
28th of October 1811, Hill, by a very skilful surprise, captured
Arroyo de los Molinos (between Badajoz and Trujillo), almost
annihilating a French corps under Gerard; and in December 1811
the French were repulsed in their efforts to capture Tarifa near
Cadiz. In the east of Spain Suchet took Tortosa (Jan. i, 1811);
Tarragona (June 28); and Murviedro (Oct. 26), defeating Blake's
relieving force, which then took refuge in Valencia. Macdonald
also retook Figueras which the Spaniards had taken on the 9th
of April 1811 (Aug. 19). Portugal had now been freed from the
French, but they still held Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz, the
two main gates into Spain.

Campaign in Spain, 1812, — The campaign of 1812 marks an
important stage in the war. Napoleon, with the Russian War in
prospect, had early in the year withdrawn 30,000 men from
Spain; and Wellington had begun to carry on what he termed a
war of " magazines." Based on rivers (the navigation of which
greatly improved) and the sea, he formed dep6ts or magazines
of provisions at many points, which enabled him always to take
and keep the field. The French, on the other hand, had great
difficulty in establishing any such reserves of food, owing to
their practice of depending for sustenance entirely upon the
country in which they were quartered. Wellington assumed
the offensive, and by various movements and feints, aided the
guerrilla bands by forcing the French corps to assemble in their

districts, which not only greatly harassed them but also materi-
ally hindered the combination of their corps for concerted action.
Having secretly got a battering train into Almeida and directed
Hill, as a blind, to engage Soult by threatening Badajoz, he
suddenly (Jan. 8, 1812) besieged Ciudad Rodrigo.

The French, still numbering nearly 200,000, now held the
following positions: the Army of the North — Dorsenne (48,000) —
was about the Pisuerga, in the Asturias, and along the northern
coast; the Army of Portugal — Marmont (50,000) — mainly in
the valley of the Tagus, but ordered to Salamanca; the Army of
the South — Soult (55,000) — in Andalusia; the Army of the Centre
— Joseph (19,000) — about Madrid.

The siege of Ciudad Rodrigo was calculated in the ordinary
course to require twenty-four days: but on it becoming known that
Marmont was moving northward, the assault was giegeof
delivered after twelve days only (Jan. 19). The Ciudad
gallantry of the troops made it successful, though with Rodrigo,
the loss of Generals Craufurd and McKinnon, and 1300 *™J^ *"
men, and Marmont's battering train of 150 guns here
fell into the allied hands. Then, after a feint of passing on into
Spain, Wellington rapidly marched south and, with 22,000 men,
laid siege to Badajoz (March 17, 1812), Hill with 30,000 covering
the siege near Merida. Wellington was hampered by want of
time, arid had to assault prematurely. Soult and Marmont
having begun to move to relieve the garrison, the assault was
delivered on the night of the 7th of April, and siege of
though the assailants failed at the breaches, the Badajoz,
carnage at which was terrible, a very daring escalade Malvl> t7 to
of one of the bastions and of the castle succeeded, '

and Badajoz fell, Souk's pontoon train being taken in it. After
the assault, some deplorable excesses were committed by the
victorious troops. The allied loss was 3600 in the assault alone
and 5000 in the entire siege.

The Allies had now got possession of the two great gates into
Spain: and Hill, by an enterprise most skilfully carried out,
destroyed (May 19) the Tagus bridge at Almaraz, by which
Soult to the south of the river chiefly communicated with Mar-
mont to the north. Wellington then, ostentatiously making
preparations to enter Spain by the Badajoz line, once more
turned northward, crossed the Tormes (June 17, 1812), and
advanced to the Douro, behind which the French were drawn
up. Marmont had erected at Salamanca some strong forts,
the reduction of which occupied Wellington ten days, and cost
him 600 men. The Allies and French now faced each other along
the Douro to the Pisuerga. The river was high, and Wellington
hoped that want of supplies would compel Marmont to retire,
but in this he was disappointed.

On the isth of July 1812, Marmont, after a feint against
Wellington's left, suddenly, by a forced march, turned his
right, and made rapidly towards the fords of Huerta and Alba
on the Tormes. Some interesting manoeuvres now took place,
Wellington moving parallel and close to Marmont, but more
to the north, making for the fords of Aldea Lengua and
Santa Marta on the Tormes nearer to Salamanca, and being
under the belief that the Spaniards held the castle and ford at
Alba on that river. But Marmont's manoeuvring and marching
power had been underestimated, and on the 2ist of July while
Wellington's position covered Salamanca, and but indirectly
his line of communications through Ciudad Rodrigo, Marmont
had reached a point from which he hoped to interpose between
Wellington and Portugal, on the Ciudad Rodrigo road. This
he endeavoured to do on the 22nd of July 1812, which brought
on the important battle of Salamanca (q.v.) in which Battle of
Wellington gained a decisive victory, the French Salamanca,
falling back to Valladolid and thence to Burgos. Ju'y 22>
Wellington entered Valladolid (July 30), and thence
marched against Joseph, who (July 21) had reached Blasco
Sancho with reinforcements for Marmont. Joseph retired
before him, and Wellington entered Madrid (Aug. 12, 1812),
where, in the Retire, 1700 men, 180 cannon, two eagles, and a
quantity of stores were captured. Soult now raised the siege
of Cadiz (Aug. 26), and evacuating Andalusia joined Suchet

PENINSULAR WAR

95

with some 55,000 men. Wellington then brought up Hill to
Madrid.

On the ist of September 1812, the French armies having begun
once more to collect together, Wellington marched against the
Slege of the Army of the North, now under General Clause], and
Castle of laid siege to the castle of Burgos (Sept. 19) to secure
Burgos, the road towards Santander on the coast. But the
Ocf'i/9 *° strenStn °f the castle had been underrated ;
Wellington had insufficient siege equipment and
transport for heavy guns; five assaults failed, and Soult (having
left Suchet in Valencia) and also the Army of Portugal were
both approaching, so Wellington withdrew on the night of the
Retreat 2ist of October, and, directing the evacuation of
irom Madrid, commenced the " Retreat from Burgos."

Burgos. jn (.jjjg retreat, although military operations were
skilfully conducted, the Allies lost 7000 men, and discipline, as
in that to Corunna, became much relaxed.

By November 1812, Hill having joined him at Salamanca,
Wellington once more had gone into cantonments near Ciudad
Rodrigo, and the French armies had again scattered for con-
venience of supply. In spite of the failure before Burgos, the
successes of the campaign had been brilliant. In addition to
the decisive victory of Salamanca, Madrid had been occupied,
the siege of Cadiz raised, Andalusia freed, and Ciudad Rodrigo
and Badajoz stormed. Early in January also the French had
abandoned the siege of Tarifa, though Valencia had surrendered
to them (Jan. 9). One important result of the campaign was
that the Spanish Cortes nominated Wellington (Sept. 22, 1812)
to the unfettered command of the Spanish armies. For the
operations of this campaign Wellington was created earl, and
subsequently marquess of Wellington; duke of Ciudad Rodrigo
by Spain, and marquis of Torres Vedras by Portugal.

Campaign in Spain and the South of France, 1813. — At the
opening of 1813, Suchet, with 63,000 men, had been left to hold
Valencia, Aragon and Catalonia; and the remainder of the
French (about 137,000) occupied Leon, the central provinces and
Biscay, guarding also the communications with France. Of
these about 60,000 under Joseph were more immediately
opposed to Wellington, and posted, in scattered detachments,
from Toledo and Madrid behind the Tormes to the Douro, and
along that river to the Esla. Wellington had further organized
the Spanish forces — Castanos (40,000), with the guerrilla bands
of Mina, Longa and others, was in Galicia, the Asturias and
northern Spain; Copons (10,000) in Catalonia; Elio (20,000) in
Murcia; Del Parque (12,000) in the Sierra Morena, and O'Donell
(15,000) in Andalusia. More Portuguese troops had been
raised, and reinforcements received from England, so that the
Allies, without the Spaniards above alluded to, now numbered
some 75,000 men, and from near the Coa watched the Douro and
Tormes, their line stretching from their left near Lamego to the
pass of Banos, Hill being on the right. The district of the Tras-
os-Montes, north of the Douro, about the Tamega, Tua and
Sabor, was so rugged that Wellington was convinced that
Joseph would expect him to advance by the south of the river.
He therefore, moving by the south bank himself with Hill, to
confirm Joseph in this expectation, crossed the Tormes near and
above Salamanca, having previously — which was to be the
decisive movement — detached Graham, with 40,000 men, to
make his way, through the difficult district above mentioned,
towards Braganza, and then, joining with the Spaniards, to turn
Joseph's right. Graham, crossing the Douro near Lamego,
carried out his laborious march with great energy, and Joseph
retired precipitately from the Douro, behind the Pisuerga. The
allied army, raised by the junction of the Spanish troops in
Galicia to 90,000, now concentrated near Toro, and moved to-
wards the Pisuerga, when Joseph, blowing up the castle of
Burgos, fell back behind the Ebro. Once more Wellington
turned his right, by a sweeping movement through Rocamunde
and Puente Arenas near the source of the Ebro, when he retreated
behind the Zadorra near the town of Vitoria.

Santander was now evacuated by the French, and the allied
line of communications was changed to that port. On the 2oth

of June Wellington encamped along the river Bayas, and the
next day attacked Joseph. For a description of the decisive
battle of Vitoria (June 21, 1813), see VITORIA. In it Battle of
King Joseph met with a crushing defeat, and, after vitoria,
it, the wreck of his army, cut off from the Vitoria- June 21,
Bayonne road, escaped towards Pampeluna. Within l813-
a few days Madrid was evacuated, and all the French forces,
with the exception of the garrisons of San Sebastian (3000),
Pampeluna (3000), Santona (1500), and the troops under Suchet
holding posts in Catalonia and Valencia, had retired across the
Pyrenees into France. The Spanish peninsula was, to all
intents and purposes, free from foreign domination, although
the war was yet far from concluded. The French struggled
gallantly to the close: but now a long succession of their leaders
— Junot, Soult, Victor, Massena, Marmont, Joseph — had been
in turn forced to recoil before Wellington; and while their troops
fought henceforward under the depressing memory of many
defeats, the Allies did so under the inspiriting influence of great
successes, and with that absolute confidence in their chief
which doubled their fighting power.

For this decisive campaign, Wellington was made a field
marshal in the British army, and created duke of Victory *
by the Portuguese government in Brazil. He now, with about
80,000 men, took up a position with his left (the Spaniards) on
the Bidassoa near San Sebastian. Thence his line stretched
along the Pyrenees by the passes of Vera, Echallar, Maya and
Roncesvalles, to Altobiscar; his immediate object now being
to reduce the fortresses of San Sebastian and Pampeluna. Not
having sufficient materiel for two sieges, he laid siege to San
Sebastian only, and blockaded Pampeluna. Sir Thomas Graham
commenced the active siege of San Sebastian on the loth of
July 1813, but as Soult was approaching to its relief, the assault
was ordered for daylight on the 24th. Unfortunately siegeotsan
a conflagration breaking out near the breaches Sebastian,
caused it to be postponed until nightfall, when, the Ju'y 10-24,
breaches in the interval having been strengthened, I8t3'
it was delivered unsuccessfully and with heavy loss. Wellington
then suspended the siege in order to meet Soult, who endeavoured
(July 25) to turn the allied right, and reach Pampeluna.
Attacking the passes of Maya and Roncesvalles, he obliged their
defenders to retire, after sharp fighting, to a position Battjet „/
close to Sorauren, which, with 25,000 men, he the Pyn-
attempted to carry (July 28). By this time Welling- nees,juiy2S
ton had reached it from the allied left ; reinforcements JgiV*****'
were pressing up on both sides, and about 1 2,000 allied
troops faced the French. A struggle, described by Wellington as
" bludgeon work," now ensued, but all efforts to dislodge the
Allies having failed, Soult, withdrawing, manoeuvred to his right
towards San Sebastian. Wellington now assumed the offensive,
and, in a series of engagements, drove the French back (Aug. 2)
beyond the Pyrenees. These included Roncesvalles and Maya
(July 25); Sorauren (July 28 and 30); Yanzi (Aug. i); and
Echallar and Ivantelly (Aug. 2), the total losses in them being
about — Allies under 7000, French 10,000. After this, Wellington
renewing the siege of San Sebastian carried the place, excepting
the castle, after a heavy expenditure of life (Aug. 31). Upon
the day of its fall Soult attempted to relieve it, but stormofSaa
in the combats of Vera and St Marcial was repulsed. Sebastian,
The castle surrendered on the gth of September, Augustsi,
the losses in the entire siege having been about — lsl3'
Allies 4000, French 2000. Wellington next determined to throw
his left across the river Bidassoa to strengthen his own position,
and secure the port of Fuenterrabia.

Now commenced a series of celebrated river passages, which
had to be effected prior to the further invasion of France. At
daylight on the 7th of October 1813 he crossed the Bidassoa in
seven columns, and attacked the entire French position,
which stretched in two heavily entrenched lines from north

1 Duque da Victoria, often incorrectly duke of Vitoria. The
coincidence of the title with the place-name of the battle which had
not yet been fought when the title was conferred, is curious, but
accidental.

96

PENINSULAR WAR

of the Irun-Bayonne road, along mountain spurs to the Great
Rhune, 2800 ft. high. The decisive movement was a passage in
Passage strength near Fuenterrabia, to the astonishment of
otttie the enemy, who in view of the width of the river
Bidassoa, and the shifting sands, had thought the crossing
October 7, impossible at that point. The French right was
Wl3' then rolled back, and Soult was unable to reinforce his

right in time to retrieve the day. His works fell in succession
after hard fighting, and he withdrew towards the river Nivelle.
The loss was about— Allies, 1600; French, 1400. The passage
of the Bidassoa " was a general's not a soldiers' battle "
(Napier).

On the 3ist of October Pampeluna surrendered, and Welling-
ton was now anxious to drive Suchet from Catalonia before
further invading France. The British government, however,
in the interests of the continental powers, urged an immediate
advance, so on the night of the pth of November 1813 he
brought up his right from the Pyrenean passes to the northward
of Maya and towards the Nivelle. Soult's army (about 79,000),
in three entrenched lines, stretched from the sea in front of St
Jean de Luz along commanding ground to Amotz and thence,
behind the river, to Mont Mondarin near the Nive. Each army
had with it about 100 guns; and, during a heavy cannonade,
Wellington on the loth of November 1813 attacked this extended
Passage of position of 16 m. in five columns, these being so
the Nivelle, directed that after carrying Soult's advanced works
Nov. to, a mass of about 50,000 men converged towards the
1813. French centre near Amotz, where, after hard fighting,

it swept away the 18,000 of the second line there opposed to it,
cutting Soult's army in two. The French right then fell back to
St Jean de Luz, the left towards points on the Nive. It was now
late and the Allies, after moving a few miles down both banks
of the Nivelle, bivouacked, while Soult, taking advantage of the
respite, withdrew in the night to Bayonne. The allied loss was
about 2700; that of the French 4000, 51 guns, and all their
magazines. The next day Wellington closed in upon Bayonne
from the sea to the left bank of the Nive.

After this there was a period of comparative inaction, though
during it the French were driven from the bridges at Urdains
and Cambo. The weather had become bad, and the Nive
unfordable; but there were additional and serious causes of
delay. The Portuguese and Spanish authorities were neglecting
the payment and supply of their troops. Wellington had also
difficulties of a similar kind with his own government, and also
the Spanish soldiers, in revenge for many French outrages, had
become guilty of grave excesses in France, so that Wellington
took the extreme step of sending 25,000 of them back to Spain
and resigning the command of their army, though his resignation
was subsequently withdrawn. So great was the tension at
this crisis that a rupture with Spain seemed possible. These
matters, however, having been at length adjusted, Wellington,
who in his cramped position between the sea and the Nive could
not use his cavalry or artillery effectively, or interfere with the
French supplies coming through St Jean Pied de Port, deter-
mined to occupy the right as well as the left bank of the Nive.
He could not pass to that bank with his whole force while Soult
held Bayonne, without exposing his own communications
through Irun. Therefore, on the gth of December 1813, after
making a demonstration elsewhere, he effected the passage with
Passage of a portion of his force only under Hill and Beresford,
the Nive, near Ustaritz and Cambo, his loss being slight, and
Dec. 9, thence pushed down the river towards Villefranque,
1813. where Soult barred his way across the road to

Bayonne. The allied army was now divided into two portions
by the Nive; and Soult from Bayonne at once took advantage
of his central position to attack it with all his available force,
first on the left bank and then on the right. On the morning
of the loth of December he fell, with 60,000 men and 40 guns,
upon Hope, who with 30,000 men and 24 guns held a position
from the sea, 3 m. south of Biarritz on a ridge behind two lakes
(or tanks) through Arcangues towards the Nive. Desperate
fighting now ensued, but fortunately, owing to the intersected

ground, Soult was compelled to advance slowly, and in the end,
Wellington coming up with Beresford from the right bank, the
French retired baffled. On the nth and i2th of Battles
December there were engagements of a less severe Defore
character, and finally on the I3th of December Soult %%£*'/*
with 35,000 men made a vehement attack up the the Nive,
right bank of the Nive against Hill, who with about Dec. 10-13,
14,000 men occupied some heights from Villefranque tsia.
past St Pierre (Lostenia) to Vieux Moguerre. The conflict about
St Pierre (Lostenia) was one of the most bloody of the war; but
for hours Hill maintained his ground, and finally repulsed the
French before Wellington, delayed by his pontoon bridge over
the Nive having been swept away, arrived to his aid. The losses
in the four days' fighting in the battles before Bayonne (or battles
of the Nive) were — Allies about 5000, French about 7000. Both
the British and Portuguese artillery, as well as infantry, greatly
distinguished themselves in these battles.

In eastern Spain Suchet (April n, 1813) had defeated Elio's
Murcians at Yecla and Villena, but was subsequently routed
by Sir John Murray1 near Castalla (April 13), who then besieged
Tarragona. The siege was abandoned after a time, but was
later on renewed by Lord W. Bentinck. Suchet, after the
battle of Vitoria, evacuated Tarragona (Aug. 17) but defeated
Bentinck in the combat of Ordal (Sept. 13).

Campaign in the South of France, 1814. — When operations re-
commenced in February 1814 the French line extended from
Bayonne up the north bank of the Adour to the Pau, thence
bending south along the Bidouze to St Palais, with advanced
posts on the Joyeuse and at St Jean Pied de Port. Wellington's
left, under Hope, watched Bayonne, while Beresford, with Hill,
observed the Adour and the Joyeuse, the right trending back
till it reached Urcuray on the St Jean Pied de Port road. Exclu-
sive of the garrison of Bayonne and other places, the available
field force of Soult numbered about 41,000, while that of the
Allies, deducting Hope's force observing Bayonne, was of much
the same strength. It had now become Wellington's object
to draw Soult away from Bayonne, in order that the allied army
might, with less loss, cross the Adour and lay siege to the place
on both banks of the river.

At its mouth the Adour was about 500 yds. wide, and its
entrance from the sea by small vessels, except in the finest
weather, was a perilous undertaking, owing to the shifting sands
and a dangerous bar. On the other hand, the deep sandy soil
near its banks made the transport of bridging materiel by land
laborious, and almost certain of discovery. Wellington, con-
vinced that no effort to bridge below Bayonne would be expected,
decided to attempt it there, and collected at St Jean Pied de
Port and Passages a large number of country vessels (termed
chasse-marees). Then, leaving Hope with 30,000 men to watch
Bayonne, he began an enveloping movement round Soult's
left. Hill on the I4th and isth of February, after a combat
at Garris, drove the French posts beyond the Joyeuse; and
Wellington then pressed these troops back over the Bidouze
and Gave2 de Mauleon to the Gave d'Oleron. Wellington's
object in this was at once attained, for Soult, leaving only 10,000
men in Bayonne, came out and concentrated at Orthes on the
Pau. Then Wellington (Feb. 19) proceeded to St Jean de Luz
to superintend the despatch of boats to the Adour. Unfavour-
able weather, however, compelled him to leave this to Sir
John Hope and Admiral Penrose, so returning to the Gave
d'Oleron he crossed it, and faced Soult on the Pau (Feb. 25).
Hope in the meantime, after feints higher up the Adour, suc-
ceeded (Feb. 22 and 23) in passing 600 men across passage of
the river in boats. The nature of the ground, the Adour,
and there being no suspicion of an attempt at this *%*• & <°
point, led to the French coming out very tardily to •**• I814'
oppose them; and when they did, some Congreve rockets
(then a novelty) threw them into confusion, so that the right
bank was held until, on the morning of the 24th, the flotilla of

1 Commander of a British expedition from the Mediterranean
islands.

'"Gave" in the Pyrenees means a mountain stream or torrent.

PENINSULAR WAR

97

chetsse-maries appeared from St Jean de Luz, preceded by men-
of-war boats. Several men and vessels were lost in crossing the
bar; but by noon on the 26th of February the bridge of 26
vessels had been thrown and secured; batteries and a boom
placed to protect it, 8000 troops passed over, and the enemy's
gunboats driven up the river. Bayonne was then invested on
both banks as a preliminary to the siege.

On the 27th of February Wellington, having with little loss
effected the passage of the Pau below Orthes, attacked Soult.
In this battle the Allies and French were of about equal strength
(37,00x3): the former having 48 guns, the latter 40. Soult held
Battle of a strong position behind Orthes on heights command-
Orthes, ing the roads to Dax and St Sever. Beresford was
Feb. 27, directed to turn his right, if possible cutting him off
""' from Dax, and Hill his left towards the St Sever road.

Beresford's attack, after hard fighting over difficult ground, was
repulsed, when Wellington, perceiving that the pursuing French
had left a central part of the heights unoccupied, thrust up the
Light Division into it, between Soult's right and centre. At the
same time Hill, having found a ford above Orthes, was turning
the French left, when Soult retreated just in time to save being
cut off, withdrawing towards St Sever, which he reached on the
28th of February. The allied loss was about 2000; the French
4000 and 6 guns.

From St Sever Soult turned eastwards to Aire, where he
covered the roads to Bordeaux and Toulouse. Beresford, with
12,000 men, was now sent to Bordeaux, which opened its gates as
promised to the Allies. Driven by Hill from Aire on the 2nd of
March 1814, Soult retired by Vic Bigorre, where there was a
combat (March 19), and Tarbes, where there was a severe action
(March 20), to Toulouse behind the Garonne. He endeavoured
also to rouse the French peasantry against the Allies, but in
vain, for Wellington's justice and moderation afforded them no
grievances. Wellington wished to pass the Garonne above
Toulouse in order to attack the city from the south — its weakest
side — and interpose between Soult and Suchet. But finding it
impracticable to operate in that direction, he left Hill on the
west side and crossed at Grenade below Toulouse (April 3).
When Beresford, who had now rejoined Wellington, had passed
over, the bridge was swept away, which left him isolated on the
right bank. But Soult did not attack; the bridge (April 8)
was restored; Wellington crossed the Garonne and the Ers, and
attacked Soult on the loth of April. In the battle of Toulouse
the French numbered about 40,000 (exclusive of the local
National Guards) with 80 guns; the Allies under 52,000 with 64
Battle of guns. Soult's position to the north and east of the
Toulouse, city was exceedingly strong, consisting of the canal
April 10, 0£ LanguedOC) some fortified suburbs, and (to the
extreme east) the commanding ridge of Mont Rave,
crowned with redoubts and earthworks. Wellington's columns,
under Beresford, were now called upon to make a flank march
of some two miles, under artillery, and occasionally musketry,
fire, being threatened also by cavalry, and then, while the
Spanish troops assaulted the north of the ridge, to wheel up,
mount the eastern slope, and carry the works. The Spaniards
were repulsed, but Beresford gallantly took Mont Rave and
Soult fell back behind the canal. On the 1 2th of April Welling-
ton advanced to invest Toulouse from the south, but Soult on
the night of the nth had retreated towards Villefranque, and
Wellington then entered the city. The allied loss was about
5000; the French 3000. Thus, in the last great battle of the
war, the courage and resolution of the soldiers of the Peninsular
army were conspicuously illustrated.

On the I3th of April 1814 officers arrived with the announce-
ment to both armies of the capture of Paris, the abdication of
Napoleon, and the practical conclusion of peace; and on the
i8th a convention, which included Suchet's force, was entered
into between Wellington and Soult. Unfortunately, after
Toulouse had fallen, the Allies and French, in a sortie from
Bayonne on the i4th of April, each lost about 1000 men: so
that some 10,000 men fell after peace had virtually been made.

In the east, during this year (1814), Sir W. Clinton had, on
xxi. 4

the 1 6th of January, attacked Suchet at Molins de Rey and
blockaded Barcelona (Feb. 7); the French posts of Lerida,
Mequinenza and Monzon had also been yielded up, and Suchet,
on the and of March, had crossed the Pyrenees into France.
Figueras surrendered to Cuesta before the end of May; and peace
was formally signed at Paris on the 3oth of May.

Thus terminated the long and sanguinary struggle of the
Peninsular War. The British troops were partly sent to England,
and partly embarked at Bordeaux for America, with which
country war had broken out (see AMERICAN WAR OF 1812-15):
the Portuguese and Spanish recrossed the Pyrenees: the French
army was dispersed throughout France: Louis XVIII. was
restored to the P'rench throne: and Napoleon was permitted
to reside in the island of Elba, the sovereignty of which had been
conceded to him by the allied powers. For the operations
of this campaign Wellington was created marquess of Douro
and duke of Wellington, and peerages were conferred upon
Beresford, Graham and Hill.

The events of the Peninsular War, especially as narrated
in the Wellington Despatches, are replete with instruction not
only for the soldier, but 'also for the civil administrator. Even
in a brief summary of the war one salient fact is noticeable,
that all Wellington's reverses were in connexion with his sieges,
for which his means were never adequate. In his many battles
he was always victorious, his strategy eminently successful,
his organizing and administrative power exceptionally great,
his practical resource unlimited, his soldiers most courageous;
but he never had an army fully complete in its departments
and warlike equipment. He had no adequate corps of sappers
and miners, or transport train. In 1812 tools and material
of war for his sieges were often insufficient. In 1813, when he
was before San Sebastian, the ammunition ran short; a battering
train, long demanded, reached him not only some time after
it was needed, but even then with only one day's provision of
shot and shell. For the siege of Burgos heavy guns were avail-
able in store on the coast; but he neither had, nor could procure,
the transport to bring them up. By resource and dogged
determination Wellington rose superior to almost every diffi-
culty, but he could not overcome all; and the main teaching of
the Peninsular War turns upon the value of an army that is
completely organized in its various branches before hostilities
break out. (C. W. R.)

AUTHORITIES. — The Wellington Despatches, ed. Gurwood (London,
1834-1839); Supplementary Wellington Despatches (London, 1858-
1861 and 1867-1872) ; Sir W. Napier, History of War in the Peninsula
and South of France (London, 1828-1840); C. W. C. Oman, History
of the Peninsular War (London, 1902) ; Sir J. Jones, Journals and
Sieges in Spain, 1811-12 (London, 1814); and Account of the War
in Spain, Portugal and South of France, 1808-14 (London, 1821) ; Sir
J. F. Maurice, Diary of Sir John Moore (London, 1904); Command-
ant Balagny, Campagne de I'Empereur Napoleon en Espagne, 1808-
1800 (Paris, 1902); Major-General C. W. Robinson, Wellington's
Campaigns (London, 1907) ; Sir A. Alison, History of Europe, 1789-
1815 (London, 1835—1842); T. Choumara, Considerations militaires
sur les memoires du Marechal Suchet et sur la bataille de Toulouse
(Paris, 1838); Commandant Clerc, Campagne du Marechal Soult
dans les Pyrenees occidentals en 1813-14 (Paris, 1894); Memoires
du Baron Marbot (Paris, 1891 ; Eng. trans, by A. J. Butler, London,
1902) ; H. R. Clinton, The War in the Peninsula, &c. (London, 1889) ;
Marshal Suchet's Memoires (Paris, 1826; London, 1829); Captain L.
Butler, Wellington's Operations in the Peninsula, 1808-14 (London,
1904); Batty, Campaign of the Left Wing of the Allied Army in the
Western Pyrenees and South of France, 1813-14 (London, 1823);
Foy, Histoire de la guerre de la Peninsule, &c., sous Napoleon (Paris
and London, 1827); Lord Londonderry, Narrative of the Peninsular
War, 1808-13 (London, 1829) ; R. Southey, History of the Peninsular
War (London, 1823-1832) ; Major A. Griffiths, Wellington and Water-
loo (illustrated; London, 1898); Thiers, Histoire du consulat el de
V empire (Paris, 1845-1847; and translated by D. F. Campbell,
London, 1845); Captain A. H. Marindin, The Salamanca Campaign
(London, 1906); Marmont's Memoires (Paris, 1857); Colonel Sir
A. S. Frazer, Letters during the Peninsular and Waterloo Campaigns
(ed. by Major-General E. Sabine, London, 1859); Lieut. -Colonel
W. Hill-James, Battles round Biarritz, Nivelle and the Nive (London,
1896); Battles round Biarritz, Carres and the Bridge of Boats (Edin-
burgh, 1897); H. B. Robinson, Memoirs of Lieutenant-General Sir
T. Picton (London, 1835): G. C. Moore-Smith, Autobiography oj
Lieutenant-General Sir Harry Smith (London, 1901); Life of John
Colborne (F.-M. Lord Seaton) (London, 1903) ; Rev. A. H. Crauford,

98

PENISCOLA— PENITENTIARY

General Craufurd and his Light Division (London, 1891); Sir George
Larpent, Private Journal of F. S. Larpent during the Peninsular War
(London, 1853); Major-General H. D. Hutchinson, Operations in
the Peninsula, 1808-9 (London, 1905); The Dickson MSS., being
Journals of Major-General Sir Alexander Dickson during the Penin-
sular War (Woolwich, 1907).

PEftlSCOLA, a town of eastern Spain, in the province of Cas-
tellon de la Plana, and on the Mediterranean Sea, 5 m. by road
S. of Benicarl6. Pop. (1900), 3142. Peniscola, often called the
Gibraltar of Valencia, is a fortified seaport, with a lighthouse,
built on a rocky headland about 220 ft. high, and only joined
to the mainland by a narrow strip of sand. Originally a
Moorish stronghold, it was captured in 1233 by James I. of
Aragon, who entrusted it to the Knights Templar. In the
i4th century it was garrisoned by the knights of Montesa, and
in 1420 it reverted to the Crown. From 1415 it was the home
of the schismatic pope Benedict XIII. (Pedro de Luna), whose
name is commemorated in the Bufador de Papa Luna, a curious
cavern with a landward entrance through which the sea-water
escapes in clouds of spray.

PENITENTIAL (Lat. poenilentiale, libellus poenitentialis,
&c.), a manual used by priests of the Catholic Church for
guidance in assigning the penance due to sins. Such manuals
played a large r61e in the early middle ages, particularly in
Ireland, England and Frankland, and their influence in the
moral education of the barbarian races has not received
sufficient attention from historians. They were mainly com-
posed of canons drawn from various councils and of dicta from
writings of some of the fathers. Disciplinary regulations in
Christian communities are referred to from the very borders of the
apostolic age, and a system of careful oversight of those admitted
to the mysteries developed steadily as the membership grew
and dangers of contamination with the outside world increased.
These were the elaborate precautions of the catechumenate, and
— as a bulwark against the persecutions — the rigid system known
as the Discipline of the Secret (disciplina arcani). The treat-
ment of the lapsed, which produced the Novatian heresy, was
also responsible for what has frequently been referred to as
the first penitential. This is the libellus in which, according
to Cyprian (Ep. 51), the decrees of the African synods of 251
and 255 were embodied for the guidance of the clergy in dealing
with their repentant and returning flocks. This manual,
which has been lost, was evidently not like the code-like com-
pilations of the 8th century, and it is somewhat misleading to
speak of it as a penitential. Jurisdiction in penance was still
too closely limited to the upper ranks of the clergy to call forth
such literature. Besides the bishop an official well versed
in the penitential regulations of the Church, called the poeni-
tentiarius, assigned due penalties for sins. For their guidance
there was considerable conciliar legislation (e.g. Ancyra, Nicaea,
Neocaesarea, &c.), and certain patristic letters which had
acquired almost the force of decretals. Of the latter the
most important were the three letters of St Basil of Caesarea
(d. 379) to Bishop Amphilochus of Iconium containing over
eighty headings.

Three things tended to develop these rules into something
like a system of penitential law. These were the development
of auricular confession and private penance; the extension of
the penitential jurisdiction among the clergy owing to the
growth of a parochial priesthood; and the necessity of adapting
the penance to the primitive ideas of law prevailing among the
newly converted barbarians, especially the idea of compensation
by the wergild. In Ireland in the middle of the sth century
appeared the " canons of St Patrick." In the first half of the
next century these were followed by others, notably those of
St Finian (d. 552). At the same time the Celtic British Church
produced the penitentials of St David of Menevia (d. 544) and
of Gildas (d. 583) in addition to synodal legislation. These
furnished the material to Columban (d. 615) for his Liber de
poenitentia and his monastic rule, which had a great influence
upon the continent of Europe. The Anglo-Saxon Church
was later than the Irish, but under Theodore of Tarsus (d.6Qo),
archbishop of Canterbury, the practice then in force was made

the basis of the most important of all penittntials. The
Poenilenliale Theodori became the authority in the Church's
treatment of sinners for the next four centuries, both in England
and elsewhere in Europe. The original text, as prepared by
a disciple of Theodore, and embodying his decisions, is given
in Haddan and Stubbs's Councils and Ecclesiastical Documents
relating to Great Britain and Ireland (in. 173 seq.). A
Penitenliale Commeani (St Cumian), dating apparently from
the early Sth century, was the third main source of Frankish
penitentials. The extent and variety of this literature led the
Gallican Church to exercise a sort of censorship in order to
secure uniformity. After numerous synods, Bishop Haltigar
of Cambrai was commissioned by Ebo of Reims in 829 to prepare
a definitive edition. Haltigar used, among his other materials,
a so-called poenilenliale romanum, which was really of Frankish
origin. The canons printed by David Wilkins in his Concilia
(1737) as being by Ecgbert of York (d. 767) are largely a transla-
tion into Anglo-Saxon of three books of HaJtigar's penitentials.
In 841 Hrabanus Maurus undertook a new Liber poenitentium
and wrote a long letter on the subject to Heribald of Auxerre
about 853. Then followed the treatise of Reginon of Prum
in 906, and finally the collection made by Burchard, bishop of
Worms, between 1012 and 1023. The codification of the canon
law by Gratian and the change in the sacramental position of
penance in the 1 2th century closed the history of penitentials.

Much controversy has arisen over the question whether
there was an official papal penitential. It is claimed that
(quite apart from Haltigar's poenitentiale romanum) such a
set of canons existed early in Rome, and the attempt has been
made by H. J. Schmitz in his learned treatise on penitentials
(Buszbucher und das kanonische Buszverfahren, 1883 and 1898)
to establish their pontifical character. The matter is still in
dispute, Schmitz's thesis not having met with universal
acceptance.

In addition to the works mentioned above the one important work
on the penitentials was L. W. H. Wasserschleben's epoch-making
study and collection of texts, Die Buszordnungen der abendldndischcn
Kirche nebst einer rechtsgeschichtlichen Einleitung (Halle, 1851).
See articles in Wetzer and Welte's Kirchenlexikon, Hauck's Real-
encyklopadie, and Haddan and Stubbs's Councils. See also Seebasz
in Zeitschrift fur Kirchengeschichte, xviii. 58. On the canons of
St Patrick see the Life of St Patrick by J. B. Bury (pp. 233-275).

PENITENTIARY (med. Lat. poenitenliarius, from poenitentia,
penance, poena, punishment, a term used both as adjective and
substantive, referring either to the means of repentance or
that of punishment. In its ecclesiastical use the word is used
as the equivalent both of the Latin poenitentiarius, " penitentiary
priest," and poenitentiaria, the dignity or office of a poenitenti-
arius. By an extension of the latter sense the name is applied
to the department of the Roman Curia known as the apostolic
penitentiary (sacra poenitentiaria aposlolica), presided over
by the cardinal grand penitentiary (major poenitentiarius,
Ital. penitenziere maggiore) and having jurisdiction more particu-
larly in all questions in foro interno reserved for the Holy See
(see CURIA ROMANA). In general, the poenilentiarius, or peni-
tentiary priest, is in each diocese what the grand penitentiary
is at Rome, i.e. he is appointed to deal with all cases of conscience
reserved for the bishop. In the Eastern Church there are very
early notices of such appointments; so far as the West is con-
cerned, Hinschius (Kirchenrecht, i. 428, note 2) quotes from
the chronicle of Bernold, the monk of St Blase (c. 1054-1100), '
as the earliest record of such "appointment, that made by
the papal legate Odo of Ostia in 1054. In 1215 the fourth
Lateran Council, by its loth canon, ordered suitable men to
be ordained in all cathedral and conventual churches, to act
as coadjutors and assistants to the bishops in hearing confessions
and imposing penances. The rule was not immediately nor
universally obeyed, the bishops being slow to delegate their
special powers. Finally, however, the council of Trent (Sess.
xxiv. cap. viii. de reform.) ordered that, " wherever it could
conveniently be done," the bishop should appoint in his cathedral
a poenilentiarius, who should be a doctor or licentiate in theology
or canon law and at least forty years of age.

PENKRIDGE— PENN, WILLIAM

99

See P. Hinschius, Kirchenrecht, \. 427, &c. (Berlin, 1869); Du
Cange, Glossarium s.v. " Poenitentiarius " ; Herzog-Hauck, Real-
encyklopadie (ed. 1904), s.v. " Ponitentiarius."

PENKRIDGE, a town in the western parliamentary division
of Staffordshire, England; 134 m. N.W. from London by the
London & North-Western railway, on the small river Penk.
Pop. (1901), 2347. Trade is chiefly agricultural and there are
stone-quarries in the vicinity. The church of St Michael and
All Angels, formerly collegiate and dedicated to St Mary, is a
fine building principally Perpendicular, but with earlier portions.
The Roman Watling Street passes from east to west 3 m. south
' of Penkridge. In the neighbourhood is Pillaton Hall, retaining
a picturesque chapel of the isth century.

PENLEY, WILLIAM SYDNEY (1852- ), English actor,
was born at Broadstairs, and educated in London, where his
father had a school. He first made his mark as a comedian
by his exceedingly amusing performance as the curate in The
Private Secretary, a part in which he succeeded Beerbohrn
Tree; but he is even more associated with the title role in
Brandon Thomas's Charley's Aunt (1892), a farce which had
an unprecedentedly long run and was acted all over the world.

PENMARC'H, a village of western France in the department
of Finistere, 18 m. S.W. of Quimper by road. Pop. (1906), of
the village, 387; of the commune, 5702. On the extremity of
the peninsula on which it is situated are fortified remains of a
town which was of considerable importance from the i4th to
the i6th centuries and included, besides Penmarc'h, St Guenole
and Kerity. It owed its prosperity to its cod-banks, the dis-
appearance of which together with the discovery of the New-
foundland cod-banks and the pillage of the place by the bandit
La Fontenelle in 1595 contributed to its decadence. The
church of St Nouna, a Gothic building of the early i6th century
at Penmarc 'h, and the church of St Guenole, an unfinished
tower of the isth century and the church of Kerity (isth
century) are of interest. The coast is very dangerous. On
the Point de Penmarc 'h stands the Phare d'Eckmuhl, with a
light visible for 60 miles. There are numerous megalithic
monuments in the vicinity.

PENN, WILLIAM (1621-1670), British admiral, was the
son of Giles Penn, merchant and seaman of Bristol. He served
his apprenticeship at sea with his father. In the first Civil
War he fought on the side of the parliament, and was in com-
mand of a ship in the squadron maintained against the king
in the Irish seas. The service was arduous and called for both
energy and good seamanship. In 1648 he was arrested and
sent to London, but was soon released, and sent back as rear
admiral in the " Assurance " (32). The exact cause of the
arrest is unknown, but it may be presumed to have been that
he was suspected of being in correspondence with the king's
supporters. It is highly probable that he was, for until the
Restoration he was regularly in communication with the Royal-
ists, while serving the parliament, or Cromwell, so long as their
service was profitable, and making no scruple of applying for
grants of the confiscated lands of the king's Irish friends.
The character of " mean fellow " given him by Pepys is borne
out by much that is otherwise known of him. But it is no less
certain that he was an excellent seaman and a good fighter.
After 1650 he was employed in the Ocean, and in the Mediter-
ranean in pursuit of the Royalists under Prince Rupert. He
was so active on this service that when he returned home on
the i8th of March 1651 he could boast that he had not put foot
on shore for more than a year. When the first Dutch War
broke out Penn was appointed vice-admiral to Blake, and was
present at the battle of the 28th of September off the Kentish
Knock. In the three days' battle off Portland, February
1653, he commanded the Blue squadron, and he also served
with distinction in the final battles of the war in June and July.
In December he was included in the commission of admirals
and generals at sea, who exercised the military command of
the fleet, as well as " one of the commissioners for ordering and
managing the affairs of the admiralty and navy." In 1654 he
offered to carry the fleet over to the king, but in October of

the same year he had no scruple in accepting the naval command
in the expedition to the West Indies sent out by Cromwell,
which conquered Jamaica. He was not responsible for the
shameful repulse at San Domingo, which was due to a panic
among the troops. On their return he and his military colleague
Venables were sent to the Tower. He made humble submission,
and when released retired to the estate he had received from
confiscated land in Ireland. He continued in communication
with the Royalists, and in 1660 had a rather obscure share in
the Restoration. He was reappointed commissioner of the
navy by the king, and in the second Dutch War served as
"great captain commander" or captain of the fleet, with
the duke of York (afterwards King James II.) at the battle
of Lowestoft (June 3, 1665). When the duke withdrew from
the command, Penn's active service ceased. He continued
however to be a commissioner of the navy. His death occurred
on the i6th of September 1670, and he was buried in the church
of St Mary Redcliffe, Bristol. His portrait by Lely is in the
Painted Hall at Greenwich. By his wife Margaret Jasper, he
was the father of William Penn, the founder of Pennsylvania.
Though Sir William Penn was not a high-minded man, he is
a figure of considerable importance in British naval history.
As admiral and general for the parliament he helped in 1653
to draw up the first code of tactics provided for the navy. It
was the base of the " Duke of York's Sailing and Fighting
Instructions," which continued for long to supply the orthodox
tactical creed of the navy.

See the Memorials of the Professional Life and Times of SirWilliam
Penn, by Granville Penn. (D. H.)

PENN, WILLIAM (1644-1718), English Quaker and founder
of Pennsylvania, son of Admiral Sir William Penn (1621-1670)
and Margaret Jasper, a Dutch lady, was born at Tower Hill,
London, on the I4th of October 1644. During his father's
absence at sea he lived at Wanstead in Essex, and went to school
at Chigwell close by, in which places he was brought under
strong Puritan influences. Like many children of sensitive
temperament, he had times of spiritual excitement; when about
twelve he was " suddenly surprised with an inward comfort,
and, as he thought, an external glory in the room, which gave
rise to religious emotions, during which he had the strongest
conviction of the being of a God, and that the soul of man was
capable of enjoying communication with Him." Upon the
death of Cromwell, Penn's father, who had served the Protector
because there was no other career open, remained with his family
on the Irish estates which Cromwell had given him, of the value
of £300 a year. On the resignation of Richard Cromwell he
at once declared for the king and went to the court in Holland,
where he was received into favour and knighted; and at the
elections for the convention parliament he was returned for
Weymouth. Meanwhile young Penn studied under a private
tutor on Tower Hill until, in October 1660, he was entered as a
gentleman commoner at Christ Church. He appears in the
same year to have contributed to the Threnodia, a collection
of elegies on the death of the young duke of Gloucester.

The rigour with which the Anglican statutes were revived,
and the Puritan heads of colleges supplanted, roused the spirit
of resistance at Oxford to the uttermost. With this spirit Penn,
who was on familiar terms with John Owen (1616-1683), and
who had already fallen under the influence of Thomas Loe
the Quaker, then at Oxford, actively sympathized. He and
others refused to attend chapel and church service, and were
fined in consequence. How far his leaving the university
resulted from this cannot be clearly ascertained. Anthony
Wood has nothing regarding the cause of his leaving, but says
that he stayed at Oxford for two years, and that he was noted
for proficiency in manly sports. There is no doubt that in
January 1662 his father was anxious to remove him to Cambridge,
and consulted Pepys on the subject; and in later years he speaks
of being " banished " the college, and of being whipped, beaten
and turned out of doors on his return to his father, in the
anger of the latter at his avowed Quakerism. A reconciliation,
however, was effected; and Penn was sent to France to forget this

IOO

PENN, WILLIAM

folly. The plan was for a time successful. Penn appears to have
entered more or less into the gaieties of the court of Louis XIV.,
and while there to have become acquainted with Robert Spencer,
afterwards earl of Sunderland, and with Dorothy, sister to
Algernon Sidney. What, however, is more certain is that he
somewhat later placed himself under the tuition of Moses
Amyraut, the celebrated president of the Protestant college
of Saumur, and at that time the exponent of liberal Calvinism,
from whom he gained the patristic knowledge which is so
prominent in his controversial writings. He afterwards travelled
in Italy, returning to England in August 1664, with " a great
deal, if not too much, of the vanity of the French garb and
affected manner of speech and gait."1

Until the outbreak of the plague Penn was a student of
Lincoln's Inn. For a few days also he served on the staff of
his father— now great captain commander — and was by him
sent back in April 1665 to Charles with despatches. Returning
after the naval victory off Lowestoft in June, Admiral Penn
found that his son had again become settled in seriousness and
Quakerism. To bring him once more to views of life not incon-
sistent with court preferment, the admiral sent him in February
1666 with introductions to Ormonde's pure but brilliant court
in Ireland, and to manage his estate in Cork round Shannan-
garry Castle, his title to which was disputed. Penn appears
also later in the year to have been " clerk of the cheque "
at Kinsale, of the castle and fort of which his father had the
command. When the mutiny broke out in Carrickfergus Penn
volunteered for service, and acted under Arran so as to gain
considerable reputation. The result was that in May 1666
Ormonde offered him his father's company of foot, but, for
some unexplained reason, the admiral demurred to this arrange-
ment. It was at this time that the well-known portrait was
painted of the great Quaker in a suit of armour; and it was at
this time, too, that the conversion, begun when he was a boy
by Thomas Loe in Ireland, was completed at the same place
by the same agency.2 .

On the 3rd of September 1667 Penn attended a meeting of
Quakers in Cork, at which he assisted to expel a soldier who
had disturbed the meeting. He was in consequence, with
others present, sent to prison by the magistrates. From prison
he wrote to Lord Orrery, the president of Munster, a letter,
in which he first publicly makes a claim for perfect freedom of
conscience. He was immediately released, and at once returned
to his father in London, with the distinctive marks of Quakerism
strong upon him. Penn now became a minister of the denomi-
nation, and at once entered upon controversy and authorship.
His first book, Truth Exalted, was violent and aggressive in the
extreme; The same offensive personality is shown in The Guide
Mistaken, a tract written in answer to John Clapham's Guide
to the True Religion. It was at this time, too, that he appealed,
not unsuccessfully, to Buckingham, who on Clarendon's fall
was posing as the protector of the Dissenters, to use his efforts
to procure parliamentary toleration.

Penn's first public discussion was with Thomas Vincent, a
London Presbyterian minister, who had reflected on the
" damnable " doctrines of the Quakers. The discussion, which
had turned chiefly upon the doctrine of the Trinity, ended
uselessly, and Penn at once published The Sandy Foundation
Shaken, a tract of ability sufficient to excite Pepys's astonish-
ment, in which orthodox views were so offensively attacked
that Penn was placed in the Tower, where he remained for nearly
nine months. The imputations upon his opinions and good
citizenship, made as well by Dissenters as by the Church, he
repelled in Innocency with her Open Face, in which he asserts
his full belief in the divinity of Christ, the atonement, and
justification through faith, though insisting on the necessity
of good works. It was now, too, that he published the most
important of his books, No Cross, No Crown, which contained
an able defence of the Quaker doctrines and practices, and a
scathing attack on the loose and unchristian lives of the clergy.

1 Pepys, August 30, 1664.

2 Webb, The Penns and Penningtons (1867), p. 174.

While completely refusing to recant Penn addressed a letter
to Arlington in July 1669, in which, on grounds of religious
freedom, he asked him to interfere. It is noteworthy, as
showing the views then predominant, that he was almost at
once set at liberty.

An informal reconciliation now took place with his father,
who had been impeached through the jealousy of Rupert and
Monk (in April 1668), and whose conduct in the operations of
1665 he had publicly vindicated; and Penn was again sent on
family business to Ireland. At the desire of his father, whose
health was fast failing, Penn returned to London in 1670.
Having found the usual place of meeting in Gracechurch Street
closed by soldiers, Penn, as a protest, preached to the people
in the open street. With William Mead he was at once arrested
and indicted at the Old Bailey on the ist of September for
preaching to an unlawful, seditious and riotous assembly,
which had met together with force and arms. The Conventicle
Act not touching their case, the trial which followed, and which
may be read at length in Penn's People's Ancient and Just
Liberties Asserted, was a notable one in the history of trial by
jury. With extreme courage and skill Penn exposed the
illegality of the prosecution, while the jury, for the first time,
asserted the right of juries to decide in opposition to the ruling
of the court. They brought in a verdict declaring Penn and
Mead " guilty of speaking in Gracechurch Street," but refused
to add " to an unlawful assembly "; then, as the pressure upon
them increased, they first acquitted Mead, while returning
their original verdict upon Penn, and then, when that verdict
was not admitted, returned their final answer " not guilty "
for both. The court fined the jurymen 40 marks each for their
contumacy, and, in default of payment, imprisoned them,
whereupon they vindicated and established for ever the right
they had claimed in an action (known as Bushell's case from the
name of one of the jurymen) before the court of common pleas,
when all twelve judges unanimously declared their imprisonment
illegal.

Penn himself had been fined for not removing his hat in court,
had been imprisoned on his refusal to pay, and had earnestly
requested his family not to pay for him. The fine, however,
was settled anonymously, and he was released in time to be
present at his father's death on the i6th of September 1670,
at the early age of forty-nine. Penn now found himself in
possession of a fortune of £1500 a year, and a claim on the
Crown for £16,000, lent to Charles II. by his father. Upon his
release Penn at once plunged into controversy, challenging a
Baptist minister named Jeremiah Ives, at High Wycombe, to
a public dispute and, according to the Quaker account, easily
defeating him. No account is forthcoming from the other
side. Hearing at Oxford that students who attended Friends'
meeting were rigorously used, he wrote a vehement and abusive
remonstrance to the vice-chancellor in defence of religious
freedom. This found still more remarkable expression in the
Seasonable Caveat against Popery (Jan. 1671).

In the beginning of 1671 Penn was again arrested for preaching
in Wheeler Street meeting-house by Sir J. Robinson, the
lieutenant of the Tower, formerly lord mayor, and known as a
brutal and bigoted churchman. Legal proof being wanting
of any breach of the Conventicle Act, and the Oxford or Five
Mile Act also proving inapplicable, Robinson, who had some
special cause of enmity against Penn, urged upon him the oath
of allegiance. This, of course, the Quaker would not take,
and consequently was imprisoned for six months. During this
imprisonment Penn wrote several works, the most important
being The Great Case of Liberty of Conscience (Feb. 1671),
a noble defence of complete toleration. Upon his release he
started upon a missionary journey through Holland and
Germany; at Emden he founded a Quaker society, and
established an intimate friendship with the princess palatine
Elizabeth.

Upon his return home in the spring of 1672 Penn married
Gulielma Springett, daughter of Mary Pennington by her first
husband, Sir William Springett; she appears to have been

PENN, WILLIAM

101

equally remarkable for beauty, devotion to her husband, and
firmness to the religious principles which she had adopted when
little more than a child.1 He now settled at Rickmansworth
in Hertfordshire, and gave himself up to controversial writing.
To this year, 1672, belong the Treatise on Oaths and England's
Present Interest Considered. In the year 1673 Penn was still
more active. He secured the release of George Fox, addressed
the Quakers in Holland and Germany, carried on public
controversies with Thomas Hicks, a Baptist, and John Faldo, an
Independent, and published his treatise on the Christian Quaker
and his Divine Testimony Vindicated, the Discourse of the General
Ride of Faith and Practice? Reasons against Railing (in answer
to Hicks), Counterfeit Christianity Detected, and a Just Rebuke
to One-and-lwenly Learned Divines (an answer to Faldo and to
Quakerism no Christianity). His last public controversy was
in 1675 with Richard Baxter, in which, of course, each party
claimed the victory.

At this point Penn's connexion with America begins. The
province of New Jersey, comprising the country between the
Hudson and Delaware rivers on the east and west, had been
granted in March 1663-1664 by Charles II. to his brother; James
in turn had in June of the same year leased it to Lord Berkeley
and Sir G. Carteret in equal shares. By a deed, dated i8th
of March 1673-1674, John Fenwick, a Quaker, bought one of
the shares, that of Lord Berkeley (Stoughton erroneously says
Carteret's) in trust for Edward Byllinge, also a Friend, for
£1000. This sale was confirmed by James, after the second
Dutch War, on the 6th of August 1680. Disputes having arisen
between Fenwick and Byllinge, Penn acted as arbitrator; and
then, Byllinge being in money difficulties, and being compelled
to sell his interest in order to satisfy his creditors, Penn was
added, at their request, to two of themselves, as trustee. The
disputes were settled by Fenwick receiving ten out of the hundred
parts into which the province was divided,3 with a considerable
sum of money, the remaining ninety parts being afterwards
put up for sale. Fenwick sold his ten parts to two other Friends,
Eldridge and Warner, who thus, with Penn and the other two,
became masters of West Jersey, West New Jersey, or New West
Jersey, as it was indifferently called.4 The five proprietors
appointed three commissioners, with instructions dated from
London the 6th of August 1676, to settle disputes with Fenwick
(who had bought fresh land from the Indians, upon which Salem
was built, Penn being himself one of the settlers there) and to
purchase new territories, and to build a town — New Beverley,
or Burlington, being the result. For the new colony Penn drew
up a constitution, under the title of " Concessions." The
greatest care is taken to make this constitution " as near as
may be conveniently to the primitive, ancient and fundamental
laws of the nation of England." But a democratic element
is introduced, and the new principle of perfect religious freedom
stands in the first place (ch. xvi.). With regard to the liberty
of the subject, no one might be condemned in life, liberty or
estate, except by a jury of twelve, and the right of challenging
was granted to the uttermost (ch. xvii.). Imprisonment for
debt was not abolished (as Dixon states), but was reduced to a
minimum (ch. xviii.), while theft was punished by twofold
restitution either in value or in labour to that amount (ch.
xxviii.). The provisions of ch. xix. deserve special notice.
All causes were to go before three justices, with a jury. " They,
the said justices, shall pronounce such judgment as they shall
receive from, and be directed by the said twelve men, in whom
only the judgment resides, and not otherwise. And in case of
their neglect and refusal, that then one of the twelve, by consent
of the rest, pronounce their own judgment as the justices should
have done." The justices and constables, moreover, were

1 For a very charming account of her, and the whole Pennington
connexion, see Maria Webb's The Penns and Penningtons.

2 See on this Stoughton's Penn, p. 113.

3 The deed by which Fenwick and Byllinge conveyed West New
Jersey to Penn, Lawry and Nicholas Lucas is dated the loth of
February 1674-1675.

4 The line of partition was "from the. east side of Little Egg
Harbour, straight north, through the country, to the utmost branch
of Delaware River."

elected by the people, the former for two years only (ch. xli.).
Suitors might plead in person, and the courts were public
(ch. xxii.). Questions between Indians and settlers were to be
arranged by a mixed jury (ch. xxv.). An assembly was to
meet yearly, consisting of a hundred persons, chosen by the
inhabitants, freeholders and proprietors, one for each division
of the province. The election was to be by ballot, and each
member was to receive a shilling a day from his division, " that
thereby he may be known to be the servant of the people."
The executive power was to be in the hands of ten commissioners6
chosen by the assembly. Such a constitution soon attracted
large numbers of Quakers to West Jersey.

It was shortly before these occurrences that Penn inherited
through his wife the estate of Worminghurst in Sussex, whither
he removed from Rickmansworth. He now (July 25, 1677)
undertook a second missionary journey to the continent along
with George Fox, Robert Barclay and George Keith. He
visited particularly Rotterdam and all the Holland towns,
renewed his intimacy with the princess Elizabeth at Herwerden,
and, under considerable privations, travelled through Hanover,
Germany, the lower Rhine and the electorate of Brandenburg,
returning by Bremen and the Hague. It is worthy of recollec-
tion that the Germantown (Philadelphia) settlers from Kirch-
heim, one of the places which responded in an especial degree
to Penn's teaching, are noted as the first who declared it wrong
for Christians to hold slaves. Penn reached England again on
the 24th of October. He tried *.o gain the insertion in the bill
for the relief of Protestant Dissenters of a clause enabling Friends
to affirm instead of taking the oath, and twice addressed the
House of Commons' committee with considerable eloquence
and effect. The bill, however, fell to the ground at the sudden
prorogation.

In 1678 the popish terror came to a head, and to calm and
guide Friends in the prevailing excitement Penn wrote his
Epistle to the Children of Light in this Generation. A far more
important publication was An Address to Protestants of all
Persuasions, by William Penn, Protestant, in 1679; a powerful
exposition of the doctrine of pure tolerance and a protest against
the enforcement of opinions as articles of faith. This was
succeeded, at the general election which followed the dissolution
of the pensionary parliament, by an important political manifesto,
England's Great Interest in the Choice of this New Parliament, in
which he insisted on the following points: the discovery and
punishment of the plot, the impeachment of corrupt ministers
and councillors, the punishment of " pensioners," the enactment
of frequent parliaments, security from popery and slavery, and
ease for Protestant Dissenters. Next came One Project for the
Good of England, perhaps the most pungent of all his political
writings. But he was not merely active with his pen. He was
at this time in close intimacy with Algernon Sidney, who stood
successively for Guildford and Bramber. In each case, owing
in a great degree to Penn's eager advocacy, Sidney was elected,
only to have his elections annulled by court influence. Toleration
for Dissenters seemed as far off as ever. Encouraged by his suc-
cess in the West Jersey province, Penn again turned his thoughts
to America. In repayment of the debt mentioned above he
now asked from the Crown, at a council held on the 24th of June
1680, for " a tract of land in America north of Maryland, bounded
on the east by the Delaware, on the west limited as Maryland
[i.e. by New Jersey], northward as far as plantable "; this
latter limit Penn explained to be " three degrees northwards."
This formed a tract of 300 m. by 160, of extreme fertility, mineral
wealth and richness of all kinds. Disputes with James, duke
of York, and with Lord Baltimore, who had rights over
Maryland, delayed the matter until the i4th of March 1681,
when the grant received the royal signature, and Penn was made
master of the province of Pennsylvania. His own account of
the name is that he suggested " Sylvania," that the king added
the " Penn " in honour of his father, and that, although he

6 Penn's letter of the 26th of August 1676 says twelve, and Clark-
son has followed this; but the Concessions, which were not assented
to by the inhabitants until the 3rd of March 1676-1677, say ten.

IO2

PENN, WILLIAM

strenuously objected and even tried to bribe the secretaries, he
could not get the name altered. It should be added that early
in 1682 Carteret, grandson of the original proprietor, transferred
his rights in East Jersey to Penn and eleven associates, who
soon afterwards conveyed one-half of their interest to the earl
of Perth and eleven others. It is uncertain to what extent
Penn retained his interest in West and East Jersey, and when
it ceased. The two provinces were united under one governor
in 1699, and Penn was a proprietor in 170x3. In 1702 the
government of New Jersey was surrendered to the Crown.

By the charter for Pennsylvania Penn was made proprietary
of the province. He was supreme governor; he had the power
of making laws with the advice, assent and approbation of the
freemen, of appointing officers, and of granting pardons. The
laws were to contain nothing contrary to English law, with a
saving to the Crown and the privy council in the case of
appeals. Parliament was to be supreme in all questions of
trade and commerce; the right to levy taxes and customs was
reserved to England; an agent to represent Penn was to reside
in London; neglect on the part of Penn was to lead to the passing
of the government to the Crown (which event actually took place
in 1692); no correspondence might be carried on with countries
at war with Great Britain. The importunity of the bishop of
London extorted the right to appoint Anglican ministers,
should twenty members of the colony desire it, thus securing
the very 'thing which Penn was anxious to avoid — the
recognition of the principle of an esta ilishment.

Having appointed Colonel (Sir Will am) Markham, his cousin,
as deputy, and having in October sent out three commissioners
to manage his affairs until his arrival, Penn proceeded to draw
up proposals to adventurers, with an account of the resources of
the colony. He negotiated, too, with James and Lord Balti-
more with the view, ultimately successful, of freeing the mouth
of the Delaware, wrote to the Indians in conciliatory terms,
and encouraged the formation of companies to work the infant
colony both in England and Germany, especially the " Free
Society of Traders in Pennsylvania," to whom he sold 20,000
acres, absolutely refusing, however, to grant any monopolies.
In July he drew up a body of " conditions and concessions."
This constitution, savouring strongly of Harrington's Oceana,
was framed, it is said, in consultation with Sidney, but the
statement is doubtful. Until the council of seventy-two (chosen
by universal suffrage every three years, twenty-four retiring
each year), and the assembly (chosen annually) were duly elected,
a body of provisional laws was added.

It was in the midst of this extreme activity that Penn was
made a Fellow of the Royal Society. Leaving his family
behind him, Penn sailed with a hundred comrades from Deal
in the " Welcome " on the ist of September 1682. His Last
Farewell to England and his letter to his wife and children contain
a beautiful expression of his pious and manly nature. He
landed at New Castle on the Delaware on the 27th of October,
his company having lost one-third of their number by small-pox
during the voyage. After receiving formal possession, arid
having visited New York, Penn ascended the Delaware to the
Swedish settlement of Upland, to which he gave the name of
Chester. The assembly at once met, and on the 7th of December
passed the " Great Law of Pennsylvania." The idea which
informs this law is that Pennsylvania was to be a Christian state
on a Quaker model. Philadelphia was now founded, and within
two years contained 300 houses and a population of 2500. At.
the same time an act was passed, uniting under the same govern-
ment the territories which had been granted by feoffment by
James in 1682. Realistic and entirely imaginative accounts (cf.
Dixon, p. 270), inspired chiefly by Benjamin West's picture,
have been given of the treaty which there seems no doubt Penn
actually made in November 1683 with the Indians. His con-
nexion with them was one of the most successful parts of his
management, and he gained at once and retained through life
their intense affection.

Penn now wrote an account of Pennsylvania from his own
observation for the " Free Society of Traders," in which he

shows considerable power of artistic description. Tales of
violent persecution of the Quakers, and the necessity of settling
disputes, which had arisen with Lord Baltimore, his neighbour
in Maryland, brought Penn back to England (Oct. 2, 1684)
after an absence of two years. In the spring of 1683 he had
modified the original charter at the desire of the assembly, but
without at all altering its democratic character.1 He was, in
reference to this alteration, charged with selfish and deceitful
dealing by the assembly. Within five months after his arrival
in England Charles II. died, and Penn found himself at once in
a position of great influence. Penn now took up his abode
at Kensington in Holland House, so as to be near the court.
His influence there was great enough to secure the pardon of
John Locke, who had been dismissed from Oxford by Charles,
and of 1200 Quakers who were in prison. At this time, too,
he was busy with his pen once more, writing a further account
of Pennsylvania, a pamphlet in defence of Buckingham's essay
in favour of toleration, in which he is supposed to have had some
share, and his Persuasive to Moderation to Dissenting Christians,
very similar in tone to the One Project for the Good of England.
When Monmouth's rebellion was suppressed he appears to have
done his best to mitigate the horrors of the western commission,
opposing Jeffreys to the uttermost.2 Macaulay has accused
Penn of being concerned in some of the worst actions of the court
at this time. His complete refutation by Forster, Paget,
Dixon and others renders it unnecessary to do more than allude
to the cases of the Maids of Taunton, Alderman Kiffin, and
Magdalen College (Oxford).

In 1686, when making a third missionary journey to Holland
and Germany, Penn was charged by James with an informal
mission to the prince of Orange to endeavour to gain his assent
to the removal of religious tests. Here he met Burnet, from
whom, as from the prince, he gained no satisfaction, and who
greatly disliked him. On his return he went on a preaching
mission through England. His position with James was
undoubtedly a compromising one, and it is not strange that,
wishing to tolerate Papists, he should, in the prevailing temper of
England, be once more accused of being a Jesuit, while he was
in constant antagonism to their body. Even Tillotson took up
this view strongly, though he at once accepted Penn's vehement
disavowal. In 1687 James published the Declaration of Indul-
gence, and Penn probably drew up the address of thanks on
the part of the Quakers. It fully reflects his views, which are
further ably put in the pamphlet Good Advice to the Church
of England, Roman Catholics, and Protestant Dissenters, in
which he showed the wisdom and duty of repealing the Test
Acts and Penal Laws. At the Revolution he behaved with
courage. He was one of the few friends of the king who remained
in London, and, when twice summoned before the council, spoke
boldly in his behalf. He admitted that James had asked him
to come to him in France; but at the same time he asserted his
perfect loyalty. During the absence of William in 1690 he was
proclaimed by Mary as a dangerous person, but no evidence of
treason was forthcoming. It was now that he lost by death
two of his dearest friends, Robert Barclay and George Fox.
It was at the funeral of the latter that, upon the information
of the notorious informer William Fuller (1670-1717?), an
attempt was made to arrest him,but[he had just left the ground;
the fact that no further steps were then taken shows how little
the government believed in his guilt. He now lived in retire-
ment in London, though his address was perfectly well known
to his friends in the council. In 1691, again on Fuller's evidence,
a proclamation was issued for the arrest of Penn and two others
as being concerned in Preston's plot. In .1692 he began to write
again, both on questions of Quaker discipline and in defence, of
the sect. Just Measures in an Epistle of Peace and Love, The
New Athenians (in reply to the attacks of the Athenian Mercury),
and A Key opening the Way to every Capacity are the principal
publications of this year.

Meantime matters had been going badly in Pennsylvania.

1 Dixon, p. 276.

2 Burnet, iii. 66; Dalrymple, i. 282.

PENN, WILLIAM

103

Penn had, in 1686, been obliged to make changes in the com-
position of the executive body, though in 1689 it reverted to
the original constitution; the legislative bodies had quarrelled;
and Penn could not gain his rents. The chief difficulty in
Pennsylvania was the dispute between the province — i.e. the
country given to Penn by the charter — and the " territories,"
or the lands granted to him by the duke of York by feoffment in
August 1682, which were under the same government but had
differing interests. The difficulties which Quaker principles
placed in the way of arming the colony — a matter of grave
importance in the existing European complications — fought
most hardly against Penn's power. On the 2ist of October
1692 an order of council was issued depriving Penn of the
governorship of Pennsylvania and giving it to Colonel Benjamin
Fletcher, the governor of New York. To this blow were added
the illness of his wife and a fresh accusation of treasonable
correspondence with James. In his enforced retirement he
wrote the most devotional and most charming of his works —
the collection of maxims of conduct and religion entitled The
Fruits of Solitude. In December, thanks to the efforts of his
friends at court, among whom were Buckingham, Somers,
Rochester, and Henry Sidney, he received an intimation that
no further steps would be taken against him. The accusation,
however, had been public, and he insisted on the withdrawal
being equally public. He was therefore heard in full council
before the king, and honourably acquitted of all charges of trea-
son. It was now that he wrote an Essay towards the Present
and Future Peace of Europe, in which he puts forth the idea of
a great court of arbitration, a principle which he had already
carried out in Pennsylvania.

In 1694 (Feb. 23) his wife Gulielma died, leaving two
sons, Springett and William, and a daughter Letitia, afterwards
married to William Aubrey. Two other daughters, Mary and
Hannah, died in infancy. He consoled himself by writing his
Account of the Rise and Progress of the People called Quakers.
The coldness and suspicion with which he had been regarded by
his own denomination had now ceased, and he was once more
regarded by the Quaker body as their leader. About the same
time (Aug. 20) he was restored to the governorship of
Pennsylvania; and he promised to supply money and men for
the defence of the frontiers. In 1695 he went on another
preaching mission in the west, and in March 1696 he formed
a second marriage, with Hannah Callowhill, his son Springett
dying five weeks later. In this year he wrote his work On Primi-
tive Christianity, in which he argues that the faith and practice of
the Friends were those of the early Church. In 1697 Penn removed
to Bristol, and during the greater part of 1698 was preaching
with great success against oppression in Ireland, whither he
had gone to look after the property at Shannangarry.

In 1699 he was back in Pennsylvania, landing near Chester
on the 3oth of November, where the success of Colonel Robert
Quary, judge of the admiralty in Pennsylvania — who was in the
interests of those who wished to make the province an imperial
colony — and the high-handed action of the deputy Markham in
opposition to the Crown, were causing great difficulties. Penn
carried with him particular instructions to put down piracy,
which the objections of the Quakers to the use of force had
rendered audacious and concerning which Quary had made
strong representations to the home government, while Markham
and the inhabitants apparently encouraged it. Penn and
Quary, howevei came ut once to a satisfactory understanding
on this matter, and the illegal traffic was vigorously and success-
fully attacked. In 1696 the Philadelphian Yearly Meeting
had passed a resolution declaring slavery contrary to the first
principles of the gospel. Penn, however, did not venture upon
emancipation; but he insisted on the instruction of negroes,
permission for them to marry, repression of polygamy and
adultery, and proposed regulations for their trial and punishment.
The assembly, however, a very mixed body of all nations, now
refused to- accept any of these proposals except the last-named.
His great success was with the Indians; by their treaty with
him in 1700 they promised not to help any enemy of England,

to traffic only with those approved by the governor, and to sell
furs or skins to none but inhabitants of the province. At the
same time he showed his capacity for legislation by the share
he took with Lord Bellomont at New York in the consolidation
of the laws in use in the various parts of America.

Affairs now again demanded his presence in England. The king
had in 1701 written to urge upon the Pennsylvania government
a union with other private colonies f< r defence, and had asked
for money for fortifications. The difi culty felt by the Crown
in this matter was a natural one. A bill was brought into the
lords to convert private into Crown colonies. Penn's son
appeared before the committee of the house and managed to
delay the matter until his father's return. On the isth of
September Penn called the assembly together, in which the
differences between the province and the territories again broke
out. He succeeded, however, in calming them, appointed a
council of ten to manage the province in his absence, and gave
a borough charter to Philadelphia. In May 1700, experience
having shown that alterations in the charter were advisable,
the assembly had, almost unanimously, requested Penn to revise
it. On the 28th of October 1701 he handed it back to them in
the form in which it afterwards remained. An assembly was
to be chosen yearly, of four persons from each county, with all
the self-governing privileges of the English House of Commons.
Two-thirds were to form a quorum. The nomination of sheriffs,
coroners, and magistrates for each county was given to the
governor, who was to select from names handed in by the free-
men. Moreover, the council was no longer elected by the
people, but nominated by the governor, who was thus practically
left single in the executive. The assembly, however, who, by
the first charter, had not the right to propound laws, but might
only amend or reject them, now acquired that privilege. In
other respects the original charter remained, and the inviol-
ability of conscience was again emphatically asserted. Penn
reached England in December 1701. He once more assumed
the position of leader of the Dissenters and himself read the
address of thanks for the promise from the Throne to maintain
the Act of Toleration. He now took up his abode again at
Kensington, and published while here his More Fruits of
Solitude.

In 1703 he went to Knightsbridge, where he remained until
1706, when he removed to Brentford, his final residence being
taken up in 1710 at Field Ruscombe, near Twy ford. In 1/04
he wrote his Life of Bulstrode Whilelocke. He had now much
trouble from America. The territorialists were openly rejecting
his authority, and doing their best to obstruct all business in the
assembly; and matters were further embarrassed by the inju-
dicious conduct of Governor John Evans in 1706. Moreover,
pecuniary troubles came heavily upon him, while the conduct of
his son William, who became the ringleader of all the dissolute
characters in Philadelphia, was another and still more severe
trial. This son was married, and had a son and daughter, but
appears to have been left entirely out of account in the settle-
ment of Penn's proprietary rights on his death.

Whatever were Penn's great qualities, he was deficient in
judgment of character. This was especially shown in the choice
of his steward Ford, from whom he had borrowed money, and
who, by dexterous swindling, had managed, at the time of his
death, to establish, and hand down to his widow and son, a
claim for £14,000 against Penn. Penn, however, refused to pay,
and spent nine months in the Fleet rather than give way. He
was released at length by his friends, who paid £7500 in composi-
tion of all claims. Difficulties with his government of Penn-
sylvania continued to harass him. Fresh disputes took place
with Lord Baltimore, the owner of Maryland, and Penn also felt
deeply what seemed to him the ungrateful treatment which
he met with at the hands of the assembly. He therefore in
1710 wrote, in earnest and affectionate language, an address
to his " old friends," setting forth his wrongs. So great was the
effect which this produced that the assembly which met in
October of that year was entirely in his interests; revenues were
properly paid; the disaffected were silenced and complaints

IO4

PENNANT— PENNINE CHAIN

were hushed; while an advance in moral sense was shown by
the fact that a bill was passed prohibiting the importation of
negroes. This, however, when submitted to the British parlia-
ment, was cancelled. Penn now, in February 1712, being in
failing health, proposed to surrender his powers to the Crown.
The commission of plantations recommended that Penn should
receive £12,000 in four years from the time of surrender, Penn
stipulating only that the queen should take the Quakers under
her protection; and £1000 was given him in part payment.
Before, however, the matter could go further he was seized with
apoplectic fits, which shattered his understanding and memory.
A second attack occurred in 1713. He died on the soth of May
1718, leaving three sons by his second wife, John, Thomas and
Richard, and was buried along with his first and second wives at
Jourdans meeting-house, near Chalfont St Giles in Buckingham-
shire. In 1790 the proprietary rights of Penn's descendants
were bought up for a pension of £4000 a year to the eldest male
descendant by his second wife, and this pension was commuted
in 1884 for the sum of £67,000.

Penn's Life was written by Joseph Besse, and prefixed to the
collected edition of Penn's Works (1726); see also the bibliographical
note to the article in Diet. Nat. Biog. W. Hepworth Dixon's bio-
graphy, refuting Macaulay's charges, appeared in 1851. In 1907
Mrs Colquhoun Grant, one of Penn's descendants, brought out a
book, Quaker and Courtier: the Life and Work of William Penn.

(O. A.)

PENNANT, THOMAS (1726-1798), British naturalist and
antiquary, was descended from an old Welsh family, for many
generations resident at Downing, Flintshire, where he was born
on the i4th of June 1726. He received his early education at
Wrexham, and afterwards entered Queen's College, Oxford,
but did not take a degree. At twelve years of age he was
inspired with a passion for natural history through being
presented with Francis Willughby's Ornithology; and a tour in
Cornwall in 1746-1747 awakened his strong interest in minerals
and fossils. In 1750 his account of an earthquake at Downing
was inserted in the Philosophical Transactions, where there also
appeared in 1756 a paper on several coralloid bodies he had
collected at Coalbrookdale, Shropshire. In the following year,
at the instance of Linnaeus, he was elected a member of the
Royal Society of Upsala. In 1766 he published the first part
of his British Zoology, a work meritorious rather as a laborious
compilation than as an original contribution to science. During
its progress he visited the continent of Europe and made the
acquaintance of Buffon, Voltaire, Haller and Pallas. In 1767
he was elected F.R.S. In 1771 was published his Synopsis
of Quadrupeds, afterwards extended into a. History of Quadrupeds.
At the end of the same year he published A Tour in Scotland in
17 6g, which proving remarkably popular was followed in 1774
by an account of another journey in Scotland, in two volumes.
These works have proved invaluable as preserving the record
of important antiquarian relics which have now perished.
In 1778 he brought out a similar Tour in Wales, which was
followed by a Journey to Snowdon (pt. i. 1781; pt. ii. 1783),
afterwards forming the second volume of the Tour. In 1782
he published a Journey from Chester to London. He brought
out Arctic Zoology in 1785-1787. In I79oappeared his Account
of London, which went through a large number of editions, and
three years later he published the Literary Life of the late T.
Pennant, written by himself. In his later years he was engaged
on a work entitled Outlines of the Globe, vols. i. and ii. of which
appeared in 1798, and vols. iii. and iv., edited by his son David
Pennant, in 1800. He was also the author of a number of
minor works, some of which were published posthumously.
He died at Downing on the i6th of December 1798.

PENNAR, or PENNER, two rivers of southern India, distin-
guished as North and South. The native name is Pinakini.
Both rise near the hill of Nandidrug in Mysore state, and flow
eastward into the Bay of Bengal. The northern is the more
important and has a total length of 355 m., that of the southern
being 245 m. This latter bears the alternative name of the
Ponniar. The Pennar (northern) river canal system comprises
more than 30 m. of canals, irrigating 155,500 acres.

PENNE, a town and episcopal see of Italy, in the province
of Teramo, 26 m. S.E. of Teramo, and 16 m. inland from the
Adriatic, 1437 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901), 10,394. The
cathedral has been much altered; in its treasury is some fine
i3th (?) century silversmiths' work; the church of S. Giovanni
has a fine cross by Nicola di Guardiagrele, and that of S. Maria
in Colleromano, outside the town, a Romanesque portal. Many
of the houses have fine terra-cotta friezes. It occupies the site
of the ancient Pinna, the chief city of the Vestini, who entered
into alliance with Rome in 301 B.C. and remained faithful to
her through the Hannibalic wars and even during the revolt
of the Italian allies in 90 B.C. No remains of the Roman period
exist, even the city walls being entirely medieval.

See G. Cplasanti, Pinna (Rome, 1907); V. Bindi, Monumenti
degli Abruzzi (Naples, 1889, pp. 565 sqq.).

PENNELL, JOSEPH (1860- ), American artist and author,
was born in Philadelphia on the 4th of July 1860, and first
studied there, but like his compatriot and friend, J. M. Whistler,
he afterwards went to Europe and made his home in London.
He produced numerous books (many of them in collaboration
with his wife, Elizabeth Robins Pennell), but his chief distinction
is as an original etcher and lithographer, and notably as an
illustrator. Their close acquaintance with Whistler led to
Mr and Mrs Pennell undertaking a biography of that artist in
1906, and, after some litigation with his executrix on the right
to use his letters, the book was published in 1908.

PENNI, GIANFRANCESCO (1488-1528), Italian painter,
surnamed " II Fattore," from the relation in which he stood
to Raphael, whose favourite disciple he was after Giulio Romano,
was a native of Florence, but spent the latter years of his life
in Naples. He painted in oil as well as in fresco, but is chiefly
known for his work in the Loggie of the Vatican.

PENNINE CHAIN, an extensive system of hills in the north of
England. The name is probably derived from the Celtic pen,
high, appearing in the Apennines of Italy and the Pennine Alps.
The English system is comprised within the following physical
boundaries. On the N. a well-marked depression, falling below
500 ft. in height, between the upper valleys of the Irthing and
the south Tyne, from which it is known as the Tyne Gap,
separates the Pennines from the system of the Cheviots. On
the N.E., in Northumberland, the foothills extend to the North
Sea. On the N.W. the Eden valley forms part of the boundary
between the Pennines and the hills of the Lake District, and the
division is continued by the upper valley of the Lune. For the
rest the physical boundaries consist of extensive lowlands —
on the E. the vale of York, on the W. the coastal belt of Lan-
cashire and the plain of Cheshire, and on the S. and S.E. the
valley of the river Trent. The Pennines thus cover parts of
Cumberland, Westmorland and Northumberland, Lancashire
and Yorkshire, Cheshire and Derbyshire, while the southern
foothills extend into Staffordshire and Nottinghamshire.

The Pennine system is hardly a range, but the hills are in
effect broken up into numerous short ranges by valleys cut back
into them in every direction, for the Pennines form a north and
south watershed which determines the course of all the larger
rivers in the north of England. The chain is divided into two
sections by a gap formed by the river Aire flowing east, a member
of the Humber basin, and the Ribble flowing west and entering
the Irish Sea through a wide estuary south of Morecambe Bay.

The northern section of the Pennine system is broader and
generally higher than the southern. Its western slope is generally
short and steep, the eastern long and gradual ; this distinction apply-
ing to the system at large. In the north-west a sharp escarpment
overlooks the Eden valley. This is the nearest approach to a true
mountain range in the Pennine system and indeed in England.
It is known as the Cross Fell Edge from its highest point, Cross Fell
(2930 ft.), to the south-east of which a height of 2780 ft. is reached
in Milburn Forest, and of 2591 ft. in Mickle Fell. This range is
marked off eastward by the upper valleys of the south Tyne and the
Tees, and, from the divide between these two, branch ranges spring
eastward, separated by the valley of the Wear, at the head of which
are Burnhope Seat (2452 ft.) and Dead Stones (2326 ft.). In the
northern range the highest point is Midrllehope Moor (2206 ft.), and
in the southern, Chapel Fell Top (2294 ft.). It is thus seen that the

PENNSYLVANIA

105

higher elevations, like the steeper slopes, lie towards the west.
Cross Fell Edge terminates southward at a high pass (about 1400 ft.)
between the head of the Belah, a tributary of the Eden, and the
Greta, a tributary of the Tees. This pass is followed by the Tebay
and Barnard Castle line of the North Eastern railway. The hills
between the Lune valley on the west and the headstream of the
Eden and the Ribble on the east are broken into masses by the dales
of tributaries to the first-named river — here the chief elevations are
Wild Boar Fell (2323 ft.), Whernside (2414 ft.), and Ingleborough
(2373 ft.). The Ribble and Eden valleys afford a route for the main
line of the Midland railway. Well-marked eastward ranges occur
here between Swaledale and the river Ure, which traverses the
celebrated Wensleydale (q.v.), and between the Ure and Wharf e.
In the first the highest points are High Seat (2328 ft.) and Great
Shunner Fell (2340 ft.); and in the second Buckden Pike (2302 ft.)
and Great Whernside (2310 ft.). There is then a general southerly
slope to the Aire gap.

The southern section of the system calls for less detailed notice.
Heights exceeding 2000 ft. are rare. The centre of the section is
the well-known Peak (q.v.) of Derbyshire. Both here and through-
out the system the summits of the hills are high uplands, rounded
or nearly flat, consisting of heathery, peaty moorland or hill pasture.
The profile of the Pennines is thus not striking as a rule, but much
fine scenery is found in the narrow dales throughout; Wensleydale,
Wharfedale and other Yorkshire dales being no less famous than
the dales of Derbyshire. In the parts about Settle below Ingle-
borough, in Derbyshire, and elsewhere, remarkable caverns and
subterranean watercourses in the limestone have been explored to
great depths. In Ingleborough itself are the Ingleborough cave, near
Clapham; the chasm of Gaping Ghyll, over 350 ft. deep; Helln or
Hellan Pot, a vast swallow-hole 359 ft. deep, only exceeded by Row-
ten Pot (365 ft.) near Whernside; and many others. Malham Tarn,
near the head of the Aire, is drained by a stream which quickly
disappears below ground, and the Aire itself is fed by a brook
gushing forth in full stream at the foot of the cliffs of Malham Cove.
A notable example in Derbyshire is the disappearance of the Wye into
Plunge Hole, after which it traverses Poole's Cave, close to Buxton.
There may also be noted the remarkable series of caverns near
Castleton (q.v.). Lakes are few and small in the Pennine district,
but in some of the upland valleys, such as those of the Nidd and the
Etherow, reservoirs have been formed for the supply of the populous
manufacturing districts of Lancashire and the West Riding of York-
shire, which he on either flank of the system between the Aire gap
and the Peak. (For geology see ENGLAND and articles on the
several counties.)

PENNSYLVANIA, a North Atlantic state of the United
States of America and one of the original thirteen, lying for
the most part between latitudes 39° 43' 26-3* and 42° N. and
between longitudes 74° 40' and 80° 31' 36" W. The state is in
the form of a rectangle, except in the north-west where a
triangular projection, extending to 42° 1 5' N. lat., gives it a shore-
line of almost 40 m. on Lake Erie, on the east where the Dela-
ware river with two large bends separates it from New York and
New Jersey, and in the south-east where the arc of a circle which
was described with a iz-m. radius from New Castle, Delaware,
forms the boundary between it and Delaware. The forty-second
parallel of N. latitude forms the boundary between it and New
York on the N.; Mason and Dixon's line is the border between
it and Maryland and West Virginia on the south and a north
and south line marks the boundary between it and West
Virginia and Ohio on the west. The total area is 45,126 sq. m.
and of this 294 sq. m. are water surface.

Physical Features. — Pennsylvania skirts the coastal plain in the
south-east below Philadelphia, is traversed from north-east to
south-west by the three divisions of the Appalachian province —
Piedmont or older Appalachian belt, younger Appalachian ridges
and valleys and Alleghany plateau — and in the north-west corner
is a small part of the Erie plain. The entire surface has a mean
elevation of about uoo ft. above the sea. It rises from 20 ft. or
less on the bank of the Delaware between Philadelphia and Chester
to 2000-3000 ft. on the higher ridges in the middle section (3136 ft.
on Blue Knob in Bedford county), and falls again to 900-1000 ft.
on the Ohio border and to 750 ft. or less on the Erie plain ; in the
south-east is an area of about 6100 sq. m. that is less than 500 ft.
above the sea, while on the ridges in the middle of the state is an
aggregate area of about 2000 sq. m. that everywhere exceeds
2000 ft. in elevation. The area below 500 ft. is mostly in the
Triassic lowland of the Piedmont region, or, as the Pennsylvania
portion of it is called, the south-east province. This is an un-
dulating plain which has been produced by the wearing away of
weak sandstones, &c. On the north and west borders of this
plain are two parts of a chain of semi-detached and usually rounded
hills, known as the South Mountains. The north-east part is a
south-westward arm of the New England uplands, is known as the
Reading Prong, and extends from New Jersey through Easton to

Reading. The south-west part is a north-eastern prolongation of
the Virginia Piedmont, is known as the Cumberland Prong, and
extends N.N.E. through the south part of Cumberland county.
In the Reading Prong most of the hills rise 900-1000 ft. above the
sea and about one-half that height above the surrounding country;
in the Cumberland Prong their height increases to the southward
until, on the Maryland border, they rise 2100 ft. above the sea
and 1400 ft. above the adjoining plain. Another range of hills,
known as the Trenton Prong, extends from the northern suburbs
of Philadelphia both westward and southward through Chester,
Delaware, Lancaster and York counties, but these rise only 400-600
ft. above the sea and have few steep slopes. Both of these ranges
of hills are composed of hard crystalline rocks, and between them
lies the lowland eroded on the weaker sandstones and sediments.
In Bucks and Montgomery counties is a large sandstone area;
traversing Chester county is the narrow Chester Valley with a
limestone bottom, and in Lancaster county is the most extensive
limestone plain. The Pennsylvania portion of the younger Ap-
palachian ridges and valleys, known as the central province of
the state, embraces the region between the South Mountains, on
the south-east, and the crest of the Alleghany plateau or Alleghany
Front, on the north-west. It extends from south-west to north-
east about 230 m. and has a nearly uniform width of 50 m. except
that it narrows rapidly as it approaches the north-east corner of
the state. The ridges and intervening valleys, long parts of which
have an approximately parallel trend from south-west to north-east,
were formed by the erosion of folded sediments of varying hardness,
the weak belts of rock being etched out to form valleys and the
hard belts remaining as mountain ridges. After the folding the
whole region was worn down nearly to sea-level, forming a low
plain which bevelled across the geological structure ot the entire
state, including the Piedmont area to the south-east and the plateau
area to the north-west. Then came a broad uplift followed by the
erosion which carved out the valleys, leaving hard rocks as mountain
ridges which rise about to the level of the old erosion plain. In
Bedford county and elsewhere the ridges rise to 2400 ft. or more
above the sea, but their more usual height is 1400 to 2000 ft. above
the sea and 500 to 1000 ft. above the intervening valleys. Their
crest lines are often of nearly uniform height for miles and generally
are little broken except by an occasional V-shaped wind gap, a
narrow water gap or a rounded knob. The valleys rarely exceed
more than a few miles in width, are usually steep-sided, and fre-
quently are traversed by longitudinal ranges of hills and cross ridges;
but the Pennsylvania portion of the Appalachian or Great Valley,
which forms a distinct division of the central province and lies
between the South Mountains and the long rampart of Blue
Mountain, is about 10 m. in width on the Maryland border and to
the north-east its width increases to 20 m. The north-west part
of it is a slate belt that has been much dissected by eroding streams,
but the south-east part is a gently rolling belt of limestone to which
occasionally a steep hill descends from the slate belt. The Pocono
plateau, into which the central province merges at its north-east
extremity, is a continuation of the Catskill plateau southward
from New York and covers Wayne, Pike and Monroe counties and
the east portion of Carbon county. Its surface is underlaid by a
hard sandstone and conglomerate which erode slowly, and the general
upland level, which is 1400-1800 ft. above the sea, is little broken
except by shallow valleys and occasional knobs. The Alleghany
plateau, which extends from the crest of the Alleghany Front to
and beyond the west and north borders of Pennsylvania and
covers more than one-half of the state, is much more dissected.
In Tioga and Potter counties on the north middle border, it rises
2400-2500 ft. above the sea, but from this height the general upland
level falls gradually to 1200-1300 ft. in the south-west and 900-
1000 ft. along the Ohio border, and in Erie county there is a sudden
fall of about 200 ft. to the Erie plain. In the northern, middle
and south-west portions of this plateau province the upland is cut
by an intricate network of narrow valleys and ravines that are
commonly 300-600 ft. deep and occasionally 800-1000 ft. deep,
but west of the Allegheny river, where harder rocks have resisted
such deep dissection and glacial drift has filled depressions or
smoothed rough surfaces, the uplands are broader and the valleys
wider and shallower. Most of the Pennsylvania shore of Lake
Erie is lined with a wall of sand and clay 50-100 ft. in height and
along the foot of this is only a narrow beach, but in front of the
city of Erie the shore currents have formed a spit, known as Presque
Isle, which affords a good harbour.

The Pocono plateau, nearly all of the central and south-east
provinces and the north-east portion of the Alleghany plateau are
drained by the Susquehanna and Delaware river-systems into the
Chesapeake and Delaware Bays; the greater part of the Alleghany
plateau is drained by the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers into
the Ohio river; the extreme southern portion of the central province
and the extreme western portion of the south-east province are
drained by tributaries of the Potomac; the Erie plain is drained by
short streams into Lake Erie; and a very small section of the
Alleghany plateau, in the northern part of Potter county, is drained
by the Genesee river into Lake Ontario. The Susquehanna drains
about 2 1 ,000 sq. m. of the state ; the Ohio, Allegheny and Monongahela

io6

PENNSYLVANIA

14,747 sq. m.; and the Delaware 6443 sq. m. The Susquehanna
is a wide and shallow stream with a zigzag course and numerous
islands, but both the Susquehanna and the Delaware, together
with their principal tributaries, flow for the most part transverse
to the geological structure, and in the gorges and water-gaps through
which they pass ridges in the mountain region, is some of the most
picturesque scenery in the state; a number of these gorges, too,
have been of great economic importance as passages for railways.
The lower portion of the Delaware river has been entered by the
sea as the result of the depression of the land, giving a harbour, at
the head of which developed the city of Philadelphia. The present
course of the Upper Allegheny river is the result of the glacier
which blocked the northward drainage of the region through
which it flows and turned it southward. The Monongahela is an
older stream, but like the Allegheny, it meanders much, and both
rivers flow in deeply intrenched valleys. The few small lakes
of the state are mostly on the Pocono plateau, where they were
formed by glaciation; here, too, are some streams with picturesque
cascades.

Fauna. — Under the protection of a game commission which was
created in 1895, of some game preserves which have been estab-
lished by this commission, and of various laws affecting wild
animals and birds, the numbers of Virginia deer, black bear, rabbits,
ruffed grouse, quail and wild turkeys have increased until in some
of the wilder sections they are quite plentiful, while the numbers
of weasels, minks, lynx and foxes have been diminished. Squirrels,
racoons, woodchucks and skunks are common, and musk-rats,
porcupines and opossums are found in some sections. Two species
of venomous snakes — the rattlesnake and the copper-head — occur
in the sparsely settled regions. The avifauna include — among the
birds of prey— the red-shouldered hawk, red-tailed hawk, marsh
hawk, Cooper's hawk, sharp-shinned hawk and sparrow hawk ; the
great horned owl, the barn owl and the screech owl ; and bald eagles
are not uncommon in the mountainous regions along the larger rivers.
The " turkey-buzzard " — turkey-vulture — (very valuable as a
scavenger) is seen occasionally, especially in the south and south-west.
The game birds include the ruffed grouse, quail and English pheasant
(which have increased rapidly under protection), besides woodcock,
snipe, many species of ducks and a few Canada geese. The song and
insectivorous birds — thrushes, flycatchers, vireos and woodpeckers —
of this latitude, are well represented, and the high plateaus (particu-
larly the Pocono plateau) have especial ornithological interest as the
tarrying-places, during the migratory seasons, of many species of
birds whose natural breeding ground is much farther north. Perch,
sunfish, trout, bass, pike and pickerel abound in many of the streams.
Yellow perch are especially plentiful in the lakes on the Pocono
plateau. Pike-perch and a few blue pike are taken in the Susque-
hanna, where shad are no longer plentiful since work was begun
on McCalPs Ferry dam, and in 1908 the entire catch for the river
was valued at about $20,000, but in the Delaware there are valuable
shad and herring fisheries. The blue pike, whitefish and herring,
obtained on Lake Erie are of considerable commercial importance.
In 1908 the total catch on Lake Erie was valued at $200,869, the
principal items being herring (§90,108), blue pike ($13,657) and
whitefish ($31,580). The catch of herring was twice as much in
1908 as in 1907 and that of whitefish nearly four times as much
in 1908 as in 1907; this increase was attributed to the work of the
state hatcheries. There were eight hatcheries in 1910 and the
number of fish distributed from these during 1908 was about
662,000,000; they consisted chiefly of pickerel, yellow perch, wall-
eyed pike, white fish, herring, blue pike, trout and shad.

Flora. — Except on some portions of the Pocono plateau, Penn-
sylvania was originally well forested, and, although most of the
merchantable timber has been cut, about one-half of the state is
still woodland. On the higher elevations the trees are mostly
white pine, yellow pine and hemlock, but in the valleys and lower
levels are oaks, hickories, maples, elms, birches, locusts, willows,
spruces, gums, buckeyes, the chestnut, black walnut, butternut,
cedar, ash, linden, poplar, buttonwood, hornbeam, holly, catalpa,
magnolia, tulip-tree, Kentucky coffee-tree, sassafras, wild cherry,
pawpaw, crab-apple and other species. The flora is most varied
in the Susquehanna Valley below Harrisburg, and on Presque
Isle are some plants peculiar to the Lake region. The state has
forest reserves (918,000 acres in 1910) in 26 counties, the largest
areas being in Potter, Clinton, Center, Cameron, Lycoming, Hunting-
don, Union and Mifflin counties; and there is an efficient department
of forestry under a state commissioner of forestry. A state forest
academy (the only one in the United States) is at Mont Alto,
where there is one of the three state nurseries; its first class gradu-
ated in 1906. In 1909 the state legislature passed an act authorizing
any city, borough or township of the first class to acquire, subject
to the approval of the commissioner of forestry, a municipal
forest; and it authorized the distribution of seedling forest trees,
at cost, to those who would plant and protect them, for growing
private forests.

Climate. — The temperature is quite mild and equable in the
south-east province where the ocean influences it and where the
mountains bounding it on the north and north-west are some
protection from the colder winds. The crests of the higher ridges
in the central province are delightfully cool in summer, but the

adjacent valleys are subject to excessive heat in summer and severe
cold in winter. The mean annual temperature decreases to the
north-westward on the Alleghany plateau, but on the Erie plain,
in the extreme north-west, Lake Erie exerts its moderating influence,
the mean temperature rises, and extremes shorten. The mean
annual temperature in the south-east province is about 52° F. ;
it decreases to 50° in the central province and to 47° or less in some
of the north-west counties of the Alleghany plateau, but rises to
49° on the shore of Lake Erie. At Philadelphia the mean tempera-
ture in winter (December, January and February) is 34°, the mean
temperature in summer (June, July and August) is 74°, and the
range of extremes here for a long period of years ending with 1907
was within 103° and 6°. At Huntingdon, Huntingdon county, in
the Juniata Valley, the winter mean is 30°, the summer mean 71°,
and within the period from 1 888 to 1907 extremes ranged from
104° to 23°. The summer maxima on the mountains are usually
8° to 10° less than in the valleys directly below them; Saegerstown,
Crawford county, is nearly 30 m. south of Erie, on Lake Erie, and
yet the winter mean is 28° at Erie and only 25° at Saegerstown,
and the lowest temperature on record for Erie is — 16° while for
Saegerstown it is —27°. During the period from 1875 to 1905
inclusive, extremes within the state ranged from 107° at York,
York county, in July 1901, to -42° at Smithport, McKean county,
in January 1904. July is the warmest month in all parts of the
state. January is the coldest in some and February in others.
The average annual rainfall is 44 in. It is 50 in. or more in some
regions along the south-east border of the mountain district or
farther south-east where the rains are occasionally heavy, and it is
less than 40 in. in some of the north-east and south-west counties.
The amount of rainfall during the summer is about 3 in. more than
that during either autumn or winter and 2 in. more than that during
spring. In the mountain region and in the vicinity of Lake Erie
there is often a fall of several inches of snow during the winter
months and the rapid melting of this produces floods on the Dela-
ware, Susquehanna and Ohio rivers and some of their tributaries.
The prevailing winds are westerly, but they are frequently interrupted
by warm breezes from the south, or moisture-bearing currents from
the east.

Soils. — The most productive soil is that in the south-east section
of the Great Valley and in Chester Valley where it is derived largely
from limestone. There is some of the same formation as well as
that derived from red shales on the sandstone hills in the south-east
province and in many of the middle and western valleys, but often
a belt of inferior slate soil adjoins a limestone belt, and many of
the ridges are covered with a still more sterile soil derived from
white and grey sandstones. The north-west and north-east sections
contain some glacial drift but the soil in these parts is not suitable
for cultivation except in the larger valleys in the north-west where
it is drained by glacial gravel or there is some sandy loam mixed
with clay.

Agriculture. — Pennsylvania is noted for its mineral wealth and
manufactures rather than for its agricultural resources, but in 1900
about two-thirds of its land was included in farms, a little more
than two-thirds of its farm-land was improved, and in several
crops the state has long ranked high. The number of farms in-
creased from 127,577 in 1850 to 224,248 in 1900, the increase
resulting in part from a reduction of their size but more largely
from the appropriation of new lands for farming purposes. The
average size in 1900 was 86-4 acres. Nearly 60% of them con-
tained less than too acres and only about 2-7% contained 260
acres or more. More than seven-tenths (160,105) were worked by
owners or part owners, and only 34,529 by share tenants, and
23,737 by cash tenants. Hay, Indian corn, wheat, oats, potatoes,
fruits, vegetables and tobacco are the principal crops. Of the total
crop acreage in 1899 nearly two-fifths was devoted to hay and
forage, and the value of the hay crop in 1909 ' (when the crop was
3,742,000 tons, valued at $54,633,000) was greater than that of any
other state in the Union except New York. Hay is grown in largest
quantities in the north, and in the section south-east of Blue
Mountain. More than one-half of the crop acreage in 1899 was
devoted to cereals, and of the total cereal acreage 32 % was of
wheat, 31-2% was of Indian corn, 24-8 % was of oats, 6-5% was
of rye, and 5-3% was of buckwheat. The product of Indian corn
was 48,800,000 bushels in 1909; of wheat 26,265,000 bushels; of
oats 25,948,000 bushels; of barley 196,000 bushels; of rye 5,508,000
bushels; and of buckwheat 5,665,000 bushels.

Indian corn, wheat and rye, are cultivated most extensively
in the south-east counties. Some of the larger oat-producing
counties also are in the south-east, but most of the buckwheat,
barley and oats are grown in the north and west counties. The
dairy business, for which much of the hay crop is needed, has grown
with the growth of the urban population as is shown in part by a
steady increase in the number of dairy cows from 530,224 in 1850
to 1,140,000 in 1910; the value of the dairy products in 1899
(835,860,110) was exceeded only in New York. The number of
other cattle has fluctuated somewhat, but there were 917,000 in
1910 as against 623,722 in 1850. Horses increased in numbfi

'Statistics for 1909 and 1910 are from the Year Book of the
United States Department of Agriculture.

PENNSYLVANIA

Scale, i : i, 375,000

Engflish Miles

County Seats

County Boundaries

Railways

Canals

PITTSBURG

78 jo p Longitude West 78 of Greenwich (]

South -Eastern
PENNSYLVANIA

Scale, 1:687,500

PENNSYLVANIA

107

from 350,398 in 1850 to 619,000 in 1910. The number of mules
increased steadily from 2259 in 1850 to 43,000 in 1910. The
raising of sheep and swine was of considerably less relative impor-
tance in 1910 than in 1850, there being 1,882,357 sheep and 1,040,366
swine in 1850 and 1,1 12,000 sheep and 931,000 swine in 1910. The
dairy business is largest in the regions around Philadelphia and
Pittsburg, and in Erie and Bradford counties. Cattle other than
dairy cows as well as horses and sheep are most numerous in the
western counties, in Bradford county on the north border, and in
some of the counties of the south-east. Swine are most numerous
in the south-east and south-west counties. The state ranks high
in the production of potatoes, cabbages, lettuce and turnips, and
it produces large crops of sweet Indian corn, tomatoes, cucumbers,
musk-melons, asparagus and celery. The total value of all vegetables
produced in 1899 was $15,832,904, an amount exceeding that of
any other state except New York. A large portion of the vegetables
are grown in the vicinity of Philadelphia or in the vicinity of Pitts-
burg. The culture of tobacco, which was introduced as early as
1689, was a small industry until the middle of the igth century,
but it then developed rapidly except during a brief interruption
caused by the Mexican War. In 1909 the crop was 30,732,000 Ib.
More than two-thirds of the state's crop of 1899 was produced in
Lancaster county, which is one of the largest tobacco-producing
counties in the United States, and most of the other third was
produced in York, Tioga, Bradford and Clinton counties. Apples,
cherries and pears are the principal orchard fruits. Grapes, peaches,
plums and prunes, apricots, strawberries, raspberries and logan-
berries, blackberries and dewberries, currants and gooseberries
are also grown. Orchard fruits are most abundant south-east
of Blue Mountain, and small fruits near the larger cities, but
about two-thirds of the grapes are grown in Erie county. Flori-
culture is an important industry in Philadelphia and its vicinity.
The sale of nursery products, more than one-half of which were
grown in Chester and Montgomery counties, amounted in 1899
to $541,032, and although this was less than one-third that of New
York it was exceeded in only three other states.

Minerals. — Pennsylvania is by far the most important coal-
producing state in the Union, and as much of the iron ore of the
Lake Superior region is brought to its great bituminous coal-field
for rendering into pig-iron, the value of the state's mineral products
constitutes a large fraction of the total value for the entire country;
in 1907, when the value of the mineral products of the state was
$657,783,345, or nearly one-third that of all the United States,
and in 1908 when the total for the state was $473,083,212, or more
than one-fourth that of the whole United States, more than four-
fifths of it was represented by coal and pig-iron. With the ex-
ception of two small areas in Colorado and New Mexico, Penn-
sylvania contains the only anthracite-coal region in the country.
This is in the east of the state, and although it has a total area of
about 3300 sq. m., its workable measures are mostly in Lacka-
wanna, Luzerne, Carbon, Schuylkill and Northumberland counties
in an area of less than 500 sq. m. This coal was discovered as
early as 1762 near the site of the present city of Wilkes-Barre and
during the War of Independence it was used at Carlisle in the manu-
facture of war materials, but it was of little commercial importance
until early in the next century. In 1815 the output was reported
as only 50 tons, but it steadily rose to 74,347,102 tons (valued at
$158,178,849) in 1908. Besides having practically all the anthracite,
Pennsylvania has the thickest bituminous coal-measures, and most
of the coal obtained from these is of the best quality. They form
the northern extremity of the great Appalachian coal-field and under-
lie an area of 15,000 sq. m. or more in the west of the state. The
Pittsburg district, comprising the counties of Allegheny, Washing-
ton, Fayette and Westmoreland, is exceptionally productive, and
the coal in Allegheny and Washington counties is noted for its
gas-producing qualities, while in Fayette and Westmoreland counties
is obtained the famous Connellsville coking coal. The bituminous
coal was first used at nearly the same time as the anthracite and it
was first shipped from Pittsburg in 1803. In 1840 the state's
output was 464,826 tons. It increased to 1,000,000 tons in 1850,
to 11,760,000 tons in 1875, to 79,842,326 tons in 1900, to 150,143,177
tons in 1907; and was 117,179,527 tons in 1908, when it was 35-2%
of that of the entire country and was valued at $118,816,303.
In 1880 the output of coal (anthracite and bituminous) in Penn-
sylvania was 66 % of that of the entire country; in 1908 it was
48-2%; but ia the latter year the Pennsylvania mines produced
more coal than the combined production of all the countries of
the world excepting Great Britain, Germany and Austria-Hungary,
and it was nearly four times as much as the total mined in Austria,
nearly five times as much as that mined in France, and seven times
as much as the output of Russia in that year. Extending from the
south-west corner of the state through Greene, Washington, Alle-
gheny, Beaver, Butler, Venango, Clarion, Forest, Elk, Warren,
McKean and Tioga counties is the Pennsylvania section of the
Appalachian oil-field which, with the small section in New York,
furnished nearly all of the country's supply of petroleum for some
years following the discovery of its value for illuminating purposes.
The mineral was made known to white men by the Indians, who
sold it, under the name of Seneca oil, as a cure for various ills,
and burned it at some of their ceremonies. The early settlers in

west Pennsylvania also found that some unknown people had dug
pits several feet in depth around the oil springs apparently for the
purpose of collecting the oil. But it was not until the middle of
the igth century that its value as an illuminating oil became known,
and not until 1859 was the first petroleum well drilled. This
•was the Drake well, on the flats of Oil Creek at Titusville; it
was about 70 ft. in depth, and when 25 barrels were pumped from
it in a day its production was considered enormous. By the close
of 1861 wells had been drilled from which 2000 to 3000 barrels
flowed in a day without pumping, and the state's yearly output
continued to increase until 1891, when it amounted to 31,424,206
barrels. Since then, however, wells have been going dry, and when,
in 1895, the output fell to 19,144,390 barrels it was exceeded by
that of Ohio. It went down quite steadily to 9,424,325 in 1908,
and in that year Pennsylvania was put-ranked as an oil-producing
state by Oklahoma, California, Illinois, Texas and Ohio. In drilling
for some of the first oil wells gas escaped, and in a few instances
this was used as a fuel for generating steam in the boilers of the
drilling-engines. In some instances, too, wells which were drilled
for oil produced only gas. A little later, about 1868, successful
experiments were made with gas as a manufacturing fuel, and in
1872 the gas industry was fairly well established near Titusville
by drilling a well and piping the gas for consumption both as fuel
and light. The value of the stated output increased from approxi-
mately $75,000 in 1882 to approximately $19,282,000 in 1888,
and the total value of its output during these and the intervening
years was more than 80% that of all the United States. The
industry then became of greater importance in several other states
and declined in Pennsylvania until in 1896 the value of Penn-
sylvania's product amounted to only $5,528,610, or 42-5% of that
of the United States. This temporary decline was, however,
followed by a rather steady rise and in 1908 the output was valued
at $19,104,944, which was still far in excess of that of any other
state and nearly 35% of that of the entire country. The gas
region has an area of about 15,000 sq. m. and embraces about all
of the Pennsylvania section of the Alleghany plateau except a
narrow belt along its east and south-east border. There are de-
posits of various kinds of iron ore in the eastern, south-eastern,
middle and some of the western counties, and from the middle of
the l8th century until near the close of the igth Pennsylvania
ranked high among the iron-ore-producing states. As late as 1880
it ranked first, with a product amounting to 1,951,496 long tons.
But the state's iron foundries moved rapidly westward after the
first successful experiments in making pig-iron with bituminous
coal, in 1845, and the discovery, a few years later, that rich ore
could be obtained there at less cost from the Lake Superior region
resulted in a decline of iron-mining within the state until, in 1902,
the product amounted to only 822,932 long tons, 72-2% of which
was magnetite ore from the Cornwall mines in Lebanon county
which have been among the largest producers of this kind of ore
since the erection of the Cornwall furnace in 1742. In 1908 the
entire iron-ore product of the state, amounting to 443,161 long
tons, was not 1-3% of that of the United States, but the production
of the magnetite-ore alone (343,998 long tons) was more than one-
fifth that of all the United States. In the manufacture of pig-iron
Pennsylvania is easily first among the states, with a product value
in 1908 of $111,385,000, nearly 43-8% of that of the entire country.
Pennsylvania has extensive areas of limestone rock suitable for
making cement, and in Northampton and Lehigh counties enormous
quantities of it are used in this industry. Natural-rock cement was
first made in the state soon after the discovery, in 1831, of deposits
of cement rock near Williamsport, Lycoming county, and the in-
dustry was greatly promoted in 1850 when the vast deposits in
the lower Lehigh Valley were discovered and large quantities of
cement were required in the rebuilding of the Lehigh Canal. Com-
petition produced in Lehigh county the first successful Portland
cement plant in the United States in 1870. The output of the
natural-rock cement continued greater than that of the Portland until
1896, but for the succeeding ten years the enormous development
of the cement industry was almost entirely in the Portland branch,
its production in the state increasing from 825,054 barrels in 1896
to 8,770,454 barrels in 1902, and to 18,254,806 barrels (valued at
$13,899,807) in 1908, when it was more than 30% of that of the
United States. The production of natural-rock cement was 608,000
barrels in 1896 and only 252,479 barrels (valued at $87,192) in
1908. Limestones and dolomites suitable for building purposes
are obtained chiefly in Montgomery, Chester and Lancaster counties,
and even these are generally rejected for ornamental work on account
of their colour, which is usually bluish, grey or mottled. However
until increased facilities of transport brought more desirable stones
into competition they were used extensively in Philadelphia and
with them the main building of Girard College and the United
States Naval Asylum were erected and the long rows of red-brick
residences were trimmed. There are limestone quarries in nearly
two-thirds of the counties and great quantities of the stone are
used for flux in the iron furnaces, for making quicklime, for railway
ballast and for road making. The total value of the limestone
output in 1908 amounted to $4,057,471, and the total value of all
stone quarried was $6,371,152. In Dauphin county is a quarry
of bluish-brown Triassic sandstone that has been used extensively

io8

PENNSYLVANIA

especially in Philadelphia, for the erection of the so-called brown
stone fronts. On the Pocono plateau is a large deposit of a fine-
grained dark-blue stone of the Devonian formation which is known
as the Wyoming Valley stone, and, like the New York " bluestone,"
which it closely resembles, is much used for window and door trim-
mings, steps and flagging. Several cf the western counties contain
Carboniferous or sub-Carboniferous sandstones that are used locally
for building and for various other purposes. In 1908 the value of
Pennsylvania sandstone and bluestone was $1,368,784. North-
ampton, Lehigh and York counties contain the most productive
slate quarries in the country, and in 1908 the value of their output
was $3,902,958; the Northampton and Lehigh slate is the only
kind in the United States used for school blackboards. There is
an extensive area in the south-east part of the state containing
shale clay of a superior quality for making common brick. Kaolin
abounds in Chester and Delaware counties, and fire-clay in several
of the western counties. In 1908 the state ranked first in the
value of its output of brick and tile ($18,981,743), which was 14-74 %
of the entire product of the United States, and was second only to
Ohio in the total value of its clay products ($14,842,982), which
was 11-14% °f tnat f°r th6 entire country. Glass sand abounds
both in the eastern and in the western sections and for many years
Pennsylvania has used this more extensively in the manufacture
of glass than any other state. Deposits of crystalline graphite
are found in Chester and Berks counties. In Chester county, also,
is one of the most productive deposits of feldspar, second in impor-
tance only to those of Maine. Soapstone is quarried in Montgomery
and Northampton counties, phosphate rock, in Juniata county;
rocks from which mineral paints are made, in several counties, and
there is some garnet in Delaware county.

Manufactures. — The state ranks second to New York in the value
of its manufactures, which increased from $155,044,910 in 1850
to $1,955,551,332 (factory products alone) in 1905, a growth which
has been promoted by an abundance of fuel, by a good port on the
Atlantic seaboard, by a network of canals which in the early years
was of much importance in connecting the port with the Mississippi
river system, by its frontage on Lake Erie which makes the ores
of the Lake Superior region easily accessible, and by a great railway
system which has been built to meet the demands arising from the
natural resources. By far the most important industry is the
production of iron and steel. The manufacture of iron was es-
tablished on a commercial basis in 1716-1718, when a furnace was
built on Manatawney Creek above Pottstown, and before the close
of the colonial era Pennsylvania had risen to first rank among the
iron-producing colonies, a position which it has always held among
the states of the Union. So long as charcoal only was used in the
furnaces (until about 1840) and during the brief period in which
this was replaced largely by anthracite, the industry was of chief
importance in the eastern section, but with the gradual increase in
the use of bituminous coal, or of coke made from it, the industry
moved westward, where, especially in the Pittsburg district, it
received a new impetus by the introduction of iron ore from the
Lake Superior region. The value of the output of iron and steel
increased from $264,571,624 in 1890 to $471,228,844 in 1905, and
the state furnished 46-5 % of the pig-iron and 54 % of the steel
and malleable iron produced in the entire country. The manu-
facture of great quantities of coke has resulted from the demand
for this product in the iron and steel industry and from the abun-
dance of coking coal ; the manufacture of glass has been promoted
by the supply of glass sand and natural gas in the west of the state ;
the manufacture of leather by the abundance of hemlock bark; the
manufacture of pottery, terra-cotta and fire-clay products by the
abundance of raw material ; the manufacture of silk and silk goods
by the large number of women and girls who came into the state
in families of which the men and boys were employed in mining
and picking anthracite coal; and in each of these industries as
well as in a few others the state has for many years produced a
large portion of the country's product.

In 1905 the twelve leading manufactures, with the value of each,
were: steel and malleable iron, $363,773,577; foundry and machine-
shop products, consisting most largely of steam locomotives, metal-
working machinery and pumping machinery, $119,650,913; pig-
iron, $107,455,267; leather, $69,427,852; railway cars and repairs
by steam railway companies, $61,021,374; refined petroleum,
$47,459,502; silk and silk goods, $39,333, 520; tobacco, cigars and
cigarettes, $39,079,122; flour and grist-mill products, $38,518,702;
refined sugar and molasses, $37,182,504; worsted goods, $35,683,015;
and malt liquors, $34,863,823. The most marked advances from
1900 to 1905 were in worsted goods (61-4 %) structural iron-work
(60 %), and tin and terne-plate (54-4 %). Philadelphia is the
great manufacturing centre. Within its limits, in 1905, all the
sugar and molasses were manufactured and much of the petroleum
was refined, nearly all of the iron and steel ships and steam loco-
motives were built, and 93 % of the carpets and rugs were made,
and the total value of the manufactures of this city in that year
was nearly one-third of that for the entire state. Nearly 20 % of
the iron and steel was produced by Pittsburg together with Alle-
gheny ,with which it has since been consolidated, and the production
of these is the leading industry of New Castle, Johnstown, Duquesne,
McKeesport, Sharon, Braddock and Dubois, also in the west part of

the state and of Reading, Harrisburg, Steelton, South Bethlehem,
Pottstown, Lebanon, Phoenixville and Danville in the east part.
The silk and cement industries are confined largely to the eastern
cities and boroughs; the coke, tin and terne-plate, and pickling
industries to the western; and the construction and repair of rail-
way cars to Altoona, Meadville, Dunmore, and repair of railway
cars to Altoona, Meadville, Dunmore, Chambersburg, Butler and
Philadelphia.

Transport and Commerce. — The new road cut through the Juniata
region in the march of the army of Brigadier-General John Forbes,
against Fort Duquesne in 1758, was a result of the influence of
Pennsylvania, for it was considered even then a matter of great
importance to the future prosperity of the province that its seaport,
Philadelphia, be connected with navigation on the Ohio by the
easiest line of communication that could be had wholly within its
limits. As early as 1762 David Rittenhouse and others made a
survey for a canal to connect the Schuylkill and the Susquehanna
rivers, and in 1791 a committee of the state legislature reported
in favour of a project for establishing communication by canals
and river improvement from Philadelphia to Lake Erie by way
of the Susquehanna river. Before anything was done, the need of
improved means of transportation between Philadelphia and the
anthracite coal-fields became the more pressing. The Schuylkill
Canal Company, chartered in 1815, began the construction of a
canal along the Schuylkill river from Philadelphia to Mount Carbon,
Schuylkill county, in 1816, and completed it in 1826. In 1818 the
Lehigh Navigation Company was formed to improve the naviga-
tion of the Lehigh river from its confluence with the Delaware to
Coalport, and two years later coal was successfully carried down
the Lehigh and Delaware rivers to Philadelphia in " arks " or
rectangular boxes, two or more of which were joined together and
steered by a long oar. So prosperous was the business that in
1827-1829 the company built a number of locks which made the
Lehigh navigable in either direction, and in 1827-1832 the state
did the same for the Delaware between the mouth of the Lehigh
and Bristol. The Union Canal Company, incorporated in 1811,
completed a canal from Middletown on the Susquehanna to Reading
on the Schuylkill in 1827. In 1824 the state legislature authorized
the appointment of a commission to explore routes from the Schuyl-
kill to Pittsburg, and from the West Branch of the Susquehanna
to the Allegheny, and in the three or four succeeding years the
state committed itself to a very extensive system of internal
improvements. Work was begun on the system in 1826 and was
continued without interruption until 1840, when the completed or
nearly completed portions embraced a railway from Philadelphia
to Columbia on the Susquehanna, a canal up the Susquehanna and
the Juniata from Columbia to Hollidaysburg, a portage railway
from Hollidaysburg through Blair's Gap in the Alleghany Front to
Johnstown on the Conemaugh river, a canal down the Conemaugh,
Kiskiminetas, and Allegheny rivers to Pittsburg, a canal up the
Susquehanna and its west branch from the mouth of the Juniata
to Farrandsville, in Clinton county, a canal up the Susquehanna
and its north branch from Northumberland nearly to the New
York border, and a canal up the Delaware river from Bristol to
the mouth of the Lehigh; considerable work had also been done on
two canals to connect the Ohio river with Lake Erie. Work was
stopped, in 1840, before the system was completed because of the
intense popular discontent arising from the burden of debt which
had been assumed and because the success of competing railways
was then fully assured. In 1845 the state began to sell its canals
and railways to private corporations and the sale was completed
in 1859. The western division of the system was abandoned by
the new owners in 1865 and the worked portion of the east division
gradually decreased until it, too, was wholly abandoned in 1904,
with the exception of the Delaware Division Canal, which since
1866 has been worked by the Lehigh Coal & Navigation Company
in connexion with the Lehigh Canal. In its natural condition there
were bars in the Delaware river below Philadelphia which obstructed
the navigation of vessels drawing more than 17-20 ft. of water,
but in 1899 the Federal government adopted a project for obtaining
a channel having a minimum depth of 30 ft. The Federal govern-
ment has much improved the navigation of the Monongahela and
Allegheny rivers and is committed to a project for slack-water
navigation on the Ohio which is expected to give Pittsburg com-
munication with the sea by vessels drawing 9 ft. of water.

The first railway in the state was that built in 1827 by the Lehigh
Coal & Navigation Company from Mauch Chunk to its mines,
o m. distant; but this was only a gravity road down which cars
loaded with coal descended by their own gravity and up which the
empty cars were drawn by mules. In 1823 a company was incor-
porated to build a railway from Philadelphia to Columbia, but
nothing further was done until 1828, when the state canal com-
missioners were directed to build this road and the Allegheny
Portage railway from Hollidaysburg to Johnstown. The latter
was built with ten inclined planes, five on each side of the summit
at Blair's Gap and cars were drawn up these by stationary engines.
Both the Philadelphia & Columbia and the Allegheny Portage
railways were completed in 1834. From these and other begin-
nings the state's railway mileage gradually increased to 1240 m.
in 1850, to 4656 m. in 1870, to 8639 m. in 1890 and to ii,373 m. at

PENNSYLVANIA

109

the end of 1908, when it was exceeded by only two states in the
Union, Texas and Illinois. The principal railways are the lines
operated by the Pennsylvania Railroad Company from New York
to Washington through Philadelphia; from Philadelphia to Cincin-
nati, Cleveland, Chicago and St Louis through Harrisburg and
Pittsburg; from Baltimore, Maryland, to Sodus Point on Lake
Ontario (Northern Central) through Harrisburg and Williamsport;
from Williamsport to Buffalo and to Erie, and from Pittsburg to
Buffalo; the Philadelphia & Reading; the Lehigh Valley; the Erie;
the Delaware, Lacka wanna & Western; the Baltimore & Ohio;
and the Buffalo, Rochester & Pittsburg.

The state has one port of entry along the Atlantic coast, one on
the Ohio river, and one on the Great Lakes. Philadelphia, the
Atlantic port, exports chiefly petroleum, coal, grain and flour, and
imports chiefly iron ore, sugar, drugs and chemicals, manufactured
iron, hemp, jute and flax. In 1909 the value of its exports,
$80,650,274, was greater than that of any other Atlantic port
except New York, and the value of its imports, $78,003,464, was
greater than that of any except New York and Boston. Pittsburg
ranks high among the interior ports of the country in foreign
commerce and first among the cities of the United States in the
tonnage of its domestic commerce. Erie is quite unimportant
among the lake ports in foreign commerce, but has a large domestic
trade in iron ore, copper, wheat and flour.

Population. — The population of Pennsylvania was 434,373
in 1790; 602,365 in 1800; 810,091 in 1810; 1,049,458 in 1820;
1,348,233 in 1830; 1,724,033 in 1840; 2,311,786 in 1850; 2,906,215
in 1860; 3,521,951 in 1870; 4,282,891 in 1880; 5,258,014 in
1890; 6,302,115 in 1900; 7,665,111 in 1910. Of the total in 1900,
985,250, or 15-6%, were foreign-born, 156,845 were negroes,
1639 were Indians, 1927 were Chinese and 40 were Japanese.
Nearly 95% of the foreign-born was composed of natives of
Germany (212,453), Ireland (205,909), Great Britain (180,670),
Poland (76,358), Austria (67,492), Italy (66,655), Russia (50,959),
Hungary (47,393) and Sweden (24,130). Of the native popula-
tion (5,316,865) 90-7% were born within the state and a little
more than two-fifths of the remainder were natives of New
York, Maryland, Ohio, New Jersey, Virginia, New England,
Delaware and West Virginia. Almost two-thirds of the Indians
were in Cumberland county where, at Carlisle, is a United
States Indian Industrial School. In 1906 the total number of
communicants of different religious denominations in the state
was 2, 977,022, of whom 1,717,037 were Protestants and 1,214,734
were Roman Catholics. There is a large number of the smaller
religious sects in the state; the principal denominations,
with the number of communicants of each in 1906, are: Metho-
dist (363,443), Lutheran (335,643), Presbyterian (322,542),
Reformed Church (177,270), Baptist (141,694), Protestant
Episcopalian (99,021), United Brethren (55,574), United Evan-
gelical Church (45,480), Disciples of Christ (26,458), German
Baptist Brethren (23,176), Eastern Orthodox Churches (22,123),
Mennonites (16,527), Congregational (14,811), Evangelical Asso-
ciation (13,294), Friends (12,457), Church of God or " Winne-
brennerians " (11,157), and Moravian (5322).

Of the total population in 1900, 3,223,337, or 51 • I %, were urban (i.e.
in places having a population of 4000 or more), 762,846, or 12-15%,
were semi-urban (i.e. in incorporated places having a population
less than 4000) and 2,315,932, or 36-75%, were rural (i.e. outside of
the incorporated places). From 1890 to 1900 the urban population
increased 854,730, or 36%, and the semi-urban 134,077, or 18-4%,
but the rural increased only 55,195, or 2-4%. The populations of
the principal cities in 1900 were as follows: Philadelphia, 1,293,697;
Pittsburg, 321,616; Allegheny, 129,896 (subsequently annexed to
Pittsburg); Scranton, 102,026; Reading, 78,961; Erie, 52,7331
Wilkes-Barre, 51,721; Harrisburg, 50,167; Lancaster, 41,459;
Altoona, 38,973; Johnstown, 35,936 ;Allentqwn, 35,416 ;McKeesport,
34,227; Chester, 33,988; York, 33,708; Williamsport, 28,757; New
Castle, 28,339; Easton, 25,238; Norristown, 22,265; Shenandoah,
20,321; Shamokin (borough), 18,202; Lebanon, 17,628.

Administration. — Pennsylvania has been governed under
constitutions of 1776, 1790 and 1838 ; the present government
is under the constitution of the i6th of December 1873 with
amendments adopted on the $th of November 1901. An
amendment to the constitution to be adopted must be approved
by a majority of the members elected to each house of the
general assembly in two successive legislatures and then, at
least three months after the second approval of the general
assembly, by a majority of the popular vote cast on the adoption
of the amendment. All male citizens over 21 years of age

who have been citizens of the United States for one month,
residents of the state for one year and of the election district
lor two months immediately preceding the election, have the
right of suffrage, provided they have paid within two years a
state or county tax, which shall have been assessed at least
two months and paid at least one month before the election.
The Australian or " Massachusetts " ballot, adopted in 1891
under a law which fails to require personal registration, by a
srovision like that in Nebraska makes it easy to vote a straight
ticket; party names are arranged on the ballot according to
the number of votes secured by each party at the last preceding
election.

Executive. — The office of governor, superseded in 1776 by a presi-
dent and council of twelve, was restored in 1790. Under the present
constitution the governor serves for four years and is ineligible for
the next succeeding term. The governor and lieutenant-governor
must be at least 30 years old, citizens of the United States, and
inhabitants of the state for seven years last preceding election;
no member of Congress or person holding any office under the
United States or Pennsylvania may be governor or lieutenant-
governor. The governor controls a large amount of patronage,
appointing, subject to the advice and consent of two-thirds of the
senate, a secretary of the commonwealth and an attorney-general
during pleasure, and a superintendent of public instruction for four
years, and may fill vacancies in various offices which occur during
the recess of the senate. He has a right of veto, extending to items
in appropriation bills, which may be overridden by a two-thirds
vote in each house. His power of pardon is limited, being subject
to the recommendation of three members of a board which consists
of the lieutenant-governor, secretary of the commonwealth, attorney-
general and secretary of internal affairs. The other executive
officials are the lieutenant-governor and the secretary of internal
affairs, elected for four years, the auditor-general, elected for three
years, the treasurer, elected for two years, and (all appointed by the
governor) the secretary of the commonwealth, the attorney-general
and a superintendent of public instruction. All those chosen by
election are ineligible for a second consecutive term except the
secretary of internal affairs. The department of internal affairs
consists of six bureaus: the land office, vital statistics, weather
service, assessments, industrial statistics, and railroads, canals,
telegraphs and telephones. There are also many statutory admini-
strative officials and boards, such as the adjutant-general, insurance
commissioner, board of health, board of agriculture, board of public
grounds and buildings, commissioners of fisheries, and factory and
mining inspectors.

Legislature. — During the colonial period and the early years of
statehood the legislature was composed of one house, but the
bicameral system was adopted in the constitution of 1790. There
are fifty senators, elected for four years, and approximately two
hundred representatives, elected for two years. Senators must be
at least 25 years old, citizens and inhabitants of the state for four
years next before election and inhabitants of the senatorial districts
from which each is elected for one year next before election;
representatives must be at least 21 years old and must have lived
in the state three years and in the district from which elected one
year next before election. To avoid the possibility of metropolitan
domination provision is made that no city or county shall be entitled
to more than one-sixth of the total number of senators. Sessions
are biennial. The powers of the two houses are the same except
that the senate exercises the usual right of confirming appointments
and of sitting as a court of impeachment, while the House of Repre-
sentatives initiates money bills and impeachment cases. (

Judiciary. — The supreme court consists of seven judges elected
by the voters of the state at large. Minority representation is
secured by the provision that each elector shall vote for one less than
the number of judges to be chosen at each election. The state is
divided into three supreme judicial districts, the eastern, the middle
and the western. This court was formerly very much overworked,
but it was relieved by an act of the 2dth of June 1895 establishing
a superior court (now of seven judges) with appellate jurisdiction.
There were in 1910 fifty-six district courts of common pleas, one for
each county of forty thousand inhabitants and not more than four
counties in a district. The judges of the common pleas are also'
judges of the courts of oyer and terminer, quarter sessions of the
peace and general gaol delivery, and the orphans' courts, although
there are separate orphans' courts in the counties (ten in 1909)
having a population of more than one hundred and fifty thousand.
Justices of the peace are elected in wards, districts, boroughs and
townships. In the colonial period all judges were appointed by the
governor during good behaviour. The constitution of 1776 provided
for terms of seven years, that of 1790 restored the life term, and that
of 1838 fixed the terms for judges of the common pleas at ten years
and judges of the supreme court at fifteen. A constitutional amend-
ment of 1850 provided that all judges should be elected by the people.1

1 The constitution of 1873 made provision for minority represen-
tation as follows: " Whenever two judges of the supreme court are

no

PENNSYLVANIA

At present supreme court judges serve for twenty-one years and are
ineligible for re-election. Superior court and common pleas judges
serve for ten years, and justices of the peace for five. Judges may be
impeached for misdemeanour in office or they may be removed by
the governor, with the consent of two-thirds of each house of the
general assembly, for any reasonable cause which shall not be
sufficient ground for impeachment.

Local Government. — The local government is a combination of
the county system of the South and the township system of New
England. The county officers are sheriffs, coroners, prothonotaries,
registers of wills, recorders of deeds, commissioners, treasurers,
surveyors, auditors or comptrollers, clerks of the courts, and district
attorneys, elected for three years. The three commissioners and the
three auditors in each county are chosen by the same limited vote
process as the supreme-court judges, thus allowing a representation
to the minority party. Pennsylvania has suffered more perhaps
than any other state in the Union from legislative interference in
local affairs. Under an act of the general assembly passed in 1870
the people of Philadelphia were forced to contribute more than
$20,000,000 for the construction of a city-hall. To guard_ against
such encroachments in the future the constitution of 1873 imposed
the most detailed limitations upon special legislation. The object
of the provision, however, has been in a large measure nullified by
the system of city classification, under which Philadelphia is the
only city of the first class. The passage of the " Ripper Bill " of 1901
shows that the cities of the second class are by no means secure.
The apparent object of the measure was to deprive the people of
Pittsburg temporarily of the privileges of self-government by
empowering the governor to appoint a recorder (in 1903 the title of
mayor was again assumed) to exercise (until 1903, when the muni-
cipal executive should be again chosen by the people) the functions
of the mayor, thus removed by the governor under this statute;
and this act applied to the other cities of the second class, Allegheny
and Scranton, although they had not offended the party managers.

Miscellaneous Laws. — A woman's right to hold, manage and
acquire property in her own right is not affected by marriage, but
for a married woman to mortgage or convey her real estate the
joint action of herself and her husband is necessary. The rights
of dower and courtesy both obtain. When a husband dies intestate
leaving a widow and issue, the widow has the use of one-third
of his real estate for life and one-third of his personal estate abso-
lutely; if he leaves no issue but there be collateral heirs or other
kindred, the widow has the real or personal estate or both to the
value of $5000, the use of one-half the remaining real estate for
life, and one-half the remaining personal estate absolutely; if the
husband leaves a will the widow has the choice between her dower
right and the terms of the will. When a wife dies intestate leaving
a husband and issue the husband has the use of all her real estate
for life, and the personal estate is divided among the husband and
children share and share alike; if there be no issue the husband has
the use of all her real estate for life and all her personal estate
absolutely; if the wife leaves a will the husband has the choice
between its terms and his right by courtesy. Whenever there is
neither issue nor kindred the surviving husband or wife has all the
estate. The principal grounds for an absolute divorce are impo-
tency, adultery, wilful or malicious desertion, cruel and barbarous
treatment, personal abuse and conviction of any such crime as
arson, burglary, embezzlement, forgery, kidnapping, larceny,
murder, perjury or assault with intent to kill. Before filing a
petition for a divorce the plaintiff must have resided within the
state at least one year. A suit for a divorce on the ground of deser-
tion may be commenced when the defendant has been absent six
months, but the divorce may not be granted until the desertion
has continued two years. The party convicted of adultery is
forbidden to marry the co-respondent during the lifetime of the
other party. A marriage of first cousins or a bigamous marriage
may be declared void. Pennsylvania has no homestead law, but
the property of a debtor amounting to $300 in value, exclusive of
the wearing apparel of himself and family and of all Bibles and
school-books in use, is exempt from levy and sale on execution or
by distress for rent; and the exemption extends to the widow and
children unless there is a lien on the property foe purchase money.
The child-labour law of 1909 forbids the employment of children
under eighteen years of age in blast furnaces, tanneries, quarries,
in managing elevator lifts or hoisting machines, in oiling dangerous
machinery while in motion, at switch tending, as brakesmen,
firemen, engineers, motormen and in other positions of similar
character. The same law prescribes conditions under which
children between fourteen and eighteen years of age may be em-
ployed in the manufacture of white-lead, red-lead, paints, phos-
phorus, poisonous acids, tobacco or cigars, in mercantile establish-
ments, stores, hotels, offices or in other places requiring protection
to their health or safety; and it forbids the employment of boys
under sixteen years of age or of girls under eighteen years of age in
such factories or establishments more than ten hours a day (unless
it be to prepare for a short day) or for more than fifty-eight hours

to be chosen forjthe same term of service each voter shall vote for
one only, and when three are to be chosen he shall vote for no more
than two; candidates highest in vote shall be declared elected."

a week, or their employment there between nine o'clock in the
evening and six o'clock in the morning, except that in the factories
requiring continuous night and day employment boys not under
fourteen years of age may be employed partly by day and partly
by night not exceeding nine hours in any twenty-four. The em-
ployment of children under fourteen years of age in coal-mines is
forbidden, as is also the employment of children under fourteen
years of age in any cotton, woollen, silk, paper, bagging or flax
factory, or in any laundry, or the employment of children under
twelve years of age in any mill or factory whatever within the
commonwealth.

Prisons and Charities. — Penal and charitable institutions are
under the supervision of a board of public charities of ten members,
established in 1869, and a committee in lunacy, composed of five
members of this board, appointed under an act of 1883. An agita-
tion begun by the Philadelphia society for assisting distressed
prisoners in 1776, checked for a time by the War of Independence,
led ultimately to the passage of a statute in 1818 for the establish-
ment of the Western Penitentiary at Allegheny (opened 1826) and
another of 1821 for the establishment of the Eastern Penitentiary
in Philadelphia (opened 1829). In the former penitentiary prisoners
are congregated ; in the latter they are kept in solitary confinement.
An act of 1878 provided for a third penitentiary in the middle
district, but through the efforts of Governor Henry M. Hoyt the
plans were changed and instead the Industrial Reformatory was
established at Huntingdon (opened 1889). The House of Refuge
of western Pennsylvania, located in Allegheny in 1854 (act of
1850), became the Pennsylvania Reform School in 1872, and was
removed to Morganza, Washington county, in 1876. Few states
have done so much as Pennsylvania for the humane and scientific
treatment of its dependent and defective classes. Largely as a
result of the efforts of Dorothea Lynde Dix (q.v.), a hospital for the
insane was established at Harrisburg in 1851 (act of 1845). A
second hospital was opened at Pittsburg in 1853 (act of 1848), but
the location was ruined by Pennsylvania railway improvements,
and in 1862 it was removed to a new site about 7 m. from the city,
which was called Dixmont in honour of Miss Dix; the hospital is
not a state institution, but the state provides for the maintenance
there of patients committed by the courts or the poor authorities
in the thirteen counties forming the western district. For three
other districts three state institutions have been established — at
Danville, 1872 (act of 1868), Warren, 1880 (act of 1873), and Norris-
town, 1880 (act of 1876). An act of 1901 established a homoeopathic
hospital for the insane at Allentown. A distinction is made between
hospitals and asylums. The asylum for the chronic insane is at
South Mountain, 1894 (act °f 1891). A state institution for feeble-
minded of western Pennsylvania at Polk, Venango county, was
opened in 1897 (act of 1893), and the eastern Pennsylvania state
institution for feeble-minded and epileptic at Spring City, Chester
county, was opened in 1908 (act of 1903). There are institutes for
the blind at Qverbrook and Pittsburg, and for the deaf and dumb
at Philadelphia and Edgewood Park, an oral school for the deaf
at Scranton, a home for the training of deaf children at Philadelphia,
a soldiers' and sailors' home at Erie (1886), a soldiers' orphans'
industrial school (1895) at Scotland, Franklin county, the Thaddeus
Stevens industrial school (1905) at Lancaster, hospitals for the
treatment of persons injured in the mines, at Ashland (1879),
Hazleton (1887) and Shamokin (1907), and cottage hospitals at
Blossburg, Connellsville, Mercer and Philipsburg (all 1887). In
addition to the institutions under state control a large number of
local charities receive aid from the public treasury. In 1907-
1908, $14,222,440 was appropriated for institutions: $7,479,732
for sfate institutions, $1,240,108 for semi-state institutions,
$4,757,100 for general hospitals, $149,500 for hospitals for con-
sumptives, and $745,900 for homes, asylums, &c. The system of
juvenile courts, created under a statute of 1901, has done much to
ameliorate the condition of dependent and delinquent children.

Education. — During the colonial period there were many sectarian
and neighbourhood subscription schools in which the poor could
receive a free education, but public schools in the modern American
sense were unknown. The famous Friends' public school, founded
in Philadelphia in 1689 and chartered in 1697, still exists as the
William Penn charter school. An agitation begun soon after the
War of Independence resulted in the creation of a school fund in
1831 and the final establishment of the present system of public
schools in 1834. The attempt to repeal the law in 1835 was defeated
largely through the efforts of Thaddeus Stevens, who was then a
member of the state house of representatives. During the years
1852-1857 the educational department became a separate branch
of the state government, the office of county school superintendent
was created, the state teachers' association (known since 1900 as
the Pennsylvania educational association) was organized, and a
law was enacted for the establishment of normal schools. Since
1893 the state has furnished textbooks and other necessary supplies
free of charge, and since 1895 education has been compulsory for
all children between the ages of eight and thirteen. Schools must
be kept open not less than seven and not more than ten months
in the year. Out of a total expenditure of $30,021,774 for the
fiscal year 1909, $7,875,083 was for educational purposes, of which
$6,810,906 was for common schools, being appropriations to the

PENNSYLVANIA

in

counties. ' There is a biennial school appropriation of $15,000,000.
In addition the district directors levy local rates which must
not be greater than the state and county taxes combined. The
Pennsylvania state college at State College, Center county, was
established in 1855 as the farmers' high school of Pennsylvania, in
1862 became the Agricultural College of Pennsylvania, and received
its present name in 1874 after the income from the national land
grant had been appropriated to the use of the institutions; in
1909-1910 it had 147 instructors, 1400 students and a library of
37,000 volumes. Other institutions for higher education are the
University of Pennsylvania, at Philadelphia (1749), an endowed
institution which receives very little support from the state; the
University oi Pittsburgh (1819), at Pittsburg (q.v.) • Dickinson
College (Methodist Episcopal, 1783), at Carlisle; Haverlord College
(Society of Friends, 1833), at Haverford; Franklin and Marshall
(German Reformed, 1853), at Lancaster; Washington and Jefferson
(Presbyterian, 1802), at Washington ; Lafayette (Presbyterian, 1832),
at Easton; Bucknell University (Baptist, 1846), at Lewisburg;
Waynesburg (Cumberland Presbyterian, 1851), at Waynesburg;
Ursinus (German Reformed, 1870), at Collegeville ; Allegheny
College (Methodist Episcopal, 1815), at Meadville; Swarthmore
(Society of Friends (Hicksites), 1866), at Swarthmore: Muhlenberg
(Lutheran, 1867), at Allentown; Lehigh University (non- sectarian,
1867), at Bethlehem; and for women Bryn Mawr College (Society
of Friends, 1885), at Bryn Mawr; the Allentown College (German
Reformed, 1867), at Allentown ; Wilson College (Presbyterian, 1870),
and the Pennsylvania College for women (1869), at Pittsburg.
There are theological seminaries at Pittsburg, the Allegheny Semin-
ary (United Presbyterian, 1825), Reformed Presbyterian (1856),
and Western Theological Seminary (Presbyterian, 1827); at Lan-
caster (German Reformed, 1827); at Meadville (Unitarian, 1844);
at Bethlehem (Moravian, 1807); at Chester, the Crozer Theological
Seminary (Baptist, 1868); at Gettysburg (Lutheran, 1826); and in
Philadelphia several schools, notably the Protestant Episcopal Church
divinity school (1862) and a Lutheran seminary (1864), at Mount
Airy. There are many technical and special schools, such as
Girard College, Drexel institute and Franklin institute at Phila-
delphia, the Carnegie institute at Pittsburg and the United States
Indian school at Carlisle (1891).

Finance. — The revenues of the state are derived primarily from
corporation taxes, business licences, and a 5 % rate on collateral
inheritance. Taxes on real estate have been abolished and those
on personal property are being reduced, although the heavy
expenditures on the new capitol at Harrisburg checked the
movement temporarily. The total receipts for the year ending on
the 3Oth of November 1909 were $28,945,210, and the expenditure
was $30,021,774. During the provincial period Pennsylvania, in
common with the other colonies, was affected with the paper money
craze. From 1723 to 1775 it issued £1,094,650 and from 1775 to
1785 £1,172,000 plus $1,550,000. Acts were passed in '1781,
1792, 1793 and 1794 to facilitate redemption at depreciated rates,
and the last bills were called in on the 1st of January 1806. The
state was also carried along by the movement which began about
1825 for the expenditure of public funds on internal improvements.
On turnpikes, bridges, canals and railways $53,352,649 was spent
between 1826 and 1843, the public debt in the latter year reaching
the high-water mark of $42,188,434. An agitation was then begun
for retrenchment, the public works were put up for sale, and were
finally disposed of in 1858 (when the debt was $39,488,244) to the
Pennsylvania Railroad Company for $7,500,000. Under authority
of a constitutional amendment of 1857 a sinking fund commission
was established in 1858. Aside from a temporary increase during
the Civil War (1861—65) the debt has been rapidly reduced. The
constitution of 1873 and subsequent legislation have continued
the commission, but the sources of revenue have been very much
curtailed, being restricted to the interest on the deposits of the
fund and interest on certain Allegheny Railroad bonds. The total
debt on the 3Oth of November 1909 was $2,643,917, of which the
greater part were 3^ and 4% bonds, maturing on the 1st of February
1912. The sinking fund at the samedate amounted to $2,652,035,
leaving a net surplus in the sinking fund of $8118. The sinking
fund was formerly divided among certain favoured banks in such
manner as would best advance the political interests of the organi-
zation which controlled the state; but just after the reform victory
in the election of 1905 the sinking fund commission instituted the
policy of buying bonds at the market price, and the debt is now
being reduced by that method. The financial institutions of Penn-
sylvania other than national banks are created by state charters
limited to twenty years and are subject to the supervision of a
commissioner of banking.

History. — The chief features of Pennsylvania history in
colonial days were the predominance of Quaker influence, the
heterogeneous character of the population, liberality in matters
of religion, and the fact that it was the largest and the most
successful of proprietary provinces. The earliest European
settlements within the present limits of the state were some small
trading posts established by the Swedes and the Dutch in the

lower valley of the Delaware River in 1623-1681. Between
1650 and 1660 George Fox and a few other prominent members
of the Society of Friends had begun to urge the establishment
of a colony in America to serve as a refuge for Quakers who were
suffering persecution under the " Clarendon Code." William
Penn (q.v.) became interested in the 'plan at least as early as
1666. For his charters of 1680-1682 and the growth of the
colony under him see PENN, WILLIAM.

During Penn's life the colony was involved in serious boundary
disputes with Maryland, Virginia and New York. A decree of
Lord Chancellor Hardwicke, in 1750, settled the Maryland-
Delaware dispute and led to the survey in 1763-1767 of the
boundary between Pennsylvania and Maryland (lat. 39° 43'
26-3" N.), called the Mason and Dixon line in honour of the
surveyors; it acquired considerable importance later as separat-
ing the free and the slave states. In 1784 Virginia agreed to
the extension of the line and to the establishment of the western
limit (the present boundary between Pennsylvania and Ohio)
as the meridian from a point on the Mason and Dixon line five
degrees of longitude west of the Delaware river. The 42nd
parallel was finally selected as the northern boundary in 1789,
in 1792 the Federal government sold to Pennsylvania the
small triangular strip" of territory north of it on Lake Erie. A
territorial dispute with Connecticut over the Wyoming Valley
was settled in favour of Pennsylvania in 1782 by a court of
arbitration appointed by the Continental Congress.

Upon William Penn's death, his widow became proprietary.
Sir William Keith, her deputy, was hostile to the council, which
he practically abolished, and was popular with the assembly,
which he assiduously courted, but was discharged by Mrs Penn
after he had quarrelled with James Logan, secretary of the
province. His successors, Patrick Gordon and George Thomas,
under the proprietorship of John, Thomas and Richard Penn,
continued Keith's popular policy of issuing a plentiful paper
currency; but with Thomas the assembly renewed its old struggle,
refusing to grant him a salary or supplies because of bis efforts
to force the colony into supporting the Spanish War. Again,
during the Seven Years' War the assembly withstood the gov-
ernor, Robert Hunter Morris, in the matter of grants for military
expenses. But the assembly did its part in assisting General
Braddock to outfit; and after Braddock's defeat all western
Pennsylvania suffered terribly from Indian attacks. After the
proprietors subscribed £5000 f°r the protection of the colony
the assembly momentarily gave up its contest for a tax on the
proprietary estates and consented to pass a money bill, without
this provision, for the expenses of the war. But in 1760 the
assembly, with the help of Benjamin Franklin as agent in
England, won the great victory of forcing the proprietors to
pay a tax (£566) to the colony; and thereafter the assembly
had little to contest for, and the degree of civil liberty attained
in the province was very high. But the growing power of the
Scotch-Irish, the resentment of the Quakers against the pro-
prietors for having gone back to the Church of England and
many other circumstances strengthened the anti-proprietary
power, and the assembly strove to abolish the proprietorship
and establish a royal province; John Dickinson was the able
leader of the party which defended the proprietors; and Joseph
Galloway and Benjamin Franklin were the leaders of the
anti-proprietary party, which was greatly weakened at home
by the absence after December 1764 of Franklin in England
'as its agent. The question lost importance as independence
became the issue.

In 1755 a volunteer militia had been created and was led with
great success by Benjamin Franklin; and in 1756 a line of forts
was begun to hold the Indians in check. In the same year a
force of pioneers under John Armstrong of Carlisle surprised
and destroyed the Indian village of Kittanning (or Atique)
on the Allegheny river. But the frontier was disturbed by
Indian attacks until the suppression of Pontiac's conspiracy.
In December 1763 six Christian Indians, Conestogas, were
massacred by the " Paxton boys " from Paxton near the
present Harrisburg; the Indians who had escaped were taken

112

PENNSYLVANIA

to Lancaster for safe keeping but were seized and killed by the
" Paxton boys," who with other backwoodsmen marched upon
Philadelphia early in 1764, but Quakers and Germans gathered
quickly to protect it and civil war was averted, largely by the
diplomacy of Franklin. The Paxton massacre marked the close
of Quaker supremacy and the beginning of the predominance of
the Scotch-Irish pioneers.

Owing to its central position, its liberal government, and its
policy of religious toleration, Pennsylvania had become during
the i8th century a refuge for European immigrants, especially
persecuted sectaries. In no other colony were so many different
races and religions represented. There were Dutch, Swedes,
English, Germans, Welsh, Irish and Scotch-Irish; Quakers,
Presbyterians, Episcopalians, Catholics, Lutherans (Reformed),
Mennonites, Bunkers, Schwenkfelders, and Moravians. Most
of these elements have now become merged in the general type,
but there are still many communities in which the popular
language is a corrupt German dialect, largely Rheno-Franconian
in its origin, known as " Pennsylvania Dutch." Before the
Seven Years' War the Quakers dominated the government,
but from that time until the failure of the Whisky Insurrection
(1704) the more belligerent Scotch-Irish (mostly Presbyterians)
were usually in the ascendancy, the reasons being the growing
numerical strength of the Scotch-Irish and the increasing
dissatisfaction with Quaker neglect of means of defending the
province.

As the central colony, Pennsylvania's attitude in the struggle
with the mother country was of vast importance. The British
party was strong because of the loyalty of the large Church of
England element, the neutrality of many Quakers, Bunkers,
and Mennonites, and a general satisfaction with the liberal and
free government of the province, which had been won gradually
and had not suffered such catastrophic reverses as had em-
bittered the people of Massachusetts, for instance. But the
Whig party under the lead of John Bickinson, Thomas MifBin
and Joseph Reed was successful in the state, and Pennsylvania
contributed greatly to the success of the War of Independence,
by the important services rendered by her statesmen, by
providing troops and by the financial aid given by Robert
Morris (q.v.). The two Continental Congresses (1774, and
1775~I78i) met in Philadelphia, except for the months when
Philadelphia was occupied by the British army and Congress
met in Lancaster and York, Pennsylvania, and then in Prince-
ton, New Jersey. In Philadelphia the second Congress adopted
the Beclaration of Independence, which the Pennsylvania
delegation, excepting Franklin, thought premature at the time,
but which was well supported by Pennsylvania' afterwards.
During the War of Independence battles were fought at Brandy-
wine (1777), Paoli (1777), Fort Mifflin (1777) and Germantown
(1777), and Washington's army spent the winter of 1777-1778
at Valley Forge; and Philadelphia was occupied by the British
from the 26th of September 1777 to the i8th of June 1778.
The Penns lost their governmental rights in 1776, and three
years later their territorial interests were vested in the common-
wealth in return for a grant of £120,000 and the guarantee of
titles to private estates held in severally. They still own con-
siderable property in and around Wilkes-Barre, in Luzerne
county, and in Philadelphia. The first state constitution of
September 1776 was the work of the Radical party. It deprived
the Quakers of their part in the control of the government
and forced many Conservatives into the Loyalist party. This
first state constitution was never submitted to popular vote.
It continued the unicameral legislative system, abolished the
office of governor, and provided for an executive council of
twelve members. It also created a curious body, known as the
council of censors, whose duty it was to assemble once in seven
years to decide whether there had been any infringements of
the fundamental law. The party which had carried this con-
stitution through attacked its opponents by withdrawing the
charter of the college of Philadelphia (now the university of
Pennsylvania) because its trustees were anti-Constitutionalists
and creating in its place a university of the state of Pennsyl-

vania. The Constitutional party in 1785 secured the annulment
by the state assembly of the charter of the Bank of North
America, which still retained a congressional charter; and the
cause of this action also seems to have been party feeling against
the anti-Constitutionalists, among whom Robert Morris of the
bank was a leader, and who, especially Morris, had opposed the
paper money policy of the Constitutionalists. These actions
of the state assembly against the college and the bank probably
were immediate causes for the insertion in the Federal Constitu-
tion (adopted by the convention in Philadelphia in 1787) of the
clause (proposed by James Wilson of Pennsylvania, a friend
of the college and of the bank) forbidding any state to pass a
law impairing the obligation of contracts. The state ratified the
Federal Constitution, in spite of a powerful opposition — largely
the old (state) Constitutional party — on the 22nd of Becember
1787, and three years later revised its own constitution to make
it conform to that document. Under the constitution of 1790
the office of governor was restored, the executive council and
the council of censors were abolished, and the bicameral legis-
lative system was adopted. Philadelphia was the seat of the
Federal government, except for a brief period in 1789-1790,
until the removal to Washington in 1800. The state capital
was removed from Philadelphia to Lancaster in 1799 and from
Lancaster to Harrisburg in 1812.

The state was the scene of the Scotch-Irish revolt of 1794
against the Federal excise tax, known as the Whisky Insurrection
(q.v.) and of the German protest (1799) against the house tax,
known as the Fries Rebellion from its leader John Fries (q.v.).
In 1838 as the result of a disputed election to the state house of
representatives two houses were organized, one Whig and the
other Bemocratic, and there was open violence in Harrisburg.
The conflict has been called the " Buckshot War." The Whig
House of Representatives gradually broke up, many members
going over to the Bemocratic house, which had possession of
the records and the chamber and was recognized by the state
Senate. Pennsylvania was usually Bemocratic before the
Civil War owing to the democratic character of its country
population and to the close commercial relations between
Philadelphia and the South. The growth of the protectionist
movement and the development of anti-slavery sentiment,
however, drew it in the opposite direction, and it voted the
Whig national ticket in 1840 and in 1848, and the Republican
ticket for Lincoln in 1860. A split among the Bemocrats in
1835, due to the opposition of the Germans to internal improve-
ments and to the establishment of a public school system,
resulted in the election as governor of Joseph Ritner, the anti-
Masonic candidate. The anti-Masonic excitement subsided
as quickly as it had risen, and under the leadership of Thaddeus
Stevens the party soon became merged with the Whigs. Buring
the Civil War (1861-65) the state gave to the Union 336,000
soldiers; and Generals McClellan, Hancock, Meade and Reynolds
and Admirals Porter and Bahlgren were natives of the state.
Its nearness to the field of war made its position dangerous.
Chambersburg was burned in 1862; and the battle of Gettys-
burg (July 1863), a defeat of Lee's attempt to invade the North
in force was a turning point in the war.

The development of the material resources of the state since
1865 has been accompanied by several serious industrial dis-
turbances. The railway riots of 1877, which centred at Pittsburg
and Reading, resulted in the destruction of about two thousand
freight cars and a considerable amount of other property. An
organized association, known as the Molly Maguires (g.v.),
terrorized the mining regions for many years, but was finally
suppressed through the courageous efforts of President Franklin,
Benjamin Gowen (1863-1889) of the Philadelphia & Reading rail-
road with the assistance of Allan Pinkerton and his detectives.
There have been mining strikes at Scranton (1871), in the Lehigh
and Schuylkill regions (1875), at Hazleton (1897), and one in the
anthracite fields (1902) which was settled by a board of arbitra-
tors appointed by President Roosevelt; and there were street
railway strikes at Chester in 1908 and in Philadelphia in 1910.
The calling in of Pinkerton detectives from Chicago and New

PENNSYLVANIA

York to settle a strike in the Carnegie steel works at Homestead
in 1892 precipitated a serious riot, in which about twenty persons
were killed. It was necessary to call out two brigades of
the state militia before the disorder was finally suppressed.
The labour unions took advantage of this trouble to force
Pennsylvania, Indiana, Illinois, Minnesota, Colorado and several
other states to pass anti-Pinkerton statutes making it illegal to
import irresponsible armed men from a distance to quell local
disturbances. On the political side the chief features in the
history of the state since 1865 have been the adoption of the
constitution of 1873, the growth of the Cameron-Quay-Penrose
political machine, and the attempts of the reformers to over-
throw its domination. The constitution of 1838, which super-
seded that of 1790, extended the functions of the legislature,
limited the governor's power of appointment, and deprived
negroes of the right of suffrage. The provision last mentioned
was nullified by the fourteenth and fifteenth amendments to
the constitution of the United States. The chief object of the
present state constitution (1873) was to prohibit local and special
legislation. It increased the number of senators and represen-
tatives, created the office of lieutenant-governor, substituted
biennial for annual sessions of the legislature, introduced minority
representation in the choice of the higher judiciary and of the
county commissioners and auditors and provided (as had an
amendment adopted in 1850) for the election of all judges by
popular vote. The political organization founded by Simon
Cameron (q.v.) and strengthened by his son, James Donald
Cameron, Matthew Stanley Quay and Boies Penrose (b. 1860),
is based upon the control of patronage, the distribution of state
funds among favoured banks, the support of the Pennsylvania
railway and other great corporations, and upon the ability of
the leaders to persuade the electors that it is necessary to vote
the straight Republican ticket to save the protective system.
Robert E. Pattison (1850-1904), a Democrat, was elected
governor in 1883 and again in 1891, but he was handicapped by
Republican legislatures. In 1905 a Democratic state treasurer
was elected.

PENNSYLVANIA GOVERNORS.
Under Dutch Rule (1624-1664).!

Cornells Jacobsen Mey Director

William van Hulst .

Governor

1624-1625
1625-1626
1626-1632
1632-1633
1633-1638
1638-1647
1647-1664

1638-1641
1641-1642
1642-1653
1653-1654
1654-1655

1664-1667
1664-1667

Peter Minuit
David Pieterzen de Vries
Wouter van Twiller
William Kieft . .

Peter Stuyvesant

Under Swedish Rule (1638- 1655)."

Peter Minuit

Peter Hpllender

John Printz
ohn Pappegoya
ohn Claude Rysingh

Under the Duke of York (1664-1673).

Richard Nicolls

Robert Carr Deputy

Robert Needham . . Commander on the Delaware 1664-1668

Francis Lovelace 1667-1673

John Carr .... Commander on the Delaware 1668-1673
Under Dutch Rule (1673-1674).

Anthony Colve 1673-1674

Peter Alrichs Deputy on the Delaware 1673-1674

Under the Duke of York (1674-1681).

Sir Edmund Andros 1674-1681

Under the Proprietors (1681-1693).
William Markham .... Deputy-Governor . 1681-1682

William Penn 1682-1684

Thomas Lloyd President of the Council 1684-1686

Thomas Lloyd

Robert Turner ]

Arthur Cook I . Executive Commissioners 1686-1688

John Simcock

John Eckley J

John Blackwell Deputy-Governor . 1688-1690

Governors of New Netherland and of the Dutch settlements
on the Delaware.

1 The Swedish colonies on the Delaware conquered by the Dutch
in 1655.

Thomas Lloyd President of the Council 1690-1691

Thomas Lloyd Deputy-Governor . 1691-1693

William Markham '.'.... „ . 1691-1693

Under the Crown (1693-1695).

Benjamin Fletcher 1693-1695

William Markham .... Deputy-Governor . 1693-1695
Under the Proprietors (1695-1776).

William Markham Deputy-Governor . 1695-1699

William Penn 1699—1701

Andrew Hamilton
Edward Shippen
John Evans
Charles Gookin .
Sir William Keith
Patrick Gordon
James Logan
George Thomas
Anthony Palmer
James Hamilton
Robert H. Morris
William Denny .
James Hamilton
John Penn
James Hamilton
Richard Penn
John Penn

. Deputy-Governor . 1701-1703
President of the Council 1703-1704
Lieutenant-Governor 1704-1709

I709-I7I7
1717-1726
1726-1736

President of the Council 1736-1738
Deputy-Governor 1738-1747
President of the Council 1747-1748
Lieutenant-Governor 1748-1754
Deputy-Governor . 1754-1756
1756-1759
1759-1763
I763-I77I
1771

I77I-I773
1773-1776

President of the Council
Lieutenant-Governor

Period of Statehood (1776- ).

Benjamin Franklin, Chairman of the Committee of Safety 1776-1777
. _ . President of the Council 1777-1778
Acting President of the Council 1777

President of the Council 1778-1781
1781-1782

„ 1782-1785
1785-1788
1788-1790

Federalist . . 1790-1799
Democratic-Republican 1799-1808
„ 1808-1817

„ 1817-1820

,, 1820-1823

„ 1823-1829

Democrat. . I&29-I835
Anti-Masonic
Democrat .

Thomas Wharton, Jr,
George Bryan 4 .
Joseph Reed
William Moore .
John Dickinson .
Benjamin Franklin .
Thomas Mifflin . . .
Thomas Mifflin .
Thomas McKean
Simon Snyder
William Finley .
Joseph Heister .
John A. Shulze .
George Wolf
Joseph Ritner
D. R. Porter . . .
F. R. Shunk . . .
W. F. Johnston 6
William Bigler .
James Pollock
W. F. Packer . . .
A. G. Curtin
John W. Geary .
John F. Hartranft .
Henry M. Hoyt
Robert E. Pattison .
James A. Beaver
Robert E. Pattison . .
Daniel H. Hastings .
William A. Stone
Samuel W. Pennypacker
Edwin S. Stuart .
John K. Tener

Whig
Democrat

Republican .

Democrat
Republican

Democrat
Republican

1835-1839
1839-1845
1845-1848
1848-1852
1852-1855
1855-1858
1858-1861
1861-1867
1867-1873
1873-1879
1879-1883
1883-1887
1887-1891
1891-1895
1895-1899
1899-1903
1903-1907
1907-1911

1911-

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — For the physiography of Pennsylvania, see W. S.
Tower's " Regional and Economic Geography of Pennsylvania," in
the Bulletins of the Geographical Society of Philadelphia, vols. iv.,
v. and yi. (Philadelphia, 1904-1908) ; J. P. Lesley, A Summary
Description of the Geology of Pennsylvania (Harrisburg, 1892-1895);
C. B. Trego, A Geography of Pennsylvania (Philadelphia, 1843);
and Topographic and Geologic Survey of Pennsylvania., 1906-1908
(Harrisburg, 1909). For industrial statistics see reports of the
Twelfth United States Census, the Special Reports on Manufactures
in 1905, by the United States Census Bureau, the annual reports
on the Mineral Resources of the United States, by the United States
Geological Survey, and the Year Book of the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture.

For the administration of the state see: The Constitution of the
Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, adopted December 16, 1873,
amended November 5, 1901 (Harrisburg, 1902); S. George et al.
(editors), Laws of Pennsylvania^ 1682-1700, preceded by the Duke
of York's Laws, 1676-1682 (Harrisburg, 1879); A. J. Dallas (editor),
Laws of Pennsylvania, 1700-1801 (Philadelphia and Lancaster,
1797-1801); Laws of the General Assembly of Pennsylvania

3 Lloyd was deputy-governor of the province, the present state
of Pennsylvania; Markham of the lower counties, the present state
of Delaware.

4 The state was governed by a supreme executive council in
1777-1790.

6 Governor Shunk resigned in July 1848 and was succeeded by
W. F. Johnston, president of the state senate.

PENNSYLVANIA, UNIVERSITY OF

114

{Philadelphia, 1801 sqq. and Harrisburg, 1802 sqq.); and The
Statutes at Large of Pennsylvania (Philadelphia, 1896 sqq.), published
under an act of 1887. Some valuable information is to be found
in B. A. and M. L. Hinsdale, History and Civil Government of Penn-
sylvania ... (Chicago, 1899); and in the various editions of
Smull's Legislative Handbook and Manual. For the history of
penal and charitable institutions, see the Annual Reports of the
Board of Commissioners of Public Charities (Harrisburg, 1871 sqq.);
the Annual Reports of the Committee on Lunacy (Harrisburg, 1883
sqq.); and Amos H. Mylin, Penal and Charitable Institutions of
Pennsylvania (2 vols., Harrisburg, 1897), an official publication,
well written and handsomely illustrated. For educational history,
see N. C. Schaeffer, The Common School Laws of Pennsylvania
(Harrisburg, 1904); B. A. Hinsdale, Documents Illustrative of
American Educational History (Washington, 1895); and J. P.
Wickersham, History of Education in Pennsylvania (Lancaster,
1886), one of the best state histories of education. For finance
and banking, see the annual reports of the state treasurer, auditor-
general, sinking fund commissioners, and the commissioner of
banking, all published at Harrisburg; An Historical Sketch of the
Paper Money of Pennsylvania, by a member of the Numismatic
Society of Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1862); and B. M. Mead,
A Brief Review of the Financial History of Pennsylvania ... to
the Present Time (1682-1881) (Harrisburg, 1881).

The only complete history of the entire period is Howard M.
Jenkins, et al., Pennsylvania, Colonial and Federal (3 vols., Phila-
delphia, 1903). This is especially valuable for the detailed histories
of gubernatorial administrations from 1790 to 1903. The third
volume contains useful chapters on education, the judiciary, the
medical profession, journalism, military affairs, internal improve-
ments, &c. S. G. Fisher, Pennsylvania, Colony and Commonwealth
(Philadelphia, 1897) contains the best short account of the colonial
and revolutionary history, but it gives only a very brief summary
of the period since 1783. W. R. Shepherd, History of Proprietary
Government in Pennsylvania (New York, 1896), a detailed study
of the proprietary from the political, governmental and territorial
points of view, is scholarly, and gives a good account of the boundary
disputes with Maryland, Virginia, New York and Connecticut.
Among the older standard works are Samual Hazard, Annals of
Pennsylvania from the Discovery of the Delaware, 1609-1682 (Phila-
delphia, 1850), an elaborate account of the early Dutch and Swedish
settlements on the Delaware river and bay; and Robert Proud,
History of the Pennsylvania from 1681 until after the year 1742 (2 vols.,
Philadelphia, 1797-1798), written from the Quaker standpoint.
For early literary history, see M. K. Jackson, Outline of the Literary
History of Colonial Pennsylvania (New York, 1908). W. H. Egle,
Illustrated History of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania (Harris-
burg, 1877), contains trustworthy histories of individual counties
by various writers. J. B. McMaster and F. D. Stone, Pennsylvania
and the Federal Constitution, 1787-1788 (Philadelphia, 1888), is
a useful work. For the anti-Masonic movement, see Charles
McCarthy, The Anti-Masonic Party (Washington, 1903). S. G.
Fisher, The Making of Pennsylvania (Philadelphia, 1896), intro-
ductory to the same author's Colony and Commonwealth, is an
interesting study of the various nationalities and religions repre-
sented among the settlers of the state. For the period of Quaker
predominance (1681-1756), see Isaac Sharpless, History of Quaker
Government in Pennsylvania (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1898-1899).
See also J. Taylor Hamilton's " History of the Moravian Church "
(Nazareth, Pa., 1900), vol. vi. of the Transactions of the Moravian
Historical Society; Proceedings and Addresses of the Pennsylvania
German Society, vols. vii. and viii. (Reading, 1897-1898) ; J. F. Sachse,
German Pietists of Provincial Pennsylvania, 1604—1708 (Phila-
delphia, 1895), and German Sectarians of Pennsylvania, 1708-1800
(2 vols., Philadelphia, 1899-1901). The chief sources are the
Pennsylvania Archives (first series, 12 vols., Philadelphia, 1852-
1856; second series, 19 vols., Harrisburg, 1874-1893; and third
series, 4 vols., Harrisburg, 1894-1895); Colonial Records, 1683-
1790 (16 vols., Philadelphia, 1852); and Samuel Hazard, Register
of Pennsylvania (16 vols., Philadelphia, 1828-1836). The Penn-
sylvania Historical Society, organized in Philadelphia in 1825, has
published 14 vols. of Memoirs (1826-1895), a Bulletin of 13
numbers (1845-1847), one volume of Collections (1853), and the
Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, a Quarterly
(1877 sqq.). There is a good account of the public archives, both
printed and manuscript, in the first report of the Public Archives
Commission of the American Historical Association, published in
vol. ii. of the annual report of the association for the year 1900
(Washington, 1901).

PENNSYLVANIA, UNIVERSITY OF, an American institution
of higher learning, in Philadelphia, occupying about 60 acres,
near the west bank of the Schuylkill river, north-east of the
Philadelphia Hospital, east of 3Qth Street, south-east of
Woodland Avenue, and south of Chestnut Street. In this
irregular area are all the buildings except the Flower
Astronomical Observatory (1896), which is 2 m. beyond the
city limits on the West Chester Pike. The northernmost

of these buildings is the law school, between Chestnut
and Sansom Streets, on 34th Street. In a great triangular
block bounded by Woodland Avenue, Spruce Street, and 34th
Street are: the university library, which had in, 1909 about
275,000 bound volumes and 50,000 pamphlets, including the
Biddle Memorial law library (1886) of 40,000 volumes, the
Colwell and Henry C. Carey collections in finance and economics,
the Francis C. Macauley library of Italian, Spanish and Portu-
guese authors, with an excellent Dante collection, the classical
library of Ernst von Leutsch of Gottingen, the philological
library of F. A. Pott of Halle, the Germanic library of R. Bech-
stein of Rostock, the Semitic library of C. P. Caspar! of Copen-
hagen, the (Hebrew and Rabbinical) Marcus Jastrow Memorial
library, the ethnological library of D. G. Brinton, and several
special medical collections; College Hall, with the university
offices; Howard 'Houston Hall (1896) the students' club; Logan
Hall; the Robert Hare chemical laboratory; and (across 36th
Street) the Wistar institute of anatomy and biology. Imme-
diately east of this triangular block are: Bennett House; the
Randal Morgan laboratory of physics; the engineering building
(1906); the laboratory of hygiene (1892); dental hall; and the
John Harrison laboratory of chemistry. Farther east are the
gymnasium, training quarters and Franklin (athletic) field, with
brick grand-stands. South of Spruce Street are: the free
museum of science and art (1899), the north-western part of
a projected group, with particularly valuable American, Egyp-
tian, Semitic and Cretan collections, the last two being the
results in part of university excavations at Nippur (1888-1902)
and at Gournia (1901-1904); between 34th and 36th Streets
the large and well-equipped university hospital (1874); large
dormitories, consisting in 1909, of 29 distinct but connected
houses; medical laboratories; a biological hall and vivarium;
and across Woodland Avenue, a veterinary hall and hospital.

The university contains various departments, including the
college (giving degrees in arts, science, biology, music, architec-
ture, &c.), the graduate school (1882), a department of law
(founded in 1790 and re-established in 1850) and a department
of medicine (first professor, 1756; first degrees granted, 1768),
the oldest and probably the most famous medical school in
America. Graduation from the school of arts in the college is
dependent on the successful completion of 60 units of work (the
unit is one hour's work a week for a year in lectures or recita-
tions or two hours' work a week for a year in laboratory courses) ;
this may be done in three, four or five yearsjof the 60 counts:
22 must be required in studies (chemistry, 2 units; English, 6;
foreign languages, 6; history, logic and ethics, mathematics, and
physics, 2 each); 18 must be equally distributed in two or three
" groups " — the 19 groups include astronomy, botany, chemistry,
economics, English, fine arts, French, geology, German, Greek,
history, Latin, mathematics, philosophy, physics, political
science, psychology, sociology and zoology; and in the remaining
20 units the student's election is practically free. Special work
in the senior year of the college counts 8 units for the first
year's work in the department of medicine. College scholar-
ships are largely local, two being in the gift of the governor of
the state, fifty being for graduates of the public schools of the
city of Philadelphia, and five being for graduates of Pennsyl-
vania public schools outside Philadelphia; in 1909 there were
twenty-eight scholarships in the college not local. In the
graduate school there are five fellowships for research, each
with an annual stipend of $800, twenty-one fellowships valued
at $500 each, for men only, and five fellowships for women,
besides special fellowships and 39 scholarships.

The corporation of the university is composed of a board of
twenty-four trustees, of which the governor of Pennsylvania
is ex-officio president. The directing head of the university,
and the head of the university faculty and of the faculty of each
department is the provost — a title rarely used in American
universities; the provost is president pro tempore of the board
of trustees.

In 1908-1909 the university had 454 officers of instruction,
of whom 220 were in the college and 157 in the department

PENNY

of medicine, and an enrolment of 4570 students, of whom 2989
were in the college (412 in the school of arts; 987 in the Towne
scientific school; 472 in the Wharton school, and 253 in the
evening school of accounts and finance; 384 in courses for
teachers; and 481 in the summer school), 353 in the graduate
school, 327 in the department of law, 559 in the department
of medicine, 385 in the department of dentistry, and 150 in the
department of veterinary medicine.

In August 1907 the excess of the university's assets over its
liabilities was $13,239,408 and the donations for the year were
$305,814. A very large proportion of the university's investments
is in real estate, especially in Philadelphia. In 1907 the total
value of real estate (including the university buildings) was
$6,829,154; and libraries, museums, apparatus and furniture
were valued at $2,025,357. Students' tuition fees vary from
$150 to $200 a year in the college; and are $160 in the department
of law, $200 in the department of medicine, $150 in the depart-
ment of dentistry and $100 in the department of veterinary
science. The income from tuition fees in 1906-1907 was $458,396 ;
the payments for "educational salaries" amounted to $433,311,
and For " administration salaries " to $135,314.

The university publishes the following series: Astronomical
Series (1899 sqq.); Contributions from the Botanical Laboratory
(1892 sqq.) ; Contributions from the Laboratory of Hygiene (1898 sqq.) ;
Contributions from the Zoological Laboratory (1893 sqq.); Series in
History (1901 sqq.); Series in Mathematics (1897 sqq.); Series in
Philology and Literature (1891 sqq.) ; Series in Romanic Languages
and Literatures (1907 sqq.); Series in Philosophy (1890 sqq.);
Series in Political Economy and Public Law (1885 sqq.); The American
Law Register (1852 sqq.); The University of Pennsylvania Medical
Bulletin (1888 sqq.); Transactions of the Department of Archaeology
(1904 sqq.); the Journal of Morphology (1887 sqq.); and Transactions
and Proceedings of the Botanical Society of Pennsylvania (1897 sqq.).
There are also occasional publications by institutes and depart-
ments connected with the university. Student publications
include: a daily, The Pennsylvanian (1885); the weekly, Old Penn
(1902); a comic monthly, The Punch Bowl; a literary monthly,
The Red and Blue; a quarterly of the department of dentistry,
The Penn Dental Journal; an annual, The Record; and The Alumni
Register (1896), a monthly.

Benjamin Franklin in 1749 published a pamphlet, entitled
Proposals Relating to the Education of Youth in Pensilvania,
which led to the formation of a board of twenty-four trustees,
nineteen of whom, on the i3th of November 1749, met for
organization and to promote " the Publick Academy in the
City of Philadelphia," and elected Benjamin Franklin president
of the board, an office which he held until 1756. So closely
was Franklin identified with the plan that Matthew Arnold
called the institution " the University of Franklin." On the
ist of February 1750 there was conveyed to this board of
trustees the " New Building " on Fourth Street, near Arch,
which had been erected in 1740 for a charity school — a use to
which it had not been put — and as a " house of Publick Worship,"
in which George Whitefield had preached in November 1740;
the original trustees (including Franklin) of the " New Building "
and of its projected charity school date from 1740, and therefore
the university attaches to its seal the words " founded 1740."
In the " New Building " the academy was opened on the 7th
of January 1751, the city having voted £200 in the preceding
August for the completion of the building. On the i6th of
September 1751 a charitable school " for the instruction of poor
Children gratis in Reading, Writing, and Arilhmetick " was
opened in the " New Building." The proprietaries, Thomas
and Richard Penn, incorporated "The Trustees of the Academy
and Charitable School in the Province of Pennsylvania " in
1753; and in 1755 issued a confirmatory charter, changing the
corporate name to " The Trustees of the College, Academy and
Charitable School," &c., whereupon William Smith (1727-1803)
of the university of Aberdeen, who had become rector of the
academy in 1732 and had taken orders in the Church of Englanc
in 1753, became provost of the college. In 1756 Dr Smith
established a complete and liberal curriculum which was adoptee
by Bishop James Madison in 1777 when he became president
of the College of William and Mary. In 1757 the first college
class graduated. Under Smith's control the Latin school grew
in importance at the expense of the English school, to the great
annoyance of Franklin. In 1762-1764 Dr Smith collected for

he college in England about £6900; and in 1764 his influence
lad become so strong that it was feared that the college would
Decome sectarian. The Penns and others deprecated this
and the trustees bound themselves (1764) to " use their utmost
endeavours that . . . (the original plan) be not narrowed, nor
the members of the Church of England, nor those dissenting
rom them ... be put on any worse footing in this seminary
than they were at the time of receiving the royal brief." From
September 1777 to June 1778 college exercises were not held
jecause Philadelphia was occupied by British troops. In 1779
;he state legislature, on the ground that the trustees' declara-
;ion in 1764 was a " narrowing of the foundation," * confiscated
the rights and property of the college and chartered a new
corporation " the Trustees of the University of the State of
Pennsylvania"; in 1789 the college was restored to its rights
and property and Smith again became its provost; in 1791 the
college and the university of the State of Pennsylvania were
united under the title, " the University of Pennsylvania,"
whose trustees were elected from their own members by the
board of trustees of the college and that of the university. In
1802 the university purchased new grounds on Ninth Street,
between Market and Chestnut, where the post office building
now is; there until 1829 the university occupied the building
erected for the administrative mansion of the president of the
United States; there new buildings were erected after 1829;
and from these the university removed to its present site in
1872.

The provosts have been: in 1755-1779 and in 1780-1803,
William Smith; in 1779-1791, of the university of the state
of Pennsylvania, John Ewing (1732-1802); in 1807-1810, John
McDowell (1750-1820) ; in i8io-i8i3,John Andrews (1746-1813) ;
in 1813-1828, Frederick Beasley (1777-1845); in 1828-1833,
William Heathcote De Lancey (1797-1865); in 1834-1853,
John Ludlow (1793-1857); in 1854-1859, Henry Vethake
(1792-1866); in 1860-1868, Daniel Raynes Goodwin (1811-1890);
in 1868-1880, Charles Janeway Stille (1819-1899); in 1881-1894.
William Pepper (1843-1898); in 1894-1910, Charles Custis Har-
rison (b. 1844), and in 1911 sqq. Edgar Fahs Smith (b. 1856).

See T. H. Montgomery, A History of the University of Pennsylvania
from its Foundation to A.D. 1770 (Philadelphia, 1900); George B.
Wood, Early History of the University of Pennsylvania (3rd ed.,
ibid., 1896); J. B. McMaster, The University of Pennsylvania (ibid.
1897); G. E. Nitzsche, Official Guide to the University^ of Penn-
sylvania (ibid., 1906); and Edward P. Cheyney, "University of
Pennsylvania," in vol. i. of Universities and their Sons (Boston,
1901).

PENNY (Mid. Eng. peni or peny, from O. Eng. form penig,
earlier penning and pending; the word appears in Ger. Pfennig
and Du. penning; it has been connected with Du. pand, Ger.
Pfand, and Eng. " pawn," the word meaning a little pledge
or token, or with Ger. Pfanne, a pan), an English coin, equal
in value to the one-twelfth of a shilling. It is one of the oldest
of English coins, superseding the sceatta or sceat (see
NUMISMATICS; and BRITAIN: Anglo Saxon, § " Coins "). It was
introduced into England by Offa, king of Mercia, who took as a
model a coin first struck by Pippin, father of Charlemagne,
about 735, which was known in Europe as novus denarius. Offa's
penny was made of silver and weighed 225 grains, 240 pennies
weighing one Saxon pound (or Tower pound, as it was afterwards
called), hence the term pennyweight (dwt.). In 1527 the Tower
pound of 5400 grains was abolished, and the pound of 5760
grains adopted instead. The penny remained, with some few
exceptions, the only coin issued in England until the introduction
of the gold florin by Edward III. in 1343. It was not until
the reign of Edward I. that halfpence and farthings became a
regular part of the coinage, it having been usual to subdivide
the penny for trade purposes by cutting it into halves and
quarters, a practice said to have originated in the reign of
jEthelred II. In 1257, in the reign of Henry III., a gold penny,

1 Probably the actual reason was that the assembly, dominated
by the advocates of the radical constitution of 1776, was attempting
to punish the trustees of the college, who were almost all " anti-
constitutionalists."

n6

PENN YAN— PENRHYN, 2ND BARON

of the value of twenty silver pence, was struck. The weight
and value of the silver penny steadily declined from 1300

onwards, as will be seen from the following table:—

Value in silver

Reign.

Weight.

925 fine, at

53. 6d. per oz.

Grains.

Penny.

William I., 1066 .

22*

3-09

Edward I., 1300 .

22

3-02

III., 1344

20i

2-78

III., 1346

2O

2-75

HI-, 1351

18

2-47

Henry IV., 1412 .

15

2'O6

Edward IV., 1464

12

•65

Henry VIII., 1527

10*

•44

„ VIII., 1543

IO

•37

Edward VI., 1552

8

• IO

Elizabeth, 1601

7f

•06

The last coinage of silver pence for general circulation was
in the reign of Charles II. (1661-1662), since which time they
have only been coined for issue as royal alms on Maundy Thurs-
days. Copper halfpence were first issued in Charles II.'s reign,1
but it was not until 1797, in the reign of George III., that copper
pence were struck. This copper penny weighed i oz. avoir-
dupois. In the same year copper twopences were issued weighing
2 oz., but they were found too cumbersome and were discon-
tinued. In 1860 bronze was substituted for the copper coinage,
the alloy containing 95 parts of copper, 4 of tin, and i of zinc.
The weight was also reduced, i Ib of bronze being coined into
48 pennies, as against 24 pennies into which i ft of copper

was coined.

PENN YAN, a village and the county-seat of Yates county,
New York, U.S.A., situated N. of Keuka Lake, on the outlet
extending to Lake Seneca, about 170 m. W. of Albany, and
about 95 m. E. by S. of Buffalo. Pop. (1905), 45°4! (191°)
4597. It is served by the New York Central & Hudson River
and the Northern Central railways and by electric railway to
Branchport, and has steamboat connexions with Hammonds-
port at the head of Keuka Lake. The lake, one of the most
beautiful of the so-called " finger lakes " of central New York,
abounds in lake and rainbow trout, black bass, pickerel and
pike, and there are many summer cottages along its shores. At
Keuka Park, on the west shore of the lake, is Keuka College
(1890), and at Eggleston's Point is held a summer " natural
science camp " for boys. The village is the seat of the Penn
Yan Academy (1859). The lake furnishes water-power, and
among the manufactures are paper, lumber, carriages, shoes,
&c. Much ice is shipped from the village. Penn Yan is an
important shipping point in the apple and grape-growing region
of central New York, and winemaking is an important industry.
The first frame dwelling at Penn Yan was built in 1799; the
village became the county-seat in 1823, when Yates county was
created, and was incorporated in 1833. The first settlers
were chiefly followers of Jemima Wilkinson (1753-1819), a
religious enthusiast, born in Cumberland township, Providence
county, Rhode Island, who asserted that she had received a
divine commission. She preached in Rhode Island, Connec-
ticut, Massachusetts and Pennsylvania. Obtaining a large
tract (which was called Jerusalem in 1789) in the present Yates
county, she founded in 1788 the village of Hopeton on the outlet
of Keuka Lake about a mile from Seneca Lake. Many followers
settled there, and she herself lived there after 1790. Some of
her followers left her before 1800, and then the community
gradually broke up. The name of the village is said to have
been derived from the first syllables of " Pennsylvania " and
" Yankee," as most of the early settlers were Pennsylvanians
and New Englanders.

1 The figure of Britannia first appeared on this issue of copper
coins. The original of Britannia is said to have been Frances
Stewart, afterwards duchess of Richmond (Pepys, Diary, Feb. 25,
1667). It was in Charles II.'s reign, too, that the practice was
established of placing the sovereign s bust in a direction contrary
to that of his predecessor.

See Lewis C. Aldrich, History of Yates County, New York (Syracuse,
1892).

PENNYROYAL, in botany, a herb formerly much used in
medicine, the name being a corruption of the old herbalist's
name " Pulioll-royall," Pulegium regium. It is a member
of the mint genus, and has been known to botanists since the
time of Linnaeus as Mentha pulegium. It is a perennial herb
with a slender branched stem, square in section, up to a foot
in length and rooting at the lower nodes, small opposite stalked
oval leaves about half-inch long, and dense clusters of small
reddish-purple flowers in the leaf axils, forming almost globular
whorls. It grows in damp gravelly places, especially near pools,
on heaths and commons. It has a strong smell somewhat like
that of spearmint, due to a volatile oil which is readily obtained
by distillation with water, and is known in pharmacy as Oleum
pulegii. The specific name recalls its supposed property of
driving away fleas (pulices). Like the other mints it has
carminative and stimulant properties.

PENOBSCOT, a tribe of North American Indians of Algonquian
stock. Their old range was the country around the river
Penobscot in Maine. They sided with the French in the colonial
wars, but made a treaty of peace with the English in 1749.
They fought against the English in the War of Independence,
and were subsequently settled on an island in the Penobscot
river, near Oldtown.

PENOLOGY (Lat. poena, punishment), the modern name
given to penitentiary science, that concerned with the processes
devised and adopted for the repression and prevention of crime.
(See CRIME; CRIMINOLOGY; PRISON; JUVENILE OFFENDERS;
RECIDIVISM, &c.)

PENRHYN, GEORGE SHOLTO GORDON DOUGLAS-PEN-
NANT, 2nd BARON (1836-1907), was the son of Colonel Edward
Gordon Douglas (1800-1886), brother of the igth earl of Morton,
who, through his wife, Juliana, elder daughter and coheir of
George Hay Dawkins-Pennant, of Penrhyn Castle, Carnarvon,
had large estates in Wales and elsewhere, and was created
Baron Penrhyn in 1866. Dawkins had inherited the estates
from Richard Penryn, who was created Baron Penryn in 1763,
the title becoming extinct on his death in 1808.

George Douglas-Pennant was conservative M.P. for Car-
narvonshire in 1866-1868 and 1874-1880, and succeeded his
father in the title in 1886. A keen sportsman, a benevolent
landlord, a kind and considerate employer, Lord Penrhyn
came of a proud race, and was himself of an imperious disposition.
He came prominently before the public in 1897 and subsequent
years in connexion with the famous strike at his Welsh slate-
quarries. During his father's lifetime the management of the
Penrhyn quarry had been left practically to an elective com-
mittee of the operatives, and it was on the verge of bankruptcy
when in 1885 he took matters in hand; he abolished the com-
mittee, and with the help of Mr E. A. Young, whom he brought
in from London as manager, he so reorganized the business
that this slate-quarry yielded a profit of something like £150,000
a year. The new men and new methods were, however, not
to the taste of the trade unionist leaders of the quarrymen,
and in 1897, when the " new unionism " was rampant in
labour questions throughout England, a strike was deliberately
fomented. Lord Penrhyn refused to recognize the union or its
officials, though he was willing to consider any grievances from
individual quarrymen, and a protracted struggle ensued, in
which his determination was invincible. He became the object
of the bitterest political hostility, and trade unionism exerted
itself to the utmost, but vainly, to bring about some form of
government intervention. Penrhyn strikers perambulated
the country, singing and collecting contributions to their funds.
But in spite of every pressure Lord Penrhyn insisted on being
master of his own property, and by degrees the agitation col-
lapsed. His death on the loth of March 1907 evoked general
and genuine regret. Lord Penrhyn was twice married, and had
fifteen surviving children. He was succeeded in the title by
his eldest son, Edward Sholto (b. 1864), who was Unionist M.P.
for South Northamptonshire from 1895 to 1900.

PENRITH— PENRYN

117

PENRITH, a municipality of Cumberland county, New South
Wales, Australia, on the Nepean River, 34 m. by rail W. by N.
of Sydney. Penrith and the adjoining township of St Mary's
are chiefly remarkable for their connexion with the railway.
The iron tubular bridge which carries the line over the Nepean
is the best of its kind in the colony, while the viaduct over
Knapsack Gulley is the most remarkable erection of its kind
in Australia. There are large engineering works and railway
fitting shops at Penrith, which is also the junction for all the
western goods traffic. The inhabitants of both towns are mainly
railway employes. Pop. (1901), of Penrith 3539, of St Mary's
1840.

PENRITH, a market town in the Penrith parliamentary
division of Cumberland, England, in a valley near the river
Eamont, on the Cockermouth, Keswick & Penrith, London
& North Western and North Eastern railways. Pop. of urban
district (1901), 9182. It contains some interesting brasses.
A 14th-century grammar school was refounded by Queen
Elizabeth; and there are two mansions dating from the same
reign, which have been converted into inns. Though there are
breweries, tanneries and saw-mills, the town depends mainly
on agriculture. There are some ruins of a castle erected as a
protection against the Scots. Near Penrith on the south, above
the precipitous bank of the Eamont, stands a small but beau-
tiful old castellated house, Yanwath Hall. To the north-east
of the town is Eden Hall, rebuilt in 1824. Among many fine
paintings, it contains portraits by Hoppner, Kneller, Lely, Opie
and Reynolds. The " Luck of Eden Hall," which has been
celebrated in a ballad by the duke of Wharton, and in a second
ballad written by Uhland, the German poet, and translated
by Longfellow, is an enamelled goblet, kept in a leathern case
dating from the times of Henry IV. or Henry V. It was long
supposed to be Venetian, but has been identified as of rare
Oriental workmanship. The legend tells how a seneschal of
Eden Hall one day came upon a company of fairies dancing at
St Cuthbert's Well in the park. These flew away, leaving their
cup at the water's edge, and singing " If that glass either break
or fall, Farewell to the luck of Eden Hall." Its true history
is unknown.

Penrith, otherwise Penreth, Perith, Perath, was founded by
the Cambro-Celts, but on a site farther north than the present
town. In 1222 Henry III. granted a yearly fair extending from
the eve of Whitsun to the Monday after Trinity and a weekly
market on Wednesday, but some time before 1787 the market
day was changed to Tuesday. The manor in 1242 was handed
over to the Scottish king who held it till 1295, when Edward I.
seized it. In 1397 Richard II. granted it to Ralph Neville,
first earl of Westmorland; it then passed to Warwick the king-
maker and on his death to the crown. In 1694 William III.
granted the honour of Penrith to the earl of Portland, by whose
descendant it was sold in 1787 to the duke of Devonshire. A
court leet and view of frankpledge have been held here from
time immemorial. In the i8th and early part of the igth century
Penrith manufactured checks, linen cloth and ginghams, but
the introduction of machinery put an end to this industry, only
the making of rag carpets surviving. Clock and watch-making
seems to have been an important trade here in the i8th century.
The town suffered much from the incursions of the Scots, and
Ralph, earl of Westmorland, who died 1426, built the castle,
but a tower called the Bishop's Tower had been previously
erected on the same site. In 1597-1598 a terrible visitation of
plague attacked the town, in which, according to an old inscrip-
tion on the church, 2260 persons perished in Penrith, by which
perhaps is meant the rural deanery. During the Civil War the
castle was dismantled by the Royalist commandant. In 1745
Prince Charles Edward twice marched through Penrith, and a
skirmish took place at Clifton. The church of St Andrew
is of unknown foundation, but the list of vicars is complete
from 1223.

PENRY, JOHN (1550-1593), Welsh Puritan, was born in
Brecknockshire in 1559; tradition points to Cefn Brith, a farm
near Llangammarch, as his birthplace. He matriculated at

Peterhouse, Cambridge, in December 1580, being then almost
certainly a Roman Catholic; but soon became a convinced
Protestant, with strong Puritan leanings. Having graduated
B.A., he migrated to St Alban's Hall, Oxford, and proceeded
M.A. in July 1586. He did not seek episcopal ordination, but
was licensed as University Preacher. The tradition of his
preaching tours in Wales is slenderly supported; they could
only have been made during a few months of 1 586 or the autumn
of 1587. At this time ignorance and immorality abounded in
Wales. In 1562 an act of parliament had made provision for
translating the Bible into Welsh, and the New Testament was
issued in 1567; but the number printed would barely supply
a copy for each parish church. Indignant at this negligence,
Penry published, early in 1587, The ^Equity of an Humble
Supplication- — in the behalf of the country of Wales, that some
order may be taken for the preaching of the Gospel among those
people. Archbishop Whitgift, angry at the implied rebuke, caused
him to be brought before the High Commission and imprisoned
for about a month. On his release Penry married a lady of
Northampton, which town was his home for some years. With
the assistance of Sir Richard Knightley and others, he set up
a printing press, which for nearly a year from Michaelmas 1 588
was in active operation. It was successively located at East
Moulsey (Surrey), Fawsley (Northampton), Coventry and other
places in Warwickshire, and finally at Manchester, where it was
seized in August 1589. On it were printed Penry's Exhortation
to the governours and people of Wales, and View of . . . such
publike wants and disorders as are in the service of God . . . in
Wales; as well as the celebrated Martin Marprelate tracts.
In January 1590 his house at Northampton was searched and his
papers seized, but he succeeded in escaping to Scotland. There
he published several tracts, as well as a translation of a learned
theological work known as Theses Genevenses. Returning
to England in September 1592, he joined the Separatist Church
in London, in which he declined to take office, though after the
arrest of the ministers, Francis Johnson and John Greenwood,
he seems to have been the regular preacher. He was arrested
in March 1593, and efforts were made to find some pretext for
a capital charge. Failing this a charge of sedition was based
on the rough draft of a petition to the queen that had been found
among his private papers; the language of which was indeed
harsh and offensive, but had been neither presented nor published.
He was convicted by the Queen's Bench on the 2ist of May
1593, and hanged on the 29th at the unusual hour of 4 p.m.,
the signature of his old enemy Whitgift being the first of those
affixed to the warrant.

See the Life, by John Waddington (1854).

PENRYN, a market town and port, and municipal and
contributary parliamentary borough of Cornwall, England,
2 m. N.W. of Falmouth, on a branch of the Great Western
railway. Pop. (1901), 3190. It lies at the head of the estuary
of the Penryn River, which opens from the main estuary of the
Fal at Falmouth. Granite, which is extensively quarried in
the neighbourhood, is dressed and polished at Penryn, and there
are also chemical and bone manure works, engineering, iron
and gunpowder works, timber-yards, brewing, tanning and
paper-making. The harbour dries at low tide, but at high
tide has from 9 to 125 ft. of water. Area, 291 acres.

Penryn owed its development to the fostering care of the
bishops of Exeter within whose demesne lands it stood. These
lands appear in Domesday Book under the name of Trelivel.
In 1230 Bishop Briwere granted to his burgesses of Penryn
that they should hold their burgages freely at a yearly rent of
I2d. by the acre for all service. Bishop Walter de
Stapeldon secured a market on Thursdays and a fair at the
Feast of St Thomas. The return to the bishop in 1307 was
£7, 135. 2jd. from the borough and £26, 73. sd. from the forum.
In 1311 Bishop Stapeldon procured a three days' fair at the
Feast of St Vitalis. Philip and Mary gave the parliamentary
franchise to the burgesses in 1553. James I. granted and
renewed the charter of incorporation, providing a mayor, eleven

n8

PENSACOLA— PENSION

aldermen and twelve councillors, markets on Wednesdays and
Saturdays, and fairs on the ist of May, the 7th of July and the
2ist of December. The charter having been surrendered,
James II. by a new charter inter alia confined the parliamentary
franchise to members of the corporation. This proviso however
was soon disregarded, the franchise being freely exercised by all
the inhabitants paying scot and lot. An attempt to deprive
the borough of its members, owing to corrupt practices, was
defeated by the House of Lords in 1827. The act of 1832
extended the franchise to Falmouth in spite of the rivalry
existing between the two boroughs, which one of the sitting
members asserted was so great that no Penryn man was ever
known to marry a Falmouth woman. In 1885 the united
borough was deprived of one of its members. The corporation
of Penryn was remodelled in 1835, the aldermen being reduced
to four. Its foreign trade, which dates from the i4th century,
is considerable. The extra-parochial collegiate church of
Glasney, founded by Bishop Bronescombe in 1265, had a revenue
at the time of its suppression under the act of 1 545 of £2 2 1 , 1 8s. 4d.

See Victoria County History, Cornwall; T. C. Peter, Glasney
Collegiate Church.

PENSACOLA, a city, port of entry, and the county-seat of
Escambia county, Florida, U.S.A., in the N.W. part of the
state, on Pensacola Bay, about 6m. (n m. by channel) N. of the
Gulf of Mexico. Pop. (1900) 17,747; (191°) 22,982. It ranks
second in size among the cities of Florida. The city is served
by the Louisville & Nashville and the Pensacola, Alabama &
Tennessee railways, and by steamers to West Indian, European
and United States ports. The harbour1 is the most important
deep-water harbour south of Hampton Roads. The narrow
entrance is easily navigable and is defended by Fort Pickens on
the west end of Santa Rosa Island, with a great sea-wall on the
Gulf side (completed in 1909), Fort McReeon a small peninsula
directly opposite, and Fort Barrancas on the mainland imme-
diately north-east of Fort McRee. On the mainland i m. east of
Fort Barrancas are a United States Naval Station, consisting of a
yard (84 acres enclosed) with shops, a steel floating dry dock and
marine barracks; and a reservation (1800 acres) on which are a
naval hospital, a naval magazine, two timber ponds, a national
cemetery, and the two villages of Warrington andWoolsey,
with a population of about 1500, mostly employes of the yard.
The city's principal public buildings are the state armoury,
the Federal building, and the city hall. The mean annual
temperature is about 72° F., and breezes from the Gulf temper
the heat. Pensacola is a shipping point for lumber, naval
stores, tobacco, phosphate rock, fish, cotton and cotton-seed
oil, meal and cake, and is one of the principal markets in the
United States for naval stores. In 1895 the foreign exports
were valued at $3,196,609, in 1897 at $8,436,679, and in 1909
at $20,971,670; the imports in 1909 were valued at $1,479,017.
The important factor in this vast development has been the
Louisville & Nashville railway, which after 1895 built extensive
warehouses and docks at Pensacola. There are excellent coaling
docks — good coal is brought hither from Alabama — and a grain
elevator. Among the manufactures are sashes, doors and
blinds, whiting, fertilizers, rosin and turpentine, and drugs.

Pensacola Bay may have been visited by Ponce de Leon in
1513 and by Panfilo de Narvaez in 1528. In 1540 Maldonado,
the commander of the fleet that brought De Soto to the Florida
coast, entered the harbour, which he named Puerta d'Auchusi,
and on his recommendation De Soto designated it as a basis
of supplies for his expedition into the interior. In 15 59 a perma-
nent settlement was attempted by Tristan de Luna, who renamed
the harbour Santa Maria, but two years later this settlement
was abandoned. In 1696 another settlement was made by
Don Andres d'Arriola, who built Fort San Carlos near the site
of the present Fort Barrancas, and seems to have named the
place Pensacola. In 1719, Spain and France, being at war,
Pensacola was captured by Sieur de Bienville, the French

1 In 1881 the United States government began to improve the
harbour by dredging, and in June 1909 the depth of the channel,
for a minimum width of about 300 ft., was 30 ft. at mean low water.

governor of Louisiana. Later in the same year it was succes-
sively re-taken by a Spanish force from Havana and recaptured
by Bienville, who burned the town and destroyed the fort.
In 1723, three years after the close of hostilities, Bienville
relinquished possession. The Spanish then transferred their
settlement to the west end of Santa Rosa Island, but after a
destructive hurricane in 1754 they returned to the mainland.
In 1763, when the Floridas were ceded to Great Britain, Pensa-
cola became the seat of administration for West Florida and
most of the Spanish inhabitants removed to Mexico and Cuba.
During the War of American Independence the town was a
place of refuge for many Loyalists from the northern colonies.
On the 9th of May 1781 it was captured by Don Bernardo de
Galvez, the Spanish governor at New Orleans. Most of the
English inhabitants left, but trade remained in the hands of
English merchants. During the War of 1812 the British made
Pensacola the centre of expeditions against the Americans, and
in 1814 a British fleet entered the harbour to take formal posses-
sion. In retaliation General Andrew Jackson attacked the town,
driving back the British. In 1818, on the ground that the
Spanish encouraged the Seminole Indians in their attacks
upon the American settlements in the vicinity, Jackson again
captured Pensacola, and in 1821 Florida was finally transferred
to the United States. On the i2th of January 1861 the Navy
Yard was seized by order of the state government, but Fort
Pickens, defended first by an insignificant force under Lieut.
Adam J. Slemmer (1828-68) and afterwards by a larger force
under Lieut. -Colonel Harvey Brown (1796-1874), remained
in the hands of the Union forces, and on the 8th of May 1862
the Confederates abandoned Pensacola. Pensacola was chartered
as a city in 1895.

PENSHURST, a village in the south-western parliamentary
division of Kent, England, at the confluence of the Eden and
Medway, 4^ m. S. W. of Tonbridge. Pop. (1901), 1678. The village
is remarkable for some old houses, including a timbered house
of the 1 5th century, and for a noted factory of cricket implements.
The church, chiefly late Perpendicular, contains a large number
of monuments of the Sidney family and an effigy of Sir Stephen
de Penchester, Warden of the Cinque Ports in the time of
Edward I. Penshurst Place is celebrated as the home of the
Sidney family. Anciently the residence of Sir Stephen de Pen-
Chester, Penshurst was granted to Henry VIII. 's chamberlain, Sir
William Sidney, whose grandson, Sir Philip Sidney, was born
here in 1554. It passed to Sir Philip's younger brother Robert,
who in 1618 was created earl of Leicester. On the death
of the seventh earl in 1743 the estates devolved upon his niece
Elizabeth, whose only child married Sir Bysshe Shelley of Castle
Goring. Their son was created a baronet in 1818 as Sir John
Shelley-Sidney, and his son was created Baron de L'Isle and
Dudley in 1835. The mansion is quadrangular, and has a fine
court, chapel and hall (c. 1341) with open timber roof and a
minstrels' gallery. The various rooms contain an interesting
collection of portraits, armour and other family relics. The
praises of the park and the house have been sung in Sir Philip
Sidney's Arcadia, and by Ben Jonson, Edmund Waller and
Robert Southey.

PENSION (Lat. pensio, a payment, from pendere, to weigh,
to pay), a regular or periodical payment made by private
employers, corporations or governments, in consideration either
of past services or of the abolition of a post or office. Such
a pension takes effect on retirement or when the period of service
is over. The word is also used in the sense of the payment
by members of a society in respect of dues.

United Kingdom.

In the United Kingdom the majority of persons in the employ
of the government are entitled to pensions on reaching a certain
age and after having served the state for a certain minimum
number of years. That such is the case, and moreover that
it is usual to define such pensions as being given in consideration
of past services, has led to the putting forward very generally
the argument that pensions, whether given by a government or

PENSION

by private employers, are in the nature of deferred pay, and that
holders of posts which carry pensions must therefore be rewarded
by a remuneration less than the full market rate, by the difference
of the value of the pension. This view is hardly correct, for
the object of attaching a pension to a post is not merely to reward
past services, but to attract continuity of service by the holder
as well as to enable the employer to dispense with the services
of the employe without hardship to him should age or infirmity
render him less efficient. Dissatisfaction had been expressed
from time to time by members of the English civil service with
the system in force, viz. that the benefit of long service was
confined only to survivors, and that no advantage accrued to
the representatives of those who died in service. This was altered
by an act of 1909. See Royal Commission on Superannuation
in the Civil Service: Report and Evidence (1903). For the general
pensions given by the state to the aged poor see OLD AGE
PENSIONS.

Civil Service. — In the English civil service the grant of pensions
on superannuation is regulated by statute, the four principal acts
being the Superannuation Acts of 1834, 1859, 1887 and 1909. To
qualify for a pension it is necessary (i) that a civil servant should
have been admitted to the service with a certificate from the civil
service commissioners, or hold an office specially exempted from
this requirement; (2) that he should give his whole time to the
public service; (3) that he should draw the emoluments of his
office from public funds exclusively ; (4) that he should have served
for not less than ten years; (5) that if under the age of 60 years
he should be certified to be permanently incapable, from infirmity
of body or mind, of discharging his official duties, or have been
removed from his office on the ground of his inability to discharge
his duties efficiently. On retirement on these conditions a
civil servant is qualified for a pension calculated at one-eightieth
of his retiring salary (or, in certain cases, of his average salary for
the last three years) for each complete year of service, subject to
a maximum of forty-eightieths. Civil servants retiring on the
ground of ill health after less than ten years' service qualify for
a gratuity of one month's pay for each year of service. Previous
to the Superannuation Act of 1909 the pension was calculated at
the rate of one-sixtieth of the retiring salary for each completed
year of service, subject to a maximum of forty-sixtieths. This is
still the rate for those who entered the service previous to the pass-
ing of the act (September 20, 1909) unless they availed themselves
of the permission in the act to take advantage of its provisions,
which were more than a compensation for the lowering of the rate.
The act gave power to the treasury to grant by way of additional
allowance to a civil servant who retired after not less than two
years' service, in addition to his superannuation, a lump sum equal
to one-thirtieth of his annual salary and emoluments multiplied
by the number of completed years he has served, so however, that
such lump sum does not exceed one and a half times his salary, while if
he retires after attaining the age of sixty-five years, there must be
deducted from that lump sum one-twentieth for every completed
year that he has served after attaining that age. In the case of
those who entered the service before the passing of the act, and
take advantage of the act, this additional allowance is increased by
one-half per cent, for each completed year served at the passing of
the act. The act also provided that where a civil servant died after
serving five years or upwards, a gratuity equal to his annual salary
and emoluments might be granted to his legal personal repre-
sentatives. Where the civil servant attains the age of sixty-five
this gratuity is reduced by one-twentieth for each completed year
beyond that age. On the other hand, where the civil servant
has retired from the service and all the sums received by him at
his death on account of superannuation are less than his annual
salary his representatives may receive the difference as a gratuity.
Provision was also made in the act for granting compensation on
abolition of office, provided that such compensation does not
exceed what the recipient might be granted or be entitled to if he
retired on the ground of ill health. Pensions are also sometimes
awarded in excess of the scale as a reward for special services, as
compensation for injury in certain cases, or to holders of pro-
fessional offices, appointed at an age exceeding that at which
public service ordinarily begins. In the estimates for civil services
for the year 1909—1910, there was provided for non-effective and
charitable services (as pensions and gratuities in lieu of pensions
are known as) the sum of £9,625,920; this, however, included an
item of £8,750,000 for old-age pensions, leaving a sum of £875,920.
There was charged on the Consolidated Fund, on account of pensions
and compensation allowance for civil, judicial and other services,
a sum of £142,767, while the following sums for civil pensions were
provided in the estimates of the several departments: War Office,
£158,000; Admiralty, £369,800; Customs and Excise, £412,358;
Inland Revenue, £116,096; Post Office, £649,000; Royal Irish
Constabulary, £416,500; Dublin Metropolitan Police, £33,646,
making a total of £2,298,167, or a gross total for civil pensions of

£3,174,087. A return is published annually containing a complete
list of the various pensions.

Perpetual or Hereditary Pensions. — Perpetual pensions were
freely granted either to favourites or as a reward for political
services from the time of Charles II. onwards. Such pensions
were very frequently attached as " salaries " to places which were
sinecures, or, just as often, posts which were really necessary were
grossly overpaid, while the duties were discharged by a deputy
at a small salary. Prior to the reign of Queen Anne such pensions
and annuities were charged on the hereditary revenues of the
sovereign and were held to be binding on the sovereign's successors
(The Bankers' Case, 1691; State Trials, xiv. 3-43). By I Anne
c. 7 it was provided that no portion of the hereditary revenues
could be charged with pensions beyond the life of the reigning
sovereign. This act did not affect the hereditary revenues of
Ireland and Scotland, and many persons were quartered, as they
had been before the act, on the Irish and Scottish revenues who
could not be provided for in England — for example, the duke of
St Albans, illegitimate son of Charles II., had an Irish pension of
£800 a year; Catherine Sedley, mistress of James II., had an Irish
pension of £5000 a year; the duchess of Kendall and the countess
of Darlington, mistresses of George I., had pensions of the united
annual value of £5000, while Madame de Walmpden, a mistress of
George II., had a pension of £3000 (Lecky, History of Ireland in
the Eighteenth Century). These pensions had been granted in every
conceivable form — during the pleasure of the Crown, for the life
of the sovereign, for terms of years, for the life of the grantee, and
for several lives in being or in reversion (Erskine May, Constitutional
History of England). On the accession of George III. and his
surrender of the hereditary revenues in return for a fixed civil
list, this civil list became the source from which the pensions were
paid. The subsequent history of the civil list will be found under
that heading (CiviL LIST), but it may be here mentioned that the
three pension lists of England, Scotland and Ireland were con-
solidated in 1830, and the civil pension list reduced to £75,000,
the remainder of the pensions being charged on the Consolidated
Fund.

In 1887, Charles Bradlaugh, M.P., protested strongly against
the payment of perpetual pensions, and as a result a Committee of
the House of Commons inquired into the subject (Report of Select
Committee on Perpetual Pensions, 248, 1887). An appendix to the
Report contains a detailed list of all hereditary pensions, pay-
ments and allowances in existence in 1 88 1, with an explanation
of the origin in each case and the ground of the original grant;
there are also shown the pensions, &c., redeemed from time to
time, and the terms upon which the redemption took place. The
nature of some of these pensions may be gathered from the follow-
ing examples: To the duke of Marlborough and his heirs in per-
petuity, £4000 per annum; this annuity was redeemed in August
1884 for a sum of £107,780, by the creation of a ten years' annuity
of £12,796, 175. per annum. By an act of 1806 an annuity of £5000
per annum was conferred on Lord Nelson and his heirs in perpetuity.
In 1793 an annuity of £2000 was conferred on Lord Rodney and
his heirs. All these pensions were for services rendered, and although
justifiable from that point of view, a preferable policy is pursued
in the 2Oth century, by parliament voting a lump sum, as in the
cases of Lord Kitchener in 1902 (£50,000) and Lord Cromer in 1907
£50,000). Charles II. granted the office of receiver-general and
controller of the seals of the court of king's bench and common
pleas to the duke of Graf ton. This was purchased in 1825 from
the duke for an annuity of £843, which in turn was commuted in
1883 for a sum of £22,714, I2s. 8d. To the same duke was given
the office of the pipe or remembrancer of first-fruits and tenths of
the clergy. This office was sold by the duke in 1765, and after
passing through various hands was purchased by one R. Harrison
in 1798. In 1835 on the loss of certain fees the holder was com-
pensated by a perpetual pension of £62, 95. 8d. The duke of Grafton
also possessed an annuity of £6870 in respect of the commutation
of the dues of butlerage and prisage. To the duke of St Albans
was granted in 1684 the office of master of the hawks. The sums
granted by the original patent were: master of hawks, salary,
£391, is. sd.; four falconers at £50 per annum each, £200; provision
of hawks, £600; provision of pigeons, hens and other meats,
£182, i os. ; total, £1373, iis. 50. This amount was reduced by
office fees and other deductions to £965, at which amount it stood,
antii commuted in 1891 for £18,335. To the duke of Richmond
and his heirs was granted in 1676 a duty of one shilling per ton on
all coals exported from the Tyne for consumption in England.
This was redeemed in 1799 for an annuity of £19,000 (chargeable
on the consolidated fund), which was afterwards redeemed for
£633,333. The duke of Hamilton, as hereditary keeper of the
palace, Holyrood House, received a perpetual pension of £45, ios.,
and the descendants of the heritable usher of Scotland drew a s&lary
of £242, ios. The conclusions of the committee were that pensions,
allowances and payments should not in future be granted in per-
petuity, on the ground that such grants should be limited to the
persons actually rendering the services, and that such rewards
should be defrayed by the generation benefited; that offices with
salaries and without duties, or with merely nominal duties, ought

I2O

PENSION

to be abolished ; that all existing perpetual pensions and payments
and all hereditary offices should be abolished : that where no service
or merely nominal service is rendered by the holder of an hereditary
office or the original grantee of a pension, the pension or payment
should in no case continue beyond the life of the present holder
and that in all cases the method of commutation ought to ensure
a real and substantial saving to the nation (the existing rate, about
27 years' purchase, being considered by the committee to be too
high). These recommendations of the committee were adopted
by the government and outstanding hereditary pensions were
gradually commuted, the only ones left outstanding being those to
Lord Rodney (£2000) and to Earl Nelson (£5000), both chargeable
on the consolidated fund.

Political Pensions. — By the Political Offices Pension Act 1869,
pensions were instituted for those who had held political office.
For the purposes of the act political offices were divided into three
classes: (l) those with a yearly salary of not less than £5000;

(2) those with a salary of less than £5000 and not less than £2000;

(3) those with a salary of less than £2000 and more than £1000.
For service in these offices there may be awarded pensions for life
in the following scale: (i) a first class pension not exceeding £2000
a year, in respect of not less than four years' service or its equivalent,
in an office of the first class; (2) a second class pension not exceeding
£1200, in respect of service of not less than six years or its equivalent,
in an office of the second class; (3) a third class pension not exceed-
ing £800 a year, in respect of service of not less than ten years in
an office of the third class. The service need not be continuous,
and the act makes provision for counting service in lower classes
as a qualification for pension in a higher class. These pensions
are limited in number to twelve, but a holder must not receive any
other pension out of the public revenue, if so, he must inform the
treasury and surrender it if it exceeds his political pension, or if
under he must deduct the amount. He may, however, hold office
while a pensioner, but the pension is not payable during the time he
holds office. To obtain a political pension, the applicant must file
a declaration stating the grounds upon which he claims it and that
his income from other sources is not sufficient to maintain his
station in life.

Civil List Pensions. — These are pensions granted by the
sovereign from the civil list upon the recommendation of the first
lord of the treasury. By I & 2 Viet. c. 2 they are to be granted to
" such persons only as have just claims on the royal beneficence
or who by their personal services to the Crown, or by the perform-
ance of duties to the public, or by their useful discoveries in science
and attainments in literature and the arts, have merited the gracious
consideration of their sovereign and the gratitude of their country."
A sum of £1200 is allotted each year from the civil list, in addition
to the pensions already in force. From a Return issued in 1908
the total of civil list pensions payable in that year amounted to
£24,665.

Judicial, Municipal, &c. — There are certain offices of the exe-
cutive whose pensions are regulated by particular acts of parliament.
Judges of the Supreme Court, on completing fifteen years' service
or becoming permanently incapacitated for duty, whatever their
length of service, may be granted a pension equal to two-thirds of
their salary (Judicature Act 1873). The lord chancellor of England
however short a time he may have held office, receives a pension
of £5000, but he usually continues to sit as a law lord in the House
of Lords — so also does the lord chancellor of Ireland, who receives
a pension of £3,692 6s. id. A considerable number of local author-
ities have obtained special parliamentary powers for the pur-
pose of superannuating their officials and workmen who have
reached the age of 60-65. Poor law officers receive superannua-
tion allowances under the Poor Law Officers Superannuation Acts
1864-1897.

Ecclesiastical Pensions. — Bishops, deans, canons or incumbents
who are incapacitated by age or infirmity from the discharge of
their ecclesiastical duties may receive pensions which are a charge
upon the revenues of the see or cure vacated.

Navy pensions were first instituted by William III. in 1693 and
regularly established by an order in council of Queen Anne in 1700.
Since then the rate of pensions has undergone various modifications
and alterations; the full regulations concerning pensions to all
ranks will be found in the quarterly Navy List, published by the
authority of the Admiralty. In addition to the ordinary pensions
there are also good-service pensions, Greenwich Hospital pension
and pensions for wounds. An officer is entitled to a pension when
he is retired at the age of 45, or if he retires between the ages of
40 and 45 at his own request, otherwise he receives only half pay.
The amount of his pension depends upon his rank, length of service
and age. The maximum retired pay of an admiral is £850 per
annum, for which 30 years' service or its equivalent in half-pay
time- is necessary; he may, in addition, hold a good service pension
°f £3°° Per annum. The maximum retired pay of a vice-admiral,
with 29 years' service is £725; of rear-admirals with 27 years'
service £600 per annum. Pensions of captains who retire at the
age of 55, commanders, who retire at 50, and lieutenants who retire
at 45, range from £200 per annum for 17 years' service to £525 for
24 years' service. The pensions of other officers are calculated
in the same way, according to age and length of service. The

good-service pensions consist of ten pensions of £300 per annum
for flag-officers, two of which may be held by vice-admirals an'd two
by rear-admirals; twelve of £150 for captains; two of £200 a year
and two of £150 a year for engineer officers; three of £100 a year for
medical officers of the navy; six of £200 a year for general officers
of the Royal Marines and two of £150 a year for colonels and lieut.-
colonels of the same. Greenwich Hospital pensions range from
£150 a year for flag officers to £25 a year for warrant officers. All
seamen and marines who have completed twenty-two years' service
are entitled to pensions ranging from lod. a day to a maximum of
is. 2d. a day, according to the number of good-conduct badges,
together with the good-conduct medal, possessed. Petty officers,
in addition to the rates of pension allowed them as seamen, are
allowed for each year's service in the capacity of superior petty
officer, 155. 2d. a year, and in the capacity of inferior petty officer
75. yd. a year. Men who are discharged the service on account
of injuries and wounds or disability attributable to the service are
pensioned with sums varying from 6d. a day to 2s. a day. Pensions
are also given to the widows of officers in certain circumstances
and compassionate allowances made to the children of officers.
In the Navy estimates for 1908-1909 the amount required for half-
pay and retired-pay was £868,800, and for pensions, gratuities and
compassionate allowances £1,334,600, a total of £2,203,400.

Army. — The system of pensions in the British Army is somewhat
intricate, provision being made for dealing with almost every case
separately. As a general rule officers can retire after eight years'
service on a pension of £100 per annum for ten years, provided that
they take commissions in either the Imperial Yeomanry or Special
Reserve and attend the annual trainings during that period. The
other pensions are as follows: 2nd lieutenants, lieutenants, captains
and majors after 15 years' service (or: 12 years in the West India
regiment), £120, if 45 years of age £200 ; majors, after 25 years'service,
£200. Royal artillery or royal engineers if commissioned, after 21
years of age, £300, if 48 years of age, £300 ; lieutenant-colonels, after
3 years as such, with 15 years' service, £250, with 27 years' service,
£300, with 30 years' service, £365, after term of employment as lieu-
tenant-colonel commanding a unit, or staff appointment as lieutenant-
colonel, or after 5 years as lieutenant-colonel cavalry and infantry,
£420. Royal artillery, royal engineers and army service corps,
£450; Colonels, after 5 years as colonel, cavalry and infantry, £420.
Royal artillery, royal engineers and army service corps, £450,
after completing the term of command of a regimental district or
a regiment of foot-guards, or employed in any other capacity for
three years, £45O-£5<x> according to age; Brevet-colonels, with 'the
substantive rank of lieutenant-colonel, receive, cavalry or infantry,
£420; royal artillery, royal engineers and army service corps, £450.
Major-generals retire at the age of 62 with a pension of £700;
lieutenant-generals at 67 with £850; generals at 67 with £1000.

Officers whose first permanent commission bears date prior to
the 1st of January, 1887, retire with a gratuity in lieu of pension.

Officers of the departmental corps retire either with pensions
ranging from £1125 yearly to los. daily, or with gratuities ranging
from £2500 to £1000.

Warrant officers with 5 years' service as such, and 20 years' total
service, receive 35. 6d. per diem if discharged from the service on
account of disability, reduction of establishment or age. On dis-
charge for any reasons (except misconduct or inefficiency) they
receive from 33. 6d. to 53. per diem, according to length of service
and corps. If they have less than 5 years' service as warrant
officers, but not less than 21 years' total service, they receive at
least 35. per diem; and if discharged at their own request after
1 8 years' total service, 2s. 7jd.

Additional pensions are given at the rate of 6d. per diem for
gallant conduct, and l^d. to is. per diem for re-employed pensioners
on completing their second term of employment, with 3d. per diem
extra if promoted while so serving. Special pensions are also
granted in exceptional cases.

For the purposes of pensions, non-commissioned officers are
divided into four classes, corresponding roughly to quartermaster-
sergeants, colour-sergeants, sergeants and corporals.

With not more than 21 years total service, and with the following
continuous service in one of the above classes, the rates of pensions
(per diem) are: —

Class.

12 years'
Service.

9 years'
Service.

6 years'
Service.

3 years'
Service.

I.
II.
III.

IV.

s. d.
2 9
2 6

2 3

i 8

s. d.

2 6

2 3
2 O
I 6

s. d.
2 3

2 0

i 9

I 4

s. d.

2 O
' 1

I 6
I O

Privates (Class V.) receive the following pensions: —

21 years'
Service.

20 years'
Service.

19 years'
Service.

1 8 years'
Service.

•14 to 1 8 years'
Service.

is. id.

is. od.

i Id.

lod.

8d. to lod.

PENSION

121

For service in excess of 21 years, the following amounts are added
to the pensions enumerated above : —

Classes I. to II I.
Classes IV. and V.

For each complete year in excess of 21 years.

id. per diem to gd. per diem,
d. per diem to sd. per diem.

A man promoted to higher rank within one year of his com-
pleting 21 years' service, receives, on his discharge in the higher rank,
an extra 3d. per diem, provided that he has completed 25 years'
service in all. An additional pension of 6d. per diem is awarded
for gallant conduct, as in the case of warrant officers.

N.C.O.'s and men disabled through military service are granted
the following pensions: —

If partially capable of earning a livelihood

Per diem.

Class I. to III
„ IV
V

is. to 33.
gd. to 2s.
6d. to is. 6d.

If totally incapable of earning a livelihood

Per diem.

Class I. to III
IV

2s. 6d. to 35. 6d.
2s. od. to 35. od.

„ V

Is. 6d. to 2s. 6d.

Pensions may also be granted to N.C.O.'s and men who are disabled
by causes other than military service, accprding to circumstances.

United States.

In the ordinary sense of the word, pensions in the United
States are confined to federal judges and officers of the army
and navy, but the United States " Pension Fund " is so singular
a feature of the national budget, that it is desirable to give an
account of the different classes of allowances which are granted.
In the United States allowances for services in wars prior to the
4th of March 1861 are called " old war " pensions, and may be
divided into three classes, viz.,(i) invalid pensions, based upon
wounds or injuries received, or disease contracted in the course
of duty, (2) " service " pensions, and (3) land bounties, both
granted for service irrespective of injuries.

The first provision made by Congress for pensions was a resolution
passed on the 26th of August 1776, promising invalid pensions to
officers and men of the army or navy who lost a limb or were other-
wise disabled in the War of Independence, at a rate equal to half
of their monthly pay as officers or soldiers during life or continuance
of the disability, those not totally disabled to receive an adequate
monthly pension not to exceed half of their pay. Then followed
various Acts of Congress enlarging the provisions for invalid pensions
and extending them to those who had been in the war of 1812,
and to the widows and children of those who died in the war or from
wounds received in the war. The act of the 3rd of May 1846,
provided for the prosecution of the war with Mexico and for pension-
ing those volunteers wounded or otherwise disabled in service.
Other acts were subsequently passed making further provision for
pension on account of service in the Mexican war. The first general
law granting " service " pensions was not passed until the l8th of
March 1818, thirty-five years after the termination of the War of
Independence. Its beneficiaries were required to be in indigent
circumstances and in need of assistance from their country. Two
years later Congress became alarmed by reason of the large number
of claims filed (about 8000), and enacted what was known as the
" Alarm Act," requiring each applicant for pension and each
pensioner on the rolls to furnish a schedule of his whole estate and
income, clothing and bedding excepted. Many pensioners were
dropped who were possessed of as much as $l§o worth of property.
Numerous acts were, however, passed from time to time liberaliz-
ing the law or dealing more generously with the survivors of the
Revolution. Service pensions were not granted to widows of the
soldiers of this war until 1836, and then only for a period of five
years and on condition that the marriage of the soldier was prior to
his last service, and that the soldier's service was not less than six
months. In 1853, seventy years after the close of the war, the limi-
tation as to the time of marriage was removed. The rolls in 1901
contained nine and in 1908 two pensions based upon service in the
War of Independence. The last survivor was Daniel F. Bakeman,
who died on the 5th of April 1869, aged 109 years and 6 months.

The first law granting service pensions on account of the war of
1812 was passed in 1871, fiftv-six years after the close of the war.
This act required sixty days' service. Widows were not pension-
able unless the marriage to the soldier had taken place prior to the
treaty of peace of I5th February 1815. On gth March 1878,
sixty-three years after the war, an act was passed reducing the
requisite period of service to fourteen days and removing the
limitations as to date of marriage. In 1908 the pension rolls

contained the names of 471 widows of this war, the last male survivor
having died in 1905, at the age of 105 years. Service pensions
were provided for those who served in the Black Hawk war, Creek
war, Cherokee disturbances and the Seminole war (1832 to 1842),
on the 27th of July 1892, fifty years after the period embraced in
the act ; they were granted to those who had served for thirty days
and were honourably discharged, and to their widows. In 1908
there were 1820 survivors and 3018 widows, pensioners of the
Indian wars. Service pensions were granted to the survivors of
the war with Mexico by an act passed on the 2gth of January
1887, thirty- nine years after the Guadeloupe-Hildalgo treaty. The
pensions were granted to those who were honourably discharged
and to the widows, for service of sixty days, if sixty-two years of
age, or disabled or dependent. This law was liberalized by the
acts of the 5th of January 1893, 23rd of April 1900, 6th of February
1907, and igth of April 1908, increasing the pension to $15 for
those who have reached the age of seventy years, and to $20 for
those seventy-five years and over. In 1908 the pension rolls
contained the names of 2932 survivors and 6914 widows on account
of service in the Mexican war. To give title to bounty land, service
must have been for at least fourteen days or in a battle prior to
3rd March 1855; and if in the navy or regular army, must have
been in some war in which the United States was engaged. Bounty
land warrants are issued for 160 acres, and over 70,000,000 acres
have been granted under the different Bounty Land Acts.

For services rendered in the Civil War (1861-65) 'n the army
or navy of the United States, or in their various branches, the law
provided two distinct systems of pensioning — (l) the general laws,
granting pensions for wounds or injuries received, or disease con-
tracted in service in the line of duty, the pensions ranging from
$6 to $100 per month; and (2) the so-called Dependent Pension
Act and amending acts, granting pensions for permanent disabilities
regardless of the time and manner of their origin, provided they
were not the result of vicious habits, the pensions ranging from
$6 to $12 per month. What is known as the general law for dis-
abilities incurred in service and in the course of duty was constituted
in the act of the 1 4th of July 1862, as amended by the act of the
3rd of March 1873. Under its provisions the following classes of
persons are entitled to benefit, viz. any officer of the army, navy
or marine corps, or any enlisted man in the military or naval service
of the United States, whether regularly mustered or not ; any master
or any pilot, engineer, sailor or other person not regularly mustered,
serving upon any gunboat or war- vessel of the United States; any
acting assistant or contract surgeon; any provost-marshal, deputy
provost-marshal or enrolling officer; subject to the several con-
ditions in each particular case prescribed in the law. This law
also embraces in its provisions the following classes, each class
being subject to certain specified conditions, viz. widows, children
under sixteen years of age, dependent parents, and brothers and
sisters. This act has been the subject of numerous amendments
along more liberal lines. As an illustration a case may be cited
where a soldier lost both hands in the service in the course of duty,
and was discharged in 1862. He is entitled to a pension of $8
per month from the date of his discharge. Under subsequent
acts he is entitled to $25 per month from 4th July 1864; $31-25
from 4th June 1872; $50 from 4th June 1874; $72 from I7th
June 1878, and $100 from I2th February 1889.

Under the general law a widow or dependent relative could not
be pensioned unless the cause of the soldier's death originated in
service in the line of duty; if it were so shown, a widow might be
pensioned whether she were rich or poor. Upon the death or
remarriage of the widow the minor children of the soldier under the
age of sixteen years become entitled to pension. If the soldier
died of causes due to his service, and left no widow or minor children,
his other relatives become entitled, if dependent, in the following
order, viz; first, the mother; secondly, the father; thirdly, orphan
sisters and brothers under sixteen years of age, who shall be pen-
sioned jointly. In 1908 the number of invalids pensioned under
the general law was 142,044, and the number of widows and depen-
dent relatives was 8 1, 1 68.

The so-called Dependent Pension Act was based upon an Act
of Congress approved 27th June 1890, which was amended on
9th May 1900. Properly speaking, it might be called " dependent "
only as regards widows and parents. The main conditions as to
the soldier or sailor were, ninety days' service, an honourable
discharge, and a permanent disability from disease or otherwise,
not the result of his own vicious habits, to such an extent as to
render him unable to maintain himself by manual labour. The
rates of pension under this act were $6, $8, $10 and $12 per month.
Widows became entitled under this law if they married the soldier
or sailor prior t» 27th June 1890, provided they were without
means of support other than their daily labour, and an actual
net income not exceeding $250 per year, and had not remarried.
Claims of children under sixteen years of age were governed by the
same conditions as applied to claims of widows, except that their
dependence was presumed, and need not be shown by evidence.
If a minor child was insane, idiotic or otherwise physically or ment-
ally helpless, the pension continued during the life of said child
or during the period of disability. Furtheracts made more liberal
provisions. That of the 6th of February 1907, granted pensions

122

PENSIONARY— PENTASTOMIDA

to persons who had served ninety days or more in the military or
naval service in the civil war, or sixty days in the Mexican war,
and were honourably discharged, no other conditions being attached.
The rate of pension was fixed at $12 per month when sixty-two
years of age, $15 per month when seventy years of age and $20
per month when seventy-five years of age. The act of April
1908, fixed the rate of pension for widows, minor children' under the
age of sixteen and helpless minors on the roll or afterwards to be
placed on it at $12 per month, and granted pensions at the same
rate to the widows of persons who served ninety days or more
during the civil war, without regard to their pecuniary condition.
In 1908 there were 140,600 invalids on the roll, and 4294 minor and
helpless children. In the same year under the act of 1907 there
were 338,341 dependants, while under the act of 1908, 188,445
widows were put on the roll. All women employed by competent
authority as nurses during the Civil War for six months or more,
who are unable to earn a support, are granted a pension of $12
per month by an act of the 5th of August 1892. In 1908
the pension rolls contained the names of 3110 pensioners under
this act.

There were on the roll in 1908 en account of the Spanish war,
11,786 invalids and 3722 dependants. The total amount paid in
pensions in 1908 on account of that war and the insurrection in
the Philippine Islands was $3,654,122. The grand total of pen-
sioners on the roll for all wars was, in 1908, 951,687.

In addition to pensions, the United States government grants
the following gratuities: First: If a soldier lost a limb in the
service, or as a result of his service in line of duty, he is furnished
with an artificial limb free of cost every three years, or commuta-
tion therefor, and transportation to and from a place where he
shall select the artificial limb. Second: An honourably discharged
soldier or sailor is given preference for appointment to places of
trust and profit, and preference for retention in all civil service
positions. Third: There are ten National Soldiers' Homes situ-
ated at convenient and healthy points in different parts of the
country, where comfortable quarters, clothing, medical attendance,
library and amusements of different kinds are provided free of all
expense; government providing the soldiers free transportation to
the home, continuing payments of pension while they are members
of the home, and increasing the same as disabilities increase.
Fourth: There are thirty homes maintained by the different
states, which are similar in their purpose to the National Homes,
the sum of $100 per year being paid by the general government for
each inmate. Many of these state homes also provide for the wives
and children of the inmates, so that they need not be separated
while they are members of such home. Fifth: Schools are estab-
lished by the different states for the maintenance and education
of soldiers' orphans until they attain the age of sixteen years.

From the close of the Civil War in 1865 to 1908, the government of
the United States paid to its pensioners for that war the sum of
S3.533. 593.°25- The payments on account of all wars for the
fiscal year ended on the 3Oth of June 1908 were $153,093,086.
Over $17,000,000 has been paid to surgeons for making medical
examinations of pensioners and applicants for pensions. The
total disbursement for pensions from 1790 to 1908 amounted to
93,75l,lo8,8£>9- No other nation or government in all time has
dealt so liberally with its defenders.

The money appropriated by Congress for the payment of pensions
is disbursed by eighteen pension agents established in different
parts of the country. Pensions are paid quarterly, and the agencies
are divided into three classes, one of which pays on the 4th of every
month.

PENSIONARY, a name given to the leading functionary and
legal • adviser of the principal town corporations of Holland,
because they received a salary, or pension. At first this official
was known by the name of " clerk " or " advocate." The
office originated in Flanders. The earliest " pensionaries "
in Holland were those of Dort (1468) and of Haarlem (1478).
The pensionary conducted the legal business of the town, and
was the secretary of the town council and its representative
and spokesman at the meetings of the Provincial States. The post
of pensionary was permanent and his influence was great.

In the States of the province of Holland pensionary of the
order of nobles (Ridderschap) was the foremost official of that
assembly and he was na med — until the death of Oldenbarneveldt
in 1619— the land's advocate, or more shortly, the advocate.
The importance of the advocate was much increased after the
outbreak of the revolt in 1572, and still more so during the long
period 1586-1619 when John van Oldenbarneveldt held the
office. The advocate drew up and introduced all resolutions,
concluded debates and counted the votes in the Provincial
Assembly. When it was not in session he was a permanent
member of the college of deputed councillors who carried on
the administration. He was minister of justice and of finance.

All correspondence passed through his hands, and he was the
head and the spokesman of the deputation, who represented the
province in the States General. The conduct of foreign affairs
in particular was entrusted almost entirely to him.

After the downfall of Oldenbarneveldt the office of lands'-
advocate was abolished, and a new post, tenable for five years
only, was erected in its place with the title of Raad-Pensionaris.
or Pensionary of the Council, usually called by English writers
Grand Pensionary. The first holder of this office was Anthony
Duyck. Jacob Cats and Adrian Pauw, in the days of the
stadtholders Frederick Henry and William of Orange II. had
to be content with lessened powers, but in the stadtholderless
regime 1650-1672 the grand pensionary became even more
influential than Oldenbarneveldt himself, since there was no
prince of Orange filling the offices of stadtholder, and of admiral
and captain-general of the Union. From 1653-1672 John de Witt,
re-elected twice, made the name of grand pensionary of Holland
for ever famous during the time of the wars with England.
The best known of his successors was Anthony Heinsius, who
held the office from 1688 to his death in 1720. He was the
intimate friend of William III., and after the decease of the king
continued to carry out his policy during the stadtholderless
period that followed. The office was abolished after the conquest
of Holland by the French in 1795.

See Robert Fruin, Geschiedenis der Staats-Instellingen in Neder-
land. The Hague, 1901 ; G. W. Vreede, Inleiding tot eene Gesch. der
Nederlandsche Diplomatic (Utrecht, 1858). (G. E.)

PENTAMETER, the name given to the second and shorter
line of the classical elegaic verse. It is composed of five (vfVTt)
feet or measures dj/erpa), and is divided into two equal parts
of two and a half feet each: the second of these parts must be
dactylic, and the first may be either dactylic or spondaic. The
first part must never overlap into the second, but there must
be a break between them. Thus:

In the best Latin poets, the first foot of each part of the penta-
meter is a dactyl. The pentameter scarcely exists except in
conjunction with the hexameter, to which it always succeeds
in elegaic verse. The invention of the rigidly dactylic form
was attributed by the Greeks to Archilochus. Schiller described
the sound and method of the elegaic couplet in two very skilful
verses, which have been copied in many languages:

Im Hexameter steigt des Springquells fliissige Saule,
Im Pentameter drauf fiillt sie melodisch herab.

The pentameter was always considered to add a melancholy
air to verse, and it was especially beloved by the Greeks in those
recitations (fta^^Seirat) to the sound of the flute, which
formed the earliest melodic performances at Delphi and else-
where.

PENTASTOMIDA, or LINGUATULINA, vermiform entoparasitic
animals, of which the exact zoological position is unknown,
although they are usually regarded as highly modified degenerate
Arachnida of the order Acari.

The body is sub-cylindrical or somewhat convex above, flatter
below, broad and oval in front and narrowed and elongate behind.
Its integument is marked by a large number of transverse grooves
simulating the segmentation of Annelids, and near the anterior
extremity close to the mouth are two pairs of recurved chitinous
hooks. The alimentary canal is a simple tube traversing the body
from end to end, the anus opening at the extremity of its narrowed
tail-like termination. The nervous system is represented by an
oesophageal collar and a suboesophageal ganglion, whence paired
nerves pass outwards to innervate the anterior extremity and
backwards towards its posterior end. No respiratory or circulatory
organs are known. The sexes are distinct but dissimilar in size,
the female being usually much larger than the male. The generative
organs occupy a large part of the body cavity. In the female the
ovary is a large unpaired organ from the anterior end of which
arise two oviducts, and connected with the latter are a pair of
large so-called copulatory pouches, which perhaps act as receptacula
seminis. These and the oviducts lie on the anterior half of the
body; but the oviducts themselves soon unite to form a single
tube of great length, which runs backwards to its posterior
extremity, terminating in the genital orifice close to the anus.

PENTATEUCH— PENTECOST

123

In the male, on the contrary, this orifice is situated in the anterior
half of the body, not far behind the mouth. The orifice leads
into a large pouch lodging a pair of very long penes, which are
•coiled up when not in use. The two testicles, which extend far
back into the posterior part of the body, are long and tubular.
Anteriorly their vasa deferentia soon unite into a common duct,
which opens into the pouch containing the penes. Also com-
municating with this pouch is a pair of long slender flagelliform
tubes, of which the function is unknown.

The structure of the adult Linguatula or Pentastomum, above
described, does not supply convincing evidence of relationship with
the Acari. At the same time some Acari, like Eriophyes (Phytoptus)
and Demodex, have the body elongated and annulated, but in these
groups the elongation of the body is caudal or post-anal, as is
attested by the position of the anus far forwards on its ventral
surface. Again, the adult Pentastomum shows no trace of appen-
dages, unless the two pairs of chitinous hooks are to be regarded
as the vestiges of jaws or ambulatory limbs. In the embryo,
however, what have been regarded as remnants of limbs may be
seen.

In the mature stage Pentastomida live in the respiratory
passages of mammalia, principally in the nasal cavities. The
remarkable life-history of one species, Linguatula laenioid.es,
has been worked out in detail and presents a close analogy to
that of some Cestodes. The adults live in the nose of dogs,
where they have been known to survive over fifteen months.
Each female lays a vast number of eggs, about 500,000 being
the estimated amount. These are expelled along with mucus
by the sneezing of the host. If they fall on pasture land or
fodder of any kind and are eaten by any herbivorous animal,
such as a hare, rabbit, horse, sheep or ox, the active embryos
or larvae are set free in the alimentary canal of the new host.

FIG. i. — Linguatula taenioides,
Rud. adult.

FIG. 2. — The same, in the first
larval stage ; under side,
o . . . a. Leg-like processes.

These larvae are minute oval creatures with a comparatively
short apically fringed caudal prolongation and furnished with two
pairs of short two-clawed processes, which may represent the limbs
of anthropods and possibly the two pairs of legs found in Acari of
the family Eriophyidae. The larva is also armed anteriorly with a
median piercing probe and a pair of sharp hooks by means of which
it perforates the walls of the alimentary tract and makes its way
into the body cavity, lungs or liver. Here it becomes encysted,
and losing its boring apparatus and claw-bearing processes remains
for a time quiescent. After a series of moults it passes into the
second larval stage, somewhat like the parent but differing in having
«ach integumental ring armed with a fringe cf backwardly directed
short bristles. This sexually immature stage, regarded at one time
as representing a distinct species and named Linguatula denticulata,
is reached in about six or seven months and measures from 6 to
8 mm. in length. In the event of the host escaping being killed
and eaten it is believed that some of these larvae wander about or
ultimately make their way to the exterior, possibly through the
bronchi; nevertheless it seems to be certain that they can only
reach sexual maturity in the nasal passages of some carnivorous
animal, and the chance of attaining this environment is afforded
when the viscera of the host are devoured by some flesh-eating
mammal.

The adult female of L. taenioides measures about 4 in. long and
the male barely one-fourth of that. The adult and immature
stages are, however, by no means confined respectively to car-
nivorous and herbivorous species of mammals. The adult stage,
for example, has been found in the nasal passages of sheep, goats,

horses and even of man, and the larval stage in the pleural and
peritoneal cavities of dogs and cats. (R. I. P.)

PENTATEUCH, the name found as early as in Tertullian and
Origen corresponding to the Jewish 'Twin 'train ntran (the
five-fifths of the Torah, or Law), and applied to the first five
books of the Old Testament (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Num-
bers, Deuteronomy). The several books were named by the
Jews from their initial words, though at least Leviticus,
Numbers, and Deuteronomy had also titles resembling those
we use, viz. D'JIS mm, o'lipsn von (Aju/ito-^e/oofoiju, Origen,
in Eus., H. E. vi. 25), and mm turn. The Pentateuch,
together with Joshua, Judges and Ruth, with which it is usually
united in Greek MSS., makes up the Octateuch; the Pentateuch
and Joshua together have recently been named the Hexateuch.
On the critical questions arising from the Pentateuch or Hexa-
teuch, see BIBLE and the articles on the several books.

PENTECOST, a feast of the Jews, in its original meaning a
" harvest feast, " as consisting of the first-fruits of human toil
(Exod. xxiii. 16), extending over the seven weeks which fairly
correspond with the duration of the Canaanite harvest. Hence
it was the closing feast of the harvest gladness.

The agricultural character of this feast clearly reveals its
Canaanite origin (see HEBREW RELIGION). It does not, however,
rank equal in importance with the other two agricultural festivals
of pre-exilian Israel, viz. the Massoth or feast of unleavened
cakes (which marked the beginning of the corn-harvest), and
the Aslph (" ingathering," later called succoth, " booths ")
which marked the close of all the year's ingathering of vegetable
products. This is clear in the ideal scheme of Ezekiel (xlv. 21
seq.) in which according to the original text, Pentecost is omitted
(see Cornill's revised text and his note ad loc.). It is a later hand
that has inscribed a reference to the " feast of weeks " which
is found in our Massoretic Hebrew text. Nevertheless occasional
allusions to this feast, though secondary, are to be found in
Hebrew literature, e.g. Isa. ix. 3 (2 Heb.) and Ps . iv. 7 (8 Heb.).

In both the early codes, viz. in Exod. xxiii. 16 (E) and in
Exod. xxxiv 22 (J, in which the harvest festival is called " feast
of weeks ") we have only a bare statement that the harvest
festival took place some weeks after the opening spring festival
called Ma^oth. It is in Deut. xvi. 9 that we find it explicitly
stated that seven weeks elapsed between the beginning of the
corn-harvest (" when thou puttest the sickle to the corn ")
and the celebration of the harvest festival (JJTdjir). We also
note the same generous inclusion of the household slaves and of
the resident alien as well as the fatherless and widow that charac-
terizes the autumnal festival of " Booths."

But when we pass to the post-exilian legislation (Lev. xxiii.
10-21 ; cf. Num. xxviii. 26 seq.) we enter upon a far more detailed
and specific series of ritual instructions, (i) A special ceremonial
is described as taking place on " the morrow after the Sabbath,"
i.e. in the week of unleavened cakes. The first-fruits of the
harvest here take the form of a sheaf which is waved by the
priest before Yahweh. (2) There is the offering of a male
lamb of the first year without blemish and also a meal offering
of fine flour and oil mixed in defined proportions as well as a
drink-offering of wine of a certain measure. After this " morrow
after the Sabbath " seven weeks are to be reckoned, and when
we reach the morrow after the seventh Sabbath fifty days have
been enumerated. Here we must bear in mind that Hebrew
numeration always includes the day which is the terminus a quo
as well as that which is term, ad quern. On this fiftieth day
two wave-loaves made from the produce of the fields occupied
by the worshipper (" your habitations ") are offered together
with seven unblemished lambs of the first year as well as one
young bullock and two rams as a burnt offering. We have
further precise details respecting the sin-offering and the peace-
offerings which were also presented.1 This elaborate ceremonial
connected with the wave-offering (developed in the post-exile
period) took place on the morrow of the seventh Sabbath called

1 On the critical questions involved in these ritual details of
Lev. xxiii. 18 as compared with Num. xxviii. 27-30 cf. Driver
and White in 5. B. 0. T., note on Lev. xxiii. 18.

124

PENTELICUS— PENZA

a " day of holy convocation " on which no servile work was to
be done. It was called a " fiftieth-day feast." Pentecost
or " Fiftieth " day is only a Greek equivalent of the last name
(Trevrr/KoffTrj) in the Apocrypha and New Testament. The orthodox
later Jews reckoned the fifty days from the i6th of Nisan,
but on this there has been considerable controversy among
Jews themselves. The orthodox later Jews assumed that
the Sabbath in Lev. xxiii. n, 15 is the I5th Nisan, or the
first day of the feast of Massoth. Hitzig maintained that in
the Hebrew calendar i4th and 2ist Nisan were always Sabbaths,
and that ist Nisan was always a Sunday, which was the opening
day of the year. " The morrow after the Sabbath " means,
according to Hitzig, the day after the weekly Sabbath, viz.
22nd Nisan. Knobel (Comment, on Leviticus) and Kurtz agree
with Hitzig's premises but differ from his identification of the
Sabbath. They identify it with the i4th Nisan. Accordingly
the " day after " falls on the isth. (See Purves's article, " Pente-
cost," in Hastings's Diet, of the Bible, and also Ginsburg's article in
Kitto's Cyclopaedia). Like the other great feasts, it came to be
celebrated by fixed special sacrifices. The amount of these is
differently expressed in the earlier and later priestly law (Lev.
xxiii. 1 8 seq.; Num. xxviii. 26 seq.); the discrepancy was met
by adding the two lists. The later Jews also extended the
one day of the feast to two. Further, in accordance with the
tendency to substitute historical for economic explanations
of the great feasts, Pentecost came to be regarded as the feast
commemorative of the Sinaitic legislation.

To the Christian Church Pentecost acquired a new significance
through the outpouring of the Spirit (Acts ii.). (See WHIT-
SUNDAY.)

It is not easy to find definite parallels to this festival in other
ancient religious cults. The Akitu festival to Marduk was a
spring festival at the beginning of the Babylonian year (Nisan).
It therefore comes near in time to the feast of unleavened cakes
rather than to the later harvest festival in the month Sivan
called " feast of weeks." Zimmern indeed connects the Akitu
festival with that of Purim on the isth Adar (March); see
K.A.T.* p. 514 seq. Also the Roman Cerealia of April i2th-
ipth rather correspond to Massoth than to J^a^ir. (O. C. W.)

PENTELICUS (BptXjjo-o-os, or UevreXiKov 6pos from the
deme EeirtXTj; mod. Mendeli), a mountain to the N.E. of the
Athenian plain, height 3640 ft. Its quarries of white marble
were not regularly worked until after the Persian wars; of this
material all the chief buildings of Athens were constructed, as
well as the sculpture with which they were ornamented. The
ancient quarries are mostly on the south side of the mountain.
The best modern quarries are on the north side. The top
of Pentelicus commands a view over the plain of Marathon,
and from it the Athenian traitors gave the signal to the
Persians by a flashing shield on the day of the battle. There
was a statue of Athena on the mountain.

PENTHEUS, in Greek legend, successor of Cadmus as king
of Thebes. When Dionysus, with his band of frenzied women
(Maenads) arrived at Thebes (his native place and the first city
visited by him in Greece), Pentheus denied his divinity and
violently opposed the introduction of his rites. His mother
Agave having joined the revellers on Mount Cithaeron, Pentheus
followed and climbed a lofty pine to watch the proceedings.
Being discovered he was torn to pieces by Agave and others,
who mistook him for some wild beast. His head was carried
back to Thebes in triumph by his mother. Labdacus and
Lycurgus, who offered a similar resistance, met with a like
fearful end. Some identify Pentheus with Dionysus himself
in his character as the god of the vine, torn to pieces by the
violence of winter. The fate of Pentheus was the subject of
lost tragedies by Thespis and Pacuvius.

See Euripides, Bacchae, passim; Ovid, Metam. iii. 511; Theocritus
xxvi; Apollodorus iii. 5, 2; Nonnus, Dionysiaca, xliv-xlvi; on
representations in art see O. Jahn, Pentheus und die Mainaden (1841).

PENTHIEVRE, COUNTS OF. In the nth and I2th centuries
the countship of Penthievre in Brittany (dep. of C6tes-du-Nord)

belonged to a branch of the sovereign house of Brittany. Henry
d'Avaugour, heir of this dynasty, was dispossessed of the count-
ship in 1235 by the duke of Brittany, Pierre Mauclerc, who gave
it as dowry to his daughter, Yolande, on her marriage in 1238
to Hugh of Lusignan, count of La Marche. Duke John I.
of Brittany, Yolande's brother, seized the countship on her
death in 1272. In 1337 Joan of Brittany brought Penthievre
to her husband, Charles de ChUtillon-Blois. In 1437 Nicole de
Blois, a descendant of this family, married Jean de Brosse, and
was deprived of Penthievre by the duke of Brittany, Francis II.,
in 1465. The countship, which was restored to Sebastian of
Luxemburg, heir of the Brasses through his mother, was erected
for him into a duchy in the peerage of France (duche-pairie)
in 1569, and was afterwards held by the duchess of Mercosur,
daughter of the first duke of Penthievre, and then by her daughter,
the duchess of Vendome. The duchess of Vend6me's grandson,
Louis Joseph, inherited Penthievre in 1669, but it was taken
from him by decree in 1687 and adjudged to Anne Marie de
Bourbon, princess of Conti. In 1696 it was sold to the count
of Toulouse, whose son bore the title of duke of Penthievre.
This title passed by inheritance to the house of Orleans.

PENTHOUSE, a sloping roof attached to a building either
to serve as a porch or a covering for an arcade, or, if supported
by walls, as a shed, a " lean-to." In the history of siegecraft,
the word is particularly applied to the fixed or movable construc-
tions used to protect the besiegers when mining, working batter-
ing-rams, catapults, &c., and is thus used to translate Lat.
vinea and pluteus, and also testudo, the shelter of locked shields
of the Romans. The Mid. Eng. form of the word is pentis, an
adaptation of O. Fr. apenlis, Med. Lat. appenditium or appen-
dicium, a small structure attached to, or dependent on, another
building, from appendere, to hang on to. The form " pent-
house " is due to a supposed connexion with " house " and Fr.
pente, sloping roof. The more correct form " pentice " is now
frequently used.

PENTSTEMON, in botany, a genus of plants (nat. order
Scrophulariaceae), chiefly natives of North America, with
showy open-tubular flowers. The pentstemon of the florist
has, however, sprung from P. Hartwegii and P. Cobaea, and
possibly some others. The plants endure English winters
unharmed in favoured situations. They are freely multiplied
by cuttings, selected from the young side shoots, planted early
in September, and kept in a close cold frame till rooted. They
winter safely in cold frames, protected by mats or litter during
frost. They produce seed freely, new kinds being obtained
by that means. When special varieties are not required true
from cuttings, the simplest way to raise pentstemons is to sow
seed in heat (65° F.) early in February, afterwards pricking
the seedlings out and hardening them off, so as to be ready
for the open air by the end of May. Plants formerly known
under the name of Chelone (e.g. C. barbata, C. campanulala)
are now classed with the pentstemons.

PENUMBRA (Lat. paene, almost, umbra, a shadow), in astro-
nomy, the partial shadow of a heavenly body as cast by the sun.
It is defined by the region in which the light of the sun is partially
but not wholly cut off through the interception of a dark body.
(See ECLIPSE.)

PENZA, a government of eastern Russia, bounded N. by the
government of Nizhniy-Novgorod, E. by Simbirsk, and S.
and W. by Saratov and Tambov; area 14,992 sq. m.; pop.
(est. 1906) 1,699,000. The surface is undulating, with deep
valleys and ravines, but does not exceed 900 ft. above sea-level.
It is principally made up of Cretaceous sandstones, sands, marls
and chalk, covered in the east by Eocene deposits. Chalk,
potter's clay, peat and iron are the chief mineral products in
the north. The soil is a black earth, more or less mixed with
clay and sand; marshes occur in the Krasnoslobodsk district;
and expanses of sand in the river valleys. There are extensive
forests in the north, but the south exhibits the characteristic
features of a steppeland. The government is drained by the
Moksha, the Sura (both navigable), and the Khoper, belonging
to the Oka, Volga and Don systems. Timber is floated down

PENZA— PEONAGE

several smaller streams, while the Moksha and Sura are important
means of conveyance. The climate is harsh, the average tem-
perature at the city of Penza being only 38°. The popula-
tion consists principally of Russians, together with Mordvinians,
Meshcheryaks and Tatars. The Russians profess the Ortho-
dox Greek faith, and very many, especially in the north, are
Raskolniks or Nonconformists. The chief occupation is agri-
culture. The principal crops are rye, oats, buckwheat, hemp,
potatoes and beetroot. Grain and flour are considerable
exports. The local authorities have established dep&ts for the
sale of modern agricultural machinery. There are several
agricultural and horticultural schools, and two model dairy-
farms. Cattle breeding and especially horse-breeding are
comparatively flourishing. Market-gardening is successfully
carried on, and improved varieties of fruit-trees have been
introduced through the imperial botanical garden at Penza
and a private school of gardening in the Gorodishche district.
Sheep-breeding is especially developed in Chembar and Insar.
The Mordvinians devote much attention to bee-keeping. The
forests (22 % of the total area) are a considerable source of wealth,
especially in Krasnoslobodsk and Gorodishche. The manufac-
tures are few. Distilleries come first, followed by beet sugar
and oil mills, with woollen cloth and paper mills, tanneries,
soap, glass, machinery and iron-works. Trade is limited to
the export of corn, spirits, timber, hempseed-oil, tallow, hides,
honey, wax, woollen cloth, potash and cattle, the chief centres
for trade being Penza, Nizhni-Lomov, Mokshany, Saransk and
Krasnoslobodsk.

The government is divided into ten districts, the chief towns
of which are Penza, Gorodishche, Insar, Kerensk, Krasnoslobodsk,
Mokshany, Narovchat, Nizhni-Lomov, Saransk and Chembar.
The present government of Penza was formerly inhabited by
Mordvinians, who had the Mescheryaks on the W. and the Bulgars
on the N. In the i3th century these populations fell under
the dominion of the Tatars, with whom they fought against
Moscow. The Russians founded the town of Mokshany in
1535. Penza was founded in the beginning of the i;th century,
the permanent Russian settlement dating as far back as 1666.
In 1776 it was taken by the rebel Pugashev. The town was
almost totally destroyed by conflagrations in 1836, 1830 and 1858.

PENZA, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the
same name, 492 m. by rail.S.E. from Moscow. It stands on a
plateau 567 ft. above the sea, at the confluence of the Penza with
the navigable Sura. Pop. (1897), 61,851. The older parts of
the town are constructed of wood, but the newer parts are well
built. The cathedral was erected in 1820-1821. Penza has
technical schools, public libraries, a museum of antiquities, and
a theatre which has played some part in the history of the
Russian stage. The bulk of the inhabitants support themselves
by agriculture or fishing in the Sura. An imperial botanical
garden is situated within two miles of the town. Apart from
paper-mills and steam flour-mills, the manufacturing establish-
ments are small. There is a trade in corn, oil, tallow, timber and
spirits, and two fairs where cattle and horses are sold.

PENZANCE, a municipal borough, market town and seaport
in the St Ives parliamentary division of Cornwall, England, the
terminus of the Great Western railway, 325 j m. W.S.W. of
London. Pop. (1901), 13,136. It is finely situated on the
western shore of Mount's Bay, opposite St Michael's Mount,
being the westernmost port in England. The site of the old
town slopes sharply upward from the harbour, to the west of
which there extends an esplanade and modern residential
quarter; for Penzance, with its mild climate, is in considerable
favour as a health resort. The town has no buildings of great
antiquity, but the public buildings (1867), in Italian style, are
handsome. By the market house is a statue of Sir Humphry
Davy, who was born here in 1778. Among institutions there are
a specially fine public library, museums of geology and natural
history and antiquities, mining and science schools, the West
Cornwall Infirmary and a meteorological station. The harbour,
enclosed within a breakwater, has an area of 24 acres, with 12 to
16 ft. depth of water, and floating and graving docks. There is a

large export trade in fish, including that of pilchards to Italy.
Other exports are tin and copper, granite, serpentine, vegetables
and china clay. Imports are principally coal, iron and timber.
Great quantities of early potatoes and vegetables, together with
flowers and fish, are sent to London and elsewhere. The
borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors.
Area, 355 acres.

Nearly two miles inland to the north-west is MADRON (an
urban district with a population of 3486). The church of St
Maddern is principally Perpendicular, with earlier portions and
a Norman front. Near the village a " wishing well " of ancient
fame is seen, and close to it the ruins of a baptistery of extreme
antiquity. Monoliths and cromlechs are not uncommon in the
neighbourhood. Three miles north-east is the urban district of
LUDGVAN (pop. 2274), and to the south is PAUL (6332), which
includes the village of Newlyn (<?.».).

Penzance (Pensans) was not recognized as a port until the
days of the Tudors, but its importance as a fishing village dates
from the I4th century. In 1327 thirty burgesses in Penzance
and thirteen boats paying 135. yearly are found among the pos-
sessions of the lords of Alverton, of which manor it formed a
portion of the demesne lands. The year 1512 marks the begin-
ning of a new era. Until then St Michael's Mount had been
regarded as the port of Mounts Bay; but in that year Henry
VIII. granted the tenants of Penzance whatever profits might
accrue from the " ankerage, kylage and busselage " of ships
resorting thither, so long as they should repair and maintain
the quay and bulwarks for the safeguard of the ships and town.
Nevertheless thirty years later it is described by Leland as the
westernmost market town in Cornwall " with no socur for Botes
or shippes but a forsed Pere or Key." During the war with
Spain the town was devastated in 1595. The charter of incor-
poration granted in 1614 states that by the invasion of the
Spaniards it had been treacherously spoiled and burnt but that
its strength, prosperity and usefulness for navigation, and the
acceptable and laudable services of the inhabitants in rebuilding
and fortifying it, and their enterprise in erecting a pier, have
moved the king to grant the petition for its incorporation. This
charter provides for a mayor, eight aldermen and twelve assist-
ants to constitute the common council, the mayor to be chosen
by the council from the aldermen, the aldermen to be chosen from
the assistants, and the assistants from the most sufficient
and discreet of the inhabitants. It also ratified Henry's grant
of anchorage, keelage and busselage. In 1663 Penzance was
constituted a coinage town for tin. It has never enjoyed
independent parliamentary representation. In 1332 a market
on Wednesdays and a fair at the Feast of St Peter ad
Vincula were granted to Alice de Lisle and in 1405 this market
was ratified and three additional fairs added, viz. at the feasts
of St Peter in Cathedra and the Conception and Nativity of the
Blessed Virgin. The charter of 1614 substituted markets on
Tuesdays and Thursdays for the Wednesday market and added
two fairs one at Corpus Christi and the other on the Thursday
before St Andrew. Of the fairs only Corpus Christi remains;
markets are now held on Tuesday, Thursday and Saturday.
Apart from fishing and shipping, Penzance has never been an
industrial centre.

PEONAGE (Span, peon; M. Lat. pedo (pes), primarily a foot-
soldier, then a day-labourer), a system of agricultural servitude
common in Spanish America, particularly in Mexico. In the
early days the Spanish government, with the idea of protecting
the Indians, exempted them from compulsory military service,
the payment cf tithes and other taxes, and regulated the system
of labour; but left them practically at the mercy of the Spanish
governors. The peons, as the Indian labourers were called,
were of two kinds: (i) the agricultural workman who was free
to contract himself, and (2) the criminal labourers who, often for
slight offences, or more usually for debt, were condemned to
practical slavery. Though legally peonage is abolished, the
unfortunate peon is often lured into debt by his employer and
then kept a slave, the law permitting his forcible detention till he
has paid his debt to his master.

126

PEOPLE— PEPE

PEOPLE, a collective term for persons in general, especially
as forming the body of persons in a community or nation, the
" fojk " (the O.E. and Teut. word, cf. Ger. Volk). The earlier
forms of the word were peple, poeple, puple, &c. ; the present form
is found as early as the i sth century, but was not established till
the beginning of the i6th. Old French, from which it was
adapted, had many of these forms as well as the mod. Fr. peuple.
The Lat. populus is generally taken to be a reduplication from
the root pie,— fill, seen in plenus, full; plebs, the commons;
Gr. irXi}0os, multitude.

PEORI A, a city, port of entry, and the county-seat of Peoria
county, Illinois, U.S.A., in the north central part of the state, on
the lower end of Lake Peoria, an expansion of the Illinois river,
and about 150 m. S.W. of Chicago. Pop. (ipoo) 56,100;
(1910) 66,950. It is served by 13 railways, of which the most
important are the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago,
Rock Island & Pacific, the Chicago & Alton, the Illinois Central,
the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, and the Chicago
& North-Western. The Illinois river is navigable to its mouth,
and at La Salle, above Peoria, connects with the Illinois &
Michigan Canal extending to Chicago. The river is spanned at
Peoria by two railway bridges and a wagon bridge. The
residential portion of the city is situated on bluffs overlooking
Lake Peoria, and the business streets lie on the plain between
these elevations and the water front. The park system includes
more than 400 acres; Bradley Park (140 acres), the largest, was
given to the city by Mrs Lydia Moss Bradley (1816-1908) and
was named in her honour. On a bluff north-east of the city is
Glen Oak Park (103 acres), modelled after ForestPark, St Louis,
Missouri; in the south-western part of the city is Madison Park
(88 acres); and in the lower part of the city is South Park (10
acres). In the Court House Square there are two monuments in
honour of the Federal soldiers and sailors of Peoria county who
perished in the Civil War; in Springdale Cemetery there are two
similar memorials, one of which (a large granite boulder) is in
memory of the unknown dead; and in the same cemetery there
is a monument erected by the state (1906) to mark the grave of
Thomas Fold (d. 1851), governor of Illinois in 1842-1846.
Among the principal public buildings and institutions are the
Peoria Public Library founded in 1855, the City Hall, the Court
House, the Federal building, St Mary's Cathedral, the Bradley
Polytechnic Institute (affiliated with the university of Chicago),
founded in 1896 by Mrs Lydia Moss Bradley, who gave it an
endowment of $2,000,000; Spalding Institute, founded through
the efforts of John L. Spalding (b. 1840), who was Bishop of tha
Roman Catholic diocese of Peoria in 1877-1908; an Evangelical
Lutheran Orphans' Home (1902), an Industrial School for girls
(1892), Cottage Hospital (1876), St Francis Hospital (1875), a
Florence Crittenton Home (1002), a Home for the Friendless
(1876), and a House of the Good Shepherd (1891), and the Guyer
Memorial (1889), St Joseph's (1892), and John C. Proctor homes
for the aged and infirm (1907). At Bartonville, a suburb, there
is a state hospital for the incurable insane.

In 1900 and in 1905 Peoria ranked second among the cities
of Illinois in the value of its manufactures. The invested capital
amounted in 1905 to $22,243,821, and the factory products were
valued at $60,920,411. The principal industry is the manufac-
ture of distilled liquors, which were valued in 1905 at $42,170,815.
Other important manufactures are agricultural implements
($2,309,962), slaughter-house and meat-packing products
($1,480,398), glucose, cooperage ($1,287,742), malt liquors
($887,570), foundry and machine-shop products, strawboard,
automobiles, brick and stone, and flour and grist mill products.
Peoria is also an important shipping point for grain and coal.

Peoria was named from one of the five tribes of the Illinois
Indians. In 1680 La Salle, the explorer, built Fort Crevecceur,
on the lake shore bluffs, opposite the present city; this fort,
however, was destroyed and deserted in the same year by La
Salle's followers after he had set out to return to Fort Frontenac.
There is evidence that a French mission was established on or
near the site of Peoria as early as 171 r; and certainly by 1725 a
settlement, known as Peoria, and composed of French and

" breed " traders, trappers and farmers, had been established
about i£ m. above the foot of the lake, on its west shore. This
village was practically deserted during the later years (1781-
1783) of the War of Independence, and when its inhabitants
returned after the peace they settled in a village which had been
established about 1778, on the present site of Peoria, by Jean
Baptiste Maillet (d. 1801), and was at first called La Ville de
Maillet. It is probable that Jean Baptiste Point de Saible,
believed to have been a Santo Domingan negro, and jocularly
spoken of "as the first white seUler in Chicago," lived in the
" old village " of Peoria as early as 1773 — or six years before he
settled on the present site of Chicago — and again about 1783.
In November 1812 about half of the town was burned by a
company of Illinois militia who had been sent thither to build a
fort, and whose captain asserted that his boats had been fired
upon at night by the villagers. In the following year a fort,
named Fort Clark in honour of George Rogers Clark, was erected
on the site of the old village; it was evacuated in 1818, and soon
afterwards was burned by the Indians. After the town was
burned there was no serious attempt to rebuild until 1819.
Peoria was incorporated as a town in 1835 and was chartered
as a city in 1845. In 1900 North Peoria was annexed.

See David McCulloch, Early Days of Peoria and Chicago, an address
read before the Chicago Historical Society in 1904, and published
by that society, (n.d.), and " Old Peoria," by the same author,
in publication No. 6 of the Illinois State Historical Society Trans-
actions (Springfield, 111. 1901); also Historical Encyclopaedia oj
Illinois (Chicago, 1900), ed. by Newton Bateman and Paul Selby;
History of Peoria County, III. (Chicago, 1880); and C. Ballance,
History of Peoria (Peoria, 1870).

PEPE, GUGLIELMO (1783-1855), Neapolitan general, was
born at Squillace in Calabria. He entered the army at an early '
age, but in 1799 he took part in the republican movement at
Naples inspired by the French Revolution; he fought against
the Bourbon troops under Cardinal Ruffo, was captured and
exiled to France. He entered Napoleon's army and served with
distinction in several campaigns, including those in the Nea-
politan kingdom, first under Joseph Bonaparte and later under
Joachim Murat. After commanding a Neapolitan brigade in the
Peninsular campaign, Pepe returned to Italy in 1813, with the
rank of general, to help to reorganize the Neapolitan army.
When the news of the fall of Napoleon (1814) reached Italy
Pepe and several other generals tried without success to force
Murat to grant a constitution as* the only means of saving the
kingdom from foreign invasion and the return of the Bourbons.
On Napoleon's escape from Elba (1815) Murat, after some
hesitation, placed himself on the emperor's side and waged war
against the Austrians, with Pepe on his staff. After several
engagements the Neapolitans were forced to retire, and eventually
agreed to the treaty of Casalanza by which Murat was to abandon
the kingdom; but the Neapolitan officers retained their rank
under Ferdinand IV. who now regained the throne of Naples.
While engaged in suppressing brigandage in the Capitanata,
Pepe organized the carbonari (q.ii.) into a national militia, and
was preparing to use them for political purposes. He had hoped
that the king would end by granting a constitution, but when
that hope failed he meditated seizing Ferdinand, the emperor
of Austria, and Metternich, who were expected at Avellino, and
thus compelling them to liberate Italy (1819). The scheme broke
down through an accident, but in the following year a military
rising broke out, the mutineers cheering for the king and the
constitution. Pepe himself was sent against them, but while
he was hesitating as to what course he should follow Ferdinand
promised a constitution (July 1820). A revolt in Sicily having
been repressed, Pepe was appointed inspector-general of the
army. In the meanwhile the king, who had no intention of
respecting the constitution, went to Laibach to confer with the
sovereigns of the holy alliance assembled there, leaving his son
as regent. He obtained the loan of an Austrian army with
which to restore absolute power, while the regent dallied with the
Liberals. Pepe, who in parliament had declared in favour oi
deposing the king, now took command of the army and marched
against the Austrians. He attacked them at Rieti (March 7,

PEPERINO— PEPPER

127

1821), but his raw levies were repulsed. The army was gradually
disbanded, and Pepe spent several years in England, France and
other countries, publishing a number of books and pamphlets
of a political character and keeping up his connexion with the
Carbonari. When in 1848 revolution and war broke out all
over Italy, Pepe returned to Naples, where a constitution had
again been proclaimed. He was given command of the Nea-
politan army which was to co-operate with Piedmont against the
Austrians, but when he reached Bologna the king, who had already
changed his mind, recalled him and his troops. Pepe, after
hesitating between his desire to fight for Italy, and his oath to
the king, resigned his commission in the Neapolitan service and
crossed the Po with 2000 volunteers to take part in the campaign.
After a good deal of fighting in Venetia, he joined Manin in
Venice and took command of the defending army. When the
city was forced by hunger to surrender to the Austrians, Pepe and
Manin were among those excluded from the amnesty; he again
went into exile and died in Turin in 1855.

The story of Pepe's life down to 1846 is told in his own interesting
Memorie (Lugano, 1847), and his Narrative of the Events. . . at
.Naples in 1820 and 1821 (London, 1821); for the later period of
his life see the general histories of the Risorgimento, and the bio-
graphical sketch in vol. ii. of L. Carpi's Risorgimento (Milan, 1886).

PEPERINO, an Italian name applied to a brown or grey
volcanic tuff, containing fragments of basalt and limestone, with
disseminated crystals of augite, mica, magnetite, leucite, &c.
The typical peperino occurs in the Alban Hills, near Rome, and
was used by the ancients, under the name of lapis albanus, as a
building stone and for the basins of fountains. Other tuffs and
conglomerates in Auvergne and elsewhere are also called peperino.
The name originally referred to the dark coloured inclusions,
suggestive of pepper-corns. In English the word has sometimes
been written peperine.

PEPPER, WILLIAM (1843-1898), American physician, was
born in Philadelphia, on the 2ist of August 1843. He was
educated at the university of Pennsylvania, graduating from
the academic department in 1862 and from the medical depart-
ment in 1864. In 1868 he became lecturer on morbid anatomy
in the same institution, and in 1870 lecturer on clinical medicine.
From 1876 to 1887 he was professor of clinical medicine, and in
1887 succeeded Dr Alfred Stille as professor of theory and practice
of medicine. He was elected provost of the university in 1881,
resigning that position in 1894. For his services as medical
director of the Centennial Exhibition in 1876 he was made knight
commander of St Olaf by the king of Sweden. He founded the
Philadelphia Medical Times, and was editor of that journal in
1870-1871. He was known particularly for his contributions
on the subject of the theory and practice of medicine, and the
System of Medicine which he edited in 1885-1886 became one
of the standard textbooks in America. Among his contribu-
tions to the medical and scientific journals of the day, were
" Trephining in Cerebral Disease " (1871); " Local Treatment in
Pulmonary Cavities" (1874); " Catarrhal Irrigation" (1881);
"Epilepsy " (1883); and " Higher Medical Education: the True
Interest of the Public and the Profession. " He died on the 28th
of July 1898 at Pleasanton, California.

PEPPER, a name applied to several pungent spices known
respectively as black, white, long, red, or cayenne, Ashanti,
Jamaica, and melegueta pepper, but derived from at least three
different natural orders of plants.

Black pepper is the dried fruit of piper nigrum, a perennial
climbing shrub indigenous to the forests of Travancore and
Malabar, from whence it has been introduced into Java, Sumatra,
Borneo, the Malay Peninsula, Siam, the Philippines, and the
West Indies. It climbs on tree-trunks by roots in the same way
as ivy, and from its climbing habit is known as the pepper vine.
It is one of the earliest spices known to mankind, and for many
ages formed a staple article of commerce between India and
Europe. Tribute has been levied in pepper; one of the articles
demanded in 408 by Alaric as part of the ransom of Rome was
3000 Ib of pepper. Its exorbitant price during the middle ages
was one of the inducements which led the Portuguese to seek a

sea-route to India. The discovery of the passage round the
Cape of Good Hope led (1498) to a considerable fall in the price,
and about the same time the cultivation of the plant was ex-
tended to the western islands of the Malay Archipelago. Pepper,
however, remained a monopoly of the Portuguese crown as late
as the i8th century. In Great Britain it was formerly taxed
very heavily, the impost in 1623 amounting to 55., and as late as
1823 to 2s. 6d. Ib.

The largest quantities of pepper are produced in Penang, the
island of Riouw, and Johore near Singapore — Penang affording
on an average about half of the entire crop. Singapore is the
great emporium for this spice in the East, the largest proportion
being shipped thence to Great Britain. The varieties of black
pepper met with in commerce are known as Malabar, Aleppy
or Tellicherry, Cochin, Penang, Singapore and Siam.

Piper nigrum.

a, Twig with fruit (about i nat. size) ; b, longitudinal section of
flower much enlarged ; c, section of fruit.

It owes its pungency to a resin, and its flavour to a volatile oil,
of which it yields from 1-6 to 2-2%. The oil agrees with oil of
turpentine in composition as well as in specific gravity and boiling
point. In polarized light it deviates the ray, in a column 50 mm.
long, 1-2° to 3-4° to the left. Pepper also contains a yellow crystal-
line alkaloid, called piperine, to the extent of 2 to 8%. This
substance has the same empirical formula as morphine, Ci7 Hi9 NOs,
but differs in constitution and properties. It is insoluble in water
when pure, is devoid of colour, flavour and odour, and may be
resolved into piperic acid, CijHioOi, and piperidine, C6HnN. The
latter is a liquid colourless alkaloid, boiling at 106° C., has an odour
of pepper and ammonia, and yields crystallizable salts. A fatty
oil is found in the pericarp of pepper, and the berries yield on
incineration from 4-1 to 5-7 of ash. The only use of black pepper
is as a condiment, but it may be given therapeutically in doses
of 5 to 20 grains. It has the pharmacological actions of a volatile
oil.

In the south-west of India, where the pepper-plant grows wild,
it is found in rich, moist, leafy soil, in narrow valleys, propagating
itself by running along the ground and giving off roots into the
soil. The only method of cultivation adopted by the natives is to
tie up the end of the vines to the neighbouring trees at distances
of at least 6 ft., especially to those having a rough bark, in order
that the roots may easily attach themselves to the surface. The
underwood is then cleared away, leaving only sufficient trees to
provide shade and permit free ventilation. The roots are manured
with a heap of leaves, and the shoots are trained twice a year. In
localities where the pepper does not grow wild, ground is selected
which permits of free drainage, but which is not too dry nor liable
to inundation, and cuttings are planted at about a foot from the
trees either in the rainy season in June or in the dry season in
February. Sometimes several cuttings about 18 in. long are
placed in a basket and buried at the root of the tree, the cuttings
being made to slope towards the trunk. In October or November
the young plants are manured with a mixture of leaves and cow-
dung. On dry soils the young plants require watering every other
day during the dry season for the first three years. The plants
bear in the fourth or fifth year, and if raised from cuttings are

128

PEPPER-CORN—PEPPERMINT

fruitful for seven years, if from seed for fourteen years. The pepper
from plants raised from cuttings is said to be superior in quantity
and quality, and this method is in consequence most frequently
adopted. Where there are no trees the ground is made into terraces
and enclosed by a mud wall, and branches of Erythrina indica
are put into the ground in the rainy season and in the course of a
year are capable of supporting the young pepper plants. In the
meantime mango trees are planted, these being preferred as
supports, since their fruit is not injured by the pepper plant, while
the Erythrina is killed by it in fourteen or fifteen years.

In Sumatra the ground is cleared, ploughed, and sown with rice,
and cuttings of the vine are planted in September, 5 ft. apart each
way, together with a sapling of quick growth and rough bark.
The plants are now left for twelve or eighteen months and then
entirely buried, except a small piece of bent stem, whence new shoots
arise, three or four of which are allowed to climb the tree near
which they are planted. These shoots generally yield flowers and
fruits the next year. Two crops are collected every year, the
principal one being in December and January and the other in
July and August, the latter yielding pepper of inferior quality and
in less quantity.

Two or three varieties are met with in cultivation; that yielding
the best kinds has broadly ovate leaves, five to seven in number,
nerved and stalked. The flower-spikes are opposite the leaves,
stalked and from 3 to 6 in. long; the fruits are sessile and fleshy.
A single stem will bear from twenty to thirty of these spikes. The
harvest begins as soon as one or two berries at the base of the spikes
begin to turn red, and before the fruit is mature, but when full-
grown and still hard ; if allowed to ripen, the berries lose pungency,
and ultimately fall off and are lost. The spikes are collected in
bags or baskets and dried in the sun. When dry the pepper is
put into bags containing from 64 to 128 Ib. In Sumatra the yield
is estimated at about i| ft per plant per annum. In Malabar each
vine gives 2 Ib a year up to the fifteenth or twentieth year, or about
24 ft from each tree, a single tree sometimes supporting eight
or twelve vines; an acre is calculated to bear 2500 plants, to cost
about £4 in outlay to bring it into bearing, and to yield a produce
of £80 when in its best condition.

White pepper differs only in being prepared from the ripe fruits.
These, after collection, are kept in the house three days and then
bruised and washed in a basket with the hand until the stalks
and pulpy matter are removed, after which the seeds are dried.
It is, however, sometimes prepared from the dried black pepper
by removing the dark outer layer. It is less pungent than the
black but possesses a finer flavour. It is chiefly prepared at the
island of Riouw, but the finest comes from Tellicherry.

White pepper affords on an average not more than 1-9% of
essential oil ; but, according to Cazeneuve, as much as 9 % of piperine,
and of ash not more than i-i %.

Long pepper is the fruit-spike of Piper officinarum and P.
longum, gathered shortly before it reaches maturity and dried.
The former is a native of the Indian Archipelago, and has oblong-
ovate, acuminate leaves, which are pinnately veined. The latter
is indigenous in the hotter provinces of India, Ceylon, Malacca
and the Malay Islands; it is distinguished from P. officinarum by
the leaves being cordate at the base and five-veined.

Long pepper appears to have been known to the ancient Greeks
and Romans under the name of -nk-ntpi naxp&v; and in the loth
century mention is made of long pepper, or macropiper, in conjunc-
tion with black and white peppers. The spice consists of a dense
spike of minute baccate fruits closely packed around the central
axis, the spike being about li in. long and J in. thick; as met
with in commerce they have the appearance of having been limed.
In Bengal the plants are cultivated by suckers, which are planted
about 5 ft. apart on dry rich soil on high ground. An English
acre will yield about 3 maunds (80 ft) the first year, 12 the second,
and 1 8 the third year; after this time the yield decreases, and the
roots are therefore grubbed up and sold as pipit mid, under which
name they are much used as a medicine in India. After the fruit
is collected, which is usually in January, the stem and leaves die
down to the ground. Long pepper contains piperine, resin and
volatile oil and yields about 8% of ash. Penang and Singapore are
the principal centres in the East for its sale.

Ashanti or West African pepper is the dried fruit of Piper
Clusii, a plant widely distributed in tropical Africa, occurring
most abundantly in the country of the Niam-niam. It differs
from black pepper in being rather smaller, less wrinkled, and in
being attenuated into a stalk, like cubebs (the dried unripe fruits
of P. Citbeba), to which it bears considerable resemblance
externally. The taste, however, is pungent, exactly like that of
pepper, and the fruit contains piperine. It was imported from
the Grain Coast by the merchants of Rouen and Dieppe as early

as 1364 and was exported from Benin by the Portuguese in
1485; but, according to Clusius, its importation was forbidden
by the king of Portugal for fear it should depreciate the value
of the pepper from India. In tropical Africa it is extensively
used as a condiment, and it could easily be collected in large
quantities if- a demand for it should arise.

Jamaica pepper is the fruit of Pimenta ojjicinalis, an evergreen
tree of the Myrtle family. It is more correctly termed " pimento"
or " allspice," as it is not a true pepper.

Melegueta pepper, known also as " Guinea grains," " grains of
paradise" (<?.».) or " alligator pepper," is the seed of Amomum
Melegueta, a plant of the ginger family; the seeds are exceedingly
pungent, and are used as a spice throughout central and northern
Africa.

For Cayenne pepper, see that article.

PEPPER-CORN, the fruit or seed of the pepper plant; hence
anything very small or insignificant. Pepper-corn rent is a
merely nominal rent, reserved for the purpose of having the
tenancy acknowledged by the tenant. Building leases fre-
quently reserve a pepper-corn as rent for the first few years.
See RENT.

PEPPERMINT, an indigenous perennial herb of the natural
order Labiatae, and genus Mentha (see MINT), the specific name
being Mentha piperita, is distinguished from other species of the
genus by its stalked leaves and oblong-obtuse spike-like heads of
flowers. It is met with, near streams and in wet places, in
several parts of England and on the European continent, and is
also extensively cultivated for the sake of its essential oil in
England,1 in several parts of continental Europe, and in the

FIG. I. — Mentha piperita.

a, Flowering branch (about J nat. size); b, flower showing form of
calyx teeth (enlarged).

United States. Yet it was only recognized as a distinct species
late in the I7th century, when Dr Eales discovered it in Hertford-
shire and pointed it out to Ray, who published it in the second
edition of his Synopsis stirpium britannicarum (1696). The
medicinal properties of the plant were speedily recognized and
it was admitted into the London Pharmacopoeia in 1721, under
the name of Mentha piperitis sapore.

Two varieties are recognized by growers, the white and the
black mint. The former has purplish and the latter green stems \
the leaves are more coarsely serrated in the white. The black
is more generally cultivated, probably because it is found to
yield more oil, but that of the white variety is considered to
have a more delicate odour, and obtains a higher price. The
white is the kind chiefly dried for herbalists. The flavour varies
to a slight extent even with particular plots of land, badly
drained ground being known to give unfavourable results both
as to the quantity and quality of the oil. That of the Japanese

1 Near Mitcham in Surrey, Wisbech in Cambridgeshire, Market
Deeping in Lincolnshire and Hitchin in Hertfordshire.

PEPPERRELL

129

and Chinese oil also differs slightly from the English, and is thus
distinguishable by experts. In America the oil is liable to be
injured in flavour by aromatic weeds which grow freely among
the crop, the most troublesome of these being Erigeron canadense,
and Erechthites hieracifolia. When pure the oil is nearly colour-
less and has an agreeable odour and powerful aromatic taste,
followed by a sensation of cold when air is drawn into the mouth.
It has a specific gravity of 0-84 to 0-92, and boils at 365° F.
Mitcham oil, when examined by polarized light in a column 50
mm. long, deviates from 14-2° to 10-7° to the left, the American
4-3°. When oil of peppermint is cooled to 4° C. it sometimes
deposits colourless hexagonal prisms of menthol, Ci0H2oO, which
are soluble in alcohol and ether, almost insoluble in water, and
fusible at 92° F. The oil consists chiefly of menthol and a terpene
called menthene, CjoHis. Oil of peppermint is often adulter-
ated with a third part of rectified spirit, which may be detected
by the milkiness produced when the oil is agitated with water.
Oil of rosemary and rectified oil of turpentine are sometimes used
for the same purpose. If the oil contains turpentine it will
explode with iodine. If quite pure it dissolves in its own weight

of rectified spirits of wine. Pep-
permint oil is largely distilled at
Canton, a considerable quantity
being sent to Bombay, also a
large quantity of menthol. The
species cultivated in the neigh-
bourhood of Canton, is Mentha
anensis, var. glabrala. Pepper-
mint is chiefly cultivated in the
province of Kiang-si; and accord-
ing to native statements as much
as 40 piculs of oil of peppermint
are sent annually to ports on
the coast. In Japan also the
distillation of oil of peppermint
forms a considerable industry, the
plant cultivated being M. anensis,
var. piperascens. The oil, under
the name of hakka no abura, is
exported from Hiogo and Ozaka,
but is said to be frequently adul-
terated. The menthol is obtained
by subjecting the oil to a low
temperature, when it crystallizes
out and is separated. The two
varieties of M. anensis just
named yield much more menthol than M. piperila. It is
remarkable, however, that the M. anensis, var. javanica,
growing in Ceylon, has not the flavour of peppermint but that
of garden mint, while typical form of M. anensis grown in
Great Britain has an odour so different from peppermint that
it has to be carefully removed from the field lest it should spoil
the flavour of the peppermint oil when the herb is distilled.
M. incana, cultivated near Bombay as a herb, also possesses
the flavour of peppermint. In the form in which menthol is
imported it bears some resemblance to Epsom salts, with which
it is sometimes adulterated.

The volatile oil of Mentha piperita is a valuable and widely used
drug. Its chief constituents are menthol and menthene, which is
a liquid terpene. The British pharmacopoeia contains two pre-
parations of this oil, the Aqua menthae piperitae and the Spiritus
menthae piperitae. The oil has the characters of its class, with
certain special features. Its local anaesthetic action is exceptionally
strong. It is also powerfully antiseptic. These two properties
make it valuable in the relief of toothache and in the treatment
of carious cavities in the teeth. They also render the drug valuable
in certain forms of dyspepsia and in colic generally, " soda-mint
lozenges " being a familiar form. The characteristic anti-spasmodic
action of the volatile oils is perhaps more marked in this than in
any other oil, and greatly adds to its power of relieving pains arising
in the alimentary canal. The volatile oil of spearmint is also
official in Great Britain and the United States, being given in the
same doses and for the same purposes as oil of peppermint. It
is of less value medicinally, not containing any appreciable quantity
of menthol, the place of which is taken in the oleum menthae mridis —

xxi. 5

FIG. 2. — Mentha anensis,
var. piperascens.

a. Flowering branch re-
duced) ; 6, calyx showing form
of teeth (enlarged).

the pharmacopoeia! name — by carvone, CioHuO, found in caraway
oil, and isomeric with thymol.

The following mode of cultivation of peppermint is adopted
at Market Deeping. A rich friable soil, retentive of moisture, is
selected, and the ground is well tilled 8 to 10 in. deep. The
plants are propagated in the spring, usually in April and May.
When the young shoots from the crop of the previous year have
attained a height of about 4 in. they are pulled up and trans-
planted into new soil. They grow vigorously the first year, and
throw out numerous stolons on the surface of the ground. After
the crop has been removed these are allowed to harden or become
woody, and then farm-yard manure is scattered over the field and
ploughed in. In this way the stolons are divided into numerous
pieces, and covered with soil before the frost sets in. If the autumn
is wet they are liable to become sodden, and rot, and the next
crop fails. In the spring the fields are dressed with Peruvian guano.
In new ground the peppermint requires hand-weeding two or three
times, as the hoe cannot be used without injury to the plants. Moist
heavy weather in August is apt to cause the foliage to drop off
and leave the stems almost bare. In these circumstances rust
(Puccinia menthae) also is liable to attack the plants. This is
prevented to a certain extent by a rope being drawn across the plants,
by two men walking in the furrows, so as to remove excessive
moisture. The average yield of peppermint is about 165 cwt.
per acre. The first year's crop is always cut with the sickle to
prevent injury to the stolons. The herb of the second and third
year is cut with scythes, and then raked by women into loose heaps
ready for carting. The field is then gleaned by boys, who add
what they collect to the heaps. The plants rarely yield a fourth
crop on the same land. The harvest usually commences in the
beginning or middle of August, or as soon as the plants begin to
flower, and lasts for six weeks, the stills being kept going night
and day. The herb is carted direct from the field to the stills,
which are made of copper, and contain about 5 cwt. of the herb.
Before putting the peppermint into the still water is poured in to
a depth of about 2 ft., at which height a false bottom is placed,
and on this the herb is thrown and trodden down by men. The
lid, which fits into a water-joint, is then let down by pulleys and
fastened by two bars, any excess of pressure or temperature being
indicated by the water that is ejected at the joint. The distillation
is conducted by the application of direct heat at the lowest pos-
sible temperature, and is continued for about four and a half hours.
When this operation is completed, the lid is removed and a rope is
attached to a hook on the false bottom, which, as well as the herb
resting on it, is raised bodily by a windlass and the peppermint
carried away in the empty carts on their return journey to the fields,
where it is placed in heaps and allowed to rot, being subsequently
mixed with the manure applied in the autumn as above stated.
The usual yield of oil, if the season be warm and dry, is said to be
I oz. from 5 Ib of the fresh flowering herb, but, if wet and unfavour-
able, the product is barely half that quantity. The yield of a charge
of the still is estimated at from I ft 12 oz. to 5 ft. The oil improves
in mellowness even if kept as long as ten or fourteen years. The
green colour sometimes present in the oil is stated to be due to a

Quantity of water larger than necessary having been used in the
istillation; on the other hand, if the herb be left in the still from
Saturday to Monday, the oil assumes a brown tint.

In France peppermint is cultivated on damp rich ground at Sens,
in the department of the Yonne. In Germany it is grown in the
neighbourhood of Leipzig, where the little town of Colleda produces
annually as much as 40,000 cwt. of the herb. In the United States
peppermint is cultivated on a most extensive scale, chiefly in south-
west Michigan, the west districts of New York state, and Ohio. The
yield averages from I o to 30 Ib per acre. In Michigan the plant
was introduced in 1855-

PEPPERRELL, SIR WILLIAM (1696-1759), American soldier,
was born in Kittery, Maine, then a part of Massachusetts, on
the 27th of June 1696. He studied surveying and navigation,
and joined his father in his ship-building, fishing and general
trading business, quickly becoming one of the wealthiest and
most influential men in the province. He was commissioned
captain (1717), major, lieutenant-colonel, and in 1726 colonel of
militia. Pepperrell served in the Massachusetts general court
(1726-1727), and in the governor's council (1727-1759), of
which for eighteen years he was president. Although not a
trained lawyer, he was chief justice of the court of common pleas
from 1730 until his death. In 1745 he was commander-in-chief
of the New England force of about 4000, which, with the assist-
ance of a British squadron under Commodore Peter Warren,
besieged and captured the French fortress of Louisburg, the
garrison surrendering on the i6th of June and Pepperrell and
Warren taking possession on the following day. For his services
Pepperrell, in November 1746, was created a baronet — the only
New Englander so honoured. He was active in raising troops

130

PEPPER TREE— PEPYS, SAMUEL

during the " French and Indian War," and received the rank of
lieutenant-general in February 1 7 59. He died in Kittery , Maine,
on the 6th of July in the same year.

See Usher Parsons, Life of Sir William Pepperrell, Bart. (Cam-
bridge, Mass., 1855), based on the family papers.

PEPPER TREE, a tree which has no proper connexion with
the true pepper (Piper), and is really a member of the natural
order Anacardiaceae, being known botanically as Schinus Molle,
from the Peruvian name Mulll. It is a native of tropical South
America and is grown in the open air in the south of Europe. It
is a small tree with unequally pinnate leaves, the segments
linear, entire or finely saw-toothed, the terminal one longer than
the rest, and all filled with volatile oil stored in large cells or
cysts, which are visible to the naked eye and appear like holes
when the leaf is held up to the light. When the leaves are thrown
upon the surface of water the resinous or oily fluid escapes with
such force as violently to agitate them. The flowers are small,
whitish, arranged in terminal clusters and polygamous or uni-
sexual, with five sepals, as many petals, ten stamens (as large as
the petals in the case of the male flower, very small in the female
flower, but in both springing from a cushion-like disk surrounding
the base of the three-celled ovary). The style is simple or three-
cleft, and the fruit a small, globose, pea-like drupe with a bony
kernel enclosing a single seed. The fleshy portion of the fruit
has a hot aromatic flavour from the abundance of the resin it
contains. The resin is used for medicinal purposes by the
Peruvians, and has similar properties to mastic. The Japan
pepper tree is Xanthoxylum piperitum the fruits of which have
also a hot taste. Along the Riviera the tree known as Melia
Azedarach, or the " Pride of India," is also incorrectly called the
pepper tree by visitors.

PEPSIN, an enzyme or ferment obtained by drying the mucous
lining of the fresh and healthy stomach of a pig, sheep or calf.
As used in medicine it consists of a light yellow-brown or white
powder or of pale yellow translucent grains or scales. It is only
slightly soluble in water and alcohol. Pepsin is used to help
gastric digestion in old people and in those in whom there is a
deficient secretion of the gastric juice. It is useful in chronic
catarrhal conditions of the stomach, the dyspepsia of alcoholism,
and in gastric ulcer and cancer of the stomach.

Pepsin digests the albumens but is useless in the digestion of
fats or carbohydrates. It may also be used to predigest albuminous
foods. The following is a method of peptonizing beef. Take i ft
of minced raw lean beef, J pint of water containing 0-2 % of
hydrochloric acid, place in a jar with 30 grs. of pepsin, set in a warm
place at 110° F. for 3 hours, stirring occasionally. Then quickly
boil it. It is usually unnecessary to strain it, as the meat is reduced
to a fine almost impalpable powder which is readily assimilated.
Many varieties of proprietary peptonizing tablets are on the market
and are convenient for the preparation of peptonized milk. The
following is a method of preparing it. Take a clean glass quart
bottle, pour in a pint of perfectly fresh cold milk, then add a teacup-
ful of cold water in which a peptonizing tablet has been dissolved.
Submerge the bottle in a can of water at 100° F. for from 5 to 10
minutes, take out the bottle and place on ice to prevent the further
action of the pepsin. If no ice is convenient bring the milk to a
boil for the same purpose. If the action of the pepsin be continued
for a much longer period the milk becomes bitter to the taste from
the development of excess of peptones. Predigested foods should
not be used over a long period or the digestive functions of the
stomach may atrophy from disuse.

Pancreatic solution, derived from the pancreas of a pig digested
in alcohol, has the power of converting starch into sugar, and
albumen and fibrin into peptones. It only acts in an alkaline
medium and at a temperature under 140° F. If used to peptonize
milk sodium bicarbonate should be added. Many commercial
preparations are on the market. Trypsin, the principal ferment
of the pancreas, also changes proteids into peptones.

PEPUSCH, JOHN CHRISTOPHER (1667-1752), English
musician, of German parentage, was born in Berlin. He began
his study of music at an early age, and about 1700 left Berlin
and went to England, where he had various engagements, and
where he went on with his researches into ancient music. He
composed a number of church services and instrumental pieces,
besides music for masques and plays, but he is best known in
connexion with the founding in 1710 of the Academy of Ancient
Music. In 1713 he was made a Mus.D. of Oxford, and in 1746

F.R.S. In 1718 he married Margarita de 1'Epine (d. 1746), who,
as the first Italian to sing in England, was described in 1692 in
the London Gazette simply as " the Italian woman." Pepusch
died in London on the 2oth of July 1752. His Treatise on
Harmony (anonymous ist ed. 1730) is believed to have been an
embodiment of his rules drafted by his pupil Viscount Paisley,
afterwards earl of Abercorn.

PEPYS, SAMUEL (1633-1703), English diarist, was born on
the 23rd of February 1633. The place of his birth is not known.
The name was pronounced in the i7th century, and has always
been pronounced by the family, " Peeps." The family can be
traced in Cambridgeshire as far back as the reign of Edward I.
They rose by slow degrees from the class of small copyholders
and yeoman farmers to the position of gentry. In 1563 they had
a recognized right to use a coat of arms. John Pepys, Samuel's
father, was a younger son, who, like other gentlemen in his
position in that age, went into trade. He was for a time estab-
lished as a tailor in London, but in 1661 he inherited a small
estate at Brampton near Huntingdon, where he lived during the
last years of his life.

Samuel was fifth child and second son of a large family, all
of whom he survived. His first school was in Huntingdon, but
he was afterwaicjs sent to St Paul's in London, where he remained
till 1650. While at St Paul's he was an eye-witness of the execu-
tion of King Charles I. On the 2ist of June in that year his
name was entered as a sizar on the books of Trinity Hall,
Cambridge, but it was transferred to Magdalene on the ist of
October. On the sth of March he entered into residence, and
he remained there till 1654 or 1655. He obtained a Spendluffe
scholarship a month after entering, and one on Dr John Smith's
foundation on the i4th of October 1653. \ Nothing is known of
his university career except that on the 2 ist of October 1653 he
was publicly admonished with another undergraduate for having
been ^scandalously overserved with drink."/l\t Cambridge he
wrote a romance, Love is a Cheat, which he afterwards destroyey
On the ist of December 1655 he was married at St Margarers
church, Westminster, to Elizabeth, daughter of Alexander
Marchant, Sieur de St Michel, a French Huguenot exile from
Anjou who had married an English lady named Kingsmil).
Pepys had at this time no independent means, and probably
relied on his cousins, the Montagues, to provide for him. On the
26th of March 1658 he was cut for the stone, an event which
he always kept in memory by a solemn anniversary: In 1659
he went as secretary with his cousin, Edward Montagu, after-
wards earl of Sandwich, on a voyage to the Sound. On his
return he was engaged as a clerk under Mr (afteVwards Sir)
Edward Downing, one of the four tellers of the exchequer. In
1660 he accompanied his cousin, who commanded th^ fleet which
brought King Charles II. back from exile. In that year, by the
interest of his cousin, he was named " clerk of the acts " in the
navy office, but was compelled to buy off a competitor, one
Barlow, by an annuity of £100.

Pepys was now fairly established in the official career which led
him to honour. On the ist of January 1660 he had begun his
second and hidden life as a diarist. It is in that capacity that
he is of such unique interest. But if his diary had never been
written, or had been lost, he would still be a notable man, as an
able official, the author of valuable Memoirs of the Navy (1690),
an amateur musician and protector of musicians, a gentleman
who took an enlightened interest in science, and was elected
president of the Royal Society. To his contemporary diarist,
John Evelyn, he appeared as " a worthy, industrious and curious
person." It is true that Andrew Marvel accused him of having
accumulated a fortune of £40,000 by " illegal wages." But this
charge, made in a pamphlet called A List of the principal
Labourers in the great design of Popery and Arbitrary Pou'er,
was attributed to political animosity. To the world he appeared
as an honourable and religious man, and so he would seem to have
been to us if he had not recorded in his diary all those weaknesses
of character and sins of the flesh which other men are most
careful to conceal.

His place of clerk to the Navy Board was equivalent to the

PEPYS, SAMUEL

post of permanent under secretary in modern times. It made
him chief of the secretariat and a member of the administrating
body of the navy. Chough he was so ignorant of business that
he did not even know- the multiplication table when he first took
office, he soon mastered the needful mechanical details by work-
ing early and late. He had other posts and honours, which
came to him either as consequential on his clerkship or because
he was a useful official. On the 23rd of July 1660 he was ap-
pointed one of the clerks of the privy seal, an office which returned
him £3 a day in fees. He was made a justice of the peace. In
1662 he was appointed a younger brother of the Trinity House,
and was named a commissioner for managing the affairs of
Tangier, then 'occupied by an English garrison. In 1664 he
became a member of the corporation of the Royal Fishery, to
which body he was named treasurer when another official had
brought the accounts into confusion. In that year he also
joined the Royal Society. During the naval war with Holland
(1664-67) he proved himself an indefatigable worker. As sur-
veyor of the victualling, the whole burden of a most important
department was thrown on him in addition to his regular duties.
He in fact organized the department. While the plague was
raging in London in 1666 he remained at his post when many of
his colleagues ran away, and he manfully avowed his readiness
to take the risk of disease, as others of the king's servants faced
the dangers of war. vHe had now gained the full confidence of the

, lord high admiral, the duke of York, afterwards King James II.

V When, on the termination of the war, the navy office was violently
^attacked in parliament, he was entrusted with its defence. The
speech which he delivered at the bar of the House of Commons
on the sth of March 1668 passed for a complete vindication. In
sober fact the charges of mismanagement were well founded, but
the fault was not in the officials of the navy office only, and Pepys,
who was master of the details, had no difficulty in throwing dust
in the eyes of the House of Commons, which was ignorant.
Nobody indeed was better acquainted with the defects of the
office, for in 1668 he drew up for the duke of York two papers of
inquiry and rebuke, " The Duke's Reflections on the severall
Members of the Navy Board's Duty " and " The Duke's answer
to their severall excuses " (Harleian MS. 6003). In 1669 he
travelled abroad. His success in addressing parliament gave him
the ambition to become a member of the House of Commons.
He stood for Aldborough, but the death of his wife, on the loth
of November 1669, prevented him from conducting his canvass
in person, and he was not elected. In 1673 he was returned for
Castle Rising. The validity of his election was questioned by his
opponent, Mr Offley, and the committee of privilege decided
against him, but the prorogation of the house prevented further
action. The no-popery agitation was now growing in strength.
The duke of York was driven from office by the Test Act, and
Pepys was accused of " popery," partly on the ground that he
was said to keep a crucifix and altar in his house, partly because
he was accused of having converted his wife to Roman Catholi-
cism. The crucifix story broke down on examination, but there
is some reason to believe that Mrs Pepys did become a Roman
Catholic. [Pepys was transferred by the king from the navy
office to the secretaryship of the admiralty in 1673. In 1679 he

. was member for Harwich, and in the height of the popish plot
mania he was- -accused, manifestly because he was a trusted
servant of the duke of York, of betraying naval secrets to the
French, but the charges were finally dropped. Pepys was released
on bail on the I2th of February 1680. In that year he accom-
panied the king to Newmarket, and took down the narrative of
his escape after the battle of Worcester. A proposal to make him
head of King's College, Cambridge, in 1681, came to nothing.
In 1682 he accompanied the duke of York to Scotland, where the
uncleanly habits of the people caused him great offence. In
1683-1684 he was engaged in arranging for the evacuation of
Tangier. He visited the place and kept a diary of his voyage.
In 1684 he was elected president of the Royal Society. On the
accession of King James II. in 1685 he retained his place as
secretary to the admiralty, to which he had been appointed by
patent when James resumed the lord high admiralship (June 10,

1684), and Pepys was in effect minister for the navy. The
revolution of 1688 ended his official career. He was dismissed
on the 9th of March 1689, and spent the rest of his life in retire-
ment, and, except for a brief imprisonment on the charge of
Jacobite intrigue in 1690, in peace. He died at his house in
Clapham on the 25th of May 1703. His last years were passed
in correspondence with his friends, who included Evelyn and
Dryden, or in arranging his valuable library. It was left on his
death to his nephew, John Jackson, son of his sister Pauline, and
in 1724, by the terms of his will, was transferred to Magdalene
College, Cambridge, where it is still preserved.

Such was the outward and visible life of Samuel Pepys, the
public servant whose diligence was rewarded by success. The
other Pepys, whom Sir Walter Scott called " that curious
fellow," was revealed in 1825, when his secret diary was partly
published. The first entry was made on the ist of January 1660,
the last on the 3ist of May 1669, when the increasing weakness
of his eyes, which had given him trouble since 1664, compelled
him to cease writing in the conditions he imposed upon himself.
If there is in all the literature of the world a book which can be
called " unique " with strict propriety it is this. Confessions,
diaries, journals, autobiographies abound, but such a revelation
of a man's self has not yet been discovered. The diary is a thing
apart by virtue of three qualities which are rarely found in per-
fection when separate and nowhere else in combination. It was
secret; it was full; and it was honest. That Pepys meant it for
his own eye alone is clear. He wrote it in Shelton's system of
tachygraphy published in 1641, which he complicated by using
foreign languages or by varieties of his own invention whenever
he had to record the passages least fit to be seen by his servants
or by " all the world." Relying on his cypher he put down what-
ever he saw, heard, felt or imagined, every motion of his mind,
every action of his body. And he noted all this, not as he desired
it to appear to others, but as it v/as to his seeing. The result is
" a human document " of amazing vitality. The man who displays
himself to himself in the diary is often odious, greedy, cowardly,
casuistical, brutal. He tells how he kicked his cook, and blacked
his wife's eye, and was annoyed when others saw what he had
done. He notes how he compelled the wives of unfortunate
men who came to draw their husband's pay at the navy office to
prostitute themselves; how he took " compliments," that is to
say gifts, from all who had business to do with the navy office;
how he got tipsy and suffered from sick headache; how he
repented, made vows of sobriety, and found casuistical excuses
for breaking them. The style is as peculiar as the matter —
colloquial, garrulous, racy from simplicity of language, and full
of the unconscious humour which is never absent from a truthful
account of the workings of nature in the average sensual man.
His position enabled him to see much. His complete harmony
with the animalism and vulgarity of the Restoration makes him
a valuable witness for his time. To his credit must be put the
facts that he knew the animalism and vulgarity to be what they
were; that he had a real love of music and gave help to musicians,
Cesare Morelli for instance; that though he made money out of
his places he never allowed bad work to be done for the navy if
he could help it; that he was a hard worker; and that he had a
capacity for such acts of kindness and generosity as are com-
patible with a gross temperament and a pedestrian ambition.

The diary, written in a very small hand in six volumes, was
included among his books at Magdalene. On the publication of
Evelyn's diary in 1818, the then head of Magdalene, the Hon.
and Rev. George Neville, decided to publish Pepys's. Part of the
MS. was deciphered by his cousin Lord Grenville. The library
contained both the short and the long-hand copies of Pepys's
account of King Charles's adventures, but its books were so little
known by the curators that this key was overlooked. The MS.
was deciphered by John Smith, afterwards rector of Baldock
in Hertfordshire, between 1819 and 1822. The first and partial
edition, edited by Richard Neville Griffin, 3rd Lord Braybrooke,
appeared in 1825 in two volumes quarto (London). It attracted
great attention and was reviewed by Sir Walter Scott in the
Quarterly for January 1826. A second edition in two octavo

132

PEQUOT— PERCEVAL

volumes followed in 1828 (London). A third and enlarged edition
in five volumes octavo appeared in 1848-1849, and a fourth in
four in 1854 (London) . In 1875-1879 Dr Minors Bright published
a still fuller edition in six volumes octavo (London). Many
portraits of Pepys are known to have been taken and several can
be traced. One was taken by Savill (1661), another by John
Hales (1666), now in the National Portrait Gallery. A portrait
by Sir Peter Lely is in the Pepysian library, Magdalene College,
Cambridge. Three portraits were taken by Sir Godfrey Kneller,
of which one belongs to the Royal Society, and another is in the
Hall of Magdalene. Pepys's only known publication in his life
was the Memoirs of the Navy, but other writings have been
attributed to him.

AUTHORITIES. — The standard edition of Pepys's Diary is that
by H. B. Wheatley, in nine volumes octavo, with a supplementary
volume of Pepysiana (London, 1893-1899). See also Wheatley's
Samuel Pepys, and the world he lived in (London, 1880); The Life,
Journals and Correspondence of Pepys, by J. Smith (London, 1841);
E. H. Moorhouse, Samuel Pepys, Administrator, Observer, Gossip
(1909) ; and P. Lubbock, Samuel Pepys (1909). (D. H.)

PEQUOT, an Algonquian tribe of North-American Indians, a
branch of the Mohicans. They occupied the coast of Connecticut
from Niantic river to the Rhode Island boundary. Together
with their kinsmen, the Mohegans, they formed a powerful and
warlike people, bitterly hostile to the early settlers. In 1637 the
Pequots were surprised by the whites at their fort on the Mystic
river, and suffered so completely a defeat that the tribe was broken
up, and its remnants took refuge with neighbouring tribes. The
Pequot country passed under the control of the Mohegans. At
the height of their power the Pequots numbered, it is estimated,
some 3000.

PERCEPTION (from Lat. percipere, to perceive), in psychology,
the term specially applied to the mental process by which the
mind becomes conscious of an external object; it is the mental
completion of a sensation, which would otherwise have nothing
but a momentary existence coextensive with the duration of the
stimulus, and is intermediate between sensation and the " ideal
revival," which can reinstate a perceptual consciousness when
the object is no longer present. This narrow and precise usage
of the term" perception " is due to Thomas Reid, whose view has
been generally adopted in principle by modern psychologists.
On the other hand some psychologists decline to accept the view
that the three processes are delimited by sharp lines of cleavage.
It is held on the one hand that sensation is in fact impossible as a
purely subjective state without cognition; on the other that
sensation and perception differ only in degree, perception being
the more complex. The former view admits, which the latter
practically denies, the distinction in principle. Among those
who adopt the second view are E. B. Titchener and William
James. James (Principles of Psychology, ii. 76) compares
sensation and perception as " the barer and the richer conscious-
ness," and says that " beyond the first crude sensation all our
consciousness is a matter of suggestion, and the various sugges-
tions shade gradually into each other, being one and all products
of the same psychological machinery of association." Similarly
Wundt and Titchener incline to obliterate the distinction between
perception and ideal revival. Prior to Reid, the word perception
had a long history in the wider sense of cognition in general.
Locke and Hume both use it in this sense, and regard thinking as
that special kind of perception which implies deliberate attention.
(See PSYCHOLOGY.)

PERCEVAL, or PERCYVEIXE (Ger. Parzival, FT. Perlesvaus,
Welsh, Peredur), the hero of a comparatively small, but highly
important, group of romances, forming part of the Arthurian
cycle. Originally, the story of Perceval was of the character of a
folk-tale, and that one of remarkable importance and world-wide
diffusion. He is represented as the son of a widow, " la dame
veuve," his father having been slain in tourney, battle or by
treachery, either immediately before, or shortly after his birth.
The mother, fearful lest her son should share his father's fate,
flies to the woods, either alone with one attendant, or with a small
body of faithful retainers, and there brings up her son in ignorance
of his name, his parentage and all knightly accomplishments.

The youth grows up strong, swift-footed and of great personal
beauty, but, naturally enough, of very limited intelligence. This
last is one of the most characteristic traits of the Perceval story,
connecting it alike with the Irish Lay of the Great Fool, and the
Teutonic Dummling tales. He spends his days chasing the
beasts of the forest, running them down by sheer speed, or killing
them with darts (javelots) or bow and arrows, the only weapons
he knows.

One day, however, he meets a party of knights in armour; he
first adores the leader as God, and then takes them to be some
new and wondrous kind of animal, asking the most naive
questions as to their armour and equipment. Being told that
they are knights he determines that he too will be one, and
returns to his mother announcing his intention of at once setting
forth into the world to seek for knighthood. Dressed as a
peasant (or a fool), he departs (his mother, in some versions,
dying of grief), and comes to the king's court. Of course in the
romance it is the court of Arthur; probably in the original tale
it was simply " the king." Here his uncouth behaviour and great
personal beauty attract general attention, and he is alike mocked
by Kay, and his future distinction mysteriously foretold. He
slays a foe of Arthur's, the Red Knight, who has insulted the
king, and challenged the knights of the court, who, for some
mysterious reason, are unable to respond to the challenge.
Dressing himself in the armour of the slain knight, which he has
great difficulty in handling and eventually puts on over his
peasant's garb, he sets out on a series of adventures which differ
greatly in the various versions, but the outcome of which is that
he becomes a skilful and valiant knight and regains the heritage
of his father.

This, the Perceval story proper, has been recognized by
scholars as a variant of a widespread folk-tale theme, designated
by J. C. von Hahn as the Aryan Expulsion and Return formula,
which counts among its representatives such heroes as Perseus,
Cyrus, Romulus and Remus, Siegfried, and, as Alfred Nutt has
pointed out, Arthur himself. This particular variant appears to
be of British-Celtic origin, and the most faithful representative
of the original tale is now very generally held to be the English
Syr Percyvelle of Galles, a poem preserved in the Thornton
manuscript. Here the hero is nephew to Arthur on the mother's
side, and his father, of the same name as himself, is a valiant
knight of the court. A noticeable feature of the story is the
uncertainty as to the hero's parentage; the mother is always a
lady of rank, a queen in her own right, or sister of kings (as a
rule of the Grail kings) ; bu* the father's rank varies, he is neveV
a king, more often merely a valiant knight, and in no instance
does he appear to be of equal rank with his wife. This
distinguishes the story from that of Lancelot, with which some
modern scholars have been inclined to identify it; for Lancelot's
parentage is never in doubt, he is fi s du roi.

The connexion of the story with Arthur and his court brought
about a speedy and more important development, the precise
steps of which are not yet clear: Perceval became the hero of the
Grail quest, in this ousting Gawain, to whom the adventure
originally belonged, and the Perceval became merged in the Grail
tradition. Of the Perceval-Grail romances the oldest from the
point of view of manuscript preservation is the Perceval or
ContedelGraaloi Chretien de Troyes. Two manuscripts, indeed,
the British Museum and Mons texts, preserve a fragment relating
the birth and infancy of the hero, which appears to represent
the source at the root alike of Chretien and of the German
Parzival, but it is only a fragment, and so far no more of the poem
has been discovered. Chretien left his poem unfinished, and we
do not know how he intended to complete the adventures of his
hero; but those writers who undertook the task, Wauchier de
Denain, Gerbert de Montreuil and Manessier, carried it out with
such variety of detail, and such a bewildering indifference to
Chretien's version, that it seems practically certain that there
must have been, previous to Chretien's work, more than one
poem dealing with the same theme. The German poet, Wolfram
von Eschenbach, whose Parzival in parts closely agrees with the
Perceval and who was long held to be a mere translator of Chretien,

PERCEVAL, S.— PERCH

133

differs widely in the setting of his story. He gives an introduction,
in which the adventures of the father, here a prince of Anjou,
are related; a conclusion, in which the Swan-Knight, Lohengrin,
is made Parzival's son; he represents the inhabitants of the
Grail castle as Templars (Templeisen) ; and makes the Grail itself
a stone. Finally, he reproaches Chretien with having told the
story amiss, whereas Kiot, the Provencal, whose version Wolfram
was following, had told it aright from beginning to end. It is
certain that Gerbert knew, and used, a Perceval which, if not
Kiot's poem, must have been closely akin to it; as he too makes
the Swan-Knighl a descendant of the Grail hero. The probability
seems to be that the earliest Perceval- Grail romance was com-
posed at Fescamp, and was coincident with the transformation,
under the influence of the Saint-Sang legend, of the originally
Pagan talisman known as the Grail into a Christian relic, and
that this romance was more or less at the root of all subsequent
versions.

Besides the poems, we have also two prose Perceval romances,
the relative position of which has not yet been satisfactorily deter-
mined. The first is found in two manuscripts only, the so-called
" Didot " (from its original possessor M. Firmin-Didot), now in the
Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris; the other, and much superior text,
in the Biblioteca Estense, Modena. In both cases the romance
follows the prose rendering of Borron's Joseph of Arimathea
and Merlin, and precedes a Mart Artus, thus forming part of
a complete cycle. The text shows a curious mingling of sources;
the real primitive Perceval story, the Enfances, is omitted; he
grows up in his father's house and goes to court at his wish.
Later, however, stories which certainly derive from an early
non-Grail tradition are introduced, and there are references
which imply a knowledge of the prose Lancelot and of Chr6tien's
poem. The romance is probably a somewhat late, and not
very skilful, compilation. The other prose romance, the
Perlesvaus, is decidedly superior in literary form, but here too
we have a mingling of old and new elements. The Enfances
story is omitted, and there are parallels with the German
Parzival, with Wauchier de Denain and with Gerbert, while
much is peculiar to the Perlesvaus itself. It is not improbable
that it represents a free and individual working over of the
original Fescamp version, and that in its later shape it was
intended to form, and did at one time form, the Quest section
of the cyclic redaction of the Arthurian prose romances, being
dislodged from this position by the Galahad Quite. It is a
curious fact that the printed editions always give it in conjunc-
tion with this latter and that the two have also been preserved
together in a Welsh manuscript translation. We also possess
in one of the so-called Mabinogi a Welsh version of the tale,
Peredur, son of Evrawc. This appears to be a free rendering of
the adventures found in Chretien combined with incidents
drawn from Welsh tradition. This was at one time claimed as
the original source of all the Perceval romances, but this theory
cannot be maintained in face of the fact that the writer gives in
one place what is practically a literal translation of Chretien's
text in a passage which there is strong reason to believe was
borrowed by Chretien from an earlier poem. In order of time
the Peredur probably ranks latest in the series of Perceval
romances, which, however, does not detract from its interest as
a possible representative of genuine Welsh traditions, unknown
to other writers.

The value and interest of the Perceval romances stand very
high, not alone for their intrinsic merit, though that is con-
siderable— Chretien's Perceval, though not his best poem, is a
favourable specimen of his work, and von Eschenbach's Parzival,
though less elegant in style, is by far the most humanly interest-
ing, and at the same time, most deeply spiritual, of the Grail
romances — but also for the interest of the subject matter. The
Perceval story is an admirable folk-tale, the Grail problem
is the most fascinating problem of medieval literature; the two
combined form a romance of quite unique charm and interest.
This has been practically proved by the extraordinary success
which has attended Richard Wagner's dramatic re-telling of
the legend in his Parsifal. The immediate source of this

version is the poem of Wolfram von Eschenbach, though the
Grail, of course, is represented in the form of the Christian
relic, not as the jewel talisman of the Parzival; but the psycho-
logical reading of the hero's character, the distinctive note of
von Eschenbach's version, has been adapted by Wagner with
marvellous skill, and his picture of the hero's mental and spiritual
development, from extreme simplicity to the wisdom born of
perfect charity, is most striking and impressive.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — There are early printed editions of the Perceval
(1530) and of the Perlesvaus (1516 and 1523). The Perceval was
edited from the Mons text by Potvin (6 vols., 1866-1871); Syr
Percyvelle of Galles, in The Thornton Romances, by Halliwell (1844)
for the Camden Society. Parzival exists in numerous editions;
critical texts have been edited by Lachmann (1891), Martin (1903)
and Leitzmann (1902-1903). For the general reader the most
useful text is that of Bartsch in Deutsche Classiker des Mittelalters,
as it includes notes and a glossary. Modern German versions
are by Simrock (very close to the original) and Hertz (freer, but
with excellent notes and appendices) ; Eng. trans, by J. L. Weston
(1894). The " Didot " Perceval was published by Hucher in vol. i.
of Le Saint Graal (1875-1878) ; an edition of the Modena text has
also been prepared. Perlesvaus was published by Potvin in vol. i.
of his edition of Chretien's poem. The Welsh text, with translation,
has been edited by Canon Williams. A fine translation by Dr
Sebastian Evans is published in " The Temple Classics," under the
title of The High History of the Holy Grail. Peredur will be found
in Alfred Nutt's edition of the Mabinogion (1902). For the critical
treatment of the subject see The Legend of Sir Perceval (Grimm
Library, vol. xvii.); Perlesvaus by Nitze (1902); Legends of the
Wagner Drama by J. L. Weston. (J. L. W.)

PERCEVAL, SPENCER (1762-1812), prime minister of Eng-
land from 1809 to 1812, second son of John, and earl of Egmont,
was born in Audley Square, London, on the ist of November
1762. He was educated at Harrow and at Trinity College,
Cambridge, and was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1786.
A very able speech in connexion with a famous forgery case
having drawn attention to his talents, his success was from that
time rapid, he was soon regarded as the leading counsel on the
Midland circuit, and in 1796 became a K.C. Entering parlia-
ment for Northampton in April of that year, he distinguished
himself by his speeches in support of the administration of Pitt.
In 1 80 1, on the formation of the Addington administration, he
was appointed solicitor-general, and in 1802 he became attorney-
general. An ardent opponent of Catholic Emancipation, he
delivered in 1807 a speech on the subject which helped to give
the deathblow to the Grenville administration, upon which he
became chancellor of the exchequer under the duke of Portland,
whom in 1809 he succeeded in the premiership. Notwithstand-
ing that he had the assistance in the cabinet of no statesman
of the first rank, he succeeded in retaining office till he was shot
by a man named Bellingham, a bankrupt with a grievance, who
had vainly applied to him for redress, in the lobby of the House
of Commons on the i ith of May 1812. Bellingham was certainly
insane, but the plea was set aside and he was hanged. Perceval
was a vigorous debater, specially excelling in replies, in which
his thorough mastery of all the details of his subject gave him
a great advantage. He married in 1790 and had six sons and
six daughters; one of the latter married Spencer Horatio Walpole
(d. 1898), home secretary, and their son Sir Spencer Walpole,
the well-known historian, published an excellent biography of
Perceval in 1874.

See also P. Treherne, Spencer Perceval (1909).

PERCH (through Fr. from Lat. perca, Gr. ir£p/oj; the last
word is connected with irepwos, dark-coloured, spotted), a
fresh- water fish (Perca flumatilis) , generally distributed over
Europe, northern Asia and North America, and so well known
as to have been selected for the type of an entire family of spiny-
rayed fishes, the Percidae, which is represented in European
fresh-waters by several other fishes such as the pope (Acerina
cernua) and the pike-perch (Lucioperca) . It inhabits rivers as
well as lakes, but thrives best in waters with a depth of not
less than 3 ft.; in large deep lakes it frequently descends to
depths of 50 fathoms and more. It occurs in Scandinavia as
far north as the 6gth parallel, but does not extend to Iceland
or any of the islands north of Europe. In the Alps it ascends to
an altitude of 4000 ft.

134

The shape of its body is well proportioned, but many varia-
tions occur, some specimens being singularly high-backed, others
low and long-bodied; sometimes such variations are local, and
Agassiz and other naturalists at one time thought it possible to
distinguish two species of the common perch of Europe; there
are not even sufficient grounds, however, for separating specifi-
cally the North-American form, which in the majority of ichthyo-
logical works is described as Perca flavescens. The brilliant and
striking colours of the perch render it easily recognizable even
at a distance. A rich greenish-brown with golden reflections
covers the back and sides, which are ornamented with five or
seven dark cross-bands. A large black spot occupies the

PERCH— PERCY (FAMILY)

The Perch, Perca fluviatilis.

membrane between the last spines of the dorsal fin; and the
ventral, anal and lower part of the caudal are bright ver-
milion. In the large peaty lakes of north Germany a beautiful
variety is not uncommon, in which the golden tinge prevails,
as in a goldfish.

The perch is strictly carnivorous and most voracious; it
wanders about in small shoals within a certain district, playing
sad havoc among small fishes, and is therefore not to be toler-
ated in waters where valuable fry is cultivated. Perch of three
pounds in weight are not infrequently caught in suitable local-
ities; one of five would now be regarded as an extraordinarily
large specimen, although in older works we read of individuals
exceeding even that weight.

Perch are good, wholesome food, and highly esteemed in inland
countries where marine fish can be obtained only with difficulty.
The nearly allied pike-perch is one of the best European food-
fishes. The perch is exceedingly prolific; it begins to spawn
when three years old, in April or in the first half of May, deposit-
ing the ova, which are united by a viscid matter in lengthened or
net-shaped bands, on water plants.

PERCH (through Fr. perche from Lat. pertica, a pole or rod
used for measurement), a bar or rod used for various purposes, as
e.g. for a navigation mark in shallow waters, for a support on
which a bird may rest, or for a pole which joins the back with
the fore part of a wagon or other four-wheeled vehicle. As a
term of linear measurement, " perch," also " rod " or " pole,"
= i6| ft., 53 yds.; of superficial area, = 3Oj sq. yds.; 160 perches
= i acre. As a stonemason's measure, a " perch " = i linear
perch in length by ij ft. in breadth and i ft. in thickness.

PERCHE, a region of northern France extending over the
departments of Orne, Eure, Eure-et-Loir and Sarthe. Its
boundaries are Normandy on the N. and W., Maine on the S.W.,
Vend&mois and Dunois on the S., Beauce on the E. and Thime-
rais on the N.E. The greater part of the district is occupied
by a semicircle of heights (from 650 to 1000 ft. in height) stretch-
ing from Moulins-la-Marche on the north-west to Montmirail
on the south ; within the basin formed thereby the shape of which
is defined by the Huisne, an affluent of the Sarthe, lie the chief
towns — Mortagne, Nogent-le-Rotrou and Belleme. Stock-raising
and dairy-farming are flourishing in the Perche, which is famous
for the production of a breed of large and powerful horses.
Cider-apples and pears are grown throughout the district. In
the middle ages the Perche constituted a countship of which
Corbon, Mortajgne and Nogent-le-Rotrou were successively the
capitals. Under the ancien regime it formed, together with
Maine, a gouvernement of which Mortagne was the capital.

PERCIVAL, JAMES GATES (1795-1856), American poet,
philologist and geologist, was born in Kensington parish, Berlin,
Connecticut, on the isth of September 1795. He graduated

at Yale in 1815, and in 1820 took the degree of M.D., and started
practice in Berlin. He contributed verse to the Microscope,
a semi-weekly paper, founded at New Haven in 1820.
In this first appeared his best-known poem," " The Suicide,"
which reflects his chronic melancholy, due doubtless to ill-health;
it was begun in 1816 and finished in 1820, after he had actually
made two attempts on his own life. In 1823 Percival became
an editor of the Connecticut Herald at New Haven; and in 1824
he was in turn an assistant-surgeon and lecturer on chemistry
at West Point, and an inspector of recruits at the Charlestown
(Mass.) Navy Yard. He prepared (1826-1831) an English
edition of Malte-Brun's Geography (published 1834); and in
1827-1829 read the manuscripts and proof-sheets of Webster's
Dictionary, giving special attention to scientific words. In 1835-
1840, with Professor Charles U. Shepard (1804-1886), he made
a geological survey of Connecticut; his Report (1842) showed
great learning and much patient research. In 1854 he became
state geologist of Wisconsin, and in 1855 published one volume
of his Report; the second he had nearly completed at the time
of his death, on the 22nd of May 1856, at Hazel Green, Wisconsin.
See his Poetical Works ( 2 vols., Boston, 1859), with a biographical
sketch by L. W. Fitch; and Julius H. Ward, Life and Letters of
James Gates Percival (Boston, 1866).

PERCY (FAMILY). This family, whose deeds are so prominent
in -English history, was founded by William de Perci (c. 1030-
1096), a follower of the Conqueror, who bestowed on him a
great fief in Yorkshire and Lincolnshire. The register of Whitby
Abbey, which he founded anew, and in later days the heralds,
were responsible for the fabulous origin and pedigree of the
family which are still current. By Emma, daughter of Hugh de
Port, a great Hampshire baron, William was father of several
sons, of whom Alan the eldest succeeded him. His grandson
William was the last of the house in the direct line, and left two
sisters and coheiresses, Maud countess of Warwick, who died
childless, and Agnes. Agnes de Perci had married Josceline,
styled " brother of the queen " (i.e. Adeliza of Louvain, second
wife of Henry I.), whose legitimacy has been questioned, and
from this marriage descended the second house of Percy (which
name it assumed), till its own extinction in the male line five
centuries later (1670). By it was brought into the family the
great Petworth estate in Sussex, which Josceline had obtained
from his sister, who was holding Arundel and its fief. His son
Richard (c. 1170-1244) and Richard's nephew William (c. 1183-
1245) were among the barons who rose in arms against John,
but the latter made his peace with Henry III., and had his
lands restored to him. Richard de Percy was one of the twenty-
five barons appointed to enforce the observance of Magna
Carta.

The next important member of the family is William's grandson
Henry de Percy (c. 1272-1315), whom Edward I., after the deposi-
tion of John Baliol, appointed governor of Galloway, and who
was one of his most active agents in the subjugation of Scotland
till the success of Robert Bruce drove him out of Turnberry
Castle, and made him withdraw into England. He was rewarded
by Edward II. with the barren title of earl of Carrick, declared
to be forfeited by the Scottish hero; and the same king appointed
him governor of the castles of Bamburgh and Scarborough.
But in 1309 he himself made his position strong in the north of
England by purchasing lands from Anthony Bek, bishop of
Durham, among which was the honour of Alnwick, the principal
seat of the family ever since. The Percies had chiefly resided
till then at Spofforth in Yorkshire, and their connexion with
Northumberland dates from this acquisition. Henry's son,
another Henry (c. 1299-1352), took part in the league against
Edward II. 's favourites the Despensers, was in favour with
Edward III., and obtained from Edward Baliol as king of
Scotland grants of Lochmaben, Annandale and Moffatdale,
which he surrendered to the English king for the castle and
constableship of Jedburgh, or Jedworth, with the forest of Jed-
worth and some neighbouring towns. A few years later, in fuller
recompense of the unprofitable gift of Baliol, a grant of 500
marks a year was made to him out of the old customs at Berwick;

PERCY (HOTSPUR)

135

and in 1346 he did splendid service to his sovereign by defeating
and taking prisoner David II., king of Scotland, at the battle of
Neville's Cross.

To him succeeded another Henry Percy (1322-1368), a feudal
baron like his predecessors, who fought at Crecy during his
father's lifetime and whose brother Thomas Percy (1333-1369)
was bishop of Norwich from 1356-1369. The next head of the
Percys was Henry's son, another Henry, who was made earl
of Northumberland at the coronation of Richard II., and whose
younger brother Thomas (d. 1403) was created earl of Worcester
in 1397. The ist earl of Northumberland, father of the famous
Hotspur, Sir Henry Percy (?.».), was killed at Bramham Moor
in 1408, while in arms against the king, and his title and estates
were forfeited. But, by an act no less gracious than politic,
Henry V. restored them in 1414 to this earl's grandson, Henry
(1394-1455), then a prisoner with the Scots, whose liberation
he had no difficulty in procuring from the duke of Albany during
the time of James I.'s captivity. From that day the loyalty
of the family to the house of Lancaster was steadfast and
undeviating. The 2nd earl died fighting for Henry VI. at
the first battle of St Albans in 1455; the 3rd, Henry (1421-
1461), was slain on the bloody field of Towton; the 4th,
Henry (1446-1489), was killed in quelling an insurrection in the
time of Henry VII. So strong was the Lancastrian feeling of
the family that even Sir Ralph Percy (1425-1464), a brother
of the earl who fell at Towton, though he had actually submitted
once to Edward IV., turned again, and when he fell at Hedglcy
Moor in April 1464 consoled himself with the thought that he
had, as he phrased it, " saved the bird in his bosom."

No wonder, then, that in Edward IV.'s days the title and
estates of the family were for a time taken away and given to
John Neville Lord Montagu, brother of Warwick the king-maker.
But the north of England was so accustomed to the rule of the
Percys that in a few years Edward saw the necessity of restoring
them, and did so even at the cost of alienating still further the
powerful family of the Nevilles, who were then already on the
point of rebellion.

A crisis occurred in the fortunes of the family in the reign of
Henry VIII. on the death of Henry, the 6th earl (c. 1502-
1537), whose brothers Sir Thomas and Sir Ingelram Percy,
much against his will, had taken part in the great insurrection
called the Pilgrimage of Grace. A thriftless man, of whom it is
recorded that in his youth he was smitten with the charms of
Anne Boleyn, but was forced to give her up and marry a woman
he did not love, he died childless, after selling many of the family
estates and granting the others to the king. The title was
forfeited on his death, and was granted by Edward VI. to the
ambitious John Dudley, earl of Warwick, who was attainted
in the succeeding reign. It was restored in the days of Queen
Mary to Thomas Percy (1528-1572), a nephew of the 6th earl,
who, being a stanch Roman Catholic, was one of the three
earls who took the lead in the celebrated rising of 1572, and was
beheaded at York. His brother Henry (c. 1532-1585), who
succeeded him, was no less unhappy. Involved in Throg-
morton's conspiracy, he was committed to the Tower of London,
and was supposed to have shot himself in bed with a pistol
found beside him; but there were grave suspicions that it had
been discharged by another hand. His son, Henry (1567-1632),
the next earl, suffered like his two predecessors for his attachment
to the religion of his forefathers. The Crown lawyers sought
in vain to implicate him in the Gunpowder Plot, but he was
imprisoned for fifteen years in the Tower and compelled to pay
a fine of £30,000. Algernon (1602-1668), the son who next
succeeded, was a parliamentary general in the Civil War. At
length, in 1670, the male line of this illustrious family became
extinct, at least in the direct line, about five hundred years after
the marriage of Agnes de Perci with Josceline of Louvain.

The representation of the earlier Percys had passed away
through the daughters of Earl Thomas, beheaded in 1572, but
his earldom of Northumberland (created anew for him in 1557)
had passed to his brother Henry, under a special remainder,
and appears to have become extinct in 1670, though persistently

claimed by James Percy, " the trunk-maker. " The last earl's
daughter Elizabeth, a great heiress, was mother by Charles
Seymour, 6th duke of Somerset, of Algernon, 7th duke, who was
summoned (in error) as Lord Percy in 1722 and created earl of
Northumberland in 1749. On the duke's death in 1750 his
earldom of Northumberland passed under a special remainder,
with the main inheritance of the Percys, to Sir Hugh Smithson,
bart. (1715-1786), who had married his daughter and eventual
heiress in 1740, and was created duke of Northumberland and
Earl Percy in 1766. From this marriage descends the present
ducal house, which bears the name of Percy in lieu of Smithson,
and owns vast estates in Northumberland.

Alnwick Castle, their chief seat, where much state is still kept
up, has been described by Mr Clark as " probably the finest
extant example of a Norman castle of this type, having an open
keep and a complete enceinte." It had been hardly occupied
and in decay for some two centuries when the present family
succeeded to it, but was restored by them to its former splendour
between 1750 and 1786. " Princely Petworth," however, the
seat of the later Percys, with their ancient Sussex estates and
those in Yorkshire (Leconfield) and Cumberland (Cockermouth),
all passed away in 1750 with the earldom of Egremont and
barony of Cockermouth to Charles Wyndham, nephew of the
7th duke of Somerset, and these estates are now held by Lord
Leconfield. The actual representation in blood of the later
Percys (i.e. from 1572) passed in 1865, on the death of the
4th duke, to the dukes of Atholl, who in virtue of it are Lords
Percy, under the writ of 1722, the oldest of the family titles now
remaining. The ancient London residence of the Percys,
Northumberland House, Charing Cross, was removed to make
way for Northumberland Avenue. Above it stood the Percy
crest, a (blue) lion with stiffly extended tail; but the famous badge
of the house was the white crescent or half moon — " the Half-
Moone shining all soe faire " of " the Northern Rising " ballad —
with a pair of manacles. Their coat of arms was a blue lion
rampart on a yellow ground — " Jaune o un bleu lyon rampart "
of the Carlaverock roll, stated, but wrongly, to have been
derived from the dukes of Louvain and Brabant. With it they
quartered the " Luces " coat of the Lucys of Cockermouth after
succeeding to their estates, whence the lines in The Battle of
Otlerbourne: —

" The Lucetts and the Cressaunts both,
The Skotts fought them agayne."

See E. B. De Fonblanque, Annals of the House of Percy (1887),
and G. Brenan, History of the House of Percy (edited by W. A.
Lindsay, 1902), both somewhat adulatory and needing critical
revision; Tate, History of Alnwick (1866); Hartshorne's paper on
the Percys and their Castles in the Newcastle volume of the Archaeo-
logical Institute (1852) ; E. A. Freeman, " The Percy Castles " (1875)
in English Towns and Districts; G. T. Clark, Medieval Military
Architecture (1884) ; G. E. C(okayne), Complete Peerage(i8g$), vol. vi. ;
Bishop Percy, Northumberland Household Book. See also the
article Northumberland, Earls and Dukes of. (J. GA. ; J. H. R.)

PERCY, SIR HENRY, called HOTSPUR (1364-1403), eldest son
of Henry, ist earl of Northumberland, was born on the 2oth
of March 1364. He saw active service when he was fourteen
at the siege of Berwick. Six years later he was associated with
his father 'in the wardenship of the eastern march of Scotland,
and his zeal in border warfare won the name of Hotspur for
him from his opponents. In 1386 he was sent to Calais, and
raided French territory, but was shortly afterwards recalled
to defend England against a naval attack by France. In
popular story and ballad he is known as one of the heroes of
Otterburn or Chevy Chase, which is the subject of one of the
most stirring recitals of Froissart. In the summer of 1388 the
Scots invaded England by way of Carlisle, sending a small body
under the earls of Douglas, Mar and Moray to invade Northum-
berland. The earl of Northumberland remained at Alnwick,
but sent his sons Sir Henry and Sir Ralph against the enemy.
In hand-to-hand fighting before the walls of Newcastle, Douglas
is said to have won Sir Henry's pennon, which he swore to fix
upon the walls of Dalkeith. The Scots then retreated to Otter-
burn, where Percy, who was bent on recovering his pennon,
attacked them on a fine August evening in 1388. Douglas was

136

PERCY, T.

slain in the battle, though not, as is stated by Walsingham, by
Percy's hand: Henry Percy was captured by Sir John Mont-
gomery, and his brother Ralph by Sir John Maxwell. Hotspur
was released on the payment of a heavy ransom, to which
Richard II. contributed £3000, and in the autumn his term as
warden of Carlisle and the West March was extended to five
years. In 1399 together with his father he joined Henry of
Lancaster. Henry IV. gave the charge of the West March to
Northumberland, while Henry Percy received the castles of
Bamburgh, Roxburgh and Berwick, and the wardenship of the
East March, with a salary of £3000 in peace time and £12,000 in
war. During the first year of Henry's reign Hotspur further
was appointed justiciar of North Wales and constable of the
castles of Chester, Flint, Conway, Denbigh and Carnarvon.
Henry also gave him a grant of the island of Anglesey, with the
castle of Beaumaris. William and Rees ap Tudor captured
Conway Castle on the ist of April 1401, and Percy in company
with the prince of Wales set out to recover the place, Percy
providing the funds. In May he reported to the king the
pacification of Merioneth and Carnarvon, and before the end
of the month Conway was surrendered to him. Meanwhile he
wrote demanding arrears of pay, with the threat of resignation
if the money were not forthcoming, but the king intimated
that the loss of Conway had been due to his negligence, and only
sent part of the money. He had the same difficulty in obtaining
money for his northern charge that he had experienced in
Wales.1 Anglesey was taken from him, and he was deprived of
Roxburgh Castle in favour of his rival, the earl of Westmorland.
The Scots again invaded England in the autumn of 1402, headed
by the earl of Douglas and Murdoch Stewart, son of the duke
of Albany. Northumberland and Hotspur barred their way at
Millfield, near Wooler, and the Scots were compelled to fight
at Humbledon, or Homildon Hill, on the I4th of September.
The English archers were provided with a good target in the
masses of the Scottish spearmen, and Hotspur was restrained
from charging by his ally, George Dunbar, earl of March. The
Scottish army was almost destroyed, while the English loss is
said to have been five men. Disputes with the king arose over
the disposal of the Scottish prisoners, Percy insisting on his right
to hold Douglas as his personal prisoner, and he was summoned
to court to explain. It is related that when he arrived Henry
asked for Douglas, and Hotspur demanded in return that
his brother-in-law, Edmund Mortimer, should be allowed to
ransom himself from Owen Glendower, with whom he was a
prisoner. High words followed, in the course of which Henry
called Percy a traitor, struck him on the face, and drew his
sword on him. Percy is said to have answered this defiance
with the words, " Not here, but on the field." This was late
in 1402, and in 1403 Hotspur issued a proclamation in Cheshire
stating that Richard II. was alive, and summoning the inhabi-
tants to his standard. He made common cause with his prisoner
Douglas, and marched south to join forces with Glendower,
who was now reconciled with Mortimer. He was reinforced
by his uncle Thomas, earl of Worcester, who, although steward
to the household of the prince of Wales, joined his family in
rebellion. The mythical Richard II. was heard of no more, and
Percy made himself the champion of the young earl of March.
When he arrived at the Castle Foregate, Shrewsbury, early on
the 2ist of July, and demanded provisions, he found the king's
forces had arrived before him. He retired in the direction of
Whitchurch, and awaited the enemy about 3$ m. from
Shrewsbury. After a long parley, in which a truce of two days
was even said to have been agreed on, the Scottish earl ol
March, fighting on the royal side, forced on the battle in the
afternoon, the royal right being commanded by the prince ol
1 The dissatisfaction of the Percys seems to have been chiefly
due to the money question. Sir J. H. Ramsay (Lancaster ant
York) estimates that in the four years from 1399 to 1403 they hat
received from the king the sum of £41,750, which represented z
very large capital in the I4th century, and they had also receivet
considerable grants of land. King Henry IV. was about to march
north himself to look into the real relations between the Percys
and the Scots, when on the 6th of July 1403 Henry Percy was in
open rebellion.

Wales. Hotspur was killed, the earls of Douglas and Worcester,
Sir Richard Venables of Kinderton, and Sir Richard Vernon
were captured, and the rebel army dispersed. Worcester,
Venables and Vernon were executed the next day. Percy's
body was buried at Whitchurch, but was disinterred two days
ater to be exhibited in Shrewsbury. The head was cut off, and
fixed on one of the gates of York.

See NORTHUMBERLAND, EARLS AND DUKES OF; and PERCY:
^Family). Also Chronique de la traison et mart de Richard II.,
ed. B. Williams (Eng. Hist. Soc., 1846); J. Creton, Histoire du roy

Richard II., ed. John Webb, in Archaeologia (xx., 1824) ; and Adam
of Usk's Chronicon, 1377-1404, ed. E. M. Thompson (1876); the
authorities are cited in detail in J. H. Wylie's England under

Venry IV. (1884-1898), and Sir J. H. Ramsay's Lancaster and
York (Oxford, 1892). Holinshed's Chronicle was the chief source
of Shakespeare's account of Hotspur in Henry IV.

PERCY, THOMAS (c. 1560-1605), one of the Gunpowder
Plot conspirators, was a son of Edward Percy of Beverley, who
was grandson of Henry Percy, 4th earl of Northumberland.
Though brought up a Protestant, he early became well-affected
to the Roman Catholics and finally an adherent. He entered
the service of his cousin, Henry Percy, 9th earl of Northumber-
and, and was appointed by him constable of Alnwick Castle
and agent for his northern estates, in which capacity he showed
himself tyrannical and extortionate. In 1602 he was sent by
Northumberland to James in Scotland to secure toleration for
the Roman Catholics and returned announcing favourable
promises from the king, the extent of which he probably greatly
exaggerated; and when James, after his succession to the English
throne, did not immediately abrogate the penal laws, Percy,
although he had accepted the court appointment of gentleman
pensioner, professed himself highly indignant and indulged
himself in thoughts of revenge. Some time in May 1603 Percy
angrily declared his intention to Catesby of killing the king,
and in April 1604 he met Catesby with John Wright, Thomas
Winter and Guy Fawkes, and was then initiated into Catesby's
gunpowder plot, which met with his zealous approval and
support. To Percy was allotted the special duty after the
explosion of seizing the infant prince Charles and riding off
with him on his saddle to Warwickshire. All the preparations
being complete, Percy went to Alnwick in October and collected
£3000 of the earl of Northumberland's rents which he intended
using in furtherance of the plot, returning to London on the ist
of November. Meanwhile the plot had been revealed through the
letter to Lord Monteagle on the a6th of October, and it was Percy's
insistence at the last meeting of the conspirators on the 3rd that
decided them not to fly but to hazard the attempt. On the
news of Guy Fawkes's arrest, Percy with the rest of the conspira-
tors, except Tresham, fled on horseback, taking refuge ulti-
mately at Holbeche, near Stourbridge, in Staffordshire, where on
the 8th of November, during the attack of the sheriff's men upon
the house, he was struck down by a bullet, fighting back to back
with Catesby, and died two days later. Percy married a sister
of the conspirator John Wright and left a son Robert and two
daughters, one of whom is said to have married Robert, the son
of Catesby.

PERCY, THOMAS (1729-1811), bishop of Dromore, editor
of the Percy Reliques, was born at Bridgnorth on the i3th of
April 1729. His father, Arthur Lowe Percy, a grocer, was of
sufficient means to send his son to Christ Church, Oxford, in
1746. He graduated in 1750 and proceeded M.A. in 1753. In
the latter year he was appointed to the vicarage of Easton Maudit,
Northamptonshire, and three years later was instituted to the
rectory of Wilby in the same county, benefices which he retained
until 1782. In 1759 he married Anne, daughter of Barton Gutter-
ridge. At Easton Maudit most of the literary work for which
he is now remembered — including the Reliques — was completed.
When his name became famous he was made domestic chaplain
to the duke and duchess of Northumberland, and was tempted
into the belief that he belonged to the illustrious house of Percy.
Through his patron's influence he became dean of Carlisle in

1778 and bishop of Dromore in Ireland in 1782. His wife died
before him in 1806; the good bishop, blind but otherwise in

PERDICCAS— PERE DAVID'S DEER

137

sound health, lived until the 3oth of. September 1811. Both
were buried in the transept which Percy added to Dromore
Cathedral.

Dr Percy's first work was a translation from a Portuguese
manuscript of a Chinese story, published in 1761. Two years
later he published Five Pieces of Runic Poetry, translated from
the Islandic. In 1763 he edited the earl of Surrey's poems with
an essay on early blank verse, translated the Song of Solomon,
and published a key to the New Testament. His Northern
Antiquities (1770) is a translation from the French of Paul Henri
Mallet. His reprint of The Household Book of the Earl of Northum-
berland in 1512 is of the greatest value for the illustrations of
domestic life in England at that period. But these works are
of little estimation when compared with the Reliques of Ancient
English Poetry (1765). This was based on an old manuscript
collection of poetry, rescued by Percy in Humphrey Pitt's house
at Shifnal, Shropshire, from the hands of the housemaid who
was about to light the fire with it. The manuscript was edited
in its complete form by J. W. Hales and F. J. Furnivall
in 1867-1868.

See A. C. C. Gaussen, Percy: Prelate and Poet (1908). The
Reliques has been edited by various hands, notably by H. B. Wheat-
ley (1876). The fourth edition was by Percy's nephew, Thomas
Percy (1768-1808), himself a writer of verse.

PERDICCAS, the name of three kings of Macedonia, who
reigned respectively c. 700 B.C., c. 454-413 B.C., and 364-359
B.C., and of one of Alexander the Great's generals, son of Orontes,
a descendant of the independent princes of the province of
Orestis. The last named distinguished himself at the conquest
of Thebes (335 B.C.), and held an important command in the
Indian campaigns of Alexander. In the settlement made after
Alexander's death (323) it was finally agreed that Philip Arrhi-
daeus, an insane son of the great Philip, and Roxana's unborn
child (if a son) should be recognized as joint kings, Perdiccas
being appointed, according to one account, guardian and regent,
according to another, chiliarch under Craterus. He soon showed
himself intolerant of any rivals, and acting in the name of the
two kings (for Roxana gave birth to a son, Alexander IV.)
sought to hold the empire together under his own hand. His
most loyal supporter was Eumenes, governor of Cappadocia
and Paphlagonia. These provinces had not yet been conquered
by the Macedonians, and Antigonus (governor of Phrygia,
Lycia and Pamphylia) refused to undertake the task at the
command of Perdiccas. Having been summoned to the royal
presence to stand his trial for disobedience, Antigonus fled to
Europe and entered into alliance with Antipater, Craterus and
Ptolemy, the son of Lagus. Perdiccas, leaving the war in Asia
Minor to Eumenes, marched to attack Ptolemy in Egypt. He
reached Pelusium, but failed to cross the Nile. A mutiny
broke out amongst the troops, disheartened by failure and
exasperated by his severity, and Perdiccas was assassinated by
some of his officers (321). (E. R. B.)

See MACEDONIAN EMPIRE.

PEREDA, JOSE MARfA DE (1833-1906), one of the most
distinguished of modern Spanish novelists, was born at Polanco
near Santander on the 6th of February 1833. He was educated
at the Institute Cintabro of Santander, whence he went in
1852 to Madrid, where he studied with the vague purpose of
entering the artillery corps. Abandoning this design after
three years' trial, he returned home and began his literary career
by contributing articles to a local journal, La Abeja montanesa
in 1858. He also wrote much in a weekly paper, El Tio Cayetan,
and in 1864 he collected his powerful realistic sketches of local life
and manners under the title of Escenas montanesas. Pereda
fought against the revolution of 1868 in El Tio Cayetan, writing
the newspaper almost single-handed. In 1871 he was elected as
the Carlist deputy for Cabuerniga. In this same year he pub-
lished a second series of Escenas montafiesas under the title of
Tipos y.paisajes; and in 1876 appeared Bocetos al temple,
three tales, in one of which the author describes his disenchanting
political experiences. The Tipos trashumantes belongs to the
year 1877, as does El Buey suelto, which was intended as a reply

to the thesis of Balzac's work, Les Peliles miseres de la vie con-
jugale. More and more pessimistic as to the political future
of his country, Pereda took occasion in Don Gonzalo Gonzalez
de la Gonzalera (1879) to ridicule the Revolution as he had seen
it at work, and to pour scorn upon the nouveaux riches who
exploited Liberalism for their personal ends. Two novels by
his friend P6rez Galdos, Dona Perfecta and Gloria, drew from
Pereda a reply, De Tal palo tal astilla (1880), in which he endea-
vours to show that tolerance in religious matters is disastrous
alike to nations and to individuals. The Esbozos y rasgunos
(1881) is of lighter material, and is less attractive than El Sabor
de la Tierruca (1882), a striking piece of landscape which won
immediate appreciation. New ground was broken in Pedro
Sdnchez (1883), where Pereda leaves his native province to
portray the disillusion of a sincere enthusiast who has plunged
into the political life of the capital. Pereda's masterpiece is
Sotileza (1884), a vigorous rendering of marine life by an artist
who perceives and admires the daily heroisms of his fisher-folk.
It has often been alleged against the author that he confines
himself to provincial life, to lowly personages and to unrefined
subjects, and no doubt an anxiety to clear himself from this
absurd reproach led him to attempt a description of society at
the capital in La Montdlvez (1888), which is certainly the least
interesting of his performances. In La Puchera (1889) he
returned to the marine subjects which he knew and loved best.
Again, in Peftas arriba (1895), the love of country life is mani-
fested in the masterly contrast between the healthy, moral
labour of the fields and the corrupt, squalid life of cities.
Pereda's fame was now established; the statutes of the Spanish
Academy, which require members to reside at Madrid, were
suspended in his favour (1896). But his literary career was
over. The tragic death of his eldest son, the disastrous cam-
paign in Cuba and the Philippines, darkened his closing years,
and his health failed long before his death at Polanco on the
ist of March 1906.

Pereda belongs to the native realistic school of Spain, which,
founded by the unknown author of Lazarillo de Tormes, was
continued by Meteo Aleman, Cervantes, Quevedo, Castillo
Sol6rzano and many others. With the single exception of
Cervantes, however, the picaresque writers are almost entirely
wanting in the spirit of generous sympathy and tenderness
which constitutes a great part of Pereda's charm. His realism
is purely Spanish, as remote from Zola's moroseness as from
the graceful sentimentality of Pierre Loti. Few 19th-century
writers possessed the virile temperament of Pereda, and, with
the single exception of Tolstoy, none kept a moral end more
steadily in view. This didactic tendency unquestionably
injures his effects. Moreover, his grim satire occasionally
degenerates into somewhat truculent caricature, and the exces-
sive use of dialect and technical terms (which caused him to
supply Sotileza with a brief vocabulary) is a grave artistic
blemish. But he saw, knew, understood character; he created
not only types, but living personages, such as Andre's, Cleto
and Muergo in Sotileza, Pedro Juan and Pilara in La Puchera;
and he personified the tumult and calm of the sea with more
power than Victor Hugo displayed in Les Travailleurs de la
mer. His descriptive powers were of the highest order, and
his style, pure of all affectations and embellishments, is of singular
force and suppleness. With all his limitations, he was as
original a genius as Spain produced during the igth century.

(J- F.-K.)

PERE DAVID'S DEER, the mi-lou of the Chinese, an aberrant
and strangely mule-like deer (q.v.), the first evidence of whose
existence was made known in Europe by the Abbe (then Pere)
David, who in 1865 obtained the skin of a specimen from the
herd kept at that time in the imperial park at Pekin. This
skin, with the skull and antlers, was sent to Paris, where it was
described in 1866 by Professor Milne-Edwards. In lacking a brow-
tine, and dividing in a regular fork-like manner some distance
above the burr, the large and cylindrical antlers of this species
conform to the general structural type characteristic of the
American deer. The front prong of the main fork, however,

138

PEREGRINUS PROTEUS— PEREYASLA VI.

curves somewhat forward and again divides at least once; while
the hind prong is of great length undivided, and directed back-
wards in a manner found in no other deer. As regards general
form, the most distinctive feature is the great relative length
of the tail, which reaches the hocks, and is donkey-like rather
than deer-like in form. The head is long and narrow, with a
prominent ridge for the support of the antlers, moderate-sized
ears, and a narrow and pointed muzzle. A gland and tuft are
present on the skin of the outer side of the upper part of the
hind cannon-bone; but, unlike American deer, there is no gland
on the inner side of the hock. Another feature by which this
species differs from the American deer is the conformation of
the bones of the lower part of the fore-leg, which have the same
structure as in the red deer group. The coat is of moderate
length, but the hair on the neck and throat of the old stags is
elongated to form a mane and fringe. Although new-born
fawns are spotted, the adults are in the main uniformly coloured;
the general tint of the coat at all seasons being reddish tawny
with a more or less marked tendency to grey. It has been
noticed at Woburn Abbey that the antlers are shed and replaced
twice a year.

The true home of this cteer has never been ascertained, and
probably never will be; all the few known specimens now living
being kept in confinement — the great majority in the duke of
Bedford's park at Woburn, Bedfordshire. (R. L.*)

PEREGRINUS PROTEUS (2nd cent. A.D.), Cynic philosopher,
of Parium in Mysia. At an early age he was suspected of
parricide, and was obliged to leave his native place. During
his wanderings he reached Palestine, where he ingratiated him-
self with the Christian community, and became its virtual head.
His fanatical zeal and craving for notoriety led to his imprison-
ment, but the governor of Syria let him go free, to prevent his
posing as a martyr. He then returned to Parium to claim his
paternal inheritance, but finding that the circumstances of his
father's death were ndt yet forgotten, he publicly surrendered
all claims to the property in favour of the municipality. He
resumed his wandering life, at first assisted by the Christians,
but having been detected profaning the rites of the Church, he
was excommunicated. During a visit to Egypt he made the
acquaintance of the famous Cynic Agathobulus and joined the
sect. Meeting with little encouragement, he made his way to
Rome, whence he was expelled for insulting the emperor Anto-
ninus Pius. Crossing to Greece, he finally took up his abode
at Athens. Here he devoted himself to the study and teaching
of philosophy, and obtained a considerable number of pupils,
amongst them Aulus Gellius, who speaks of him in very favour-
able terms. But, having given offence by his attacks on Herodes
Atticus and finding his popularity diminishing, he determined
to create a sensation. He announced his intention of immolating
himself on a funeral pyre at the celebration of the Olympian
games in 165, and actually carried it out. Lucian, who was
present, has given a full description of the event.

C. M. Wieland's Geheime Geschichte des Philosophen Peregrinus
Proteus (Eng. trans., 1796) is an attempt to rehabilitate his char-
acter. See also Lucian, De morte Peregrini; Aulus Gellius xii. II;
Ammianus Marcellinus xxix. ; Philostratus, Vit. Soph. ii. I, 33;
J. Bernays, Lucian und die Kyniker (1875) ; E. Zeller, " Alexander
und Peregrinus," in his Vortrdge und Abhandlungen, ii. (1877).

PEREIRE [PEREIRA], GIACOBBO RODRIGUEZ (171.5-

1780), one of the inventors of deaf-mute language, a, member
of* a Spanish- Jewish family, was born at Estremadura, Spain,
on the nth of April 1715. .At the age of eighteen he entered
a business at Bordeaux. Here he fell in love with a young girl
who had been dumb from birth, and henceforth devoted himself
to discover a method of imparting speech to deaf-mutes. His
first subject was Aaron Baumann, a co-religionist, whom he
taught to enunciate the letters of the alphabet, and to articulate
certain ordinary phrases. He next devised a sign alphabet for
the use of one hand only, and in 1 749 he brought his second
pupil before the Paris Academy of Sciences, the members of
which were astonished at the results he had accomplished.
In 1759 Pereire was made a member of the Royal Society of
London. He died at Paris on the isth of September 1780.

PEREKOP, a town of Russia, in the government of Taurida,
60 m. S.E. of Kherson, on the isthmus which connects the Crimea
with the Continent, and commanding the once defensive ditch
and dike which cross from the Black Sea to the Sivash (putrid)
lagoon. Pop. about 5000. It was formerly an important
place, with a great transit trade in salt, obtained from salt
lakes in the immediate neighbourhood. Since the opening of
the railway route from Kharkov to Simferopol in the Crimea
Perekop has greatly declined. In ancient times the isthmus
was crossed (about i£ m. south of the present town) by a ditch
which gave the name of Taphros to a Greek settlement. This
line of defence having fallen into decay, a fort was erected and a
new ditch and dike constructed in the isth century by the
Tatar khan of the Crimea, Mengli Ghirai, and by his son and
successor Sahib Ghirai. The fort, known as Kapu or Or-Kapu,
became the nucleus of the town. In the middle ages Perekop
was known as Tuzla. In 1736 it was captured by the Russians
under Miinnich, and again in 1738 under Lascy (Lacy), who
blew up the fort and destroyed a great part of the dike. In
1754 the fort was rebuilt by Krim Ghirei; but the Greek and
Armenian inhabitants of Perekop formed a new settlement
at Armyanskiy Bazar (Armenian Market), 3 m. farther south.
Captured by the Russians in 1771, the town passed into Russian
possession with the rest of the Crimea in 1783.

PEREMPTORY, an adjective adapted from the Roman law
term peremplorium edictum, peremptoria exceptio, a decree or
plea which put an end to or quashed (Lat. perimere, to destroy)
an action, hence decisive, final. A similar use is found in English
law in " peremptory challenge," a challenge to a jury allowed
to a prisoner without cause shown, or " peremptory mandamus,"
an absolute command. The natural repugnance to a final
order has given this word in its ordinary usage a sense of objec-
tionable and intolerant emphasis.

PEREYASLA VL, a town of Russia, in the government of
Poltava, 26 m. S.E. of the city of Kiev, at the confluence of
the Trubezh and the Alta, which reach the Dnieper 5 m. lower
down at the town's port, the village of Andrushi. Pop. 14,609.
Besides the town proper there are three considerable suburbs.
Though founded in 993 by Vladimir the Great of Moscow in
memory of his signal success over the Turkish Pechenegs,
Pereyaslavl has now few remains of antiquity. The town has
a trade in grain, salt, cattle and horses, and some manufactures
— tallow, wax, tobacco, candles and shoes.

From 1054 Pereyaslavl was the chief town of a separate
principality. As a southern outpost it often figures in the nth,
1 2th and i3th centuries, and was plundered by the Mongols
in 1239. In later times it was one of the centres of the Cossack
movement; and in 1628 the neighbourhood of the town was the
scene of the extermination of the Polish forces known as " Tara's
Night." It was by the Treaty of Pereyaslavl that in 1654
the Cossack chieftain Bogdan Chmielnicki acknowledged the
supremacy of Tsar Alexis of Russia.

PEREYASLAVL (called Zalyeskiy, or " Beyond the Forest,"
to distinguish it from the older town in Poltava after which
it was named), one of the oldest and most interesting cities in
middle Russia, situated in the government of Vladimir, 45 m.
N.E. of Moscow on the road to Yaroslavl, and on both banks
of the Trubezh near its entrance into Lake Pleshcheevo. Pop.
8662. Pereyaslavl was formerly remarkable for the number
and importance of its ecclesiastical foundations. Among
those still standing are the 1 2th-century cathedral, with ancient
wall-paintings and the graves of Demetrius, son of Alexander
Nevsky, and other princes, and a church founded by Eudoxia
(Euphrosyne), wife of Demetrius Donskoi, in the close of
the I4th century. It is by its extensive cotton manufactures
that Pereyaslavl is now best known. The fisheries in the
lake (20 m. sq. in extent and 175 ft. deep) have long been of
great value.

Founded in 1152 by Yuryi Dolgoruki, prince of Suzdal,
Pereyaslavl soon began to play a considerable part in the history
of the country. From 1193 till* 1302 it had princes of its own;
and the princes of Moscow, to whom it was at the latter date

PEREZ, A.— PEREZ GALDOS

139

beaueathed, kept it (apart from some temporary alienations
in the I4th century) as part of their patrimony throughout
the i sth and i6th centuries. Lake Pleshcheevo was the scene
of Peter the Great's first attempts (1691) at creating a fleet.

PEREZ, ANTONIO (c. 1540-1611), for some years the favourite
minister of Philip II. of Spain and afterwards for many more the
object of his unrelenting hostility, was by birth an Aragonese.
His reputed father, Gonzalo Perez, an ecclesiastic, has some place
in history as having been secretary both to Charles V. and to
Philip II., and in literature as author of a Spanish translation
of the Odyssey ( La Ulyxea de Homero, Antwerp, 1556). Antonio
Perez, who was legitimated by an imperial diploma issued at
Valladolid in 1542, was, however, believed by many to be in
reality the son of Philip's minister, Ruy Gomez de SUva, prince
of Eboli, to whom, on the completion of a liberal education at
home and abroad, he appears at least to have owed his first
introduction to a diplomatic career.1 In 1567 he became
one of the secretaries of state, receiving also about the same
time the lucrative appointment of protonotary of Sicily, and in
1573 the death of Ruy Gomez himself made room for Perez's
promotion to be head of the " despacho universal," or private
bureau, from which Philip attempted to govern by assiduous
correspondence the affairs of his vast dominions. Another of
the king's secretaries at this time, though in a less confidential
relation, was a friend and contemporary of Perez, named Juan
de Escovedo, who, however, after the fall of Tunis in 1574, was
sent off to supersede Juan de Soto as secretary and adviser of
Don John of Austria, thus leaving Perez without a rival. Some
time after Don John's appointment to the governorship of the
Netherlands Perez accidentally became cognisant of his incon-
veniently ambitious " empresa de Inglaterra," in which he was
to rescue Mary Queen of Scots, marry her, and so ascend the
throne of England. The next step might even be against Spain
itself. This secret scheme the faithful secretary at once carried
to Philip, who characteristically resolved to meet it by quietly
removing his brother's aider and abettor. With the king's full
cognisance, accordingly, Perez, after several unsuccessful
attempts to poison Escovedo, succeeded in procuring his assas-
sination in a street of Madrid on the 3ist of March 1578. The
immediate effect was to raise Perez higher than ever in the royal
confidence and favour, but, wary though the secretary had been,
he had not succeeded in obliterating all trace of his connexion
with the crime, and very soon a prosecution was set on foot by
the representatives of the murdered man. For a time Philip
was both willing and able to protect his accomplice, but ulti-
mately he appears to have listened to those who, whether truly
or falsely, were continually suggesting that Perez had had
motives of his own, arising out of his relations with the princess
of Eboli, for compassing the assassination of Don John's secre-
tary; be this as it may, from trying to screen Perez the king
came to be the secret instigator of those who sought his ruin.
The process, as such matters often have been in Spain, was a
slow one, and it was not until 1589 that Perez, after more than
one arrest and imprisonment on a variety of charges, seemed
on the eve of being convicted and condemned as the murderer
of Escovedo. At this juncture he succeeded in making his escape
from prison in Castile into Aragon, where, under the ancient
" fueros " of the kingdom he could claim a public trial in open
court, and so bring into requisition the documentary evidence
he possessed of the king's complicity in the deed. This did not
suit Philip, who, although he instituted a process in the supreme
tribunal of Aragon, speedily abandoned it and caused Perez
to be attacked from another side, the charge of heresy being
now preferred, arising put of certain reckless and even blasphe-

1 On the other hand it is suggested that this story of his being
the son of Gomez was only circulated by Ruy Gomez's wife, Ana
de Mendoza, as a refutation of the possibility of a supposed amour
between her and Perez. It is contended by Mignet that this
intrigue between her and Perez was known to Escovedo, and that
this accounts for the part played by Perez in Escovedo's murder,
because Ana had also been Philip's mistress, and Escovedo might
have made mischief between Philip and Perez. Major Hume
appears to combine the latter theory with Philip's political objection
to Escovedo.

mous expressions Perez had used in connexion with his troubles
in Castile. But all attempts to remove the accused from the
civil prison in Saragossa to that of the Inquisition raised popular
tumults, which in the end led to Perez's escape across the
Pyrenees, but unfortunately also furnished Philip with a pretext
for sending an army into Aragon and suppressing the ancient
" fueros " altogether (1591). From the court of Catherine de
Bourbon, at Pau, where he was well received, Perez passed to
that of Henry IV. of France, and both there and in England his
talents and diplomatic experience, as well as his well-grounded
enmity to Philip, secured him much popularity. While in
England he became the " intimate coach-companion and bed-
companion " of Francis Bacon, and was also much in the society
of the earl of Essex. The peace of Vervins hi 1598 greatly
reduced his apparent importance abroad, and Perez now tried
to obtain the pardon of Philip III., that he might return to his
native country. His efforts, however, proved vain, and he died
in comparative obscurity in Paris on the 3rd of November
1611.

Perez's earliest publication was a small cjuarto, dedicated to the
earl of Essex, written and apparently printed in England about
1594, entitled Pedazos de historia, and professedly published at
Leon. A Dutch translation appeared in 1594, and in 1598 he pub-
lished his Relaciones, including the Memorial del hecho de su causa,
drawn up in 1590, and many of his letters. Much has been done,
by Mignet (Antonio Perez et Philippe II., 1845; 4th ed., 1874) and
by Froude (" An Unsolved Historical Riddle," Nineteenth Cent.,
1883) among others, towards the elucidation of various difficult
points in Perez's somewhat perplexing story. For the murder of
Escovedo, see Andrew Lang's discussion of it in his Historical
Mysteries (1904) ; and the Espanoles e ingleses (1903) of Major
Martin Hume, who had access to various newly discovered MSS.

PEREZ GALDOS, BENITO (1845- ), was born at Las
Palmas, in the Canary Islands, on the loth of May 1845. In
1863 he was sent to Madrid to study law, drifted into literature,
and was speedily recognized as one of the most promising recruits
on the Liberal side. Shortly after the Revolution of 1868 he
abandoned journalism, and employed fiction as the vehicle for
propagating advanced opinions. His first novel, La Fontana
de oro, was printed in 1871, and later in the same year appeared
El Audaz. The reception given to these early essays encouraged
the writer to adopt novel-writing as a profession. He had al-
ready determined upon the scheme of his Episodios nacionales,
a series which might compare with the Comedie humaine. Old
charters, old letters, old newspapers were collected by him with
the minuteness of a German archivist; no novelist was ever more
thoroughly equipped as regards the details of his period. Tra-
falgar, the first volume of the Episodios nacionales, appeared
in 1879; the remaining books of this first series are entitled
La Cort de Carlos IV., El 19 de marzo y el 2 de mayo, BaiUn,
Napoledn en Chamartin, Zaragoza, Gerona, Cadiz, Juan Martin
el Empecinado and La Batalla de A r piles. As the titles suffice
to show, the author's aim was to write the national epic of the
igth century in prose; and he so completely succeeded that,
long before the first series ended in 1881, he took rank among
the foremost novelists of his time. A second series of Episodios
nacionales, beginning with El Equipaje del rey Jose and ending
with a tenth volume, Un Faccioso mas y algunas frailes menos,
was brought to a close in 1883, and was, like its predecessor,
a monument of industry and exact knowledge, of jrealism
and romantic conception; and he carried on the Episodios
nacionales into a fourth series, raising the total of volumes to
forty. In fecundity and in the power of creating characters,
Perez Galdos vies with Balzac. Parallel with his immense
achievement in historical fiction, P6rez Galdos published
a collection of romances dealing with contemporary life,
its social problems and religious difficulties. Of these the
best known, and perhaps the best, are Dona Perfecta (1876);
Gloria (1877) ; La Familia de Ledn Roch (1878) ; Marianela (1878) ;
Fortunata y Jacinta (1887); and Angel Guerra (1891). Nor
does this exhaust his prodigious activity. Besides adapting
several of his novels for stage purposes, he wrote original dramas
such as La Loca de la casa (1893), San Quintin (1894), Electra
(1900) and Mariucha (1904); but his diffuse, exuberant genius

140

PERFUMERY

was scarcely accommodated to the convention of theatrical
form. Perez Gald6s became a member of the Spanish Academy,
and was also elected to the Cortes; but it is solely as a ro-
mancer that his name is familiar wherever Spanish is spoken,
as a national novelist of fertile talent, and a most happy
humorist who in his eccentrics and oddities is hardly inferior
to Dickens. (J- F.-K.)

PERFUMERY (Lat. per, through, anidfumare, to smoke), the
preparation of perfumes, or substances which are pleasing to
the sense of smell. Perfumes may be divided into two classes, the
first of which includes all primitive or simple odoriferous bodies
derived from the animal or vegetable kingdom, as well as the
definite chemical compounds specially manufactured, while
the second comprises the various " bouquets " or " melanges "
made by blending two or more of the foregoing in varying
proportions — toilet powders, dentifrices, sachets, &c. To the
former class belong (i) the animal products, ambergris, castor,
civet, musk; (2) the essential oils (also called attars), mostly
procured by the distillation of the stems, leaves, flowers and other
parts of plants; (3) the philicome butters or oils, which are
either solid or liquid fats charged with odours by the processes
of inflowering or maceration; (4) the odoriferous gum-resins or
balsams which exude naturally or from wounds in the trunks of
various trees and shrubs, such as benzoin, opoponax, Peru, Tolu,
storax, myrrh; (5) the large number of synthetic perfumes
which simulate the odour of the natural scents. The second
class contains the endless combination of tinctures sold under
fancy names which may or may not afford a clue to their compo-
sition, such as " comedie francaise," "eau de senteur," " eau de
Cologne," " lavendre ambree," " blumengeist." In general,
they are mixtures of a number of perfumes dissolved in alcohol.
Strictly speaking, most of the perfumes on the market belong to
the second class, since, in most cases, they are prepared by
blending various natural or artificial odorous principles.

Natural Perfumes. — The animal perfumes are extremely
limited in number. Ambergris (q.v.), one of the most important,
is secreted by the sperm whale; musk (q.v.), the best known
scent of this class, is secreted by the male musk-deer and other
animals — musk-ox, musk-rat, &c.; civet (q.v.) is a musky scent
named from the animal which secretes it; and castor or castoreum
is a somewhat similar secretion of the beaver (q.v.). More
important are the scents yielded by flowering plants. As a
general rule fragrant flowers flourish in hot climates, but the more
delicate perfumes are yielded by plants having a colder habitat ;
it must be remembered, however, that some costly perfumes
are obtained from the plants of Ceylon, the East Indies, Mexico
and Peru. In Europe, Grasse, Cannes and Nice are the centres
of the natural perfume industry. Cannes is famous for its rose,
acacia, jasmine and neroli oil; Nlmes for its thyme, rosemary
and lavender; and Nice for its violets. Citron and orange oil
come from Sicily; iris and bergamot from Italy; and roses are
extensively cultivated in Bulgaria, and in European Turkey.
England is unsurpassed for its lavender and peppermint, which
flourish at Mitcham and Hitchin.

The natural sources of the attars or essential oils are the
different parts of the plants which yield them — the wood (lign,
aloe, santal, cedar), the bark (cinnamon, cascarilla), the leaves
(patchouli, bay, thyme), the flowers (rose, lavender, orange-
blossom), the fruit (nutmeg, citron), or the seeds (caraway,
almond). Some plants yield more than one, such as lemon and
bergamot. They are mostly obtained by distilling that part
of the plant in which they are contained with water, or with high-
pressure or superheated steam; but some few, as those from the
rind of bergamot (from Citrus bergamia), lemon (citron zeste,
from C. Limonum), lime (C. Limetta), by " expression." The
outer layer of the cortex is rasped off from the unripe fruits,
the raspings placed in a canvas bag, and squeezed in a screw
or hydraulic press. The attars so obtained are separated from
the admixed water by a tap-funnel, and are then filtered.
Certain flowers, such as jasmine, tuberose, violet, cassia, either
do not yield their attars by distillation at all, or do it so sparingly
as not to admit of its collection for commercial purposes; and

sometimes the attar, as in the case of orange (neroli), has an
odour quite different from that of the fresh blossoms. In these
cases the odours are secured by the processes of inflowering
(enfleurage) or by maceration. Both depend upon the remark-
able property which fats and oils possess of absorbing odours.
Enfleurage consists in laying the leaves or flowers on plates
covered with a layer of fat. The flowers are renewed every
morning, and when the fat has sufficient odour it is scraped off,
melted and strained. Maceration consists in soaking the flowers
in heated fat ; in due time they are strained off and replaced by
fresh ones, as in the enfleurage process. The whole of the
necessary meltings and heatings of the perfumed greases are
effected by means of water-baths, whereby the temperature
is kept from rising too high. For the manufacture of perfumes
for the handkerchief the greases now known as pomades, butters
or philocomes are treated with rectified spirit of wine 60° over-
proof, i.e. containing as much as 95% of absolute alcohol by
volume, which practically completely abstracts the odour.

The gum-resins and resins have been employed as perfumes
from the earliest times. The more important are incense,
frankincense and myrrh (q.v.). They are largely used in the
manufacture of perfumes, both for burning as pastilles, ribbon
of Bruges, incenses, &c., and in tinctures, to which they impart
their characteristic odours, affording, at the same time, a certain
fixity to other perfumes of a more fleeting nature when mixed
with them.

Synthetic Perfumes. — Under this heading are included all
perfumes in which artificial substances are odorous ingredients.
Although the earliest perfumes of this class were introduced in
about the middle of the igth century, the important industry
which now prevails is to be regarded as dating from the 'seventies
and 'eighties. Three main lines of development may be dis-
tinguished: (i) the chance discovery of substances which have
odours similar to natural perfumes; (2) the elucidation of the
composition of the natural scents, and the chemical constitution
of their ingredients, followed by the synthetic preparation of
the substances so determined; and (3), which may be regarded
as connected with (2), the extraction and separation of the
essential oils yielded by less valuable plants, and their reblending
to form marketable perfumes.

The first synthetic perfume was the " essence of Mirbane "
introduced by Collas in about 1850; this substance was the
nitro-benzene discovered by E. Mitscherlich in 1834. Soon after-
wards many esters of the fatty acids simulating the odours of
fruits were introduced; and in 1888 Baur discovered the " arti-
ficial musks," which are derivatives of s-trinitrobenzene. The
above are instances of the first line of progress. The second line
has for early examples the cases of artificial oil of wintergreen,
which followed Cahour's discovery that the natural oil owed its
odour, in the main, to methyl salicylate, and of artificial oil of
bitter almonds which followed the preparation of benzaldehyde
from benzal chloride in 1868. The synthesis of coumarin, the
odorous principle of hay and woodruff, by Sir W. H. Perkin in
1868; of vanillin, the odorous principle of vanilla, by F. Tiemann
and W. Haarmann in 1875; and of ionone, almost identical
with the natural irone, the odorous principle of violets, by
Tiemann and P. Kriiger in 1898, are to be regarded as of the
highest importance. Equally important are the immense
strides made in the elucidation of the constitution and syntheses
of the terpenes (q.v.), a group of compounds which are exception-
ally abundant as odorous principles in the essential oils.

The present state of our knowledge does not permit a strict
correlation of odour and chemical constitution. One theory
regards odour as due to " osmophores," or odour-producing
groups, in much the same way as colour is associated with
chromophores. Such osmophores are hydroxyl (OH), aldehyde
(CHO), ketone (CO), ether (-O-), nitrile (CN), nitro (N02), &c.;
we may also notice the isonitrile group (-NG) associated with an
unpleasant odour, and the iso-thiocyanate group (-NCS) to
which the mustard oils owe their characteristic smell. The same
group, however, is not invariably associated with the same odour,
or even any odour at all, as, for instance, in such closely related

PERFUMERY

141

compounds as the members of a homologous series. For
example, the lower fatty aldehydes have unpleasant odours,
those with ten carbon atoms (and also double linkages, which
in itself may affect odour) form some of the most delicate scents,
while the higher members are odourless. The absence of odour
in the higher members may be possibly associated with the low
volatility exhibited by compounds of high molecular weight.
Certain osmophores have practically equal effects; for example,
benzaldehyde, nitrobenzene, benzonitrile, and phenyl azoimide
have practically identical odours, and among the " artificial
musks," a nitro group may be replaced by the azoimido group
without the odour being modified. As a general rule, homologues
have similar odours, but many exceptions are known. For
example the methyl and ethyl ethers of /3-naphthol have the
odour of neroli; on the other hand, of the esters of anthranilic
acid, the methyl has the odour of orange blossoms, the ethyl
has a slight odour, and the isobutyl is odourless. The introduc-
tion of a methyl group into the benzene ring generally involves
little or no change in odour; but when it (and more especially
higher alkyl radicals) is introduced into side chains the odour
may be entirely changed. For example, benzene and its
homologues have similar odours; phthalide is odourless, but the
isopropyl and butyl phthalides, in which substitution occurs in
the side chain, smell of celery. Especially characteristic are
the derivatives of phenylacetylene. This hydrocarbon is
distinctly unpleasant; on the other hand, para-ethyl and para-
methyl phenylacetylene smell of anise. While the triply-linked
carbon system is generally associated with strong and unpleasant
odours, the doubly linked system gives pleasant ones. Thus the
unpleasant phenylacetylene, C6H5-C:CH, is contrasted with
styrolene, CeH6-CH:CH2, which occurs in storax, and phenyl-
propiolic aldehyde with cinnamic aldehyde, CeHs-CHiCH-CHO,
which occurs in cassia and cinnamon. The reduction of a
double to a single linkage may not destroy odour. Thus
hydrocinnamic aldehyde, the reduction product of cinnamic
aldehyde, smells of jasmine and lilac, and melilotin, which occurs
in yellow melilot (Melilotus officinalis), has the same odour
(woodruff) as its oxidation product coumarin. The orientation
of the substituent groups in the benzene nucleus also affects
odour. In general, the meta compounds are odourless, while
the ortho and para may have odour. Thus />-methoxyaceto-
phenone has a pleasant odour, the meta compound is odourless,
0-aminoacetophenone, o-aminobenzaldehyde, and o-nitrophenol
have strong odours, while the meta and para bodies are odourless.
Of the three trinitrobenzenes only the symmetrical form gives
origin to perfumes.

The concentration and even the solvent has considerable
effect on the odour of a substance. Many of the artificial
principles — vanillin, heliotropine, ionone, &c. — have very
different odours in strong and in dilute solution; phenyl acetic
acid and /3-naphthylamine are odourless when solid, but have
disagreeable odours when dissolved. Traces of impurities
often have the effect of making odourless or pleasant- smelling
compounds quite intolerable. Acetylene as generated from
calcium carbide, and carbon disulphide prepared from its
elements are quite intolerable, though when pure they are, at
least, not unpleasant; artificial benzaldehyde must be very care-
fully purified before it can be used in the preparation of the more
delicate scents. In all cases the natural scents are complex
mixtures of many ingredients, and a variation hi the amount of
any one may completely alter the scent. Such mixtures would
be difficult to reproduce economically; the perfumer is content
with a product having practically an identical odour, with or
without the natural substance which it is designed to compete
with.

We now give an account of the artificial scents, principally
arranged according to their chemical relations. The fatty esters
are interesting as providing many of the fruit essences; in fact, by
appropriate blending, any fruit odour can be reproduced. Their
use, however, is inhibited by the fact that they irritate the re-
spiratory organs, producing coughing and headaches. Isobutyl
carbinol acetic ester (amyl acetate), (CH3)2-CH-CH2-CH2-OC-CH3,
forms when in dilute alcoholic solution the artificial pear oil; a
similar odour is possessed by isoamyl-n-butyrate, Cs

»-Octyl acetate, C8H,7-O2C-CH3, has the odour of oranges. Isoamyl
propionate, C6Hii-OjC-C2H6, and ethyl-n-butyrate, C3H7-O2C-C2H,i(
have the odour of pineapple, the latter constituting the artificial
pineapple oil of commerce. Isoamyl isovalerate, C6Hn-O2C-C4H,,
is the artificial apple oil. Of the fatty ketones, methyl nonyl
ketone, CH3-CO-C9Hi9, which is the scent of oil of rue, and methyl-
ethyl acetone, CH3-CO-CH(CH3) (C2H6), which has the odour of
peppermint, receive commercial application. Of exceptional im-
portance in the chemistry of perfumes are the unsaturated open
chain compounds containing at least eight carbon atoms. These
are chemically considered, along with the related cyclic compounds,
in the article TERPENES; here we notice their odours and occurrence
in perfumes. Of the alcohols, /-linalol occurs in oil of lavender,
bergamot, limet and origanum; d-linalol in coriander; citronellol
and geraniol in rose, geranium and pelargonium oils. Of the
aldehydes, citral or geranial has the odour of lemons; citronellal
is the chief constituent of citronella oil. By condensing citral with
acetone and treating the product with dilute sulphuric acid, the
valuable violet substitute ionone results. This substance is a
hydroaromatic ketone, and closely resembles the natural principle
irone. By successive treatment with acetic anhydride (to form
isopulegol), oxidation to isopulegone, and treatment with baryta
citronellal yields the cyclic compound pulegone, the chief constituent
of oil of pennyroyal. The olefinic terpenes are generally convertible
into methyl heptenone, (CH3)2C :CH(CH2)2-CO-CH3, which has been
synthesized from sodium acetonylacetone and amylene dibromide;
this ketone occurs in several essential oils, and has the odour of
rue. For the occurrence of cyclic terpenes in the essential oils
reference should be made to the table below, which contains the
names, sources and chief ingredients of the more important essential
oils.1 The terpenes are printed in italics, the aliphatic and benzenoid
compounds in ordinary type.

Name of Oil.

Source.

Constituents.

Anise

Pimpinella anisum

Anethole, estragole.

Bay . . .

Pimento, acris

Eugenol, methyl eugenol,

chavicol, estragole.twyrcene,

Bergamot .

Citrus bergamia

phellandrene.
Linalol, linalyl acetate, d-

limonene, bergaptene.

Cajaput .

Melaleuca, sp.

/-•• i
Lineol.

Cassia .

Cinnamonum cassia

Cinnamic aldehyde, cinnamy 1

acetate.

Caraway

Carum carvi

Carvone, A-limonene.

Camphor

Cinnamonum camphor

A-Pinene, phellandrene, terpi-

neol, eugenol, safrole.

Chamomile .

Anthemis nobilis

Isobutyl and isoamyl esters

of angelic and tigh'c acids.

Cinnamon .

Cinnamonum Zeylani-

Cinnamic aldehyde.

cum

Clove . .

Eugenia caryophyllata

Eugenol.

Coriander .

Coriandum sativum

Linalol.

Cumin .
Eucalyptus .

Cuminum cymium
Eucalyptus globulus

Cumic aldehyde, cymene.
Cineol, A-pinene, and fatty

aldehydes.

Fennel .

Foeniculum vulgare

Anethole, fenchone, A-pinene.

Geranium .

Andropogon schoen-

Geraniol, citronellol.

anthus

Jasmine .

Jasminum grandi-

Methyl anthranilate, indol,

florum

benzyl alcohol, benzyl ace-

tate, linalol, linalyl acetate.

Lavender .

Lavendula vera

Linalol, \-linalyl acetate.

Lemon .

Citrus limonum

Limonene, phellandrene, citral.

citronellal, geranyl acetate,

linalol.

Lemon-grass

Andropogon citratus

Citral.

Neroli . .

Citrus bigardia

\-Linalol, geraniol, limonene,

methyl anthranilate.

Orange .

Citrus aurantium

A-Limonene.

Peppermint.

Mentha piperita

Menthol, menthyl acetate and

valerate.

Pine-needle .

Pinus syhestris

A-Pinene, A-syhestrene.

Rose .

Rosa damascena

Geraniol, \-citronellol.

Rose. . .

Pelargonium odoratis

Geraniol, citronellol.

Geranium .

semum

Rosemary .

Rosamarinus officina-

Pinene, camphene, camphor,

lis

cineol, borneol.

Sage .

Salvia officinalis

Pinene, cineol, thujone, borneol.

Sassafras
Spearmint .

Sassafras officinalis
Mentha viridis

Safrole.
l-Linalol, \-carvone.

Star anise .

Illicium anisatum

Anethole.

Tansy

Tanacetum vulgare

Thujone.

Thyme .

Thymus vulgaris

Thymol.

Wormwood .

Artemisia absinthum

Thujone and thujyl esters.

Ylang-ylang

Cananga odorata

l-Linalol, geraniol.

1 See J. B. Cohen, Organic Chemistry, p. 532 ; or J, Parry, Chemistry

of Perfumes (1908).

142

PERGA— PERGAMUM

The chief benzenoid compounds used as perfumes are aldehydes,
oxyaldehydes, phenols and phenol ethers. Benzaldehyde has the
odour of almonds, cinnamic aldehyde of cinnamon, and cumin
aldehyde gives the odour to cumin oil. Of oxyaldehydes salicyl-
aldehyde gives the odour to spiraea oil, and vanillin is the active
ingredient of vanilla (q.v.). Anisaldehyde smells like hawthorn,
and is extensively used under the name aubepine for scenting soaps
and extracts. Carvacrol and thymol are isomeric methyl propyl
phenols; both have the odour of thyme. Of phenol ethers eugenol
(allyl guaiacol) has the odour of cloves, and anethole (allyl phenyl
methyl ether) is the chief constituent of anise oil, being chiefly used
in the manufacture of liqueurs. Several piperonyl compounds are
of commercial importance. The aldehyde, CHs[O]2:C6H3'CHO(i, 2 ,4),
piperonal, has the odour of heliotrope; an allyl derivative,
safrole CH2[O]j:C6Hs-CnH6(i,2,4), occurs in sassafras, while apiole
or dimethoxy safrole has the odour of parsley oil. Of other syn-
thetic perfumes amyl salicylate is used under the names of orchtdee
or trefol as the basis of many perfumes, in particular of clover
scents; methyl anthranilate occurs in the natural neroli and other
oils, and has come into considerable use in the preparation of arti-
ficial bergamot, neroli, jasmine and other perfumes (the Trolene,
Marceol and Amanthol of the Aclien Gesellschaft fur Anilin Fabrika-
tion have this substance as a base); the " artificial _ musks " are
derivatives of i-trinitrobenzene ; coumarin is the principle of wood-
ruff; and 0-naphthol methyl ether is used for the preparation of
artificial neroli.

The Odophone. — The most important element in the perfumer's
art is the blending of the odorous principles to form a mixture
which gratifies the sense of smell. Experience is the only guide.
It is impossible to foretell the odour of a mixture from the odours
of its components. Septimus Piesse endeavoured to show that
a certain scale or gamut existed amongst odours as amongst sounds,
taking the sharp smells to correspond with high notes and the heavy
smells with low. He illustrated the idea by classifying some fifty
odours in this manner, making each to correspond with a certain
note, one-half in each clef, and extending above and below the
lines. For example, treble clef note E (4th space) corresponds
with Portugal (orange), note D (ist space below clef) with violet,
note F (4th space above clef) with ambergris. It is readily noticed
in practice that ambergris is much sharper in smell (higher), than
violet, while Portugal is intermediate. He asserted that properly
to constitute a bouquet the odours to be taken should correspond
in the gamut like the notes of a musical chord — one false note
among the odours as among the music destroying the harmony.
Thus on his odophone, santal, geranium, acacia, orange-flower,
camphor, corresponding with C (bass 2nd line below), C (bass
2nd space), E (treble 1st line), G (treble 2nd line), C (treble 3rd
space), constitute the bouquet of chord C.

Other Branches of Perfumery. — As a natural outcome of the
development of the perfume industry, scented articles for toilet
and other uses are now manufactured in large quantities. Soaps,
toilet powders, tooth powders, hair-washes, cosmetics generally,
and note-paper have provided material on which the perfumer
works. For the preparation of scented soaps two methods are in
use; both start with a basis either of fine yellow soap (which owes
its odour and colour to the presence of resin), or of curd soap (which
is hard, white and odourless, and is prepared without resin). In
one process the soap is melted by superheated steam, and while
still hot and semi-fluid mixed by means of a stirrer of wood with
iron cross-bar, technically called a " crutch," with the attars and
colouring matter. It is then removed from the melting pan to
a rectangular iron mould or box, the sides of which can be removed
by unscrewing the tie-rods which hold them in position; when
cold the mass is cut into slabs and bars with a thin brass wire.
In the other or cold process the soap is first cut into chips or shavings
by a plane or " chipping machine," then the colouring matters are
added and thoroughly incorporated by passing the soap between
rollers; the tinted soap emerges in a continuous sheet but little
thicker than paper. The perfumes are then added, and after
standing for about twelve hours the soap is again sent through the
rolling machine. It is next transferred to a bar-forming machine,
from which it emerges as a continuous bar almost as hard as wood.
Soap thus worked contains less than 10% of water; that prepared
by melting contains 20 and even 30%. The amount of perfume
added depends upon its nature, and amounts usually to about
7 or 8%. Thej finest soaps are always manufactured by the cold
process.

Toilet Powders are of various sorts. They consist of rice-starch or
wheat-starch, with powdered orris-root in varying proportions, and
with or without the addition of zinc oxide, bismuth oxide or French
chalk. The constituent powders, after the addition of the perfume,
are thoroughly incorporated and mixed by sifting through a fine
sieve. Violet powder for the nursery should consist entirely of
powdered violet root (Iris florentina), from the odour of which the
powder is named. _It is of a yellowish tint, soft and pleasant to
the touch. The white common so-called " violet powders " consist
of starch scented with bergamot, and are in every sense inferior.

Tooth Powders consist for the most part of mixtures of powdered
orris-root with precipitated chalk, and some other constituent
destined to particularize it as to properties or flavour, such as

charcoal, finely pulverized pumice, quassia, sugar, camphor, &c.
The perfume of the contained orris-root is modified, if required, by
the addition of a little of some perfume. Tooth Pastes are formed
of the same constituents as the powders, and are worked into a
paste by the addition of a little honey or glucose syrup, which sub-
stances are usually believed ultimately to have an injurious effect
on the teeth.

Perfume Sachets consist either of a powder composed of a mixture
of vanilla, musk, Tonqua beans, &c., one or other predominating
as required, contained in an ornamental silk sac; or of some of the
foregoing substances spread upon card or chamois leather or flannel
after being made into a paste with mucilage and a little glycerin.
When dry the card so prepared is daintily covered with various
parti-coloured silks for sale. Where the ingredients employed in
their manufacture are of good quality these cards, known as peau
d'Espagne " sachets, retain their odour unimpaired for years.

Adulterations. — There is, as might be expected, considerable
scope for the adulteration of the " matieres premieres " employed
in perfumery. Thus, in the case of musk, the " pods " are fre-
quently found to be partially emptied of the grain, which has been
replaced by hide or skin, while the weight has been increased by the
introduction of lead, &c. In other instances the fraud consists in
the admixture of refuse grain, from which the odour has been ex-
hausted with spirit, with dried blood, and similar substances, whilst
pungency is secured by the addition of ammonium carbonate.
Attar of rose is diluted with attar of Palnta rosa, a variety of
geranium of only a quarter or a fifth of the value. The main
adulterant of all the natural essential oils, however, is castor oil.
This is a bland neutral body, practically odourless, and completely
soluble in alcohol; it therefore presents all the requisites for the
purpose.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — See generally, J. C. Sawyer, Odorographia, vol. i.
(1892), vol. ii. (1894) ; G. W. Askinson, Perfumes (Eng. trans, by Isidor
Fiirst, 1892); S. Piesse, Art of Perfumery (1891); Paul Hubert,
Plantes d parfumes (1909); M. Otto, L' Industrie des parfums (1909).
Synthetic perfumes are treated in detail in C. Deite, Manual of
Toilet Soap-making (Eng. trans, by S. I. King, 1905), and in E. J.
Parry, Chemistry of the Essential Oils and Artificial Parfumes (2nd
ed., 1908). Reference may also be made to T. Koller, Cosmetics
(1902). The standard works on the essential oils are given in the
article OILS. G. Cohn, Die Riechsto/e (1904), treats the chemistry,
and Zwaardemaker, Physiologic des Geruchs (1895), the physiology
of perfumes. See also the reports and bulletins of Schimmel & Co.
and Rouse Bertrand et Fils.

PERGA (mod. Murtana), an ancient city of Pamphylia,
situated about 8 m. inland, at the junction of a small stream
(Sari Su) with the Cestrus. It was a centre of native influences
as contrasted with the Greek, which were predominant in
Attalia, and it was a great seat of the worship of " Queen "
Artemis, here represented as a human-headed cone and a purely
Anatolian nature goddess. There Paul and Barnabas began
their first mission in Asia Minor (Acts ix. 13). A much
frequented route into Phrygia and the Maeander valley began at
Perga, and Alexander made it the starting-point of his invasion
of inner Asia Minor. Long the metropolis of Pamphylia Secunda,
it was superseded in Byzantine times by its port, Attalia, which
became a metropolis in 1084. The extensive ruins all He in
the plain south of the Acropolis. The walls are well preserved,
but of late Roman or Byzantine reconstruction. The lines of
intersecting streets can be easily made out, and there are ruins
of two sets of baths, two basilicas and a forum. But the most
notable monument is the theatre, which lies outside the walls
on the south-west, near the stadium. This is as perfect as those
of Myra and Patara, but larger than either, and yields the palm
only to those of Aspendus and Side. Modern Murtana is a large
village, long under the dominion of the Dere Beys of the Tekke
Oglu family.

See C. Lanckoronski, Villes de la Pamphylie et de la Pisidie,
vol. i. (1890); Sir W. M. Ramsay, Church in the Roman Empire
(1893). ^ (D. G. H.)

PERGAMENEOUS (Lat. pergamena, parchment), a technical
term used of anything of the texture of parchment, as in zoology
of the wing-covers of insects.

PERGAMUM, or PERGAMUS (mod. Bergama), an ancient city
of Teuthrania, a district in Mysia. It is usually named Heprfafiov
by Greek writers, but Ptolemy has the form Hepyanos. The
name, which is related to the German burg, is appropriate to the
situation on a lofty isolated hill in a broad fertile valley, less
than 15 m. from the mouth of the Calais. According to the
belief of its inhabitants, the town was founded by Arcadian
colonists, led by Telephus, son of Heracles. Auge, mother of

PERGAMUM

PLATE I.

THE NORTH WING, WEST AND SOUTH SIDES.

THE SOUTH WING, WEST AND SOUTH SIDES.

THE GREAT ALTAR OF ZEUS, FROM THE NORTH-WEST, AS SET UP IN THE KAISER FRIEDRICH MUSEUM, BERLIN.

XXI ;. From photographs by W. Titzenthaler, Berlin.

PLATE II.

PERGAMUM

NORTH, SOUTH, EAST, AND WEST SIDES OF THE GREAT ALTAR OF ZEUS.

Ftom photographs by W. Titzcnthaler, Berlin.

PERGOLA— PERGOLESI, G. B.

Telephus, was priestess of Athena Alea at Tegea, and daughter
of Aleus; fleeing from Tegea, she became the wife of Teuthras,
the eponymous king of Teuthrania, and her son Telephus
succeeded him. Athena Polias was the patron-goddess of
Pergamum, and the legend combines the ethnological record of
the connexion claimed between Arcadia and Pergamum with the
usual belief that the hero of the city was son of its guardian
deity, or at least of her priestess. Nothing more is recorded of
the city till the time of Xenophon, when it was a small fortified
town on the summit of the hill; but it had been striking coins
since 420 B.C. at latest. Its importance began under Lysimachus,
who deposited his treasures, 9000 talents, in this strong fortress
under the charge of a eunuch, Philetaerus of Tium. In 283 B.C.
Philetaerus rebelled, Lysimachus died without being able to
put down the revolt, and Pergamum became the capital of a
little principality. Partly by clever diplomacy, partly through
the troubles caused by the Gaulish invasion and by the dissen-
sions among the rival kings, Philetaerus contrived to keep on
good terms with his neighbours on all sides (283-263 B.C.). His
nephew Eumenes (263-241) succeeded him, increased his power,
and even defeated Antiochus II. of Syria in a pitched battle near
Sardis. His successor Attalus I. (241-197) won a great battle
over the Gauls, and assumed the title of king. The other
Greek kings who aimed at power in Asia Minor were his natural
enemies, and about 222 reduced Pergamenian power to a very
low ebb. On the other hand, the influence of the Romans was
beginning to make itself felt in the East. Attalus prudently
connected himself with them and shared in their continuous
success. Pergamum thus became the capital of a considerable
territory and a centre of art and regal magnificence. The wealth
of the state and the king's desire to celebrate his victories by
monuments of art led to the rise of the " Pergamenian school "
in sculpture. The splendour of Pergamum was at its height
under Eumenes II. (197-159). He continued true to the Romans
during their wars with Antiochus and Perseus, and his kingdom
spread over the greater part of western Asia Minor, including
Mysia, Lydia, great part of Phrygia, Ionia and Caria. To
celebrate the great achievement of his reign, the defeat of the
barbarian Gauls, he built in the agora a vast altar to Zeus
Soter (see below). He left an infant son, Attalus (III.), and
a brother, Attalus II. (Philadelphus), who ruled 159-138, and
was succeeded by his nephew, Attalus III. (Philometor). The
latter died in 133, and bequeathed his kingdom to the Romans,
who erected part of it (excluding Great Phrygia, which they
gave to Mithradates of Pontus) into a province under the name
of Asia. Pergamum continued to rank for two centuries as the
capital, and subsequently, with Ephesus and Smyrna, as one of
the three great cities of the province; and the devotion of its
former kings to the Roman cause was continued by its citizens,
who erected on the Acropolis a magnificent temple to Augustus.
It was the seat of a conventus, including the cities of the Caicus
valley and some of those in the northern part of the Hermus
valley. Under the Roman Empire Pergamum was one of the
chief seats of the worship of Asclepius " the Saviour "; invalids
came from distant parts of the country to ask advice from the
god and his priests. The temple and the curative establishment
of the god were situated outside the city. Pergamum was the
chief centre of the imperial cult under the early empire, and, in
W. M. Ramsay's opinion, was for that reason referred to in
Rev. ii. 13 as the place of " Satan's -throne." It was also an
early seat of Christianity, and one of the Seven Churches.
The place, re-fortified by the Byzantines, and still retaining its
name as Bergama, passed into Moslem hands early in the
I4th century. The lower town was rebuilt, and in the I7th
and 1 8th centuries became a chief seat of the great Dere Bey
family of Kara Osman Oglu (see MANISA), which did not resign
it to direct Ottoman control until about 1825. It is still an
administrative and commercial centre of importance, having
some 20,000 inhabitants.

Excavations. — The site of the ancient city has been the scene
of extensive excavations promoted by the Berlin museum since
1878, and directed first by K. Humann and A. Conze, and

afterwards by W. Dorpfeld. The first impulse to them was given
in 1873 by the reception in Berlin of certain reliefs, extracted
by Humann from the walls of Bergama. These were recognized as
probably parts of the Great Altar of Zeus erected by Eumenes II.
in 180 B.C. and decorated with a combat of gods and giants,
symbolic of the struggle between the Pergamene Greeks and the
Gaulish barbarians. Excavation at the south end of the Acro-
polis led to the discovery of the Altar itself and the rest of its
surviving reliefs, which, now restored and mounted in Berlin,
form one of the glories of that city. In very high relief and
representing furious action, these sculptures are the finest which
survive from the Pergamene school, which replaced the repose
and breadth of earlier schools by excess of emphasis and detail.
The summit of the Acropolis is crowded with public buildings,
between the market place, which lies at the southern point, and
the Royal. Gardens on the north. In the interval are the Zeus
altar; the great hexastyle Doric temple of Athena flanked by
the palace on the east, by the theatre and its long terrace on the
west, and by a library on the north; and a large Corinthian temple
of Trajan. The residential part of the Greek, and practically
all the Roman city lay below the Acropolis on ground now
mostly occupied by modern Bergama; but west of the river
Selinus, on rising ground facing the Acropolis, are to be seen
notable remains of a Roman theatre, an amphitheatre and a
circus.

See, beside general authorities for Asia Minor, J. Dallaway,
Constantinople, &c. (1797); W. M. Ramsay, Letters to the Seven
Churches (1904) ; and especially the publication by the Royal Museum
of Berlin, Alterthumer von Pergamon (1885 sqq.); "Operations at
Pergamon 1906-1907," in Athenische Mitteil. (1908), xxxiii. 4;
G. Leroux, "La Pr6tendue basilique de Pergame " in Butt. Corr.
Hell. (1909), pp. 238 sqq. (D. G. H.)

PERGOLA (Lat. pergula, a projecting roof, shed, from pergere,
to reach forward, project), a term adopted from the Italian
for an arbour of trellis-work over which are trained creeping
plants, vines, &c., and especially for a trellis-work covering a
path, walk or balcony in a garden.

PERGOLESI (or PERGOLESE), GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1710-
1736), Italian musical composer, was born at Jesi near Ancona
on the 3rd of January 1710, and after studying music undei
local masters until he was sixteen was sent by a noble patron
to complete his education at Naples, where he became a pupil
of Greco, Durante and Feo for composition and of Domenico de
Matteis for the violin. His earliest known composition was a
sacred drama, La Comiersione di S. Guglidmo d'Aquitania,
between the acts of which was given the comic intermezzo //
Maestro di musica. These works were performed in 1731,
probably by fellow pupils, at the monastery of St Agnello
Maggiore. Through the influence of the prince of Stigliano and
other patrons, including the duke of Maddaloni, Pergolesi was
commissioned to write an opera for the court theatre, and in the
winter of 1731 successfully produced La Sallustia, followed in
1732 by Ricimero, which was a failure. Both operas had comic
intermezzi, but in neither case were they successful. After this
disappointment he abandoned the theatre for a time and wrote
thirty sonatas for two violins and bass for the prince of Stigliano.
He was also invited to compose a mass on the occasion of the
earthquake of 1731, and a second mass, also for two choirs and
orchestra, is said to have been praised by Leo. In September
1732 he returned to the stage with a comic opera in Neapolitan
dialect, Lo Frate inammorato, which was well received; and in
!733 ne produced a serious opera, II Prigionier, to which the
celebrated Serva padrona furnished the intermezzi. There
seems, however, no ground for supposing that this work made
any noticeable difference to the composer's already established
reputation as a writer of comic opera. About this time (1733-
1734) Pergolesi entered the service of the duke of Maddaloni, and
accompanied him to Rome, where he conducted a mass for five
voices and orchestra in the church of St Lorenzo in Lucina
(May 1734). There is no foundation for the statement that he
was appointed maestro di cappella at the Holy House of Loreto;
he was, in fact, organist of the royal chapel at Naples in 1735.
The complete failure of L'Olimpiade at Rome in January 1733

PERGOLESI, M. A.— PERIANDER

144

is said to have broken his health, and determined him to abandon
the theatre for the Church; this statement is, however, incom-
patible with the fact that his comic opera // Flaminio was
produced in Naples in September of the same year with un-
doubted success. His ill health was more probably due to his
notorious profligacy. In 1736 he was sent by the duke of
Maddaloni to the Capuchin monastery at Pozzuoli, the air of
the place being considered beneficial to cases of consumption.
Here he is commonly supposed to have written the celebrated
Slabat Mater; Paisiello, however, stated that this work was
written soon after he left the Conservator™ dei poveri di Gesii
Cristo in 1729. We may at any rate safely attribute to this
period the Scherzo fatto ai Cappuccini di Pozzuoli, a musical jest
of a somewhat indecent nature. He died on the I7th of March
1736, and was buried in the cathedral of Pozzuoli.

Pergolesi's posthumous reputation has been exaggerated
beyond all reason. This was due partly to his early death, and
largely to the success of La Serva padrona when performed by
the Bouffons Italiens at Paris in 1752. Charming as this little
piece undoubtedly is, it is inferior both for music and for humour
to Pergolesi's three-act comic operas in dialect, which are remem-
bered now only by the air " Ogni pena piu spietata " from Lo
Pratt inammorato. As a composer of sacred music Pergolesi is
effective, but essentially commonplace and superficial, and the
frivolous style of the Stabat Mater was rightly censured by
Paisiello and Padre Martini. His best quality is a certain senti-
mental charm, which is very conspicuous in the cantata L'Orfeo
and in the genuinely beautiful duets " Se cerca, se dice " and
" Ne' giorni tuoi felici " of the serious opera L'Olimpiade;
the latter number was transferred unaltered from his early
sacred drama S. Guglielmo, and we can thus see that his
natural talent underwent hardly any development during the
five years of his musical activity. On the whole, however,
Pergolesi is in no way superior to his contemporaries of the same
school, and it is purely accidental that a later age should have
regarded him as its greatest representative.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The most complete life of Pergolesi is that by
E. Faustini Fasini (Gazzetta musicale di Milano, 3ist of August
1899, &c., published by Ricordi in book form, 1900); G. Annibaldi's
// Pergolesi in Pozzuoli, vita iniima (Jesi, 1890) gives some interest-
ing additional details derived from documents at Jesi, but is cast in
the form of a romantic novel. H. M. Schletterer's lecture in the
Sammlung musikalischer Vortrage, edited by Count P. von Walder-
see, is generally inaccurate and uncritical, but gives a good account
of later performances of Pergolesi's works in Italy and elsewhere.
Various portraits are reproduced in the Gazz. mus. di Milano for
the I4th of December 1899, and in Musica e musicisti, December
1905. Complete lists of his compositions are given in Eitner's
Quellen-Lexicon and in Grove's Dictionary (new ed.). (E. J. D.)

PERGOLESI, MICHAEL ANGELO, an iSth-century Italian
decorative artist, who worked chiefly in England. Biographical
details are almost entirely lacking, but like Cipriani he was
brought, or attracted, to England by Robert Adam after his
famous continental tour. He worked so extensively for the
Adams, and his designs are so closely typical of much upon which
their reputation rests, that it is impossible to doubt his influence
upon their style. His range, like theirs, was catholic. He
designed furniture, mantelpieces, ceilings, chandeliers, doors and
mural ornament with equal felicity, and as an artist in plaster
work in low relief he was unapproached in his day. He delighted
in urns and sphinxes and interlaced gryphons, in amorini with
bows and torches, in trophies of musical instruments and martial
weapons, and in flowering arabesques which were always graceful
if sometimes rather thin. The centre panels of his walls and
ceilings were often occupied by classical and pastoral subjects
painted by Cipriani, Angelica Kauffmann, Antonio Zucchi, her
husband, and sometimes by himself. These nymphs and
amorini, with their disengaged and riant air and classic grace,
were not infrequently used as copies for painting upon that
satinwood furniture of the last quarter of the i8th century which
has never been surpassed for dainty elegance, and for the
popularity of which Pergolesi was in large measure responsible;
they were even reproduced in marquetry. Some of this painted
work was, apparently, executed by his own hand; most of the

pieces attributed to him are remarkable examples of artistic
taste and technical skill. His satin-wood table -tops, china
cabinets and side-tables are the last word in a daintiness which
here and there perhaps is mere prettiness. Pergolesi likewise
designed silver plate, and many of his patterns are almost
instinctively attributed to the brothers Adam by the makers
and purchasers of modern reproductions. There is, moreover,
reason to believe that he aided the Adam firm in purely archi-
tectural work. In' later life Pergolesi appears, like Angelica
Kauffmann, to have returned to Italy.

Our chief source of information upon his works is his own publi-
cation, Designs for Various Ornaments on Seventy Plates, a series
of folio sheets, without text, published between 1777 and 1801.

PERI, JACOPO (1561-16 ?), Italian musical composer,
was born at Florence on the 20th of August 1561, of a noble
family. After studying under Cristoforo Malvezzi of Lucca,
he became maestro di cappella, first to Ferdinand, duke of
Tuscany, and later to Cosmo II. He was an important member
of the literary and artistic circle which frequented the house of
Giovanni Bardi, conte de Vernio, where the revival of Greek
tragedy with its appropriate musical declamation was a favourite
subject of discussion. With this end in view the poet Ottavio
Rinuccini supplied a drama with the title of Dafne, to which
Peri composed music, and this first attempt at opera was per-
formed privately in 1597 in the Palazzo Corsi at Florence. This
work was so much admired that in 1600 Rinuccini and Peri
were commissioned to produce an opera on the occasion of the
marriage of Henry IV. of France with Maria di' Medici. This
work (L' Euridice) attracted a great deal of attention, and the
type once publicly established, the musical drama was set on
the road to success by the efforts of other composers and the
patronage of other courts. Peri himself seems never to have
followed up bis success with other operas; he became maestro
di cappella to the duke of Ferrara in 1601, but after the publica-
tion of his Varie musiche a una, due e tre voci at Florence in
1609, nothing more is known of him.

Peri's Dafne (which has entirely disappeared) and Euridice
(printed at Florence 1600; reprinted Venice 1608 and Florence
1863) are of the greatest importance not only as being the
earliest attempts at opera, but as representing the new monodic
and declamatory style which is the basis of modern music as
opposed to the contrapuntal methods of Palestrina and his
contemporaries. Peri's work is of course primitive in the
extreme, but it is by no means without beauty, and there are
many scenes in Euridice which show a considerable dramatic
power.

PERIANDER (Gr. HtpiavSpos), the second tyrant of Corinth
(625-585 B.C.). In contrast with his father Cypselus, the founder
of the dynasty, he is generally represented as a cruel despot, or
at any rate as having used all possible devices for keeping his
city in subjection. Among numerous anecdotes the following
is characteristic. Periander, on being consulted by the tyrant
Thrasybulus of Miletus as to the best device for maintaining
himself in power, by way of reply led the messenger through a
cornfield, and as he walked struck off the tallest and best-grown
ears (a legend applied to Roman circumstances in Livy i. 54).
It seems, however, that the prevalent Greek tradition concerning
him was derived from the versions of the Corinthian aristocracy,
who had good reasons for giving a prejudiced account, and the
conflicting character of the various legends further shows that
their historical value is slight. A careful sifting of the available
evidence would rather tend to represent Periander as a ruler
of unusual probity and insight, and the exceptional firmness and
activity of his government is beyond dispute. His home admin-
istration was so successful that he was able to dispense with
direct taxation. He fostered wealth by the steady encourage-
ment of industry and by drastic legislation against idleness,
luxury and vice; and the highest prosperity of the Corinthian
handicrafts may be assigned to the period of his rule (see
CORINTH). At the same time he sought to check excessive
accumulation of wealth in individual hands and restricted the
influx of population into the town. Employment was found

PERICLES

145

for the proletariat in the erection of temples and of public works.
Periander further appears as a patron of literature, for it was by
his invitation that the poet Arion came to Corinth to organize
the dithyramb. He devoted no less attention to the increase
of Corinthian commerce, which in his days plied busily on both
eastern and western seas. With this end in view he established
colonies at Potidaea and Apollonia in Macedonia, at Anactorium
and Leucas in north-western Greece, and he is said to have
projected a canal through the Isthmus, In Greece proper he
conquered Epidaurus, and with the help of his fleet of triremes
brought the important trading centre of Corcyra under his
control, while his interest in the Olympian festival is perhaps
attested by a dedication which may be ascribed to him — the
famous " chest of Cypselus." He cultivated friendly relations
with the tyrants of Miletus and Mytilene, and maintained a
connexion with the kings of Lydia, of Egypt and, possibly, of
Phrygia. In spite of these varied achievements Periander
never entirely conciliated his subjects, for he could not trust
himself without a bodyguard. Moreover his family life, accord-
ing to all accounts, was unfortunate. His sons all died or
were estranged from him, and the murder of his last remaining
child Lycophron, the governor of Corcyra, is said to have broken
his spirit and hastened on his death.

Periander was reckoned one of the seven sages of Greece,
and was the reputed author of a collection of maxims ("TirodrJKai.)
in 2000 verses. The letters ascribed to him by Diogenes Laertius
are undoubtedly spurious.

Herodotus iii. 48-53, v. 92; Aristotle, Politics, v. 6, 10-12;
Heracleides Ponticus in C. Miiller's fFrag. hist, graec. ii. 212;
Nicolaus Damascenus, ibid., iii. 393; Diogenes Laertius, De vitis
darorum philosophorum, i. ch. 7. (M. O. B. C.)

PERICLES (490-429 B.C.), Athenian statesman, was born
about 490 B.C., the son of Xanthippus and Agariste. His father1
took a prominent part in Athenian politics, and in 479 held high
command in the Greek squadron which annihilated the remnants
of Xerxes' fleet at Mycale; through his mother, the niece of
Cleisthenes, he was connected with the former tyrants of Sicyon
and the family of the Alcmaeonidae. His early training was
committed to the ablest and most advanced teachers of the day:
Damon instructed him in music, Zeno the Eleatic revealed to
him the powers of dialectic; the philosopher Anaxagoras, who
lived in close friendship with Pericles, had great influence on
his cast of thought and was commonly held responsible for that
calm and undaunted attitude of mind which he preserved in the
midst of the severest trials.

The first important recorded act of Pericles falls in 463, when he
helped to prosecute Cimon on a charge of bribery, after the latter's
Thasian campaign; but as the accusation could hardly have been
meant seriously Pericles was perhaps put forward only as a
lay-figure. Undue prominence has commonly been assigned to
him in the attack upon ths Areopagus in 462 or 461 (see
AREOPAGUS, CIMON). The Aristotelian Constitution of Athens
shows conclusively that Pericles was not the leader of this cam-
paign, for it expressly attributes the bulk of the reforms to
Ephialtes (ch. 25), and mentions Ephialtes and Archestratus
as the authors of the laws which the reactionaries of 404 sought
to repeal (ch. 35): moreover, it was Ephialtes,2 not Pericles, on
whom the Conservatives took revenge as the author of their
discomfiture. To Ephialtes likewise we must ascribe the
renunciation of the Spartan alliance and the new league with
Argos and Thessaly (461).

Not long after, however, when Ephialtes fell by the dagger,
Pericles undoubtedly assumed the leading position in the state.

1 He must have been born before 485-484, in which years his
father was ostracized. On the other hand, Plutarch describes him
as vtos Sir, i.e. not yet 30, in 463.

J The later eminence of Pericles has probably misled historians
into exaggerating his influence at this time. Even the Const. Ath.
(ch. 27) says _that Pericles took " some " prerogatives from the
Areopagus; this looks like a conjecture based on Arist. Pol. ii. 9
(12), 1273; r/iv 'o> 'Apcltf ird-ycj) /3ouXi)j> 'E^tiXrijs fcciXowe Kal Ilepi/tX^s,
a passage which really proves nothing. Plutarch, who is clearly
blinded by Pericles' subsequent brilliance, makes him suddenly burst
into prominence and hold the highest place for 40 years (i.e. from
469) ; he degrades Ephialtes into a tool of Pericles.

The beginning of his ascendancy is marked by an unprecedented
outward expansion of Athenian power. In continuance of
Cimon's policy, 200 ships were sent to support the Egyptian
insurgents against Persia (459)," while detachments operated
against Cyprus and Phoenicia. At the same time Athens
embarked on several wars in Greece Proper. An alliance with
the Megarians, who were being hard pressed by their neighbours
of Corinth, led to enmity with this latter power, and before long
Epidaurus and Aegina were drawn into the struggle. On sea
the Athenians, after two minor engagements, gained a decisive
victory which enabled them to blockade Aegina. On land
their general Myronides beat off two Corinthian attacks on
Megara, which had been further secured by long walls drawn
between the capital and its port Nisaea, nearly a mile distant.
In 457 the Athenians and their allies ventured to intercept a
Spartan force which was returning home from central Greece.
At Tanagra in Boeotia a pitched battle was fought, in which
both Pericles and the partisans of Cimon distinguished them-
selves. The Spartans were successful but did not pursue their
advantage, and soon afterwards the Athenians, seizing their
opportunity, sallied forth again, and, after a victory under
Myronides at Oenophyta, obtained the submission of all Boeotia,
save Thebes, and of Phocis and Locris. In 455 Tolmides
ravaged Laconia and secured Naupactus on the Corinthian
gulf; in 4S44 Pericles himself defeated the Sicyonians, and made
a descent upon Oeniadae at the mouth of the gulf, and in 453
conducted a cleruchy to the Thracian Chersonese. These years
mark the zenith of Athenian greatness. Yet the drain on the
country's strength was severe, and when news arrived in 453
that the whole of the Egyptian armament, together with a
reserve fleet, had been destroyed by the Persians, a reaction
set in, and Cimon, who was recalled on Pericles' motion (but see
CIMON), was empowered to make peace with Sparta on the basis
of the status quo. For a while the old anti-Persian policy again
found favour in Athens, and Cimon led a great expedition against
Cyprus; but on Cimon's death hostilities were suspended, and a
lasting arrangement with Persia was brought about.6 It was
probably in order to mark the definite conclusion of the Persian
War and to obtain recognition for Athens' work in punishing
the Mede that Pericles now6 proposed a pan-Hellenic congress
at Athens to consult about the rebuilding of the ruined temples
and the policing of the seas; but owing to the refusal of Sparta
the project fell through.

Pericles may now have hoped to resume his aggressive policy
in Greece Proper, but the events of the following years completely
disillusioned him. In 447 an Athenian army, which had marched
into Boeotia to quell an insurrection, had to surrender in a body
at Coronea, and the price of their ransom was the evacuation
of Boeotia. Upon news of this disaster Phocis, Locris and
Euboea revolted, and the Megarians massacred their Athenian
garrison, while a Spartan army penetrated into Attica as far as
Eleusis. In this crisis Pericles induced the Spartan leaders to
retreat, apparently by means of a bribe, and hastened to re-
conquer Euboea; but the other land possessions could not be
recovered, and in a thirty years' truce which was arranged in
445 Athens definitely renounced her predominance in Greece
Proper. Pericles' foreign policy henceforward underwent a
profound change — to consolidate the naval supremacy, or to
extend it by a cautious advance, remained his only ambition.

3 The chronology of these years down to 449 is not quite certain.

4 An abortive expedition to reinstate a Thessalian prince probably
also belongs to this year; there is also evidence that Athens inter-
fered in a war between Selinus and Segesta in Sicily about this
time.

6 The " peace of CalKas " is perhaps a fiction of the 4th century
orators. All the earlier evidence goes to show that only an informal
understanding was arrived at, based on the de facto inability of
either power to cripple the other (see CIMON).

6 448 seems the most likely date. Before 460 Pericles' influence
was as yet too small; 460-451 were years of war. After 445 Athens
was hardly in a position to summon such a congress, and would
not have sent ip envoys out of 20 to northern and central Greece,
where she had just lost all her influence; nor is it likely that the
building of the Parthenon (begun not later than 447) was entered
on before the congress.

146

PERICLES

While scouting the projects of the extreme Radicals for interfering
in distant countries, he occasionally made a display of Athens'
power abroad, as in his expedition to the Black Sea,1 and
in the colonization of Thurii,2 which marks the resumption of a
Western policy.

The peaceful development of Athenian power was interrupted
by the revolt of Samos in 440. Pericles himself led out a fleet
against the seceders and, after winning a first engagement,
unwisely divided his armament and allowed one squadron to be
routed. In a subsequent battle he retrieved this disaster, and
after a long blockade reduced the town itself. A demand for
help which the Samians sent to Sparta was rejected at the
instance of the Corinthians.

Turning to Pericles' policy towards the members of the
Delian League, we find that he frankly endeavoured to turn the
allies into subjects (see DELIAN LEAGUE). A special feature
of his rule was the sending out of numerous cleruchies (?.».),
which served the double purpose of securing strategic points
to Athens and converting the needy proletariate of the capital
into owners of real property. The land was acquired either by
confiscation from disaffected states or in exchange for a lowering
of tribute. The chief cleruchies of Pericles are: Thracian
Chersonese (453-452), Lemnos and Imbros, Andros, Naxos and
Eretria (before 447); 3Brea in Thrace (446); Oreus(445); Amisus
and Astacus in the Black Sea (after 440); Aegina (431).

In his home policy Pericles carried out more fully Ephialtes'
project of making the Athenian people truly self-governing.
His chief innovation was the introduction of payment from the
public treasury for state service. Chief of all, he provided a
remuneration of i to 2 obols a day for the jurymen, probably
in 45i.4 Similarly he created a"theoricon" fund which enabled
poor citizens to attend the dramatic representations of the
Dionysia. To him we may also attribute the 3 obols pay which
the soldiers received during the Peloponnesian War in addition
to the old-established provision-money. The archons and
members of the boule, who certainly received remuneration in
411, and also some minor magistrates, were perhaps paid for
the first time by Pericles. In connexion with this system of
salaries should be mentioned a somewhat reactionary law
carried by Pericles in 451, by which an Athenian parentage
on both sides was made an express condition of retaining the
franchise and with it the right of sitting on paid juries. The
measure by which the archonship was opened to the third and
(practically) to the fourth class of citizens (the Zeugitae and
Thetes) may also be due to Pericles; the date is now known to be
457 (Const. Ath. 26; and see ARCHON).

The last years of his life were troubled by a new period of
storm and stress which called for his highest powers of calculation
and self-control. A conflict between Corcyra and Corinth, the
second and third naval powers of Greece, led to the simultaneous
appearance in Athens of an embassy from either combatant
(433). Pericles had, as it seems, resumed of late a plan of
Western expansion by forming alliances with Rhegium and
Leontini, and the favourable position of Corcyra on the trade-
route to Sicily and Italy, as well as its powerful fleet, no doubt
helped to induce him to secure an alliance with that island,
and so to commit an unfriendly act towards a leading repre-
sentative of the Peloponnesian League. Pericles now seemed to
have made up his mind that war with Sparta, the head of that

1 The date can hardly be fixed ; probably it was after 440.

2 It has been doubted whether Pericles favoured this enterprise,
but among its chief promoters were two of his friends, Larapon
the soothsayer and Hippodamus the architect. The oligarch
Cratinus (in a frag, of the fcirydies) violently attacks the whole
project.

» These dates are suggested by the decrease of tribute which the
inscriptions prove for this year.

4 This' is the date given by the Const. Ath., which also mentions
a 8ia^j)[</>t<7/^$ TWV SuaurrSav\ (Blass1 restoration) in frag. c. 1 8.
The confused story of Philochorus and Plutarch, by which 4760
citizens were disfranchised or even sold into slavery in 445, when
an Egyptian prince sent a largess of corn, may refer to a subsequent
application of Pericles' law, though probably on a much milder
scale than is here represented.

League, had become inevitable. In the following spring he
fastened a quarrel upon Potidaea, a town in Chalcidice, which
was attached by ancient bonds to Corinth, and in the campaign
which followed Athenian and Corinthian troops came to blows.
A further casus belli was provided by a decree forbidding the
importation of Megarian goods into the Athenian Empire,6 pre-
sumably in order to punish Megara for her alliance with Corinth
(spring 432). The combined complaints of the injured parties
led Sparta to summon a Peloponnesian congress which decided
on war against Athens, failing a concession to Megara and
Corinth (autumn 432). In this crisis Pericles persuaded the
wavering assembly that compromise was useless, because Sparta
was resolved to precipitate a war in any case. A further embassy
calling upon the Athenians to expel the accursed family of the
Alcmaeonidae, clearly aimed at Pericles himself as its chief
representative, was left unheeded, and early in 431 hostilities
began between Athens and Sparta and their respective allies
(see PELOPONNESIAN WAR).

At the same time, Pericles was being sorely hampered by his
adversaries at home. The orthodox Conservatives and some
democrats who were jealous of his influence, while afraid
to beard the great statesman himself, combined to assail his
nearest friends. The sculptor Pheidias (q.v.) was prosecuted on
two vexatious charges (probably in 433), and before he could
disprove the second he died under arrest. Anaxagoras was
threatened with a law against atheists, and felt compelled to
leave Athens. A scandalous charge against his mistress Aspasia,
which he defeated by his personal intercession before the court,
was taken very much to heart by Pericles. His position at
home scarcely improved during the war. His policy of aban-
doning the land defence was unpopular with the land-owning
section of the people, who from the walls of Athens could see
their own property destroyed by the invaders. At the end of
the first year of war (early in 430) Pericles 'made a great appeal
to the pride of his countrymen in his well-known funeral speech.
But in the ensuing summer, after a terrible outbreak of plague
had ravaged the crowded city, the people became thoroughly
demoralized. Pericles led a large squadron to harry the coasts
of the Peloponnese, but met with little success. On his return
the Athenians sued for peace, though without success, and a
speech by Pericles had little effect on their spirits. Late in 430
they deposed him from his magistracy. In addition to this
they prosecuted him on a charge of embezzlement, and imposed
a fine of 50 talents. A revulsion of feeling soon led to his rein-
statement, apparently with extraordinary powers. But the
plague, which had carried off two of his sons and a sister, had
left its mark also on Pericles himself. In the autumn of 429 he
died6 and was buried near the Academia, where Pausanias (150
A.D.) saw his tomb. A slightly idealized portrait of Pericles
as strategus is preserved to us in the British Museum bust,
No. 549, which is a good copy of the well-known bronze original
by Cresilas.

If we now endeavour to give a general estimate of Pericles'
character and achievements, it will be well to consider the many
departments of his activity one by one. In his foreign policy
Pericles differs from those statesmen of previous generations
who sought above all the welfare of Greece as a whole. His
standpoint was at all times purely Athenian. Nor did he com-
bine great statesmanlike qualities with exceptional ability in the
field. We may clearly distinguish two periods in his adminis-
tration of foreign affairs. At first, joining to Cimon's anti-
Persian ambitions and Themistocles' schemes of Western expan-
sion a new policy of aggression on the mainland, he endeavoured
to push forward Athenian power in every direction, and engaged
himself alike in Greece Proper, in the Levant and in Sicily.
After Cimon's death he renounced the war against Persia, and
the collapse of 447-445 had the effect of completing his change

6 The general impression in Greece was that this decree was the
proximate cause of the war. Tne scurrilous motives which Aristo-
phanes suggests for this measure can be entirely disregarded.

6 His dying boast, that " no Athenian had put on mourning
through his doing," perhaps refers to his forbearance towards his
political rivals, whom he refused to ruin by prosecution.

PERIDOT

of attitude. Henceforward he repressed all projects of reckless
enterprise, and confined himself to the gradual expansion and
consolidation of the empire. It is not quite easy to see why he
abandoned this successful policy in order to hasten on a war with
Sparta, and neither the Corcyrean alliance nor the Megarian
decree seems justified by the facts as known to us, though com-
mercial motives may have played a part which we cannot now
gauge. In his adoption of a purely defensive policy at the
beginning of the Peloponnesian War, he miscalculated the temper
of the Athenians, whose morale would have been better sustained
by a greater show of activity. But in the main his policy in
431-429 was sound, and the disasters of the war cannot fairly
be laid to his charge. The foundation of cleruchies was an
admirable device, which in many ways anticipated the colonial
system of the Romans.

In .his attitude towards the members of the Delian League
Pericles likewise maintained a purely Athenian point of view.
But he could hardly be said seriously to have oppressed the
subject cities, and technically all the League money was spent
on League business, for Athena, to whom the chief monuments
in Athens were reared, was the patron goddess of the League.
Under Pericles Athens also attained her greatest measure
of commercial prosperity, and the activity of her traders all
over the Levant, the Black Sea and the West, is attested not
only by literary authority, but also by numerous Attic coins,
vases, &c.

Pericles' home policy has been much debated since ancient
times. His chief enactments relate to the payment of citizens
for State service. These measures have been interpreted as an
appeal to the baser instincts of the mob, but this assumption is
entirely out of keeping with all we know of Pericles' general
attitude towards the people, over whom Thucydides says he
practically ruled as a king. We must, then, admit that Pericles
sincerely contemplated the good of his fellow-countrymen, and
we may believe that he endeavoured to realize that ideal Athens
which Thucydides sketches in the Funeral Speech — an Athens
where free and intelligent obedience is rendered to an equitable
code of laws, where merit finds its way to the front, where
military efficiency is found along with a free development in
other directions and strangles neither commerce nor art. In
accordance with this scheme Pericles sought to educate the whole
community to political wisdom by giving to all an active share
in the government, and to train their aesthetic tastes by making
accessible the best drama and music. It was most unfortunate
that the Peloponnesian War ruined this great project by
diverting the large supplies of money which were essential
to it, and confronting the remodelled Athenian democracy,
before it could dispense with his tutelage, with a series of
intricate questions of foreign policy which, in view of its in-
experience, it could hardly have been expected to grapple
with successfully.

Pericles also incurred unpopularity because of his rationalism
in religious matters; yet Athens in his time was becoming ripe
for the new culture, and would have done better to receive it
from men of his circle — Anaxagoras, Zeno, Protagoras and Melon
— than from the more irresponsible sophists. The influence of
Aspasia on Athenian thought, though denounced unsparingly
by most critics, may indeed have been beneficial, inasmuch as
it tended towards the emancipation of the Attic woman from the
over-strict tutelage in which she was kept. As a patron of
art Pericles was a still greater force. His policy in encouraging
the drama has already been mentioned: among his friends he
could count three of the greatest Greek writers — the poet
Sophocles and the historians Herodotus and Thucydides.
Pericles likewise is responsible for the epoch-making splendour
of Attic art in his time, for had he not so fully appreciated and
given such free scope to the genius of Pheidias, Athens would
hardly have witnessed the raising Of the Parthenon and other
glorious structures, and Attic art could not have boasted a
legion of first-rate sculptors of whom Alcamenes, Agoracritus
and Paeonius are only the chief names. (See also GREEK ART.)

Of Pericles' personal characteristics we have a peculiarly full

and interesting record. He was commonly compared to
Olympian Zeus, partly because of his serene and dignified
bearing, partly by reason of the majestic roll of the thundering
eloquence, with its bold poetical imagery, with which he held
friend and foe spellbound. The same dignity appeared in the
grave beauty of his features, though the abnormal height of
his cranium afforded an opportunity for ridicule of which the
comedians made full use. In spite of an unusually large crop
of scandals about him we cannot but believe that he bore an
honourable character, and his integrity is vouched for by
Thucydides in such strong terms as to exclude all further
doubt on the question.

ANCIENT AUTHORITIES. — Our chief source must always remain
Thucydides (i. and ii. 1-65), whose insight into the character and
ideals of Pericles places him far above all other authorities. The
speeches which he puts into his mouth are of special value in dis-
closing to us Pericles' inmost thoughts and aspirations (i. 140-144;
"• 35~46; »• 60-64). Thucydides alone shows sympathy with
Pericles, though, as J. B. Bury points out (Ancient Greek Historians,
1909, pp. 133 seq.), he was by no means a blind admirer. Of
other 5th-century sources, Aristophanes is obviously a caricaturist,
pseudo-Xenophon (de republica Atheniensium) a mere party pam-
phleteer. Plato, while admiring Pericles' intellect, accuses him of
pandering to the mob; Aristotle in his Politics and especially in
the Constitution of Athens, which is valuable in that it gives the
dates of Pericles' enactments as derived from an official document,
accepts the same view. Plutarch (Pericles) gives many interesting
details as to Pericles' personal bearing, home life, and patronage
of art, literature and philosophy, derived in part from the old
comic poets, Aristophanes, Cratinus, Eupolis, Hermippus, Plato
and Teleclides; in part from the contemporary memoirs of Stesim-
brotus and Ion of Chios. At the same time he reproduces their
scandalous anecdotes in a quite uncritical spirit, and accepts un-
questioningly the 4th-century tradition. He quotes Aristotle,
Heraclides Ponticus, Aeschines Socraticus, Idomeneus of Lampsacus
and Duris of Samos, and is also indebted through some Alexandrine
intermediary to Ephorus and Theopompus. Diodorus (xi. and
xii.), who copied Ephorus, contains nothing of value.

MODERN WORKS. — Historians are agreed that Pericles was one of
the most powerful personalities of ancient times, and generally
allow him to have been a man of probity. J. Beloch, Griech. Gesch.
vols. i. and ii. (Strassburg and Bonn, 1893-1896), and Die attische
Politik seit Perikles (Leipzig, 1884) takes the most disparaging view;
E. Abbott, Greek Hist., vol. ii. (London, 1892), and M. Duncker, Gesch.
d. Altertums, vols. viii., ix. (Leipzig, 1884-1886), are on the whole un-
favourable; Adolf Schmidt, Das Perikleische Zeitalter (Jena, 1877),
V. Duruy, History of Greece (Eng. trans., London, 1892), G. Busolt,
Griech. Gesch., vol. iii. (Gotha, 1897, 1904), and E. Meyer, Gesch. d.
Altertums, \o\s. iii. andiv. (Stuttgart, if)Oi),Forschungen,vo].ii. (Halle,
1899; London, 1902), apportion praise and blame more equally;
J. B. Bury and E. Curtius, Hist, of Greece (Eng. trans., vols. ii. and iii.,
London, 1869, 1870), A. Holm, Hist, of Greece (Eng. trans., vol. ii.,
London, 1895), W. Lloyd, The Age of Pericles (London, 1875), and
especially G. Grote, Hist, of Greece, vols. iv. and v. (see also additional
notes in the edition by J. M. Mitchell and M. Caspari, 1907) take
a favourable view. For Pericles' buildings, see C. Wachsmuth,
Gesch. d. Stadt Athen, i. 516-560 (Leipzig, 1874); E. A. Gardner,
Ancient Athens (London, 1902), for his strategy, H. Delbruck,
Die Strateg. d. Perikles (Berlin, 1890). See ATHENS: History;
GREECE : A ncient History; and GREEK ART. (M. O. B. C.)

PERIDOT, sometimes written peridote, a name applied by
jewelers to " noble olivine," or that kind of olivine which can
be used as a gem-stone (see OLIVINE). The word peridot is
an old trade-term, of unknown origin, used by French jewelers
and introduced into science by J. R. Hatiy. Peridot is practi-
cally the same stone as chrysolite (q.v.), though it is convenient
to restrict that term to transparent olivine of pale yellowish
green colour, and to apply the term peridot to those kinds which
are .darker and decidedly green: the colour, which is due to
the presence of ferrous iron, is never vivid, like that of emerald,
but is usually some shade of olive-, pistachio- or leek-green.
Although the stone is sometimes cut en cabochon, and in rose-
form, the cutting best adapted to display the colour is that of a
table or a step-cut stone. Unfortunately the hardness of peri-
dot is only about 6-5, or but little above that of glass, so
that the polished stone readily suffers abrasion by wear. In
polishing peridot the final touch is given on a copper wheel
moistened with sulphuric acid.

Although olivine has a fairly wide distribution in nature, the
varieties used as gem-stones are of very limited occurrence.
Much mystery for a long time surrounded the locality which

PERIDOTITE— PERIER

yields most of the peridot of commerce but it is now identified
with the island of St John, or Isle Zeboiget, in the Red Sea,
where it occurs, as shown by M. J. Couyat, in an altered dunite,
or olivine rock (Bull soc. franf. min., 1908). This is probably
the Topaz Isle, Torrdf UK vrja'os, of the ancients. It is generally
held that the mineral now called topaz was unknown to ancient
and mediaeval writers, and that their rowa^iov was our peridot.
Such was probably the Hebrew pitdah, translated topaz in the
Old Testament. Dr G. F. Kunz has suggested that the peridots
of modern trade are largely derived from old jewelry. The
famous shrine of the Three Kings in Cologne Cathedral contains
a large peridot, which has commonly been regarded as an emerald.
It is notable that pebbles of transparent olivine, fit for cutting,
are found in the United States in Montana, Arizona and New
Mexico; in consequence of their shape and curiously pitted
surface they are known as " Job's tears." (F. W. R.*)

PERIDOTITE, a plutonic holo-crystalline rock composed in
large part of olivine, and almost or entirely free from feldspar.
The rocks are the most basic, or least siliceous plutonic rocks,
and contain much iron oxide and magnesia. Hence they have
dark colours and a high specific gravity (3-0 and over). They
weather readily and are changed to serpentine, in which process
water is absorbed and enters jnto chemical combination with
the silicates of magnesia and iron. In some peridotites, such
as the dunites, olivine greatly preponderates over all other
minerals. It is always in small, rather rounded crystals without
good crystalline form, and pale green in colour. Most of the
rocks of this group, however, contain other silicates such as
augite, hornblende, biotite or rhombic pyroxene, and often
two or three of these are present. By the various mineral
combinations different species are produced, e.g. mica-peridot.:te,
hornblende-peridotite, enstatite-peridotite. Of the accessory
minerals the commonest are iron oxides and chromite or picotite.
In some peridotites these form segregations or irregular masses
which are of importance as sources of the ores of chromium.
Corundum occurs in small crystals in many North American
peridotites and platinum and the nickel-iron compound awaruite
are found in rocks of this class in New Zealand. Red garnet
(pyrope) characterizes the peridotites of Bohemia. The diamond
mines of South Africa are situated in pipes or volcanic necks
occupied by a peridotite breccia which has been called kimber-
lite. In this rock in addition to diamond the following minerals
are found, hypersthene, garnet, biotite, pyroxene (chrome-
diopside), ilmenite, zircon, &c.

Some peridotites have a granular structure, e.g. the dunites,
all the crystal grains being of rounded shape and nearly equal
size; a few are porphyritic with large individuals of diallage,
augite or hypersthene. Some are banded with parallel bands
of dissimilar composition, the result probably of fluxion in a
magma which was not quite homogeneous. The great majority
of the rocks of this group are poikilitic, that is to say, they
contain olivine in small rounded crystals embedded in large
irregular masses of pyroxene or hornblende. The structure
is not unlike that known as ophitic in the dolerites, and arises
from the olivine having first separated out of the liquid magma
while the pyroxene or amphibole succeeded it and caught up
its crystals. In hand specimens of the rocks the smooth and
shining cleavage surfaces of hornblende and augite are dotted
over with dull blackish green spots of olivine; to this appearance
the name " lustre-mottling " has been given.

Mica-peridotites are not of frequent occurrence. A well-known
rock from Kaltes Thai, Harzburg, contains much biotite, deep
brown in thin section. Other examples are found in India and in
Arkansas. Poikilitic structure is rarely well developed in this
group. The " blue-ground " of Kimberley which contains the
diamonds is a brecciform biotite-hypersthene-peridotite with augite.
In the north of Scotland, in several places in Sutherland and Ross,
there are peridotites with silvery yellow green biotite and large
plates of pale green hornblende: these have been called scyelites.
In the hornblende-peridotites lustre-mottling is often very striking.
The amphibole may be colourless tremolite in small prisms, as in
some varieties of serpentine from the Lizard (Cornwall); or pale
green hornblende as in scyelite. In both these cases there is some
probability that the hornblende has developed, partly at least,
from olivine or augite. In sheared peridotites tremolite and

actinolite are very frequent. Other rocks contain dark brown
hornblende, with much olivine; there may also be augite which is
often intergrown perthitically with the hornblende. Examples
of this type occur in North Wales, Anglesey, Cornwall, Cortland,
New York, and many other localities. A well-known peridotite from
Schriesheimer Tal in the Odenwald has pale brownish green amphibole
in large crystals filled with small grains of olivine which are mostly
serpentinized. Very often primary brown hornblende in rocks of
this type is surrounded by fringes and outgrowths of colourless
tremolite which has formed as a secondary mineral after olivine.
Complete pseudomorphs after olivine composed of a matrix of scaly
talc and chlorite crossed by a network of tremolite needles, are
also very common in some peridotites, especially those which have
undergone pressure or shearing: these aggregates are known as
pilite.

The peridotites which contain monoclinic pyroxene may be
divided into two classes, those rich in diallage and those in which
there is much augite. The diallage-peridotites have been called
wehrlites; often they show excellent lustre-mottling. Brown or
green hornblende may surround the diallage, and hypersthene
may occur also in lamellar intergrowth with it. Some of these
rocks contain biotite, while a little feldspar (often saussuritic) may
often be seen in the sections. Rocks of this kind are known in
Hungary, in the Odenwald and in Silesia. In Skye the pyroxene-
bearing peridotites usually contain green chrome-diopside (a variety
of augite distinguished by its pale colour and the presence of a
small amount of chromium). The augite-peridotites are grouped
by German petrographers under the picrites, but this term has a
slightly different signification in the English nomenclature (see
Pic RITE).

The enstatite-peridotites are an important group represented
in many parts of the world. Their rhombic pyroxene is often very
pale coloured but may then be filled with platy enclosures which
give it a metallic or bronzy lustre. These rocks have been called
saxonites or harzburgites. When weathered the enstatite passes
into platy masses of bastite. Picotite and chromite are common
accessory minerals and diallage or hornblende may also be present.
Many of the serpentine rocks of the Lizard (Cornwall) Ayrshire
and north-western Scotland are of this type. Examples are known
also from Baste near Harzburg, New York and Maryland, Norway,
Finland, New Zealand, &c. Often the enstatite crystals are of
large size and are very conspicuous in the hand specimens. They
may be porphyritic, or may form a coarsely crystalline matrix
enclosing innumerable olivine grains, and then lustre-mottling is
as a rule very well shown.

The Iherzolites are rocks, first described from Lherz in the
Pyrenees, consisting of olivine, chrome-diopside and enstatite, and
accessory picotite or chromite. They are fine-grained, bright
green in colour, often very fresh, and may be somewhat granulitic.
The dunites are peridotites, similar to the rock of Dun Mountain,
New Zealand, composed essentially of olivine in a finely granular
condition. Many examples of this type are known in different
parts of the world, usually as local facies of other kinds of peridotite.
In olivine-basalts of Tertiary age in the Rhine district small nodules
of green olivine occur frequently. They are of rounded shapes
and may be a foot in diameter. The structure is granular and
in addition to olivine they may contain chromite, spinel and
magnetite, enstatite and chrome-diopside. Some geologists believe
these to be fragments of dunite detached from masses of that rock
not exposed at the surface; others consider that they are aggre-
gations of the early minerals of the basalt magma, which were already
crystallized before the liquid rock was emitted.

The great majority of stony or lithoidal meteorites (aerolites)
are rich in olivine and present many analogies to the terrestrial
peridotites. Among their minerals are hypersthene (enstatite) augite
and chrome-diopside, chromite, pyrite and troilite, nickeliferous
iron and basic plagioclase feldspar. The structure of these meteor-
ites is described as " chondritic " ; their minerals often occur as
small rounded grains arranged in radiate clusters; this has very
rarely been observed in ordinary peridotites.

Although many peridotites are known in which the constituent
minerals are excellently preserved, the majority show more or
less advanced decomposition. The olivine is especially unstable
and is altered to serpentine, while augite, hornblende and biotite
are in large measure fresh. In other cases the whole rock is changed
to an aggregate of secondary products. Most serpentines (q.v.)
arise in this way. (]• S. F.)

PERIER, CASIMIR PIERRE (1777-1832), French statesman,
was born at Grenoble on the nth of October 1777, the fourth
son of a rich banker and manufacturer, Claude Pe'rier (1742-
1801), in whose house the estates of Dauphiny met in 1788.
Claude Perier was one of the first directors of the Bank of France;
of his eight sons, Augustin (1773-1833), Antoine Scipion (1776-
1821), Casimir Pierre and Camille (1781-1844}, all distinguished
themselves in industry and in politics. The family removed
to Paris after the revolution of Thermidor, and Casimir joined
the army of Italy in 1798. On his father's death he left the

PERIGEE— PERIGUEUX

149

army and with his brother Scipion founded a bank in Paris,
the speculations of which he directed while Scipion occupied
himself with its administration. He opposed the ruinous
methods by which the due de Richelieu sought to raise the war
indemnity demanded by the Allies, in a pamphlet Reflexions
sur le projet d'emprunt (1817), followed in the same year by
Dernieres reflexions ... in answer to an inspired article in the
Moniteur. In the same year he entered the chamber of deputies
for Paris, taking his seat in the Left Centre with the moderate
opposition, and making his first speech in defence of the freedom
of the press. Re-elected for Paris in 1822 and 1824, and in
1827 for Paris and for Troyes, he elected to represent Troyes,
and sat for that constituency until his death. Perier's violence
in debate was not associated with any disloyalty to the monarchy,
and he held resolutely aloof from the republican conspiracies
and intrigues which prepared the way for the revolution of
1830. Under the Martignac ministry there was some prospect
of a reconciliation with the court, and in January 1829 he was
nominated a candidate for the presidency of the chamber; but
in August with the elevation to power of Polignac the truce
ceased, and on the isth of March 1830 he was one of the
221 deputies who repudiated the pretensions put forward by
Charles X. Averse by instinct and by interest to popular revolu-
tion he nevertheless sat on the provisory commission of five at
the h6tel-de-ville during the days of July, but he refused to sign
the declaration of Charles X.'s dethronement. Perier reluctantly
recognized in the government of Louis Philippe the only alterna-
tive to the continuance of the Revolution; but he was no favourite
with the new king, whom he scorned for his truckling to the mob.
He became president of the chamber of deputies, and sat for
a few months in the cabinet, though without a portfolio. On
the fall of the weak and discredited ministry of Laffitte, Casimir
Perier, who had drifted more and more to the Right, was
summoned to power (March 13, 1831), and in the short space
of a year he restored civic order in France and re-established
her credit in Europe. Paris was in a constant state of disturb-
ance from March to September, and was only held in check by
the premier's determination; the workmen's revolt at Lyons
was suppressed after hard fighting; and at Grenoble, in face of
the quarrels between the military and the inhabitants, Perier
declined to make any concession to the townsfolk. The minister
refused to be dragged into armed intervention in favour of the
revolutionary government of Warsaw, but his policy of peace
did not exclude energetic demonstrations in support of French
interests. He constituted France the protector of Belgium
by the prompt expedition of the army of the north against the
Dutch in August 1831; French influence in Italy was asserted
by the audacious occupation of Ancona (Feb. 23, 1832); and
the refusal of compensation for injuries to French residents by
the Portuguese government was followed by a naval demonstra-
tion at Lisbon. Perier had undertaken the premiership with
many forebodings, and overwork and anxiety prepared the way
for disease. In the spring of 1832 during the cholera outbreak
in Paris, he visited the hospitals in company with the duke of
Orleans. He fell ill the next day of a violent fever, and died
six weeks later, on the i6th of May 1832.

His Opinions et discours were edited by A. Lesieur (2 vpls., 1838) ;
C. Nicoullaud published in 1894 the first part (Casimir-Perier,
depute de I' opposition, 1817-1830) of a study of his life and policy;
and his ministry is exhaustively treated by Thureau-Dangin in
vols. i. and ii. (1884) of his Histoire de la monarchic dejuillet.

His elder son, AUGUSTE VICTOR LAURENT CASIMIR PERIER
(1811-1876), the father of President Casimir-Perier (see CASIMIR-
PERIER), entered the diplomatic service, being attached suc-
cessively to the London, Brussels and St Petersburg embassies,
and in 1843 became minister plenipotentiary at Hanover.
In 1846 he resigned from the service to enter the legislature
as deputy for the department of Seine, a constituency which
he exchanged for Aube after the Revolution of 1848. On the
establishment of the Second Empire he retired temporarily
from public life, and devoted himself to economic questions on
which he published a series of works, notably Les Finances et la

politique (1863), dealing with the interaction of political in-
stitutions and finance. He contested Grenoble unsuccessfully
in 1863 against the imperial candidate, Casimir Royer; and
failed again for Aube in 1869. In 1871 he was returned by three
departments to the National Assembly, and elected to sit for
Aube. He was minister of the interior for a few months in
1871-1872, and his retirement deprived Thiers of one of the
strongest elements in his cabinet. He also joined the short-
lived ministry of May 1873. He consistently opposed all efforts
in the direction of a monarchical restoration, but on the definite
constitution of the republic became a life senator, declining
MacMahon's invitation to form the first cabinet under the new
constitution. He died in Paris on the 6th of June 1876.

For the family in general see E. Choulet, La Famille Casimir-
Perier (Grenoble, 1894).

PERIGEE (Gr. Kepi, near, 717, the earth), in astronomy that
point of the moon's orbit or of the sun's apparent orbit at
which the moon or sun approach nearest to the earth. The
sun's perigee and the earth's perihelion are so related that they
differ 180° in longitude, the first being on the line from the earth
toward the sun, and the second from the sun toward the earth.
The longitude of the solar perigee is now 101°, that of the earth's
perihelion 281°.

PERIGORD, one of the old provinces of France, formed part
of the military government of Guienne and Gascony, and was
bounded on the N. by Angoumois, on the E. by Limousin and
Quercy, on the S. by Agenais and Bazadais, and on the W.
by Bordelais and Saintonge. It is now represented by the
departments of Dordogne and part of Lot-et-Garonne. Perigord
was in two divisions: P6rigord blanc (cap. Perigueux) and
Perigord noir (cap. Sarlat). In the time of Caesar it formed
the civitas Petrocoriorum, with Vesunna (Perigueux) as its
capital. It became later part of Aquitania secunda and formed
the pagus petragoricus, afterwards the diocese of Perigueux.
Since the 8th century it had its own counts (see the Histoire
genealogique of P. Anselme, tome iii.), who were feudatories of
the dukes of Aquitaine and in the I3th century were the vassals
of the king of England. In the isth century the county passed
into the hands of the dukes of Orleans, and in the i6th came
to the family of d-'Albret, becoming Crown land again on the
accession of Henry IV.

See Dessalles, Histoire du Perigord (1888), the Bulletin of the
Societe historique et archeologique du Perigord (1874 seq.), I'Inventaire
sommaire dela" Collection de Perigord " in the Bibliotheque nationale
(1874) ; the Dictionnaire topographique du department de la Dordogne
by the Vicomte de Gourgues (1873).

PfiRIGUEUX, a town of south-western France, formerly
capital of the old province of Perigord, now chief town of the
department of Dordogne, 79 m. E.N.E. of Bordeaux, on the
railway between that city and Limoges. Pop. (1906), 28,199.
The town, situated on an eminence on the right bank of the
Isle, is divided into three parts. On the slope of the hill is
the medieval town, bordered south-east by the river and on the
other three sides by esplanades and promenades; to the west
is the modern town, which stretches to the station; to the south
of the modern town is the old Roman town or cite, now traversed
by the railway.

Three bridges connect Perigueux with the left bank of the
Isle, where stood Vesunna, the capital of the Petrocorii. Hardly
a trace of this old Gallic town remains, but not far off, on the
Plateau de la Boissiere, the rampart of the old Roman camp
can still be traced. On the right bank of the Isle, in the Roman
city, there have been discovered some baths of the ist or 2nd
century, supplied by an aqueduct four miles long, which spanned
the Isle. A circular building, called the " Tower of Vesunna,"
68 ft. in diameter and 89 ft. in height, stands at what was
formerly the centre of the city, where all the chief streets met.
It is believed to have been originally the cella or main part of
a temple, probably dedicated to the tutelary deities of Vesunna.
Of the amphitheatre there still remain huge fragments of wall
and vaulting. The building had a diameter of 1312 ft., that
of the arena being 870 ft. ; and, judging from its construction.

PERIHELION— PEKING DEL VAGA

must be as old as the 3rd or even the 2nd century. The counts
of Peiigueux used it for their chateau, and lived in it from the
1 2th to the end of the I4th century. In 1644 it was given over
by the town to the Order of the Visitation, and the sisters took
from it the stones required for the construction of their nunnery.
The most remarkable, however, of the ruins of the cili is the
Chateau Barriere, an example of the fortified houses formerly
common there. Two of its towers date from the 3rd or 4th
century, and formed part of the fortified enceinte; the highest
tower is of the loth century; and the part now inhabited is
of the nth or i2th century, and was formerly used as a burial
chapel. The bulk of the chateau is of the I2th, and some of
the windows of the i6th century.

The chief medieval building in the cili is the church of St
Etienne, once the cathedral. It dates from the nth and I2th
centuries, but suffered much injury at the hands of the Pro-
testants in the religious wars when the tower and two of the
three cupolas were destroyed. The choir and its cupola were
skilfully restored in the I7th century. A fine carved wooden
reredos of the lyth century and a tomb of a bishop of the
1 2th century are to be seen in the interior. In the medieval
town, known as Le Puy-St-Front, the most remarkable building
is the cathedral of St Front, which, till its restoration, or rather
rebuilding, in the latter half of the igth century when the old
features were to a great extent lost, was of unique architectural
value. It bears a striking resemblance to the Byzantine
churches and to St Mark's at Venice, and according to one theory
was built from 984 to 1047, contemporaneously with the latter
(977-1085). It consists of five great cupolas, arranged in the
form of a Greek cross, and conspicuous from the outside. The
arms of the cross are 69 ft. in width, and the whole is 184 ft.
long. These cupolas, 89 ft. high from the keystone to the
ground, are supported on a vaulted roof with pointed arches
after the manner characteristic of Byzantine architecture.
The pointed arches imitated from it prepared the way for the
introduction of the Gothic style. Adjoining St Front on the
west are the remains of an old basilica of the 6th century, above
which rises the belfry, the only one in the Byzantine style now
extant. It dates from the nth century, and is composed of
two massive cubes, placed the one above the other in retreat,
with a circular colonnade surmounted by a dome. To the
south-west of St Front, the buildings of an old abbey (nth to
i6th century) surround a cloister dating chiefly from the i3th
century. Of the fortifications of Puy St Front, the chief relic
is the Tour Mataguerre (i4th century).

Perigueux is seat of a bishop, prefect and court of assizes,
and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a chamber
of commerce and a branch of the Bank of France. Its
educational establishments include a Iyc6e for boys, training
colleges for both sexes and a school of drawing. The trade of
the town is in pigs, truffles, flour, brandy, poultry and pies
known as p&l&s de Pirigord.

Vesunna was the capital of the Petrocorii, allies of Vercinge-
torix when Caesar invaded Gaul. The country was afterwards
occupied by the Romans, who built a second city of Vesunna
on the right bank of the Isle opposite the site of the Gallic town.
The barbarian invasion brought this prosperity to a close. St
Front preached Christianity here in the 4th century and over
his tomb there was raised a monastery, which became the centre
of the new town called Le Puy St Front. The cili was pillaged
by the Saracens about 731, and in 844 the Normans devastated
both quarters. The new town soon began to rival the old city
in importance, and it was not until 1240 that the attempts
of the counts of P6rigord and the bishops to infringe on their
municipal privileges brought about a treaty of union. During
the Hundred Years' War, Perigueux was twice attacked by the
English, who took the citi in 1356; and the whole town was
ceded to them by the Treaty of Bretigny, but returned to the
French Crown in the reign of Charles V. The county passed
by marriage into the hands of Anthony of Bourbon, father
of Henry IV., and was converted by the latter into royal
domain. During the Huguenot wars Perigueux was frequently

a stronghold of the Calvinists, who in 1575 did great
destruction there, and it also suffered during the troubles of
the Fronde.

PERIHELION (Gr. mpi, near, TJXios, sun), in astronomy, the
point of nearest approach of a body to the sun. (See ORBIT.)

PERIM, a British island in the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, at
the entrance to the Red Sea, and 96 m. W. by S. of Aden.
Perim is 2 m. from the Arabian shore, is about 3^ m. long with
an average breadth of over a mile and covers some 7 sq. m.
There is a good harbour with easy entrance on the south side
with a depth of water from 25 to 30 ft. It is largely used by
mercantile vessels as a coaling-station and for taking in stores,
including fresh water and ice. Perim, the Diodoros island of
the Periplus, was, in consequence of the French occupation
of Egypt, garrisoned from 1799 to 1801 by a British force. In
view of the construction of the Suez Canal and the increasing
importance of the Red Sea route to India the island was annexed
to Great Britain in 1857, fortified and placed under the
charge of the Aden residency. In 1861 a lighthouse was built
at its eastern end. Submarine cables connect the island with
Aden, Egypt and Zanzibar. Population, including a garrison
of 50 sepoys, about 200.

PERINO DEL VAGA (1500-1547), a painter of the Roman
school, whose true name was PERINO (or PIERO) BUONACCORSI.
He was born near Florence on the 28th of June 1500. His
father ruined himself by gambling, and became a soldier in the
invading army of Charles VIII. His mother dying when he
was but two months old, he was suckled by a she-goat; but
shortly afterwards he was taken up by his father's second wife.
Perino was first apprenticed to a druggist, but soon passed into
the hands of a mediocre painter, Andrea da Ceri, and, when
eleven years of age, of Ridolfo Ghirlandajo. Perino rapidly
surpassed his fellow-pupils, applying himself especially to the
study of Michelangelo's great cartoon. Another mediocre
painter, Vaga from Toscanella, undertook to settle the boy in
Rome, but first set him to work in Toscanella. Perino, when
he at last reached Rome, was utterly poor, and with no clear
prospect beyond journey-work for trading decorators. He,
however, studied with great severity and spirit from Michelangelo
and the antique, and was eventually entrusted with some of
the subordinate work undertaken by Raphael in the Vatican.
He assisted Giovanni da Udine in the stucco and arabesque
decorations of the loggie of the Vatican, and executed some of
those small but finely composed scriptural subjects which go
by the name of " Raphael's Bible " — Raphael himself furnishing
the designs. Perino's examples are: " Abraham about to
sacrifice Isaac," " Jacob wrestling with the Angel," " Joseph
and his Brethren," the " Hebrews crossing the Jordan," the
" Fall and Capture of Jericho," " Joshua commanding the Sun
to stand still," the " Birth of Christ," " His Baptism " and
the " Last Supper." Some of these are in bronze-tint, while
others are in full colour. He also painted, after Raphael's
drawings, the figures of the planets in the great hall of the
Appartamenti Borgia. Perino exhibited very uncommon faculty
in these works and was soon regarded as second only to Giulio
Romano among the great painter's assistants. To Raphael
himself he was always exceedingly respectful and attentive,
and the master loved him almost as a son". He executed many
other works about Rome, always displaying a certain mixture
of the Florentine with the Roman style.

After Raphael's death in 1520 a troublous period ensued for
Perino, with a plague which ravaged Rome in 1523, and again
with the sack of that city in 1527. Then he accepted an invita-
tion to Genoa, where he was employed in decorating the Doria
Palace, and rapidly founded a quasi-Roman school of art in the
Ligurian city. He ornamented the palace in a style similar
to that of Giulio Romano in the Mantuan Palazzo del Te, and
frescoed historical and mythological subjects in the apartments,
fanciful and graceful arabesque work, sculptural and architec-
tural details — in short, whatever came to hand. Among the
principal works are: the " War between the Gods and Giants,"
" Horatius Codes defending the Bridge," and the " Fortitude

PERINTHUS— PERIODICALS

of Mutius Scaevola." The most important work of all, the
" Shipwreck of Aeneas," is no longer extant. From Genoa
Perino twice visited Pisa, and began some painting in the
cathedral. Finally he returned to Rome, where Paul III.
allowed him a regular salary till the painter's death. He
retouched many of the works of Raphael, and laboured hard
on his own account, undertaking all sorts of jobs, important
-tJftrivial. Working for any price, he made large gains, but fell
into mechanical negligence. Perino was engaged in the general
decoration of the Sala Reale, begun by Paul III., when his health,
undermined by constant work and as constant irregularities,
gave way, and he fell down dead on the igth of October 1547.
He is buried in the Pantheon.

Perino produced some excellent portraits, and his smaller oil
pictures combine with the manner of Raphael something of that
of Adreadel Sarto. Many of his works were engraved, even in
his own lifetime. Daniele Ricciarelli, Girolamo Siciolante da Ser-
moneta, Luzio Romano and Marcello Venusti (Mantovano) were
among his principal assistants. (W. M. R.)

PERINTHUS (Turk. Eski Eregli, old Heraclea), an ancient
town of Thrace, on thePropontis, 22m. W. of Selymbria, strongly
situated on a small peninsula on the bay of that name. It is
said to have been a Samian colony, founded about 599 B.C.
According to Tzetzes, its original name was Mygdonia; later
it was called Heraclea (Heraclea Thraciae, Heraclea Perinthus).
It is famous chiefly for its stubborn and successful resistance
to Philip II. of Macedon in 340; at that time it seems to have
been more important than Byzantium itself.

PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, irepi,
round, and 656s, way, road), a circuit or course of time, a cycle;
particularly the duration of time in which a'planet revolves
round its sun, or a satellite round its primary, a 'definite or
indefinite recurring interval of time marked by some special
or peculiar character, e.g. in history, literature, art, &c.; it is
so used of a division of geological time. Particular uses of the
word are for the various phases through which a disease passes,
the termination or conclusion of. any course of events, the pause
at the end of a completed sentence, and the mark (.) used to
signify the same (see PUNCTUATION).

PERIODICALS, a general term for literary publications
which appear in numbers or parts at regular intervals of time — •
as a rule, weekly, monthly or quarterly. The term strictly
includes "newspapers" (q.v.), but in the narrower sense usually
intended it is distinguished as a convenient expression for
periodical publications which differ from newspapers in not
being primarily for the circulation of news or information of
ephemeral interest, and in being issued at longer intervals. In
modern times the weekly journal has become so much of the
nature of a newspaper that it seldom can be called a periodical
in this sense. The present article chiefly deals with publications
devoted to general literature, literary and critical reviews
and magazines for the supply of miscellaneous reading. In
the article SOCIETIES (q.v.) an account is separately given of
the transactions and proceedings of learned and scientific bodies.
Year-books, almanacs, directories and other annuals belong to
a distinct type of publication, and are not referred to here.

BRITISH

The first literary periodical in English was the Mercurius librarius,
or a Faithful Account of all Books and Pamphlets (1680), a mere
catalogue, published weekly or fortnightly in London, followed
by Weekly Memorials for the Ingenious (Jan. 16, 1681—1682 to Jan.
15, 1683), which was more of the type of the Journal des Savants
(see under FRANCE below), whence it borrowed many contributions.
Of the History of Learning (1691) — another with the same title came
out in 1694 — only a few numbers appeared, as the conductor, De
la Crose, started the monthly Works of the Learned (Aug. 1691 to
April 1692), devoted principally to continental scholarship. The
monthly Compleat Library (1692 to 1694) was a venture of John
Dunton; the monthly Memoirs for the Ingenious (1693), edited by
J. de la Crose, ran for 12 months, and another with the same title
appeared in the following year, only to enjoy a briefer career. The
first periodical of merit and influence was the History of the Works
of the Learned (1699-1712), largely consisting of descriptions of
foreign books. The Memoirs of Literature, the first English review
consisting entirely of original matter, published in London from
1710 to 1714, had for editor Michel de la Roche, a French Protestant

refugee, who also edited at Amsterdam the Bibliotheque angloise
(1717-1719), and subsequently Memoires litttraires de la Grande
Bretagne (1720-1724). Returning to England in 1725, he recom-
menced his New Memoirs of Literature (1725-1728), a monthly, and
in 1730 a Literary Journal. Dr Samuel Jebb started Bibliotheca
literaria (1722-1724), to appear every two months, which dealt
with medals and antiquities as well as with literature, but only ten
numbers appeared. The Present State of the Republick of Letters
was commenced by Andrew Reid in January 1728, and completed
in December 1736. It contained not only excellent reviews of
English books but papers from the works of foreigners. Two
volumes came put each year. It was successful, as also was the
Historia literaria (1730-1734) of Archibald Bower.1 The Bee, or
Universal Weekly Pamphlet (1733-1735) of the unfortunate Eustace
Budgell, and the Literary Magazine (1735-1736), with which
Ephraim Chambers had much to do, were short-lived. The
last named was continued in 1737 as the History of the Works
of the Learned, and was carried on without intermission until
1743, when its place was taken by A Literary Journal (Dublin,
1744-1749), the first review published in Ireland. The Museum
(1746) of R. Dodsley united the character of a review of books with
that of a literary magazine. It came out fortnightly to the I2th
of September 1747. Although England can show nothing like the
Journal des savants, which has flourished almost without a break
for two and a half centuries, a nearly complete series of reviews
of English literature may be made up from 1681 to the present
day.

After the close of the first quarter of the 1 8th century the literary
periodical began to assume more of the style of the modern review,
and in 1749 the title and the chief features were united in the Monthly
Review, established by Ralph Griffiths,2 who conducted it until
1803, whence it was edited by his son down to 1825. It came to
an end in 1845. From its commencement the Review dealt with
science and literature, as well as with literary criticism. It was
Whig in politics and Nonconformist in theology. The first series
ran from 1749 to December 1789, 81 vols. ; the second from 1790
to 1815, 108 vols. ; the third or new series from 1826101 830, 1 5 vols. ;
and the fourth from 1831 to 1845, 45 vols., when the magazine
stopped. There is a general index (1749-1789) 3 vols., and another
(1790-1816), 2 vols.

The Tory party and the established church were defended in the
Critical Review (1756-1817), founded by Archibald Hamilton and
supported by Smollett, Dr Johnson and Robertson. Johnson
contributed to fifteen numbers of the Literary Magazine (1756-1758).
The reviews rapidly increased in number towards the end of the
century. Among the principal were the London Review (1775-1780),
A NewReview (1782-1786), the English Review (ij8$-i7<)6), incorpor-
ated in 1797 with the Analytical Review (1788-1799), the Anti-
Jacobin Review and Magazine (1798-1821), and the British Critic
(I793~I843), the organ of the High Church party, and first edited
by Archdeacon Nares and Beloe.

These periodicals had now become extremely numerous, and
many of the leading London publishers found it convenient to
maintain their own particular organs. It is not a _
matter of surprise, therefore, that the authority of v"*™ **
the reviews should have fallen somewhat in public estimation.
The time was ripe for one which should be quite independent
of the booksellers, and which should also aim at a higher
standard of excellence. As far back as 1755 Adam Smith, Blair
and others had produced an Edinburgh Review which only ran to
two numbers, and in 1773 Gilbert Stuart and William SmeHie
issued during three years an Edinburgh Magazine and Review.
To Edinburgh is also due the first high-class critical journal,
the Edinburgh Review, established in October 1802 by Jeffrey,
Scott, Horner, Brougham and Sydney Smith. It created a new
era in periodical criticism, and assumed from the commencement
a wider range and more elevated tone than any of its predecessors.
The first editor was Sydney Smith, then Jeffrey for many years,
and later editors were Macvey Napier, William Empson, Sir G. C.
Lewis, Henry Reeve and the Hon. Arthur Elliot. Its buff and blue
coyer was adopted from the colours of the Whig party whose political
principles it advocated. Among its more famous contributors were
Lord Brougham, Sir Walter Scott, Carlyle, Hazlitt and Macaulay.
Scott, being dissatisfied with the new review, persuaded John
Murray, his London publisher, to start its brilliant Tory competitor,
the Quarterly Review (Feb. 1809), first edited by William Gifford,
then by Sir J. T. Coleridge, and subsequently by J. G. Lockhart,
Rev. Whitwell Elwin, W. M. Macpherson, Sir Wm. Smith, Rowland
Prothero and G. W. Prothero. Among the contributors in successive
years were Canning, Scott (who reviewed himself), Robert Southey,

'Archibald Bower (1686-1766) was educated at Douai, and
became a Jesuit. He subsequently professed himself a convert to
the Anglican Church, and published a number of works, but was
more esteemed for his ability than for his moral character.

2 The biographers of Goldsmith have made us familiar with the
name of Griffiths (1720-1803), the prosperous publisher, with his
diploma of LL.D. granted by an American university, and with the
quarrels between him and the poet.

152

PERIODICALS

Sir John Barrow, J. Wilson Croker, Isaac Disraeli, A. W. Kinglake,
Lord Salisbury and W. E. Gladstone.1 The Westminster Review
(1824), established by the followers of Jeremy Bentham, advocated
radical reforms in church, state and legislation. In 1836 it was
joined to the London Review (1829), founded by Sir William Moles-
worth, and then bore the name of the London and Westminster
Review till 1851, when it returned to the original title. Other
quarterly reviews worth mentioning are the Eclectic Review (1805-
1868), edited down to 1834 by Josiah Conder (1789-1855) and
supported by the Dissenters; the British Review (1811-1825; the
Christian Remembrancer (1819-1868); the Retrospective Review
(1820-1826, 1828, 1853-1854), for old books; the Foreign Quarterly
Review (1827-1846), afterwards incorporated with the Westminster;
the Foreign Review (1828-1829); the Dublin Review (1836), a Roman
Catholic organ; the Foreign and Colonial Quarterly Review (1843-
1847) ; the Prospective Review (1845-1855), given up to theology and
literature, previously the Christian Teacher (1835-1844); the North
British Review (1844-1871); the British Quarterly Review (1845),
successor to the British and Foreign Review (1835-1844); the New
Quarterly Review (1852-1861), the Scottish Review (1853-1862),
published at Glasgow; the Wesleyan London Quarterly Review
(1853- ); the National Review (1855-1864); the Diplomatic
Review (1855-1881); the Irish Quarterly Review (1851-1859),
brought out in Dublin; the Home and Foreign Review (1862-1864);
the Fine Arts Quarterly Review (1863-1865); the New Quarterly
Magazine (1873-1880); the Catholic Union Review (1863-1874);
the Anglican Church Quarterly Review (1875); Mind (1876), dealing
with mental philosophy; the Modern Review (1880-1884); the
Scottish Review (1882) ; the Asiatic Quarterly Review (1886; since 1891
the Imperial and Asiatic Quarterly Review) ; and the Jewish Quarterly
Review.

The monthly reviews include the Christian Observer (1802-1857),
conducted by members of the established church upon evangelical
principles, with Zachary Macaulay as the first editor;
Monthlies. an(j the Monthly Repository (1806-1837), originally
purely theological, but after coming into the hands of the Rev.
W. J. Fox made entirely literary and political. The Fortnightly
Review (1865), edited successively by G. H. Lewes, John Morley,
T. H. S. Escott, Frank Harris, Oswald Crawfurd and W. L. Courtney,
was intended as a kind of English Revue des deux mondes. Since
1866 it has appeared monthly. The Contemporary Review (1866),
long edited by Sir Percy Bunting, and the Nineteenth Century (1877),
founded and edited by Sir James Knowles (q.v.), and renamed
Nineteenth Century and After in 1900, are similar in character,
consisting of signed articles by men of mark of all opinions upon
questions of the day. The National Review (1883), edited succes-
sively by Alfred Austin, W. Earl Hodgson, and L. J. Maxse, is alone
in taking editorially a pronounced party line in politics as a Conser-
vative organ. Modern Thought (1879-1884), for the free discussion
of political, religious and social subjects, and the Modern Review
(1892—1894) may also be mentioned. Other monthlies are the
Indian Magazine (1871); the Irish Monthly (Dublin, 1873); the
Gaelic Journal (Dublin, 1882); the African Review (1892) and the
Empire Review (1900). The Monthly Review (1900-1908), edited till
1904 by Henry Newbolt, was for some years a notable addition to
the high class literary monthlies.

The weekly reviews dealing generally with literature, science and
art are the Literary Gazette (1817-1862), first edited by William
_. ... Jerdan; the Athenaeum (1828), founded by James Silk
/es' Buckingham, but successfully established by C. W.
Dilke, and long edited in later years by Norman MacColl (1843-1904),
and afterwards by Mr Vernon Rendall; and the Academy (1869).
Among those which also include political and social topics, and are
more particularly dealt with under NEWSPAPERS, may be mentioned,
the Examiner (1808-1881), the Spectator (1828), the Saturday Review
(1855), the Scots or National Observer (1888-1897), Outlook (1898),
Pilot (1900-1903), and Speaker (1890), which became the Nation.

Soon after the introduction of the literary journal in England,
one of a more familiar tone was started by the eccentric John Dunton
in the Athenian Gazette, or Casuistical Mercury, resolving all the most
Nice and Curious Questions (1689-1690 to 1695-1696), afterwards
called The Athenian Mercury, a kind of forerunner of Notes and
Queries, being a penny weekly sheet, with a quarterly critical
supplement. In the last part the publisher announces that it will
be continued " as soon as ever the glut of news is a little over."
Dunton was assisted by Richard Sault and Samuel Wesley. Defoe's
Review (i_7O4-i7_i3) dealt chiefly with politics and commerce, but the
introduction in it of what its editor fittingly termed the "scandalous
club " was another step nearer the papers of Steele and the periodical
essayists, the first attempts to create an organized popular opinion
in matters of taste and manners. These little papers, rapidly thrown
off for a temporary purpose, were destined to form a very important

1 The centenary of the Edinburgh Review was celebrated in an
article in October 1902, and that of the Quarterly Review in two
articles April and July 1909. See also On the Authorship of the First
Hundred Numbers of the Edinburgh Review (1895), by W. A. Copinger,
and The First Edinburgh Reviewers in Literary Studies (1879), vol.
i., by W. Bagehot.

part of the literature of the i8th century, and in some respects its
most marked feature. Although the frequenters of the clubs and
coffee-houses were the persons for whom the essay-papers were
mainly written, a proof of the increasing refinement of the age is
to be found in the fact that now for the first time were women
specially addressed as part of the reading public. The
Taller was commenced by Richard Steele in 1709, and Tatter, Ac.
issued thrice a week until 1711. The idea was at once
extremely popular, and a dozen similar papers were started within
the year, at least one half bearing colourable imitations of the title.
Addison contributed to the Taller, and together with Steele estab-
lished and carried on the Spectator (1710-1714), and subsequently
the Guardian (1713). The newspaper tax enforced in 1712 dealt
a hard blow at these. Before this time the daily issue of the Spectator
had reached 3000 copies; it then fell to 1600; the price was raised
from a penny to twopence, but the paper came to an end in 1714.
Dr Drake (Essays illustr. of the Rambler, &c., ii. 490) drew up an
imperfect list of the essayists, and reckoned that from the Taller
to Johnson's Rambler, during a period of forty-one years, 106 papers
of this description were published. Dr Drake continued the list
down to 1809, and described altogether 221 which had appeared
within a hundred years. The following is a list of the most consider-
able, with their dates, founders and chief contributors: —

Taller (April 12, 1709 to Jan. 2, 1710-1711), Steele, Addison,
Swift, Hughes, &c. ; Spectator (March 1, 1710-1711 to Dec. 20, 1714),
Addison, Steele, Budgell, Hughes, Grove, Pope, Parnell, Swift, &c. ;
Guardian (March 12, 1713 to Oct. I, 1713), Steele, Addison, Berkeley,
Pope, Tickell, Budgell, &c.; Rambler (March 20, 1750 to March 14,
I752). Johnson; Adventurer (Nov. 7, 1752 to March 9, 1754), Hawkes-
worth, Johnson, Bathurst, Warton, Chapone; World (Jan. 4, 1753
to Dec. 30, 1756), E. Moore, earl of Chesterfield, R. O. Cambridge,
earl of Orford, Soame Jenyns, &c.; Connoisseur (Tan. 31, 1754 to
Sept. 30, 1756), Colman,, Thornton, Warton, earl of Cork, &c.; Idler
(April 15, 1758 to April 5, 1760), Johnson, Sir J. Reynolds and Bennet
Langton; Bee (Oct. 6, 1759 to Nov. 24, 1759), O. Goldsmith; Mirror
(Jan. 23, 1779 to May 27, 1780), Mackenzie, Craig, Abercromby,
Home, Bannatyne, &c.; Lounger (Feb. 5, 1785 to Jan. 6, 1787),
Mackenzie, Craig, Abercromby, Tytler; Observer (1785 to 1790),
Cumberland ; Looker-on (March 10, 1792 to Feb. 1, 1794), W. Roberts,
Beresford, Chalmers.

As from the " pamphlet of news " arose the weekly paper wholly
devoted to the circulation of news, so from the general newspaper
was specialized the weekly or monthly review of litera-
ture, antiquities and science, which, when it included^0
essay-papers, made up the magazine or miscellaneous ***"'
repository of matter for information and amusement. Several
monthly publications had come into existence since 1681, but perhaps
the first germ of the magazine is to be found in the Gentleman's
Journal (1691-1694) of Peter Motteux, which, besides, the news of
the month, contained miscellaneous prose and poetry. Dr Samuel
Jebb included antiquarian notices as well as literary reviews in
his Bibliotheca literaria (1722-1724), previously mentioned, but the
Gentleman's Magazine, founded in 1731, fully established, through
the tact and energy of the publisher Edward Cave (q.v.), the type
of the magazine, from that time so marked a feature of English
periodical literature. The first idea is due to Motteux, from whom
the title, motto and general plan were borrowed. The chief feature in
the new venture at first consisted of the analysis of the journals,

Monthly Intelligencer (1732-1784), which had a long and prosperous
career. The new magazine closely copied Cave's title, plan and
aspect, and bitter war was long waged between the two. The rivalry
was not without benefit to the literary public, as the conductors
of each used every effort to improve their own review. Cave intro-
duced the practice of giving engravings, maps and portraits, but
his greatest success was the addition of Samuel Johnson (q.v.) to
the regular staff. This took place in 1738, when the latter wrote
the preface to the volume for that year, observing that the magazine
had " given rise to almost twenty imitations of it, which are either
all dead or very little regarded. The plan was also imitated in
Denmark, Sweden and Germany. The Gentleman's Magazine was
continued by Cave's brother-in-law, David Henry, afterwards by
John Nichols and his son.2 Cave appears to have been the first

The first series of the Gentleman's Magazine or Trader's Monthly
Intelligencer, extended from January 1731 to December 1735, 5 vols. ;
the Gentleman's Magazine and Historical Chronicle from January
1736 to December 1807, vols. 6-77; new series, January 1808 to
December 1833, vols. 78-103; new series, 1834-1856, 45 vols.;
new (third) series, 1856-1865, 19 vols.; new (fourth) series, 1866-
1868, 5 vols. A general index to the first twenty vols. appeared
'n J753- S. Ayscough brought out an index to the first fifty-six vols.,
1731-1786 (1789), 2 vols., and one by J. Nichols, 1787-1818 (1821),
2 vols. A complete list of the plates and woodcuts (1731-1813) was
published in 1814, and another list (1731-1818), in 1821. The
Gentleman's Magazine Library, being a classified collection of the chief
contents of the Gentleman's Magazine, from 1731 to 1868, is now
being edited by Mr G. L. Gomme (1883, &c., vols. 1-17).

PERIODICALS

to use the word magazine in the sense of a periodical of miscellaneous
literature. The specially antiquarian, biographical and historical
features, which make this magazine so valuable a store-house for
information for the period it covers, were dropped in 1868, when
an " entirely new series," a miscellany of light literature was succes-
sively edited by Gowing, Joseph Hatton and Joseph Knight.

Many other magazines were produced in consequence of the success
of these two. It will be sufficient to mention the following: The
Scots Magazine (17 39-1817) was the first published in Scotland; from
1817 to 1826 it was styled the Edinburgh Magazine. The Universal
Magazine (1747) had a short, if brilliant, career; but the European
Magazine, founded by James Perry in 1782, lasted down to 1826.
Of more importance than these, or than the Royal Magazine (1759-
1771) was the Monthly Magazine (1796-1843), with which Priestley
and Godwin were originally connected. During thirty years the
Monthly was conducted by Sir Richard Phillips, under whom it
became more statistical and scientific than literary. Class magazines
were represented by the Edinburgh Farmer's Magazine (1800-1825)
and the Philosophical Magazine (1798), established in London by
Alexander Tilloch ; the latter at first consisted chiefly of translations
of scientific articles from the French. The following periodicals, all
of which date from the l8th century, are still published: the Gospel
Magazine ( 1 766, with which is incorporated the British Protestant) , the
Wesleyan Methodist Magazine (1778), Curlis's Botanical Magazine
(1786), Evangelical Magazine (1793; since 1905 the Evangelical
British Missionary), the Philosophical Magazine (1798), now known
as the London, Edinburgh and Dublin Philosophical Magazine.

The increased influence of this class of periodical upon public
opinion was first apparent in Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine,
founded in 1817 by the publisher of that name, and carried to a
high degree of excellence by the contributions of Scott, Lockhart,
Hogg, Maginn, Syme and John Wilson (" Christopher North "),
John Gait and Samuel Warren. It has always remained Liberal
in literature and Conservative in politics. The New Monthly
Magazine is somewhat earlier in date. It was founded in 1814
by the London publisher, Colburn, and was edited in turn by
Campbell, Theodore Hook, Bulwer-Lytton and Ainsworth. Many of
Carlyle's and Thackeray's pieces first appeared in Fraser's Magazine
(1830), long famous for its personalities and its gallery of literary
portraits. The Metropolitan Magazine was started in opposition
to Fraser, and was first edited by Campbell, who had left its rival.
It subsequently came into the hands of Captain Marryatt, who
printed in it many of his sea-tales. The British Magazine (1832—
1849) included religious and ecclesiastical information. From
Ireland came the Dublin University Magazine (1833). The regular
price of these magazines was half a crown; the first of the cheaper
ones was Tail's Edinburgh Magazine (1832-1861) at a shilling. It
was Radical in politics, and had Roebuck as one of its founders.
Bentley's Miscellany (1837—1868) was exclusively devoted to novels,
light literature and travels. Several of Ainsworth's romances,
illustrated by Cruikshank, first saw the light in Bentley. The
Nautical Magazine (1832) was addressed specially to sailors, and
Colburn's United Service Journal (1829) to both services. The
Asiatic Journal (1816) dealt with Oriental subjects.

From 1815 to 1820 a number of low-priced and unwholesome
periodicals flourished. The Mirror (1823-1849), a two-penny
illustrated magazine, begun by John Limbird,1 and
'™*"the Mechanics Magazine (1823) were steps in a better
""• direction. The political agitation of 1831 led to a further
popular demand, and a supply of cheap and healthy serials for
the reading multitude commenced with Chambers's Journal (1832),
the Penny Magazine (1832-1845) of Charles Knight, and the Saturday
Magazine (1832—1844), begun by the Society for Promoting Christian
Knowledge. The first was published at I Jd. and the last two at id.
Knight secured the best authors and artists of the day to write for
and illustrate his magazine, which, though at first a commercial
success, may have had the reason of its subsequent discontinuance
in its literary excellence. At the end of 1832 it had reached a sale
of 200,000 in weekly numbers and monthly parts. It came to an
end in 1845 and was succeeded by Knight's Penny Magazine
(1845), which was stopped after six monthly parts. These periodicals
were followed by a number of penny weeklies of a lower tone, such
as the Family Herald (1843), the London Journal (1845) and Lloyd's
Miscellany. In 1850 the sale of the first of them was placed at
175,000 copies, the second at 170,000, and Lloyd's at 95,000. In
1846 fourteen penny and three half-penny magazines, twelve social
journals, and thirty-seven book-serials were produced every week
in London. A further and permanent improvement in cheap
weeklies for home reading may be traced from the foundation of
Howitt's Journal (1847-1849), and more especially Household Words
(1850), conducted by Charles Dickens, All the Year Round (1859),
by the same editor, and afterwards by his son, Once A Week (1859),
and the Leisure Hour (1852). The plan of Notes and Queries (1849),
for the purpose of inter-communication among those interested in
special points of literary and antiquarian character, has led to the

1 John Limbird, to whom even before Chambers or Knight is
due the carrying out the idea of a cheap and good periodical for the
people, died on the 3ist of October 1883, without having achieved
the worldly prosperity of his two followers.

adoption of similar departments in a great number of newspapers
and periodicals, and, besides several imitators in England, there
are now parallel journals in Holland, France, and Italy.

Shilling monthlies began with Macmillan (1859), the Cornhill
(1860), first edited by Thackeray, and Temple Bar (1860). St
James's Magazine (1861), Belgrama (1866), St Paul's (1867-1874),
London Society (1862), and Tinsley's (1867) were devoted chiefly
to novels and light reading. Sixpenny illustrated magazines com-
menced with Good Words (1860) and the Quiver (1861), both religious
in tendency. In 1882 Fraser changed its name to Longman's
Magazine, and was popularized and reduced to sixpence. The
Cornhill followed the same example in 1883, reducing its price to
sixpence and devoting its pages to light reading. The English
Illustrated Magazine (1883) was brought out in competition with
the American Harper's and Century. The Pall Mall Magazine
followed in 1893. Of the artistic periodicals we may signalize the
Art Journal (1849), Portfolio (1870), Magazine of Art (1878-1904),
Studio (1893), Connoisseur (1901), and Burlington (1903). The
Bookman (1886), for a combination of popular and literary qualities,
and the Badminton (1895), for sport, also deserve mention. One
of the most characteristic developments of later journalism was
the establishment in 1890 of the Review of Reviews by W. T. Stead.
Meanwhile the number of cheap periodicals increased enormously,
such as the weekly Tit-bits (1881), and Answers (1888), and profusely
illustrated magazines appeared, like the Strand (1891), Pearson's
(1896), or Windsor (1895). Professions and trades now have not
only their general class-periodicals, but a special review or magazine
for every section. In 1910 the magazines and reviews published in
the United Kingdom numbered 2795. Religious periodicals were
668; 338 were devoted to trade; 361 to sport; 691 represented the
professional classes; 51 agriculture; and 218 were juvenile periodicals.
The London monthlies were 797 and the quarterlies 155.

Indexes to English Periodicals. — A large number of periodicals
do not preserve literary matter of permanent value, but the high-
class reviews and the archaeological, artistic and scientific magazines
contain a great mass of valuable facts, so that general and special
indexes have become necessary to all literary workers. Lists of
the separate indexes to particular series are given in H. B. Wheatley's
What is an Index? (1879), W. P. Courtney's Register of National
Bibliography (1905, 2 vols.), and the List of Books forming the
Reference Library in the reading room of the British Museum (4th ed.
1910, 2 vols).

AUTHORITIES. — " Periodicals," in the British Museum catalogue;
Lowndes, Bibliographer's Manual,^ by Hy. G. Bohn, (1864); Cat. of
Periodicals in the Bodl. Lib., pt. i., " English Periodicals " (1878);
Cat. of the Hope Collection of Early Newspapers and Essayists in the
Bodl. Lib. (1865) ; Scudder, Cat. of Scientific Serials (1879) ; Andrews,
Hist, of Brit. Journalism (1859) ; Cucheval Clarigny, Hist, de la Presse
en Angleterre et aux Etats Unis (1857) ; Madden, Hist, of Irish Period.
Lit. (1867); J. Grant, The Great Metropolis, ii. 229-327; " Periodical
Essays of the Age of Anne," in N. American Rev. vol. xlvi.; Drake,
Essays on the " Spectator," " Taller," &c. (1810-1814); Courthope,
Addison (" Engl. Men of Letters," 1884); "Forgotten Periodical
Publications," in Notes and Queries, 3rd series, vol. ix. p. 53;
" Account of Periodical Literary Journals from 1681 to 1749," by
S. Parkes, in Quart. Journ. ofSc., Lit., &c., xiii. 36, 289 ; see also Notes
and Queries, 1st series, vol. vi. pp. 327, 435; "Last Century
Magazines," in Fraser's Mag. Sept. (1876), p. 325; " Periodicals
during 1712-1732," in Notes and Queries, 3rd series, vol. ix. p. 72,
&c., x. 134; " Catholic Period. Lit.," ib., 5th series, vol. xi. 427, 494;
" Early Roman Catholic Magazines," ib., 6th series, vol. iii. p. 43,
&c., iv. 211; Timperley, Ency. of Lit. Anec. (1842); C. Knight,
The Old Printer and the Modern Press (1854), and Passages of
a Working Life (1864-1865); Memoir of Robert Chambers (1872);
the London Cat. of Periodicals, Newspapers, &fc. (1844-1910); The
Bookseller (February 1867, June and July 1868, August 1874, July
'879); "On the Unstamped Press," Notes and Queries, 4th series,

Periodical Literature," Walford's Antiq. Mag. (1887), xi. 179-186,
xii. 65-74; Catalogue of Magazines &c., reed, at the Melbourne Pub,
Lib. (1891); "English Periodical Literature," by W. Robertson
Nicoll, Bookman (1895), vol. i. ; " The Periodical Press, 1865-1895,"
by T. H. S. Escort, Blackwood (1894), pp. 156, 532; "Bibliography
of Periodical Literature," by F. Campbell, The Library (1898), viu.
49; " Bibliography of the British Periodical Press," by D. Williams
in Mitchell's Newspaper Directory (1902), pp. 12-13; " English
Reviews," by A. Waugh, Critic, vol. 40; " Excursus on Periodical
Criticism," Saintsbury, History of Criticism (1904), iii. 408-428.
As regards the treatment of periodicals in libraries see " Helps
for Cataloguers of Serials," by H. C. Bolton in Boston Bull, of Biblio-
graphy (1897); " Co-operative lists of periodicals," Library Journal,
(1899), xxiv. 29-32, " Union List of Periodicals in Chicago Libraries,"
Public Libraries, Chicago (1900), v. 60; " Care of Periodicals
in a Library," by F. R. Jackson, Public Libraries, Chicago (1906), vol.
xi. Complete lists of current British periodicals are included in
Mitchell's Newspaper Press Directory, Street's Newspaper Directory,
and Willing's Press Guide, and a select list and other information
are given in the Literary Year Book.

154

PERIODICALS

UNITED STATES

The two earliest American miscellanies were produced almost
simultaneously. Spurred by the success of the Gentleman's Magazine
in England Benjamin Franklin founded the General Magazine
(1741) at Philadelphia, but it expired after six monthly numbers
had appeared. Franklin's rival, Andrew Bradford, forestalled
him by three days with the American Magazine (1741) edited by
John Webbe, which ran only to two numbers. Further attempts at
Philadelphia in 1757 and 1769 to revive periodicals with the same
name were both fruitless. The other pre-revolutionary magazines
were the Boston American Magazine (1743—1747), in imitation of
the London Magazine; the Boston Weekly Magazine (1743); the
Christian History (1743-1744); the New York Independent Reflector
(1752-1754); the Boston New England Magazine (1758-1760), a
collection of fugitive pieces; the Boston Royal American Magazine
(1774-1775); and the Pennsylvania Magazine (1775-1776), founded
by Robert Aitken, with the help of Thomas Paine. The Columbian
Magazine (1786-1790) was continued as the Universal Asylum
(1790-1792). Matthew Carey brought out the American Museum
in 1787, and it lasted until 1792. Among the other magazines which
ran out a brief existence before the end of the century was the
Philadelphia Political Censor or Monthly Review (I79&-I797) edited
by William Cobbett. One of the most successful was the Farmer's
Weekly Museum (1790-1799), supported by perhaps the most
brilliant staff of writers American periodical literature had yet
been able to show, and edited by Joseph Dennie, who in 1801 began
the publication of the Portfolio, carried on to 1827 at Philadelphia.
For five years it was a weekly miscellany in quarto, and afterwards
an octavo monthly; it was the first American serial which could
boast of so long an existence. Charles Brockden Brown established
the New York Monthly Magazine (1799), which, changing its title
to The American Review, was continued to 1802. Brown founded
at Philadelphia the Literary Magazine (1803-1808); he and Dennie
may be considered as having been the first American professional
men of letters. The Anthology Club was established at Boston in
1803 by Phineas Adams for the cultivation of literature and the
discussion of philosophy. Ticknor, Everett and Bigelow were
among the members, and were contributors to the organ of the club,
the monthly Anthology and Boston Review (1803-1811), the fore-
runner of the North American Review. In the year 1810 Thomas
(Printing in America, ii. 292) informs us that 27 periodicals were
issued in the United States. The first serious rival of the Portfolio
was the Analectic Magazine (1813-1820), founded at Philadelphia
by Moses Thomas, with the literary assistance of W. Irving (for
some time the editor), Paulding, and the ornithologist Wilson. In
spite of a large subscription list it came to an end on account of
the costly style of its production. The first southern serial was
the Monthly Register (1805) of Charleston. New York possessed
no periodical worthy of the city until 1824, when the Atlantic
Magazine appeared, which changed its name shortly afterwards
to the New York Monthly Review, and was supported by R. C. Sands
and W. C. Bryant. N. P. Willis was one of the editors of the New
York Mirror (1823-1842). Between 1840 and iS^oGraham's Magazine
was the leading popular miscellany in the country, reaching at
one time a circulation of about 35,000 copies. The first western
periodical was the Illinois Monthly Magazine (1830-1832), published,
owned, edited and almost entirely written by James Hall, who
followed with his Western Monthly Magazine (1833— 1836), produced
in a similar manner. In 1833 the novelist C. F. Hoffman founded
at New York the Knickerbocker (1833-1860), which soon passed
under the control of Timothy Flint and became extremely successful,
most of the leading native writers of the next twenty years having
been contributors. Equally popular was Putnam's Monthly Magazine
(1853-1857,1867-1869). It wasrevivedin 1906-1910. TheZ>io/(i84O-
1844), Boston, the organ of the transcendentalists, was first edited
by Margaret Fuller, and subsequently by R. W. Emerson and G.
Ripley. Other magazines were the American Monthly Magazine
(1833-1838), the Southern Literary Messenger (1834), Richmond, the
Gentleman's Magazine (1837-1840), and the International Magazine
(1850-1852), edited by R. W. Gnswold. The Yale Literary Magazine
dated from 1836. The Merchants' Magazine was united in 1871 with
the Commercial and Financial Chronicle. First in order of date
among the current monthly magazines comes the New York Harper's
New Monthly M agazine (i 850) . theearliest existing illustrated American
serial, then the Boston Atlantic Monthly (1857), with which was
incorporated the Galaxy (1866) in 1878, famous for its editors Lowell,
Howells and T. B. Aldrich, and its contributors O. W. Holmes,
Longfellow, Whittier and others. Next came Lippincotfs Magazine
(1868) from Philadelphia, and the Cosmopolitan (1886) and Scribner's
Monthly (1870, known as the Century Illustrated Magazine since
1881) from New York. These were followed by Scribner's Magazine
(1887), the New England Magazine (1889), the Illustrated Review of
Reviews (1890), McClure's Magazine (1893), the Bookman (1895), the
World's Work (1902), the American Magazine (1906) succeeding
Frank Leslie's Popular Monthly, and Munsey's Magazine (1889).
All are illustrated, and three in particular, the Century, Scribner's
and Harper's, carried the art of wood-engraving to a high standard
of excellence.

The first attempt to carry on an American review was made by
Robert Walsh in 1811 at Philadelphia with the quarterly American

Review of History and Politics, which lasted only a couple of years.
Still more brief was the existence of the General Repository and
Review (1812), brought out at Cambridge by Andrews Norton with
the help of the professors of the university, but of which only four
numbers appeared. Niles's Weekly Register (1811-1848) was
political, historical and literary. The North American Review, the
oldest and most famous of all the American reviews, dates from 1815,
and was founded by William Tudor, a member of the previously
mentioned Anthology Club. After two years' control Tudor handed
over the review to the club, then styled the North American Club,
whose most active members were E. T. Channing, R. H. Dana and
Jared Sparks. In 1819 E. Everett became the editor; his brother
Alexander acquired the property in 1829. The roll of contributors
numbers almost every American writer of note. Since 1879 it has
been published monthly (except in Sept. ioo6-Sept. 1907, when itap-
peared semi-monthly). The American Quarterly Review (1827-1837),
established at Philadelphia by Robert Walsh, came to an end on
his departure for Europe. The Southern Quarterly Review (1828-
1832), conducted by H. Legare, S. Elliot and G. W. Simms in defence
of the politics and finance of the South, enjoyed a shorter career.
It was resuscitated in 1842, and lived another thirteen years. These
two were followed by the Democratic Review (1838-1852), the American
Review (1845-1849), afterwards the American Whig Review (1850-
1 852) , the Massachusetts Quarterly Review ( 1 847- 1 850) , and a few more.
The New Englander (1843-1892), the Biblical Repertory and Princeton
Review (1825), the National Quarterly Review (1860) and the New
York International Review (1874-1883), may also be mentioned.
The critical weeklies of the past include the New York Literary
Gazette (1834-1835, 1839), De Bow's Review (1846), the Literary
World (1847-1853), the Criterion (1855-1856), the Round Table
(1863-1864), the Citizen (1864-1873), and Appleton's Journal (1869).
The leading current monthlies include the New York Forum (1886),
Arena (1890), Current Literature (1888), and Bookman, the Chicago
Dial (1880), and the Greenwich, Connecticut, Literary Collector.
Foremost among the weeklies comes the New York Nation (1865).
• Religious periodicals have been extremely numerous in the United
States. The earliest was the Theological Magazine (1796-1798).
The Christian Examiner dates from 1824 and lasted down to 1870.
The Panoplist (1805) changed its name to the Missionary Herald,
representing the American Board of Missions. The Methodist
Magazine dates from 1818 and the Christian Disciple from 1813.
The American Biblical Respositpry (1831-1850), a quarterly, was
united with the Andover Bibliotheca Sacra (1843) and with the
Theological Eclectic (1865). Brownson's Quarterly Review began
as the Boston Quarterly Review in 1838, and did much to introduce
to American readers the works of the modern French philosophical
school. Other serials of this class are the Protestant Episcopal
Quarterly Review (1854), the Presbyterian Magazine (1851-1860),
the Catholic World (1865), the Southern Review (1867), the New
Jerusalem Magazine (1827), American Baptist Magazine (1817), the
Church Review (1848), the Christian Review (1836), the Vniversalist
Quarterly (1844). Current religious quarterlies are the Chicago
American Journal of Theology and the Oberlin Bibliotheca Sacra.
The Chicago Biblical World is published monthly.

Among historical periodicals may be numbered the American
Register (1806-1811), Stryker's American Register (1848-1851),
Edwards's American Quarterly Register (1829-1843), the New
England Historical and Genealogical Register (1847), Folsom's
Historical Magazine (1857), the New York Genealogical Record
(1869), and the Magazine of American History (1877). There is also
the Lancaster, Pennsylvania, American Historical Review, issued
quarterly.

Many serial publications have been almost entirely made up of
extracts from English sources. Perhaps the earliest example is
to be found in Select Views of Literature (1811-1812). The Eclectic
Magazine (1844) and Littell's Living Age (1844) may be mentioned.

In 1817 America possessed only one scientific periodical, the
Journal of Mineralogy. Professor Silliman established the journal
known by his name in 1818. Since that time the American Journal
of Science has enjoyed unceasing favour. The special periodicals
of the day are very numerous. Among the most representative
are: the Popular Science Monthly, New York; the monthly Boston
Journal of Education; the quarterly American Journal of Mathe-
matics, Baltimore ; the monthly Gassier' s Magazine (1891), New York;
the monthly American Engineer (1893), New York; the monthly
House and Garden, Philadelphia; the monthly Aslrophysical Journal,
commenced as Sidereal Messenger (1882), Chicago; the monthly
American Chemical Journal, Baltimore; the monthly American
Naturalist, Boston; the monthly American Journal of the Medical
Sciences, Philadelphia; the monthly Outing, New York; the weekly
American Agriculturist, New York; the quarterly Metaphysical
Magazine (1895) New York; the bi-monthly American Journal of
Sociology, Chicago; the bi-monthly A merican Law Review, St Louis;
the monthly Banker's Magazine, New York; the quarterly American
Journal of Philology (1880), Baltimore; the monthly Library Journal
(1876), New York; the monthly Public Libraries, Chicago; the
weekly Scientific American, New York; the quarterly American
Journal of Archaeology (1885), New York.

The number of periodicals devoted to light literature and to female
readers has been, and still remains, extremely large. The earliest

PERIODICALS

155

in the latter class was the Lady's Magazine (1792) of Philadelphia.
The Lowell Offering (lB+i) was written by factory girls of Lowell
(q.v.), Mass. Godey's Lady's Book was long popular, and the Ladies
Home Journal (1883) and the Woman's Home Companion (1893) are
now current. Children's -magazines originated with the Young
Misses' Magazine (1806) of Brooklyn; the New York St Nicholas
(monthly) and the Boston Youth's Companion (weekly) are promi-
nent juveniles.

The total of American periodicals mentioned in the Guide by H.
O. Severance and C. H. Walsh (1909, Ann Arbor), is 5136 for the
year 1908.

AUTHORITIES.— The eighth volume of the Tenth Report of the
United States Census (1884) contains a statistical report on the
newspaper and periodical press of America by S. N. D. North.
See also Cucheval Clarigny, Histoire de la presse en Angleterre et
aux Stats Unis (1857); H. Stevens, Catalogue of American Books
in the Library of the British Museum (1866), and American Books
with Tails to 'em (1873); I. Thomas, History of Printing in America
(Albany, 1874); J- Nichol, American Literature (1882); " Check List
of American Magazines," in Library Journ., xiv. 373; G. P. Rowell
& Co.'s American Newspaper Directory (New York); A. R. Spofford,
Book for all Readers (1900); F. W. Faxon's Check list of American
and English Periodicals (Boston, 1908). Many American libraries
co-operate in issuing joint or union lists of periodicals. See list
of these as well as lists of special indexes in A. B. Kroeger's Guide
to Reference Books (2nd ed., Boston, 1908).

Indexes to Periodicals. — The contents of English and American
periodicals of the last loo years are indexed in the following publica-
tions: W. F. Poole's Index to Periodical Literature (1802-1881,
revised ed., Boston, 1891); 1st supplement, 1882-1887, by W. F.
Poole and W. I. Fletcher, 1888; 2nd supplement, 1887-1892, by
W. I. Fletcher, 1893; 3rd supplement, 1892-1896, by W. I. Fletcher
and F. O. Poole, 1898; 4th supplement, 1897-1902, 1902; 5th supple-
ment, 1902-1907, 1908; Poole's Index, abridged edition, by W. I.
Fletcher and M. Poole (Boston, 1901); ist supplement, 1900-1904
(Boston, 1905) ; The Co-operative Index to Periodicals (1885-1894, ed.
W. I. Fletcher, 1886-1894); The Annual Literary Index, including
Periodicals, ed. by W. I. Fletcher and R. R. Bowker (New York,
10 vols., 1892-1907) ; "Index of Periodicals for 1890," &c. (Review of
Reviews), by Miss Hetherington (13 vols., 1891-1902) ; Q. P. Indexes;
Cotgreave's Contents Subject Index to General and Periodical Literature
(1900) ; Cumulative Index to a Selected list of Periodicals, begun in the
Cleveland Public Library in 1896 and 1897 by W. H. Brett, merged
in 1903 with the Reader's Guide to Periodical Literature (8 vols.,
1901-1908, ed. by A. L. Guthrie, Minneapolis, U.S.) ; Magazine Subject
Index, by F. W. Faxon (Boston, 1908), continued quarterly in Bulletin
of Bibliography, which in 1907 began a magazine subject index;
Eclectic Library Catalogue (Minneapolis, 1908), issued quarterly.

CANADA

Canadian periodicals have reached a higher standard than in
any other British self-governing colony. Like that of South
Africa, the press is bi-lingual. The first Canadian review, the
Quebec Magazine (1791-1793), was published quarterly in French
and English. It was followed by the British American Register
(Quebec, 1803), L'Abeille canadienne (Montreal, 1818), edited by
H. Meziere, the Canadian Magazine (Montreal, 1823-1825), the
Canadian Review (Montreal, 1824-1826), La Bibliothcque canadienne
(Montreal, 1825-1830), continued as L'Observateur (1830-1831),
and the Magasin du Bas-Canada (Montreal, 1832). The three
latter were edited by Michel Bibaud. The Literary Garland
(Montreal, 1838—1850), edited by John Gibson, was for some time
the only English magazine published in Canada. Later magazines
were L'Echo du cabinet du lecture paroissial (Montreal, 1859), 15
vols.; Le Foyer ca.nad.ien (Quebec, 1863-1866), one of the most
interesting French-Canadian reviews; La Revue canadienne, which
was started at Montreal in 1864, and contained the best writings
of contemporary French-Canadian litterateurs ; La Revue de Montreal
(1877-1881), edited by the abbe T. A. Chandonnet; the Canadian
Journal (Toronto), commenced in 1852 under Henry Youle Hind
and continued by Daniel Wilson; L'Abeille (Quebec, 1848-1881),
and the Canadian Monthly (Toronto, 1872-1882). The Bystander
(Toronto, 1880-1883), was edited by Goldwin Smith. Le Canada
fran$ais (Quebec, 1888-1891), edited by the staff of the Laval
University, and Canadiana (1889-1890), were important historical
and literary reviews. Contemporary magazines are the Canadian
Magazine (1893), the Westminster, both produced at Toronto,
La Nouvelle- France (Quebec), the Canada Monthly (London, Ontario),
and the University Magazine, edited by Professor Macphail, of the
McGill University.

See H. I. Morgan, Bibliotheca canadensis (1867), •" Canadian
Magazines, ' by G. Stewart, Canadian Monthly, vol. xvii.; " Periodi-
cal Literature in Canada," by J. M. Oxley, North Am. Rev. (1888);
P. Gagnon, Essai de bibliographie canadienne (1895), and S. E.
Dawson, Prose Writers of Canada (1901).
SOUTH AFRICA

The earliest magazine was the South African Journal, issued by
the poet Pringle and John Fairbairn in 1824. It was followed by
the South African Quarterly Journal (1829-1834), the Cape of Good
Hope Literary Gazette (1830-1833), edited by A. J. Jardine, the Cape

of Good Hope Literary Magazine (1847-1848), edited by J. L. Fitz-
patrick, and the Eastern Province Monthly Magazine, published at
Grahamstown in 1857-1858. A Dutch periodical called Elpis, alge-
meen tijdschrift voor Zuid Afrika (1857-1861) appealed to the farming
community. The Eastern Province Magazine was issued at Port
Elizabeth in 1861-1862, and the South African Magazine appeared
in 1867-1868. The Orange Free State Magazine, the only English
magazine published at Bloemfontein, was issued in 1877-1878;
and the E. P. Magazine was published at Grahamstown in 1892-
1897. The Cape Monthly Magazine, the most important of the
periodicals, was issued from 1857 to 1862, and was again continued
under the editorship of Professor Noble from 1870 to 1881. The
Cape Illustrated Magazine (1890-1899) was edited by Professor
J. Gill. In Durban the Present Century was started in 1903, and
the Natal Magazine was issued at Pietermaritzburg in 1877. The
weekly New Era (1904-1905) was succeeded by the South African
Magazine (1906-1907); both were edited by C. H. Crane. The
African Monthly (Grahamstown, 1907) and the State of South Africa
(Cape Town, 1909) are monthly reviews, while the South African
Railway Magazine (1907) is of wider interest than its name denotes.

See S. Mendelssohn, South African Bibliography (2 vols., 1910);
and P. E. Lewin, Catalogue of tlie Port Elizabeth Library (2 vols.,
1906).

AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND

New South Wales. — The Australian Magazine was published
monthly at Sydney in 1821-1822. This was followed by the
South Asian Register (1827), the Australian Quarterly Journal
(1828), edited by the Rev. P. N. Wilton, the New South Wales
Magazine (1833), the New South Wales Literary, Political and
Commercial Advertiser (1835), edited by the eccentric Dr Lhotsky,
Tegg's Monthly Magazine (1836), the Australian Magazine (1838),
the New South Wales Magazine (1843), the Australian Penny Journal
(1848) and many others. The Sydney University Magazine (1855),
again published in 1878-1879, and continued as the Sydney Uni-
versity Review, is the first magazine of a high literary standard.
The Sydney Magazine of Science and Art (1857) and the Month
(1857) were short-lived. Of later magazines the Australian (1878-
1881), Aurora australis (1868), and the Sydney Magazine (1878),
were the most noteworthy. Of contemporary magazines Dalgety's
Review is mainly agricultural, the Australian Magazine (1909) and
the Lone Hand (1907) are popular, and the Science of Man is an
anthropological review.

See Australasian Bibliography (Sydney, 1893); G. B. Barton,
Literature of N. S. W. (1866); E. A. Petherick, Catalogue of Books
Relating to Australasia (1899).

Victoria. — The Port Phillip Magazine (1843) must be regarded
as the first literary venture in Victoria. This was followed by the
Australia Felix Magazine (1849), and the Australasian Quarterly
Reprint (1850-1851) both published at Geelong, the Illustrated
Australian Magazine (1850-1852), the Australian Gold-Digger's
Monthly Magazine (1852-1853), edited by James Bonwick, and the
Melbourne Monthly Magazine (1855-1856). The Journal of Austral-
asia (1856-1858), the Australian Monthly Magazine (1865-1867),
which contained contributions from Marcus Clarke and was con-
tinued as the Colonial Monthly (1867-1869), the Melbourne Review
(1876-1885) and the Victorian Review (1879-1886) may also be
mentioned. The Imperial Review, apparently the work of one pen,
has been published since 1879; the Pastoralists' Review appeals
more especially to the agricultural community. A Library Record
of Australasia was published in 1901-1902. An Australian edition
of the Review of Reviews is published at Melbourne.

See " Some Magazines of Early Victoria," in the Library Record
of Australasia, Nos. 2-4 (1901).

South Australia. — The South Australian Magazine was issued
monthly in 1841-1843, the Adelaide Magazine (1845), the Adelaide
Miscellany (1848-1849), and the Wanderer in 1853. The South
Australian Twopenny Magazine was published at Plymouth,
England, in 1839, and the South Australian Miscellany and New
Zealand Review at London in the same year.

See T. Gill, Bibliography of South Australia (1886).

Tasmania. — The first magazine was Murray's Austral-Asiatic
Review, published at Hobart in 1828. The Hobart Town Magazine
appeared in 1833-1834, and tne Van Diemen's Land Monthly
Magazine in 1835.

New Zealand. — The New Zealand Magazine, a quarterly, was
published at Wellington in 1850. In 1857 appeared the New
Zealand Quarterly Review, of little local interest, followed by Chap-
man's New Zealand Monthly Magazine (1862), the Southern Monthly
Magazine (1863), the Delphic Oracle (1866-1870), the Stoic (1871),
the Dunedin Review (1885), the Literary Magazine (1885), the four
latter being written by J. G. S. Grant, an eccentric genius, the
Monthly Review (1888-1890), the New Zealand Illustrated Magazine
(1899—1905), chiefly devoted to the light literature of New Zealand
subjects, the Maori Record (1905-1907), and the Red Funnel, pub-
lished since 1905.

See T. M. Hocken, Bibliography of New Zealand (1909).
WEST INDIES AND BRITISH CROWN COLONIES

In Jamaica the Columbian Magazine was founded at Kingston
in 1796 and ceased publication in 1800. Two volumes werfc

i56

PERIODICALS

published of a New Jamaica Magazine which was started about 179?
The Jamaica Magazine (1812-1813), the Jamaica Monthly Magazin
(1844-1848), and the Victoria Quarterly (1889-1892), which con
tained many valuable articles on the West Indies, were othe
magazines. The West Indian Quarterly was published at George
town, British Guiana, from 1885 to 1888. At Georgetown wa
also published the well-known Timehri (1882-1898) which containec
many important historical articles. In Trinidad the Trinidac
Monthly Magazine was started in 1871, and the Union Magazin
in 1892.

_ Malta had a Malta Penny Magazine in 1839-1841, and the Revut
historiffue et litteraire was founded in Mauritius in 1887. Manj
magazines dealing with the colonies have been published in England
such as the Colonial Magazine (1840-1843).
See F. Cundall, Bibliographia Jamaicensis (1902-1908).

INDIA AND CEYLON

Calcutta. — The first Indian periodical was the Asiatick Mis
cellany (Calcutta, 1785-1789), probably edited by F. Gladwin
The Calcutta Monthly Register was published in 1790, and the Cal-
cutta Monthly Journal from 1798 to 1841. Among other early
Calcutta magazines were the Asiatic Observer (1823-1824), the
Quarterly Oriental Magazine (1824-1827), and the Royal Sporting
Magazine (1833-1838). The Calcutta Literary Gazette was publishec
in 1830-1834, and the Calcutta Review, still the most important
serial of the Indian Empire, first appeared in 1846 under the editor-
ship of Sir J. W. Kaye.

Bombay. — The Bombay Magazine was started in 1811 and lastec
but a short time. The Bombay Quarterly Magazine (1851-1853]
gave place to the Bombay Quarterly Review, issued in 1855.

Madras. — Madras had a Journal of Literature and Science anc
the Oriental Magazine and Indian Hurkuru (1819). The Indian
Antiquary was started at Bombay in 1872 and still continues. Ol
. other contemporary magazines the Hindustan Review (Allahabad),
the Modern Review (Calcutta), the Indian Review (Madras), the
Madras Review, a quarterly first published in 1895, and the Calcutta
University Magazine (1894), are important.

Ceylon. — In Ceylon the Religious and Theological Magazine
was started at Colombo in 1833, the Colombo Magazine in 1839,
the Ceylon Magazine in 1840, and the Investigator at Kandy in 1841.
Of contemporary magazines the Tropical Agriculturist was started
in 1881, the Ceylon Literary Register (1886-1896), afterwards the
Monthly Literary Register and the Ceylon National Review in 1893. In
Burma the quarterly Buddhism appeared in 1904. Singapore
had a Journal of the Indian Archipelago from 1847 to 1859, and the
Chinese Repository (1832-1851) was edited at Carton by Morrison.
See " Periodical Literature in India," in Dark Blue (1872-1873).

FRANCE

We owe the literary journal to France, where it soon attained
to a degree of importance unapproached in any other country.
The first idea may be traced in the Bureau d'adresse (1633-1642) of
Theophraste Renaudot, giving the proceedings of his conferences
upon literary and scientific matters. About the year 1663
Mezeray obtained a privilege for a regular literary periodical, which
came to nothing, and it was left to Denis de Sallo. counsellor of
the parliament of Paris and a man of rare merit and learning, to
actually carry the project into effect. The first number of the
Journal des savants appeared on the 5th of January 1665, under
the assumed name of the sieur d'Hedouville. The prospectus
promised to give an account of the chief books published throughout
Europe, obituary notices, a review of the progress of science,
besides legal and ecclesiastical information and other matters of
interest to cultivated persons. The criticisms, however, wounded
alike authors and the clergy, and the journal was suppressed after
a career of three months. Colbert, seeing the public utility of such
a periodical, ordered the abbe Gallois, a contributor of De Sallo's,
to re-establish it, an event which took place on the 4th of January
1666. It lingered nine years under the new editor, who was re-
placed in 1675 by the abbe de la Roque, and the latter in his turn
by the president Cousin, in 1686. From 1701 commenced a new
era for the Journal, which was then acquired by the chancellor de
Fontchartram for the state and placed under the direction of a
commission of learned men. Just before the Revolution it de-
veloped tresh activity, but the troubles of 1792 caused it to be
discontinued until 1796, when it again failed to appear after twelve
numbers had been issued. In 1816 it was definitely re-established
and replaced under government patronage, remaining subject
to the chancellor or garde-des-sceaux until 1857, when it was trans-
ferred to the control of the minister of public instruction. Since
1903 the organization of the publication has changed. The state
subsidy having been withdrawn, the Institute voted a yearly
subscription of 10,000 francs and nominated a commission of five
members, one for each section, who managed the Journal. Since
1909, however, the various sections have left to the Academic des
inscriptions et Belles Lettres the entire direction of the Journal
while still paying the annual subsidy. It now restricts itself to
publishing contributions relating to antiquities and the middle
ages and Oriental studies.

Louis Auguste de Bourbon, sovereign prince of Dombes, having
transferred his parliament to Treyoux, set up a printing press, and
was persuaded by two Jesuits, Michel le Tellier and Philippe Lalle-
ritan, to establish the Memoires pour servir a I'histoire des sciences
et des arts (1701-1767), more familiarly known as the Journal des
Trevoux, long the best-informed and best-written journal in France.
One feature of its career was its constant appeal for the literary
assistance of outsiders. It was continued in a more popular style
as Journal des sciences et des beaux-arts (1768-1775) by the abbe
Aubert and by the brothers Castilhon (1776-1778), and as Journal
de litlerature, des sciences, et des arts (1779-1782) by the abbe
Grosier.

The first legal periodical was the Journal du palais (1672) of Claude
Blondeau and Gabriel Gueret, and the first devoted to medicine the
Nouvelles decouvertes dans toutes les parties de la medecine (1670)
of Nicolas de Blegny, frequently spoken of as a charlatan, a term
which sometimes means simply a man of many ideas. Religious
periodicals date from 1680, and the Journal ecdesiastique of the abbe
de la Roque, to whom is also due the first medical journal (1683).
The prototype of the historico-literary periodical may be discovered
in La Clef du cabinet des princes de V Europe (1704-1706), familiarly
known as Journal de Verdun, and carried on under various titles
down to 1794.

Literary criticism was no more free than political discussion, and
no person was allowed to trespass either upon the domain of the
Journal des savants or that of the Mercure de France (see NEWS-
PAPERS) without the payment of heavy subsidies. This was the
origin of the clandestine press of Holland, and it was that country
which for the next hundred years supplied the ablest periodical
criticism from the pens of French Protestant refugees. During that
period thirty-one journals of the first class proceeded from these
sources. From its commencement the Journal des savants was
pirated in Holland, and for ten years a kind of joint issue made up
with the Journal des Trevoux appeared at Amsterdam. From 1764
to 1775 miscellaneous articles from different French and English
reviews were added to this reprint. Bayle, a born journalist and
the most able critic of the day, conceived the plan of the Nouvelles
de la repubhque des lettres (1684-1718), which at once became
entirely successful and obtained for him during the three years of
his control the dictatorship of the world of letters. He was succeeded
as editor by La Roque, Barrin, Bernard and Leclerc. Bayle's
method was followed in an equally meritorious periodical, the
Histotre des ouvrages des Savants (1687-1704) of H. Basnage de
Beauval. Another continuator of Bayle was Jean Leclerc, one of
the most learned and acute critics of the i8th century, who carried
on three reviews — the Bibliotheque universelle et historique (1686-
1693), the Bibliotheque choisie (1703-1713), and the Bibliotheque
ancienne et moderne (1714-1727). They form one series, and,
besides valuable estimates of new books, include original disserta-
Uons, articles and biographies like our modern learned magazines
I he Journal litteraire (1713-1722, 1729-1736) was founded by a
society of young men, who made it a rule to discuss their con-
tributions in common. Specially devoted to English literature were
the Bibhotheque anglaise (1716-1728), the Memoires litteraires de
la Grande Bretagne (1720-1724), the Bibliotheque britannique
^733-l734), and the Journal britannique (1750-1757) of Maty,1
who took for his principle, " pour penser avec liberte il faut Denser
seul. One of these Dutch-printed reviews was L'Europe savante
(1718-1720), founded chiefly by Themiseul de Saint-Hyacinthe,
with the intention of placing each separate department under the
care of a specialist. The Bibliotheque germanique (1720-1740)
was established by Jacques Lenfant to do for northern Europe
what the Bibhotheque britannique did for England. It was followed
jy the Nouvelle bibliotheque germanique (1746-1759). The Biblio-
heque raisonnee des ouvrages des savants (1728-1758) was supple-
mentary to Leclerc, and was succeeded by the Bibliotheque des
sciences et des beaux-arts (1754-1780). Nearly all of the preceding
were produced either at Amsterdam or Rotterdam, and, although
out of place in a precise geographical arrangement, really belong
o France by the close ties of language and of blood.

Taking up the exact chronological order again, we find the

uccess of the English essay-papers led to their prompt introduction

0 the Continent. An incomplete translation of the Spectator was

published at Amsterdam in 1714, and many volumes of extracts

rom the Taller, Spectator and Guardian were issued in France

early in the i8th century. Marivaux brought out a Spectateur

Franfais (1722), which was coldly received; it was followed by

ourteen or fifteen others, under the titles of La Spectatrice (1728-

730), Le Radoteur (1775), Le Babillard (1778-1779), &c. Of a

imilar character was Le Pour et le centre (1723-1740) of the abbe

Prevost, which contained anecdotes and criticism, with special

eterence to Great Britain. Throughout the i8th century, in France

aV-n England, a favourite literary method was to write of social

ubjects under the assumed character of a foreigner, generally an

Matthew Maty, M.D., born in Holland, 1718, died principal
branan of the British Museum, 1776. He settled in England in
740, published several books, and wrote the preface to Gibbon's
rst work, Etude de la litterature.

PERIODICALS

157

Oriental, with the title of Turkish Spy, Lettres chinoises, &c. These
productions were usually issued in periodical form, and, besides
an immense amount of worthless tittle-tattle, contain some valuable
matter.

During the first half of the century France has little of impor-
tance to show in periodical literature. The Nouvelles eccUsiasliqu.es
(1728-1803) were first printed and circulated secretly by the Jansen-
ists in opposition to the Constitution unigenitus. The Jesuits
retaliated with the Supplement des nouvelles ecclesiastiques (1734-
1748). The promising title may have had something to do with
the temporary success of the Memoires secrets de la republique des
letlres (1744-1748) of the marquis d'Argens. In the Observations
sur les ecrits modernes (1735-1743) Desfontaines held the gates of
Philistia for eight years against the Encyclopaedists, and even the
redoubtable Voltaire himself. It was continued by the Jugements
sur quelques outrages nouveaux (1744-1745). The name of Freron,
perhaps the most vigorous enemy Voltaire ever encountered, was
long connected with Lettres sur quelques ecrits de ce temps (1749-
1754), followed by L'Annee litteraire (1754-1790). Among the
contributors of Freron was another manufacturer of criticism, the
abb6 de la Porte, who, having quarrelled with his confrere, founded
Observations sur la litterature moderne (1749-1752) and L'Observateur
litteraire (1758-1761).

A number of special organs came into existence about this period.
The first, treating of agriculture and domestic economy, was the
Journal tconomique (1751-1772); a Journal de commerce was
founded in 1759; periodical biography may be first seen in the
Necrologe des hommes celebres de France (1764-1782); the political
economists established the Ephemerides du citoyen in 1765; the first
Journal d'education was founded in 1768, and the Courrier de la
mode in the same year ; the theatre had its first organ in the Journal
des theatres (1770); in the same year were produced a Journal de
musique and the Encyclopedic militaire; the sister service was
supplied with a Journal de marine in 1778. We have already
noticed several journals specially devoted to one or other foreign
literature. It was left to Freron, Grimm, Provost and others in
1754 to extend the idea to all foreign productions, and the Journal
etranger (1754-1762) was founded for this purpose. The Gazette
litteraire (1764-1766), which had Voltaire, Diderot and Saint-
Lambert among its editors, was intended to swamp the small fry
by criticism; the Journal des dames (1759-1778) was of a light
magazine class; and the Journal de monsieur (1776-1783) had three
phases of existence, and died after extending to thirty volumes.
The Memoires secrets pour servir a I'histoire de la republique des
lettres (1762-1787), better known as Memoires de Bachaumont, from
the name of their founder, furnish a minute account of the social
and literary history for a period of twenty-six years. Of a similar
character was the Correspondance litteraire secrete (1774-1793), to
which Metra was the chief contributor. L'Esprit des Journaux
(1772-1818) forms an important literary and historical collection,
which is rarely to be found complete.

The movement of ideas at the close of the century may best be
traced in the Annales politiques, civiles, et litteraires (1777-1792)
of Linguet. The Decade philosophique (year V., or 1796/1797),
founded by Ginguen6, is the first periodical of the magazine class
which appeared after the storms of the Revolution. It was a kind
of resurrection of good taste; under the empire it formed the sole
refuge of the opposition. By a decree of the 1 7th of January 1800
the consulate reduced the number of Parisian journals to thirteen,
of which the Decade was one; all the others, with the exception
of those dealing solely with science, art, commerce and advertise-
ments, were suppressed. A report addressed to Bonaparte by
FieVee1 in the year XI. (1802/1803) furnishes a list of fifty-one of
these periodicals. In the year XIII. (1804/1805) only seven non-
political serials were permitted to appear.

Between 1815 and 1819 there was a constant struggle between
freedom of thought on the one hand and the censure, the police
and the law officers on the other. This oppression led to the
device of " semi-periodical " publications, of which La Minerve
franc,aise (1818-1820) is an instance. It was the Satire Menippee of
the Restoration, and was brought out four times a year at irregular
intervals. Of the same class was the Bibliotheque historique (1818-
1820), another anti-royalist organ. The censure was re-established
in 1820 and abolished in 1828 with the monopoly. It has always
seemed impossible to carry on successfully in France a review upon
the lines of those which have become so numerous and important
in England. The Revue britannique (1825-1901) had, however, a long
career. The short-lived Revue franfaise (1828-1830), founded by
Guizot, Remusat, De Broglie, and the doctrinaires, was an attempt in
this direction. The well-known Revue des deux mondes was estab-
lished in 1829 by Segur-Dupeyron and Mauroy, but it ceased to
appear at the end of the year, and its actual existence dates from
its acquisition in 1831 by Francois Buloz,2 a masterful editor,

1 The novelist and publicist Joseph Fi6v6e (1767-1839), known
for his relations with Napoleon I., has been made the subject for
a study by Sainte-Beuve (Causeries, v. 172).

J This remarkable man (1804-1877) began life as a shepherd.
Educated through the charity of M. Naville, he came to Paris as

under whose energetic management it soon achieved a world-wide
reputation. The most distinguished names in French literature
have been among its contributors, for whom it has been styled the
" vestibule of the Academy." It was preceded by a few months
by the Revue de Paris (1829-18^.5), founded by Viron, who intro-
duced the novel to periodical literature. In 1834 this was pur-
chased by Buloz, and brought out concurrently with his other
Revue. While the former was exclusively literary and artistic, the
latter dealt more with philosophy. The Revue independante (1841-
1848) was founded by Pierre Leroux, George Sand and Viardot for
the democracy. The times of the consulate and the empire were the
subjects dealt with by the Revue de I'empire (1842-1848). In Le
Correspondant (1843), established by Montalembert and De Falloux,
the Catholics and Legitimists had a valuable supporter. The
Revue contemporaine (1852), founded by the comte de Belval as a
royalist organ, had joined to it in 1856 the Athenaeum frangais.
The Revue germanique (1858) exchanged its exclusive name and
character in 1865 to the Revue moderne. The Revue europeenne
(1859) was at first subventioned like the Revue contemporaine,
from which it soon withdrew government favour. The Revue
nationale (1860) appeared quarterly, and succeeded to the Magazin
de librairie (1858).

The number of French periodicals, reviews and magazines has
enormously increased, not only in Paris but in the provinces. In
Paris the number of periodicals published in 1883 was 1379; at the
end of 1908 there were more than 3500 of all kinds. The chief
current periodicals may be mentioned in the following order. The
list includes a few no longer published.

Archaeology. — Revue archeologique (1860), bi-monthly; Ami
des monuments (1887); Bulletin de numismatique (1891); Revue
biblique (1892); L'Annee epigraphique (1880) — a sort of supplement
to the Corpus inscriptionum latinarum; Cellica (1903) — common to
France and England ; Gazette numismatique frangaise (1897) ; Revue
semitique d'epigraphie et d'histoire ancienne (1893); Bulletin monu-
mental, bi-monthly; L' Intermediate, weekly, the French " Notes
and Queries," devoted to literary and antiquarian questions.

Astronomy. — Annuaire astronomique et meteorologique (1901);
Bulletin astronomique (1884), formerly published under the title
Bulletin des sciences mathematiques et astronomiques.

Bibliography. — Annales de bibliographie tUologique (1888); Le
bibliographe moderne, (1897); Bibliographie anatomique (1893);
Bibliographie scientifique frangaise (1902) ; Bulletin des bibliotheques
et des archives (1884) ; Bulletin des livres relatifs a VAmtrique (1899) ;
Courrier des bibliotheques (1910) ; Repertoire methodique de I'histoire
moderne et contemporaine de la France (1898); Repertoire methodique
du moyen Age frangais (1894); Revue bibliographique et critique des
langues et litteratures romanes (1889); Revue des bibliotheques (1891);
Polybiblion : revue bibliographique universelle, monthly ; Revue
gene-rale de bibliographie frangaise, bi-monthly.

Children's Magazines. — L' Ami de la jeunesse; Le Jeudi de
la jeunesse, weekly.

Fashions. — La Mode illustree; Les Modes, monthly.

Fine Arts. — Les Arts (1902); Gazette des beaux-arts (1859),
monthly, with Chronique des arts; Revue de I' art ancien et moderne
(1897) monthly; L' Art decoralif, monthly, Art et decoration, monthly;
L'Art pour tous, monthly; La Decoration, monthly; L' Architecture —
journal of the Soc. centrale des Architectes francais, weekly;
L'Art (1875) is no longer published.

Geography and Colonies. — Bulletin de geographic historique;
Annales de geographic (1891), with useful quarterly bibliography;
Nouvelles geographiques — supplement to the Tour du monde (1891);
La Vie coloniale (1902); La Geographic, monthly, published by the
Soc. de Geographic (1900); Revue de geographic, monthly; Revue
g6ographique international, monthly.

History. — For long the chief organs for history and archaeology
were the Bibliotheque de I'ecole des chartes (1835), appearing every
two months and dealing with the middle ages, and the Cabinet
historique (1855), a monthly devoted to MSS. and unprinted docu-
ments. The Revue historique (1876) appears bi-monthly; there is
also the Revue d'histoire moderne et contemporaine.

Law and Jurisprudence. — Annales de droit commercial (1877) ;
Revue alg&rienne et tunisienne de legislation et de jurisprudence
(1885); Revue du droit public et de la science politique (1894); Revue
generate du droit international public (1894).

Literary Reviews. — The Revue des deux mondes and the Corre-
spondant have already been mentioned. One of the first of European
weekly reviews is the Revue critique (1866). The Revue politique
et litteraire, successor to the Revue des cours litteraires (1863) and
known as the Revue bleue, also appears weekly. Others of interest
are : Antee, revue mensuelle de litterature (1904) ; L'Art et la vie (1892) ;
Cosmopolis (1896); L'Ermitage (1890); Le Mercure de France, serie
moderne (1890), a magazine greatly valued in literary circles; La
Revue de Paris, fortnightly (1894), and the Nouvelle Revue (1879) —

a compositor, and by translating from the English earned sufficient
to purchase the moribund Revue des deux mondes, which acquired
its subsequent position in srjite of the tyrannical editorial behaviour
of the proprietor. Buloz is said to have eventually enjoyed an
income of 365,000 francs from the Revue.

i58

PERIODICALS

both serious rivals of the Revue des deux mondes; Revue franchise
d'Edimbourg (1897); Revue germanique (1905); Le Livre (1880),
dealing with bibliography and literary history, and La Revue latine
(1902), no longer published; La Revue, monthly.

Mathematics. — Intermediaire des mathematiciens (1894); Bulletin
des sciences mathematiques (1896); Revue de mathematiques speciales
(1890) ; Journal de mathematiques pures et appliquees, quarterly.

Medicine. — Revue de medecine (1881); Annales de I'Ecole de
plein exercise de medicine et de pharmacie de Marseille (1891); La
Chronique medecale (1893); Revue de gynecologic, bi-monthly; La
Semaine medicale, weekly; Journal d' hygiene, monthly.

Military. — Revue des troupes coloniales, monthly; La Revue
d'infantrie, monthly.

Music. — Musica (1902); Revue d'histoire et de critique musicale
(1901); Annales de la musique; Le Menestral, weekly.

Philology. — L'Annee linguistique (1901-1902) ; Bulletin dela societe
des parlers de France (1893); Bulletin des humanites franfais (1894);
Bulletin hispanique (1899); Bulletin italien (1901); Lou-Gai-Sabe-
Antoulongio prouvencfllo (1905); Le Maitre phonetique (1886); Le
Moyen Age (1888) ; Revue de la renaissance (1901) ; Revue de metrique
et de versification (1894-1895) ; Revue des etudes grecques (1888) ; Revue
des etudes rabelaisiennes (1903) ; Revue des parlers populaires (1902) ;
Revue des patois (1887); Revue hispanique (1894); Revue celtique,
quarterly; Revue de philologie franc_aise et de litterature.

Philosophy and Psychology. — Revue philosophique (1876),
monthly; Annales des sciences psychiques (1891); L'Annee philo-
sophique (1890), critical and analytical review of all philosophical
works appearing during the year; L'Annee psychologique (1894);
Journal de psychologie nor male et pathologie (1904) ; Bulletin de
I'institul general de psychologie (1903); Revue de I'hypnotisme et de
la psychologie physiologique (1900); Revue de metaphysique et de
morale (1893); Revue de philosophic (1900); Revue de psychiatric
(1897).

Physics and Chemistry. — Bulletin des sciences physiques ^(1888);
L'Eclairage electrique (1894) ; Le Radium (1904) ; Revue generate des
sciences pures et appliquees (1890); Revue pratique de V electricite
(1892).

Popular and Family Reviews. — A travers le monde (1898);
Femina (1901); Je sais tout (1905); La Lecture moderne (1901); La
Revue hebdomadaire (1892) ; Les Lectures pour tous (1898) ; Man
bonheur (1902); La Vie heureuse (1902).

Science (General). — La Nature, weekly; Revue scientifique (1863),
weekly; La Science franc,aise, monthly. — Science (Applied): Les
inventions illustrees, weekly; Revue industrielle, weekly. — Science
(Natural) : Archives de biologie; Journal de botanique (1887) ; L'Annee
biologique (1895); Revue des sciences naturelles de I'ouest (1891);
Revue generale de botanique (1889) ; La Pisciculture pratique (1895). —
Science (Political, Sociological and Statistical): Annales economiques
(founded as La France commerciale in 1885); L'Annee sociologique
(1896-1897); Bulletin de I'office du travail (1894); Bulletin de I'office
international du travail (1902) ; Le Mouvement socialiste— international
bi-monthly (1899); Notices et comptes rendus de I'office du travail
(1892); L Orient et I'abeille du Bosphore (1889); Revue politique et
parlementaire (1894); Revue international de sociologie, monthly.

SPORTS. — L'Aerophile(i89z) ; L' Aeronautique (1902) ; L' Aerostation
(1904); La Vie au grand air (1898) ; La Vie automobile (1901); Revue
de I'aeronautique (1888).

AUTHORITIES.— The subject of French periodicals has been
exhaustively treated in the valuable works of Eugene Hatin —
Histoire de la presse en France (8 vols., 1859-1861), Les Gazettes de
HoUande et la presse clandestine aux 77" et 18° siecles (1865), and
Bibliographic de la presse periodique franchise (1866). See also
Catalogue de I'histoire de France (n vols., 1853-1879), V. Gebe,
Catalogue des journaux, &c., publics a Paris (1879); Brunet, Manuel
du libraire, avec supplement (8 vols., 1860-1880); F. Mege, Les
Journaux et ecrits periodiques de la Basse Auvergne (1869); Bulletin
des sommaires des journaux (1888); D. Jordell, Repertoire biblio-
graphique des principals revues franchises (3 vols., 1897-1899,
1898-1900), indexes about 350 periodicals; Annuaire de la presse
franchise et du monde politique (1909-1910); Le Soudier, Annuaire
des journaux, revues et publications periodiques parus a Paris jusqu'en
IQOQ (1910). For lists of general indexes consult Stein, Manuel de
bibliographie generale (1897), pp. 637-710.

GERMANY

The earliest trace of the literary journal in Germany is to be
found in the Erbauliche Mpnatsunterredungen (1663) of the poet
Johann Rist and in the Miscellanea curiosa medico-physica (1670-
1704) of the Academia naturae curiosorum Leopoldina-Carolina,
the first scientific annual, uniting the features of the Journal des
savants and of the Philosophical Transactions. D. G. Morhof,
the author of the well-known Polyhistor, conceived the idea of a
monthly serial to be devoted to the history of modern books and
learning, which came to nothing. While professor of morals at
Leipzig, Otto Mencke planned the Acta eruditorum, with a view
to make known, by means of analyses, extracts and reviews, the
new works produced throughout Europe. In 1680 he travelled in
England and Holland in order to obtain literary assistance, and

the first number appeared in 1682, under the title of Acta erudi-
torum lipsiensium, and, like its successors, was written in Latin.
Among the contributors to subsequent numbers were Leibnitz,
Seckendorf and Cellarius. A volume came out each year, with
supplements. After editing about thirty volumes Mencke died,
leaving the publication to his son, and the Acta remained in the
possession of the family down to 1745, when they extended to 117
volumes, which form an extremely valuable history of the learning
of the period. A selection of the dissertations and articles was pub-
lished at Venice in 7 vols. 410 (1740). The Acta soon had imitators.
The Ephemerides litterariae (1686) came out at Hamburg in Latin
and French. The Nova litteraria maris Balthici et Septenlrionis
(1698-1708) was more especially devoted to north Germany and the
universities of Kiel, Rostock and Dorpat. Supplementary to the
preceding was the Nova litteraria Germaniae collecta Hamburgi
(1703-1709), which from 1707 widened its field of view to the whole
of Europe. At Leipzig was produced the Teutsche acta eruditorum
(1712), an excellent periodical, edited by J. G. Rabener and C. G.
Jocher, and continued from 1740 to 1758 as Zuverldssige Nachrichten.
It included portraits.

The brilliant and enterprising Christian Thomasius brought out
periodically, in dialogue form, his Monatsgesprache (1688-1690),
written by himself in the vernacular, to defend his novel theories
against the alarmed pedantry of Germany, and, together with
Strahl, Buddeus and others, Obseryationes selectae ad rem litterariam
spectantes (1700), written in Latin. W. E. Tenzel also published
Monatliche Unterredungen (1689-1698), continued from 1704 as
Curieuse Bibliothek, and treating various subjects in dialogue form.
After the death of Tenzel the Bibliothek was carried on under differ-
ent titles by C. Woltereck, J. G. Krause and others, down to 1721.
Of much greater importance than these was the Monatlicher Auszug
(1701), supported by J. G. Eccard and Leibnitz. Another periodical
on Thomasius's plan was Neue Unterredungen (1702), edited by
N. H. Gundling. The Gundlingiana of the latter person, published
at Halle (1715-1732), and written partly in Latin and partly in
German by the editor, contained a miscellaneous collection of
juridical, historical and theological observations and dissertations.

Nearly all departments of learning possessed their several special
periodical organs about the close of the I7th or the beginning of
the 1 8th century. The Anni franciscanorum (1680) was edited
by the Jesuit Stiller; and J. S. Adami published, between 1690
and 1713, certain theological repertories under the name of Deliciae.
Historical journalism was first represented by Electa juris publici
(1709), philology by Neue acerra philologica (1715-1723), philosophy
by the Acta philosophorum (1715-1727), medicine by Der patriotische
Medikus (1725), music by Der musikalische Patriot (1725), and edu-
cation by Die Matrone (1728). Reference has already been made to
the Miscellanea curiosa medico-physica (1670-1704); the Monatliche
Erzahlungen (1689) was also devoted to natural science.

Down to the early part of the l8th century Halle and Leipzig
were the headquarters of literary journalism in Germany. Other
centres began to feel the need of similar organs of opinion. Hamburg
had its Niedersdchsische neue Zeitungen, styled from 1731 Nieder-
sdchsische Nachrichten, which came to an end in 1736, and Mecklen-
burg owned in 1710 its Neuer Vorrath, besides others brought out
at Rostock. Prussia owes the foundation of its literary periodicals
to G. P. Schulze and M. Lilienthal, the former of whom began with
Gelehrtes Preussen (1722), continued under different titles down to
1729; the latter helped with- the Erlautertes Preussen (1724), and
was the sole editor of the Acta borussica (1730-1732). Pomerania
and Silesia also had their special periodicals in the first quarter of
the i8th century. Francqnia commenced with Nova litteraria,
and Hesse with the Kurze Historic, both in 1725. In south Germany
appeared the Wiirttembergische Nebenstunden (1718), and the Par-
nassus boicus, first published at Munich in 1722. The Frankfurter
gelehrte Zeitungen was founded in 1736 by S. T. Hocker, and existed
down to 1790. Austria owned Das merkwiirdige Wien.

In 1715 the Neue Zeitungen von gelehrten Sachen was founded by
J. G. Krause at Leipzig and carried on by various editors down to
1797. It was the first attempt to apply the form of the weekly
political journal to learned subjects, and was imitated in the Ver-
mischte Bibliothek (1718-1720) and the Bibliotheca novissima (1718-
1721), both founded by J. G. Francke in Halle. Shortly after the
foundation of the university of Gottingen appeared Zeitungen von
gelehrten Sachsen (1739), still famous as the Gottingische gelehrte
Anzeigen, which during its long and influential career has been
conducted by professors of that university, and among others by
Halier, Heyne and Eichhorn.

Influenced by a close study of English writers, the two Swiss,
Bodmer and Breitinger, established Die Discurse der Maler (1721),
and by paying more attention to the matter of works reviewed than
to their manner, commenced a critical method new to Germany.
The system was attacked by Gottsched, who, educated in the French
school, erred in the opposite direction. The struggle between
the two parties gave fresh life to the literature of the country
but German criticism of the higher sort can only be said really to
begin with Lessing. The Berlin publisher Nicolai founded the
Bibliothek der schonen Wissenschaften, and afterwards handed it
over to C. F. Weisse in order to give his whole energy to the Briefe,
die neueste Literatur betreffend (1759-1765), carried on by the help

PERIODICALS

of Leasing, Mendelssohn and Abbt. To Nicolai is also due the
Allgemeine deutsche Bibliothek (1765-1806), which embraced a much
wider field and soon became extremely influential. Herder founded
the Kritische Wdlder in 1766. Der deutsche Merkur (1773-1789,
revived 1790-1810) of Wieland was the solitary representative of
the French school of criticism. A new era in German periodical
literature began when Bertuch brought out at Jena in 1785 the
Allgemeine Literaturzeitung, to which the leading writers of the
country were contributors. On being transferred to Halle in i8od
it was replaced by the Jenaische allgemeine Literaturzeitung, founded
by Eichstadt. Both reviews enjoyed a prosperous career down to
the year 1848.

At the beginning of the igth century we find the Erlanger Literatur-
zeitung (1799-1810), which had replaced a Gelehrte Zeitung (1746);
the Leipziger Literaturzeitung (1800-1834); the Heidelbergische
Jahrbucher der Lileratur (1808-1872); and the Wiener Literatur-
zeitung (1813-1816), followed by the Wiener Jahrbucher der Literatur
(1818-1848), both of which received government support and
resembled the English Quarterly Review in their conservative
politics and high literary tone. Hermes, founded at Leipzig in
1819 by W. T. Krug, was distinguished for its erudition, and came
out down to 1831. One of the most remarkable periodicals of this
class was the Jahrbucher fur wissenschaftliche Kritik (1827-1846),
first published by Cotta. The Hallische Jahrbucher (1838-1842)
was founded by Ruge and Echtermeyer, and supported by the
government. The Repertorium der gesammten deutschen Literatur,
established by Gersdorf in 1834, and known after 1843 as the
Leipziger Repertorium der deutschen und auslandischen Literatur,
existed to 1860. Buchner founded the Literarische Zeitung at Berlin
in 1834. It was continued by Brandes down to 1849. The political
troubles of 1848 and 1849 were most disastrous to the welfare of
the literary and miscellaneous periodicals. Gersdorf's Repertorium,
the Gelehrte Anzeigen of Gottingen and of Munich, -and the Heidel-
bergische Jahrbucher were the sole survivors. The Allgemeine
Mpnatschrift fur Literatur^ (1850), conducted after 1851 by Droysen,
Nitzf,ch and others, continued only down to 1854; the Literansches
Centralblatt (1850) is still published. The Blatter fur literarische
Unterhaltung sprang out of the Literarisches Wochenblatt (1818),
founded by Kotzebue; after 1865 it was edited by R. Gottschall
with considerable success. Many of the literary journals did not
disdain to occupy themselves with the fashions, but the first
periodical of any merit specially devoted to the subject was the
Bazar (1855). The first to popularize science was Natur (1852).
The Hausbldtter (1855), a bi-monthly magazine, was extremely
successful. The Salon (1868) followed more closely the type of the
English magazine. About this period arose a great number of
weekly serials for popular reading, known as " Sonntagsblatter,"
of which the Gartenlaube (1858) and Daheim (1864) are surviving
examples.

In course of time a large number of similar publications were
issued, some illustrated, for instance: Illustrierte Zeitung (Leipzig,
1843), Berliner Illustrierte Zeitung (1892), Die Woche (1899)
the last the most widely circulated of the kind, 500,000 being
printed.

At a somewhat earlier date commenced a long series of weekly and
monthly periodicals of a more solid character, of which the following
list indicates the more important in chronological order: Die
Grenzboten (1862), weekly; the Deutsches Museum (1851-1857), of
Prutz and Frenzel; Berliner Revue (1855-1873); Westermanns
Monatshefte (1856), monthly; Unsere Zeit (1857-1891), beginning
as a kind of supplement to Brockhaus's Corner sationslexikon;
Preussische Jahrbucher (1858), monthly; Deutsches Magazin (1861-
1863); Die Gegenwart (1873), weekly; Konservative Monatsschrift
(1873), preceded by the Volksblatt fur Stadt und Land (1843);
Deutsche Rundschau (1874), fortnightly, conducted upon the method
of the Revue des deux mondes; Deutsche Revue (1876), monthly;
Nord und Sud (1877), monthly; Das Echo (1882), weekly; Die
Zukunft (1882), weekly; Die neue Zeit (1883), weekly; Reclams
Universum (1884), weekly; Velhagen und Klasings Monatshefte
(1889), monthly; Die deutsche Rundschau (1890), monthly; Die
Wahrheit (1893-1897); Kritik (1894-1902); Die Umschau (1897),
weekly; Das literarische Echo (1898), fortnightly; Kynast (1898-
1899), known later as Deutsche Zeitschrift (1899-1903) and Iduna
(1903-1906); Der Turmer (1898), monthly; Die Warte (1900), weekly ;
Deutschland (1902-1907); Deutsche Monatsschrift (1902-1907);
Hochland (1903), monthly; Charon (1904), monthly; Suddeutsche
Monatshefte (1904); Der Deutsche (1905-1908); Deutsche Kultur
(1905-1908); Arena (1906), monthly; Das Blaubuch (1906), weekly;
Eckart (1906), monthly; Die Standarte (1906), weekly; Marz (1907),
fortnightly; Morgen (1907), weekly; Neue Revue (1907), weekly;
Internationale Wochenschrift fur Wissenschaft, Kunst, und Technik
(1907), weekly supplement to the Miinchener allgemeine Zeitung;
Wissen (1907), weekly; Unsere Zeit (1907), monthly; Hyperion
(1908), bi-monthly; Xenien (1908), monthly; Das neue Jahrhundert
(1909), monthly; Die Tat (1909), monthly.

Periodicals have been specialized in Germany to an extent
perhaps unequalled in any other country. No subject of human
interest is now without one or indeed several organs. Full details
of these serials are supplied by a special class of periodical with
which every department of science, art and literature in German-

speaking countries is equipped, the Jahresberichte and Bibliographien,
which give each year a full account of the literature of the subject
with which they are concerned. The chief of these are : —

Bibliography and Librarianship : Bibliographic des Buck- und
Bibliothekswesens (1905); Chemistry: Jahresbericht iiber die Fort-
schritte der Chemie (1847); Classical Archaeology and Philology:
Jahresbericht uber die Fortschritte der klassischen Altertumswissen-
schaft (1873); Education: Jahrbuch der padagogischen Literatur
(1901); Geography: Geographisches Jahrbuch (1874); Bibliotheca
geographica (1891); History: Jahresberichte der Geschichtswissen-
schaft (1878); Fine Arts: Internationale Bibliographic der Kunst-
ivissenschaft (1902); Law and Political Economy: Uebersicht der
gesamten stoats- und rechtswissenschaftlichen Literatur (1868) ;
Jurisprudentia Germaniae (1905); Bibliographic des burgerlichen
Rechts (1888); Bibliographie der Sozialwissenschaften (1905); Biblio-
graphie fur Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte (1903) ; Bibliographie
fur Volkswirtschaftslehre und Rechtswissenschaft (1906); Literature
and Languages: Bibliographie der vergleichenden Literatur geschichte
('903); Jahresberichte fur neuere deutsche Literaturgeschichte (1890);
Jahresbericht uber die Erscheinungen auf dem Gebiete der germanischen
Philologie (1879); Uebersicht iiber die auf dem Gebiete der englischen
Philologie erschienenen Biicher, Schnften, und Aufsatze (1878);
Kritischer Jahresbericht iiber die Fortschritte der romanischen Philo-
logie (1875); Bibliographie fur romanische Philologie — Supl. zur
Zeitschr. f. roman. Philologie (1875) ; Orientalische Bibliographie
(1888); Mathematics: Jahrbuch uber die Fortschritte der Mathematik
(1869) ; Medicine and Surgery: Jahresbericht iiber die Leistungen und
Fortschritte der gesamten Medizin (1866); Jahresbericht iiber die
Leistungen auf dem Gebiete der Veterinarmedizin (1881); Military:
Jahresbericht iiber Verdnderungen und Fortschritte im Militdrwesen
(1874); Jahresbericht uber die Leistungen und Fortschritte auf dem
Gebiete des Militarsanitatswesens (1873); Natural Science: Naturae
noyitates (1879), fortnightly; Bibliographie der deutschen natur-
wissenschaftlichen Literatur (1901); Bibliographia zoologica (1896);
Zoolugischer Jahresbericht (1879); Justs botanischer Jahresbericht
(1873); Die Fortschritte der Physik (1847); Technicology: Repertorium
der technischen Journalliteratur (1874); Theology: Theologischer
Jahresbericht ( 1 88 1 ) ; Bibliographie der Kirchengeschtchtlichen Literatw
(1877).

AUSTRIA

The most notable periodicals of a general character have been
the Wiener Jahrbucher der Literatur (1818-1848) and the Oester-
reichische Revue (1863-1867). Among current examples the follow-
ing may be mentioned: Heimgarten (1877), monthly; Oesterreichisch-
Ungarische Revue (1886), monthly; Allgemeines Literaturblatt (1892),
fortnightly; Die Kultur (1899), quarterly; Deutsche Arbeit (1900),
monthly; Oesterreichische Rundschau (1904), fortnightly; Die
Karpathen (1907); fortnightly.

There were in Austria 22 literary and 41 special periodicals in
1848, and no literary and 413 special periodicals in 1873 (see the
statistical inquiry of Dr Johann Winckler, D'e period. Presse Oester-
reichs, 1875). In 1905 the total number had increased to 806, of
which 564. were published in Vienna.

According to the Deutscher Zeitschriften-Katalog (1874), 2219
periodicals were published in Austria, Germany and Switzerland
in 1874 in the German language. In 1905 the number of periodicals
in German-speaking countries was 5066, of which 4019 appeared in
Germany (in Berlin alone 1107) 806 in Austria and 218 in Switzer-
land (Borsenblatt fur den deutschen Buchhandel, 1909, No. 124).

AUTHORITIES. — -C. Juncker, Schediasma de ephemeridibus erudi-
torum (Leipzig, 1692); H. Kurz, Geschichte der deutschen Literatur
(Leipzig, 1852); R. Prutz, Geschichte des deutschen Journalismus
(1845) vol. i., — unfortunately it does not go beyond 1713) ; H. Wuttke,
Die deutschen Zeitschriften (1875); P. E. Richter, Verzeichnis der
Periodica im Besitze der k. off. Bibl. zu Dresden (1880) ; Generalkatalog
der laufenden periodischen Druckschriften an den oesterr. Univer-
sitdts- und Studienbibliotheken hrsg. von F. Grassauer (Vienna,
1898) ; Konigliche Bibliothek zu Berlin, Alphabetisches Verzeichnis der
laufenden Zeitschriften (1908); Systematisches Verzeichnis der laufen-
den Zeitschriften (1908); Alphabetisches Verzeichnis der laufenden
Zeitschriften, welche von der K. Hof- und Staatsbibliothek Munchen
und einer Anzahl anderer Bibliotheken Bayern gehalten vierden
(Munchen, 1909); Kiirschner, Jahrbuch der Presse (1902); Sperlings
Zeitschriften Adressbuch (Stuttgart, 1910); Bibliographisches Reper-
torium, Berlin: Walzel-Houben, Zeitschriften der Romantik (1904);
Houben, Zeitschriften des jungen Deutschlands (1906); Luck, Die
deutsche Fachpresse (Tubingen, 1908). The Bibliographie der
deutschen Zeitschriftenliteratur, edited by F. Dieterich, which has
appeared annually since 1896, describes about 1300 periodicals
(mostly scientific) by subjects and titles; from 1900 it has been
supplemented by Bibliographie der deutschen Recensionen, which
indexes notices and reviews in over 1000 serials each year, chiefly
scientific and technical.

SWITZERLAND

The Nova litteraria helvetica (1703-1715) of Zurich is the earliest
literary periodical which Switzerland can show. From 1728 to
1734 a Bibliotheque italique, and towards the end of the century the
Bibliotheque britannique (1796—1815), dealing with agriculture,
literature, and science, in three separate series, were published
at Geneva. The latter was followed by the leading periodical

i6o

PERIODICALS

of French-speaking Switzerland, the Bibliotheque universelle (1816),
which has also had a scientific and a literary series. The Revue
suisse (1838) was produced at Neuchatel. These two have been
amalgamated and appear as the Bibliotheque universette et revue
suisse. La Suisse rpmande (1885) only lasted twelve months.
Theologie et philosophic (1868-1872), an account of foreign literature
on those subjects, was continued as Revue de theologie et de philoso-
phic (1873) at Lausanne. Among current serials may be mentioned
Archives de psychologie de la Suisse romande (1901) edited by Flournoy
and Claparede; Jahresverzeichnis der schweizerischen Universitats-
schriften (1897-1898); Untersuchungen zur neueren Sprach- und
Literaturgeschichte (1903); Zwingliana: Mitteilungen zur Ceschichte
Zwingli und der Reformation (1897).

ITALY

Prompted by M. A. Ricci, Francesco Nazzari, the future cardinal,
established in 1668 the Giornale de' letterati upon the plan of the
French Journal des savants. His collaborateurs each agreed to
undertake the criticism of a separate literature while Nazzari re-
tained the general editorship and the analysis of the French books.
The journal was continued to 1675, and another series was carried
on to 1769. Bacchini brought out at Parma (1688-1690) and at
Modena (1692-1697) a periodical with a similar title. A much better
known Giornale was that of Apostolo Zeno, founded with the help
of Maffei and Muratori (1710), continued after 1718 by Pietro Zeno,
and after 1728 by Mastraca and Paitoni. Another Giornale, to
which Fabroni contributed, was published at Pisa from 1771 onwards.
The Gatteria di Minerva was-first published at Venice in 1696. One
of the many merits of the antiquary Lami was his connexion with
the Novelle letterarie (1740-1770), founded by him, and after the
first two years almost entirely written by him. Its learning and
impartiality gave it much authority. The Frusta letteraria (1763-
17(>S) was brought out at Venice by Giuseppe Baretti under the
pseudonym of Aristarco Scannabue. The next that deserve mention
are the Giornale enciclopedico (1806) of Naples, followed by the
Progresso delle scienze (1833-1848) and the Museo di scienze e
lelteratura of the same city, and the Giornale arcadico (1819) of
Rome. Among the contributors to the Poligrafo (1811) of Milan
were Monti, Perticari, and some of the first names in Italian litera-
ture. The Biblioteca ital-iana (1816-1840) was founded at Milan
by the favour of the Austrian government, and the editorship was
offered to and declined by Ugp Foscolo. It rendered service to
Italian literature by its opposition to the Della-Cruscan tyranny.
Another Milanese serial was the Conciliatore (1818-1820), which
although it only lived two years, will be remembered for the en-
deavours made by Silvio Pellico, Camillo Ugoni and its other con-
tributors to introduce a more dignified and courageous method of
criticism. After its suppression and the falling off in interest of
the Biblioteca italiana the next of any merit to appear was the
Antologia, a monthly periodical brought out at Florence in 1820
by Gino Capponi and Giampetro Vieusseux, but suppressed in
1833 on account of an epigram of Tommaseo, a principal writer.
Some striking papers were contributed by Giuseppe Mazzini.
Naples had in 1832 Il^Progresso of Carlo Trpya, helped by Tommaseo
and Centofanti, and Palermo owned the Giornale di statistica (1834),
suppressed eight years later. The Archivio storico, consisting of
reprints of documents with historical dissertations, dates from 1842,
and was founded by Vieusseux and Gino Capponi. The Civilla
cattolica (1850), fortnightly, is still the organ of the Jesuits. The
Rivista contemporanea (1852) was founded at Turin in emulation
of the French Revue des deux mondes, which ha? been the type
followed by so many continental periodicals. The Politecnico
(1839) of Milan was suppressed in 1844 and revived in 1859. The
Nuova antologia (1866) soon acquired a well-deserved reputation
as a high-class review and magazine; its rival, the Rivista europea,
being the special organ of the Florentine men of letters. The
Rassegna settimanale was a weekly political and literary review,
which after eight years of existence gave place to a daily newspaper,
the Rassegna. The Archivio trenlino (1882) was the organ of
" Italia Irredenta." The Rassegna nazionale, conducted by the
marchese Manfredo di Passanp, a chief of the moderate clerical
party, the Nuova rivista of Turin, the Fanfulla della Domenica, and
the Gazzetta letteraria may also be mentioned.

Some of the following are still published: Annali di matematica
(1867); Annuario di giurisprudenza (1883); Archivio di statistica
(1876); Archivio storico lombardo (1874); Archivio veneto (1871);
Archivio per lo studio delle tradizioni popolari; Archivio per la
zoologia; II Bibliofilo; II Filangieri (1876); La Natura (1884);
Nuovo giornale botanico (1869) ; Giornale degli eruditi (1883) ; Giornale
difilologia romanza; Nuova rivista Internazionale (1879) ; La Rassegna
italiana (1881); Revue Internationale (1883). In more recent years
a great expansion has been witnessed. Local reviews have largely
increased, as well as those devoted to history, science and university
undertakings. Among representative serials are the following —
Archaeology: Museo italiano di antichita classica (1885) with atlas
in folio; Oriens christianus (1901); Nuovo bolleltino di archeologia
cristiana, quarterly at Rome (1895). Bibliography: Rivista delle
biblioteche e degli archivi (1888), published monthly at Rome and
Florence, the official organ of librarians and archivists; Giornale

della libreria della tippgrafia (1888), supplement to the Bibliografia
italiana; Bollettino di bibliografia e stor^a delle scienze matematiche
(1898); La Bibliofilia (1899), Florence, monthly; Raccolta Vinciana
(1904). Philology: Bollettino difilologia classica (1894); Giornale
italiano di filologia e linguistica classica (1886); Studi di filologia
romanza (1885) ; Studi italiani difilologia classica (1893) ; Bessarione,
bi-monthly. No class has developed more usefully than the his-
torical, among them being: Bollettino dell' instituto storico italiano
(1886) ; Nuovo archivio veneto (1890) ; Rivista di storia antica e scienze
affini (1895); Rivista storica italiana (1884). New literary and
scientific reviews are: L'Alighieri, rivista di cose dantesche (1889);
Giornale dantesco (1894); Giornale storico della letter atur a italiana
(1883); Studi di letteratura italiana (1899); Studi medievali (1904);
L' Arcadia, periodico mensile di scienze, lettere, ed arti (1889);
Periodico di matematica per I'insegnamento secondario (1885);
Rivista di matematica (1891); Rivista philosofica (1899); Rivista
d' Italia, monthly at Rome. Fine Arts: L'Arte, monthly; Arte
italiana, monthly; Rassegna d'arte, monthly.

AUTHORITIES. — See G. Ottino, La Stampa periodica in Italia
(Milan, 1875); Raccolta dei periodici presentata all' esposizione in
Milano (1881); A. Roux, La Litterature contemporaine en Italie
(1871-1883), Paris, 1883.

BELGIUM

The Journal encyclopedique (1756-1793) founded by P. Rousseau,
made Liege a propagandist centre for the philosophical party.
In the same city, was also first established L Esprit des journaux
(1772-1818), styled by Sainte-Beuve " cette considerable et ex-
cellente collection," but " journal voleur et compilateur." The
Journal historique et litteraire (1788-1790) was founded at Luxem-
burg by the Jesuit De Feller; having been suppressed there, it was
transferred to Liege, and subsequently to Maestricht. It is one of
the most curious of the Belgian periodicals of the l8th century,
and contains most precious materials for the national history. A
complete set is very rare and much sought after. The Revue beige
(1835-1843), in spite of the support of the best writers of the kingdom,
as well as its successor the Revue de Liege (1844-1847), the Tresor
national (1842-1843), published at Brussels, and the Revue de Belgique
(1846-1851) were all short-lived. The Revue deBruxelles (1837-1848),
supported by the nobility and the clergy, had a longer career.
The Revue nationale was the champion of Liberalism, and came
to an end in 1847. The Messager des sciences historiques (1833),
at Ghent, was in repute on account of its .historical and antiquarian
character. The Revue catholique, the organ of the professors of
the university of Louyain, began in 1846 a controversy with the
Journal historique et litteraire of Kersten (1834) upon the origin
of human knowledge, which lasted for many years and excited
great attention. The Annales des \travaux publics (1843), the
Bulletin de I'industrie (1842), the Journal des beaux-arts (1858),
and the Catholic Precis historiques (1852), the Protestant Chretien
(1850), are other examples. The Revue trimestrielle was

founded at Brussels by Van Bemmel in 1854. The Athenaeum
beige (1868) did not last long.

Among current periodicals in. French are the following — Biblio-
graphy: Bulletin bibliographique et pedagogique du musee beige
(1897); La Revue des bibliothbques et archives de Belgique (1903);
Le Glaneur litteraire, musical et bibliographic (1901); Archives des
arts et de la bibliographic de Belgique (Tables 1833-1853 and 1875-
1894). Philosophy and ecclesiastical history: Revue neo-schola-
stique publiee par la societe philosophique de Louvain (1894); Revue
d'histmre eccUsiastique (1900), the organ of the Catholic university of
Louvain; Revue benedictine (1884); Analecles pour seruir a I'histoire
eccUsiastique de la Belgique, 2e seYie (1881-1904) and 3" sdrie
1905); with an Annexe for Cartularies. Science: Archives inter-
nationales de physiologic (1902), published by L6on Fredericq; La
Cellule, recueil de cytologie et d'histologie generale (1884); Le Museon
(1882); Le Mpuvement geographique (1884); Le Musee beige (1897);
Revue chirurgicale beige et du nord de la France (1901). Annales des
mines belgiques appears quarterly, and L'Art moderne weekly at
Brussels.

Among Flemish serials may be mentioned the Nederduitsche
Letteroefeningen (1834) ; the Belgisch Museum (1836-1846), edited by
Willems; the Broederhand, which did not appear after 1846; the
Taalverbund of Antwerp; the Kunst- en Letterblad (1840-1843); and
the Vlaemsche Rederyker (1844). Current Flemish periodicals in-
clude: Onze kunst ge'illustreea maandschrift voor beeldende kunst
(1900); Averbode's weekblad Godsdienst huisgezin mpedertaal (1907);
De Raadselbode talk van den vlamschen raadselliefhebber (1901);
Rechtskundig tijdschrift voor vlamsch Belgie (1901).

It has been calculated that in 1860 there were 51 periodicals
aublished in Belgium. In 1884 the number had increased to 412,
and in 1908 to 1701.

See U. Capitaine, Recherches sur les journaux et les ecrits periodiques
liegeois (1850); Releve de tous les ecrits periodiques qui se publient
dans le royaume de Belgique (1875); Catalogue des journaux, revues,
et publications periodiques de la Belgique (1910); Revue bibliogra-
phique beige.

HOLLAND

The first serial written in Dutch was the Boekzaal van Europa
(1692-1708, and 1715-1748), which had several changes of name

PERIODICALS

161

during its long life. The next of any note was the Republijk der
Geleerden (1710-1748). The English Spectator was imitated by
J. van Effen in his Misanthrope (1711-1712), written in French,
and in the Hollandsche Spectator (1731-1735), in Dutch. An im-
portant serial was the long-lived Vaderlandsche Letteroefeningen
(1761). The Algemeene Kunst en Letterbode (1788) was long the
leading review of Holland; in 1860 it was joined to the Nederlandsch
Spectator (1855). Of those founded in the igth century may be
mentioned the Rccensent (1803), and Nieuwe Recensent; the Neder-
landsch Museum (1835); the Tijdstroom (1857); the Tijdspiegel, a
literary journal of Protestant tendency; the Theologisch Tijdschrift
(1867), the organ of the Leiden school of theology; and the Dietsche
Warande, a Roman Catholic review devoted to the national anti-
quities. Colonial interests have been cared for by the Tijdschrift
voor nederlandsch Indie (1848). Current periodicals are Hollandsche
revue, monthly; De Gids (1837), monthly; De nieuwe Gids (1886),
monthly; De Architect, bi-monthly; Caecilia (for music); Tijdschrift
voor Strafrecht; Museum, for philology (1893), monthly; Tijdschrift
voor nederlandsche tool en letterkunde; Nederlandsch Archievenblad;
De Paleograaf; Elseviers ge'illustreerd Maandschrift, monthly; Croat
Nederland, monthly.

DENMARK

Early in the i8th century Denmark had the Nye Tidender(i^2o),
continued down to 1836 under the name of Danskliteraturtidende.
The Minerva (1785) of Rahbek was carried on to 1819, and the
Skandinavisk Museum (1798-1803) was revived by the Litteratur-
Selskabs Skrifter (1805). These were followed by the Laerde Efter-
retninger (1799-1810), afterwards styled Litteratur-Tidende (1811-
1836), the Athene (1813-1817), and Historisk Tidsskrift (1840).
In more modern times appeared Tidsskrift for Litteratur oe Kritik
(1832-1842, 1843); Maanedsskrift for Litteratur (1829-1838); Nord
og Syd (1848-1849) of Goldschmidt, succeeded by Ude og Hjemme,
and the Dansk Maanedsskrift (1858) of Steenstrup, with signed
historical and literary articles. One of the most noteworthy
Scandinavian periodicals has been the Nordisk Universitets Tids-
skrift (1854—1864), a bond of union between the universities of
Christiania, Upsala, Lund and Copenhagen. Current periodicals
are: Studier fra Sprog- og Oldtidsforskning (1891), quarterly; Danske
Magazin, yearly; Nyt Tidsskrift for Mathematik, monthly; Theologisk
Tidsskrift, monthly; Nationaldkonomisk Tidsskrift, bi-monthly;
Dansk bogfortegnelse, bi-monthly for bibliography; Athenaeum finsk;
Tilskueren, monthly; Aarboger for Nordisk Oldkyndighed (archae-
ology) quarterly.

Iceland has had the Islenzk Sagnablod (1817-1826), Ny Fjelagsrit
(1841-1873), and Gefn (1870-1873). Skirnir (1831), which absorbed
in 1905 Timarit hins islenska Bokmentafelags (1880-1904), is still
published.

NORWAY

The first trace of the serial form of publication to be found in
Norway is in the Ugentlige korte Afhandlinger (1760-1761), " Weekly
Short Treatises," of Bishop Fr. Nannestad, consisting of moral and
theological essays. The Maanedlige Afhandlinger (1762), " Monthly
Treatises," was supported by several writers and devoted chiefly to
rural economy. These two were fojlowed by Politik og Historie
(1807-1810); Saga (1816-1820), a quarterly review edited by J. S.
Munch; Den norske Tilskuer (1817-1821), a miscellany brought out
at Bergen; Hermoder (1821-1827), a weekly aesthetic journal; Iduna,
(1822-1 823), of the same kind but .of less value; Vidar (1832-1834), a
weekly scientific and literary review; Nor (1840-1846), of the same
type; Norsk Tidsskrift for Videnskab og Litteratur (1847-1855);
Illustreret Nyhedsblad (1851-1866). "Illustrated News"; Norsk
Maanedsskrift (1856-1860), " Monthly Review for Norway," devoted
to history and philology; and Norden (1866), a literary and scientific
review. Popular serials date from the Shilling Magazin (1835),
which first introduced wood-engraving. Representative current
periodicals are: Samtiden, monthly; Elektroteknisk tidsskrift; nordisk
musik-revue, fortnightly; Naturen; Norsk havetidende, monthly;
Urd; Norvegia.

SWEDEN

The Swenska Argus (1733-1734) of Olof Dalin is the first contri-
bution of Sweden to periodical literature. The next were the Tid-
ningar om den Lardas Arbeten (1742) and the Larda Tidningar. The
patriotic journalist C. C. Gjorwell established about twenty literary
periodicals of which the most important was the Swenska Mercurius
(1755-1789). Atterbom and some fellow-students founded about
1810 a society for the deliverance of the country from French
pedantry, which with this end carried on a periodical entitled
Phosphorot (1810-1813), to propagate the opinions of Schlegel and
Schelling. The Svensk Literatur-Tidning (1813-1825) of Palmblad
and the Polyfem (1810-1812) had the same objects. Among later
periodicals we may mention Skandia (1833-1837); Literaturbladet
(1838-1840); Stdllningar och Forhallanden (1838) of Crusenstolpe,
a monthly review of Scandinavian history; Tidskrift for Litteratur
(1850); Norsk Tidsskrift (1852), weekly, Forr och Nu; and the Revue
suidoise (1858) of Kramer, written in French. Among the monthlies
which now appear are the following: Social Tidskrift, Nordisk
Tidskrijt and Ord och Bild.
xxi. 6

SPAIN

Spain owes her intellectual emancipation to the monk Benito
Feyjoo, who in 1726 produced a volume of dissertations somewhat
after the fashion of the Spectator, but on graver subjects, entitled
Teatro critico, which was continued down to 1739. His Cartas
eniditas (1742-1760) were also issued periodically. The earliest
critical serial, the Diario de los literates (1737-1742), kept up at
the expense of Philip V., did not long survive court favour. Other
periodicals which appeared in the 1 8th century were Maner's Mer curio
(1738); the Diario noticioso (1758-1781); El Pensador (1762-1767)
of Joseph Clavijo y Fajardo; El Belianis literario (1765), satirical
in character; the Semanario eruditp (1778-1791), a clumsy collection
of documents; El Correo literario de la Europa (1781-1782); El
Censor (1781); the valuable Memorial literario (1784-1808); El
Correo literario (1786-1791), devoted to literature and science;
and the special organs El Correo mercantil (1792-1798) and El
Semanario de agricultural (1797-1805). In the igth century were
Variedades de ciencias, literatura, y artes (1803-1805), among whose
contributors have been the distinguished names of Quintana, Moratin
and Antillon; Misceldnea de comercio (1819); and Diario general
de las ciencias medicas. The Spanish refugees in London published
Ocios de espanoles refugiados (1823-1826) and Misceldnea hispano-
americana (1824-1828), and at Paris Misceldnea escojida americana
(1826). The Cronica cientifica y liter aria (1817-1820) was afterwards
transformed into a daily newspaper. Subsequently to the extinc-
tion of El Censor (1820-1823) there was nothing of any .value until
the Cartas espanolas (1832), since known as the Revista espanola
(1832-1836) and as the Revista de Madrid (1838). Upon the death
of Ferdinand VII. periodicals had a new opening; in 1836 there were
published sixteen journals devoted to science and art. The fashion
of illustrated serials was introduced in the Semanario pintoresco
espanol (1836-1857), noticeable for its biographies and descriptions
of Spanish monuments. El Panorama (1839-1841) was another
literary periodical with engravings. Of later date have been the
Revista iberica (1861-1863), conducted by Sanz del Rio; La America
(1857-1870), specially devoted to American subjects and edited
by the brothers Asquerino; Revista de Cataluna, published at
Barcelona; Revista de Espana; Revista contempordnea; Espafia
mpderna (1889), and Revista critica (1895). Current special perio-
dicals are: Euskal-erria, revista bascongada (1880, San Sebastian);
Monumenta historica societatis Jesu (1894); El Progreso matematico,
afterwards Revista de matematicas puras y aplicadas (1891); Revista
de bibliografia Catalano (Catalunya, Baleares, Rosselo, Valencia,
1901); La Naturaleza, fortnightly; La Energia electrica, fortnightly;
Revista minera, weekly; Revista de medicina, weekly; Bibliografia
espanola, fortnightly; La Lectura; Espana y America, monthly.

See E. Hartzenbusch, Periodicos de Madrid (1876); Lapeyre,
Catalogo-tarifa de los periodicos, revistas, y ilustraciones en Espana
(1882) ; Georges le Gentil, Les Revues litteraires de I'Espagne pendant
la premiere moitie du XIX' sikcle (Paris, 1909).

PORTUGAL

Portugal could long boast of only one review, the Jornal enci-
clopedico (1779—1806), which had many interruptions; then came
the Jornal de Coimbra (1812-1820); the Panorama (1836-1857),
founded by Herculano; the Revista universal lisbonense (1841-1853),
established by Castilho; the Instituto (1853) of Coimbra; the Archivo
pittoresco (1857) of Lisbon; and the Jornal do sociedade dos amigos
das letteras. In 1868 a review called Vox femenina, and con-
ducted by women, was established at Lisbon. Current periodicals
include: O Archeologo portuguks (1895); Jornal de sciencias mathe-
maticas et astronomicas (1877); Revista lusitana, Archivo de estudos
philologicos e ethnologicos relatives a Portugal (1887); Ta-ssi-Yang-
Kup, Archives e annaes de extreme oriente portuguez (1899); Portugal
artistico, fortnightly; Revista militar; Arte musical, fortnightly;
Boletim do agricultor, monthly; Archivo historico portuguez, monthly.

GREECE

The periodical literature of modern Greece commences with
'O A6-xios 'Ep/jtjs, brought out at Vienna in 1811 by Anthimos Gazi
and continued to 1821. In Aegina the M-yivaia appeared in 1831,
edited by Mustoxidis; and at Corfu, in Greek, Italian and English,
the 'AcfloXoTla (1834). After the return of King Otho in 1833 a
literary review called *Ip« was commenced. Le Spectateur de
I Orient, in French, pleaded the national cause before Europe for
three years from 1853. A military journal was published at Athens
in 1855, and two years later the archaeological periodical con-
ducted by Pittakis and Rangabes. For many years Uavb&pa
(1850-1872), edited by Rangabes and Paparrigopoulos, was the
leading serial. <j>tw« dealt with natural science, the TewiroftK& with
agriculture, and 'Itpoiu'rittwv with theology. 'Eflvwdv v<u>tiriaTiiuu>v
(1831) and *iXoXo7«is <r{i\\oyos Hapi/oo-aij (1863) appear annually,
and 'AflTjca (1899) quarterly.

See A. R. Rangabe, Hist, litteraire de la Grece moderne (Paris,
1879); R. Nicolai, Geschichte der neugriechischen Literatur (1876).

RUSSIA

The historian Gerhard Friedrich Mtiller made the first attempt
to establish periodical literature in Russia in his Yejem'yesyatchniya

162

PERIOECI— PERIPATETICS

Sotchineniya (1755-1764), or " Monthly Works." In 1759 Sumara-
kov founded the Trudolyubivaya PtchelA, or " Industrious Bee,"
giving translations from the Spectator, and, for the first time, critical
essays. Karamsin brought out in 1802 the V'yestnik Evropi, an
important review with Liberal tendencies. The Conservative
Rusikoi V'yestnik (1808) was revived at Moscow in 1856 by Kattkoy.
The two last named are still published each month. The romantic
school was supported by Sin Otetchestva (1812), " Son of the Father-
land," united in 1825 to the Severnoi Arkhiv (1822), which dwindled

,

and came to an end soon after 1839. ^ne °^ l^e most successful
Russian reviews has been the Bibhoteka dl'ya Tchtenia (1834) or
" Library of Reading." The Russkaya Missl, " Russian Thought,"
published in Moscow, represented the Slavophil party. The
following are some representative periodicals of the day: Zurnal
ministersva narodnago prosyescenija, monthly ; Baltische Monatsschrift
(1860), monthly; V'yestnik vospitania (for education) ; Mir iskusstra
(for fine art); Russkpie bogatstvo (for literature); Russki arkhiv
(archives) ; Mir Boji, monthly ; Istorichesky v'yestnik (history) ;
Russkaia starina (archaeology). In Finland Suomi (1841), written
in Swedish, is still published.

OTHER COUNTRIES

Bohemia has the Casopis musea krdlovstvi ceskeho (1827), quarterly,
founded by Palacky; NaSe doba, monthly; Cechische Revue (1907)
quarterly. Hungary can show the Ungarisches Magazin (1781-1787,
1791), published at Pressburg, and the Magyar Muzeum (1788).
The Tudomdnyos gyujelemeny (1817-1841) and the Figyelmezo
(1837-1843) deserve mention. Uj Magyar Muzeum was a scientific
magazine, and the Budapesti Szemle (1857) of a more general
character. Among current Hungarian periodicals are: Magyar
Konyvszemle (1876), and Magyar Nyomddszat. 'Before the revolution
of 1830 Poland had the Pamietmk Warszawski of Lach Szyrma.
Among other Polish reviews may be mentioned the Dziennik Liter-
acki of Lemberg; the Biblioteka Warszawska (1841), monthly;
Przeglad Polski (1866), monthly; Przewodnik naukowy i literacki
(1873), monthly; Przewodnik bibliograficzny (1878), monthly;
Przeglad powzechny (1884), monthly. Rumania commenced with
the Magasinal istorica pentru Dacia (1845), containing valuable
historical documents; and Moldavia with Dacia Uteraria (1840)
and Archiva Romanesca (1841). Rumania now has the Convorbiri
liter are (1868), monthly, and Romanul, revista literara illustrata
septem&nald. The best literary review Servia has had was the
Wila, edited by Novakovic.

Japan now possesses native periodicals of the European type,
01 which the following are representative examples: Fudzoku-Gaho
(native customs) ; The Kokka (art) ; Toyo-Gakugei-Zasshi (science) ;
Jogaku-Zasshi (domestic economy) ; Tetsugaku-Zasshi (philosophy) ;
Keizai-Zasshi (political economy) ; Taiyo (literature).

GENERAL INDEXES TO PERIODICALS. — The most complete collec-
tion of periodicals in all languages ever brought together is that
preserved in the British Museum, and the excerpt from the printed
catalogue of the library, entitled Periodical Publications (London,
1899-1900, 2nd ed. 6 parts folio, with index), includes journals,
reviews, magazines and other works issued periodically, with the
exception of transactions and proceedings of learned societies and
of British and Colonial newspapers later than 1700. The titles
of these periodicals, which number about 23,000, are arranged under
the town or place of their publication.

The Edinburgh and Quarterly Reviews, the Revue des deux mondes,
the Revue historique, Deutsche Rundschau and others issue from
time to time general indexes of their contents, while the periodical
literature of special departments of study and research are noted
in the various Jahresberichte published in Germany, and indexed
monthly in such English and American magazines as the Engineering
Magazine, the Geographical Journal, English Historical Review,
American Historical Review, Economic Journal (for political economy),
Library Journal and Library Association Record (for bibliography)
and the Educational Review. The Cat. of Scientific Papers ( 1 800-
1900) of the Royal Society (1867-1908), and the Repertorium der
teckn. Journ. Literatur (1879-1899) of the German Patent Office,
are specimens of indexes of special periodicals. There are also
annual indexes such as those in the Zoological Record and Annales
de geographie. Complete lists are given by A. B. Kroeger (Guide
to Reference Books, 1908) and Stein (Manuel de bibliographic generale,
1897). See also Bibliography of Books reviewed in American
Periodicals, by G. F. Danforth (1902-1903); Book Review Digest
(1906), &c. ; H. C. Bolton's Cat. of Scientific and Technical Periodi-
cals 1665-189^, Smithsonian Inst. (2nd ed., 1897); Harrison's Int.
Cat. of Scientific Lit. (1903-1904); S. H. Scudder s Cat. of Scientific
Serials, 1633-1876 (Camb. [Harvard Univ.] 1876) -Cat. of Periodicals
(English and Foreign) in Bod. Lib., 1878-1880- Bibliotheque Na-
tionale, Lisle des periodiques etrangers(iSf)6). A useful select list,
including all languages, is J. D. Brown's Classified List of Current
Periodicals (1904). (H. R. T.)

PERIOECI (veploiKoi, those who dwell around, in the neigh-
bourhood), in ancient Laconia the class intermediate between
the Spartan citizens and the serfs or helots (q.v.). Ephorus
says (Strabo viii. 364 seq.) that they were the original Achaean
inhabitants of the country, that for the first generation after

the Dorian invasion they shared in the franchise of the in-
vaders, but that this was afterwards taken from them and
they were reduced to a subject condition and forced to pay
tribute. The term, however, came to denote not a nationality
but a political status, and though the main body of the perioeci
may have been Achaean in origin, yet they afterwards included
Arcadians on the northern frontier of Laconia, Dorians, especially
in Cythera and in Messenia, and lonians in Cynuria. They
inhabited a large number of settlements, varying in size from
important towns like Gythium to insignificant hamlets (Iso-
crates xii. 179); the names of these, so far as they are known,
have been collected by Clinton (Fasti hellenici, 2nd ed. i. 401 sqq.).
They possessed personal freedom and some measure of communal
independence, but were apparently under the immediate super-
vision of Spartan harmosts (governors) and subject to the
general control of the ephors, though Isocrates is probably
going too far in saying (xii. 181) that the ephors might put to
death without trial as many of the perioeci as they pleased.
Certain it is that they were excluded not merely from all Spartan
offices of state, but even from the assembly, that they were
absolutely subject to Spartan orders, and that, owing to the
absence of any legal right of marriage (tTnyania) the gulf between
the two classes was impassable. They were also obliged to
pay the "royal tribute, "perhaps a rent for domain-land which
they occupied, and to render military service. This last burden
grew heavier as time went on; 500x3 Spartiates and 5000 perioec
hoplites fought at Plataea in 479 B.C., but the steady decrease
in the number of the Spartiates necessitated the increasing
employment of the perioeci. Perioeci might serve as petty
officers or even rise to divisional commands, especially in the
fleet, but seemingly they were never set over Spartiates. Yet
except at the beginning of the 4th century the perioeci were,
so far as we can judge, fairly contented, and only two of their
cities joined the insurgent helots in 464 B.C. (Thuc. i. 101).
The reason of this was that, though the land which they cultivated
was very unproductive, yet the prohibition which shut out every
Spartiate from manufacture and commerce left the industry
and trade of Laconia entirely in the hands of the perioeci.
Unlike the Spartiates they might, and did, possess gold and silver
and the iron and steel wares from the mines on Mt Taygetus,
the shoes and woollen stuffs of Amyclae, and the import and
export trade of Laconia and Messenia probably enabled some
at least of them to live in an ease and comfort unknown to their
Spartan lords.

See G. Grote, History of Greece, pt. ii., ch. 6 ; C. O. Miiller, Dorians
(Eng. trans.), bk. iii., ch. 2; A. H. J. Greenidge, Greek Constitutional
History, p. 78 sqq. ; G. Gilbert, Greek Constitutional Antiquities (Eng.
trans.) p. 35 sqq. ; G. F. Schomann, Antiquities of Greece (Eng. trans.)
p. 201 sqq. ; G. Busolt, Die griech. Staats- und Rechtsaltertilmer , § 84;
Griech. Geschichte, i. 528 seq. (2nd ed.) ; V. Thumser, Lehrbuch der
griech. Staatsaltertumer (6th ed.), § 19; B. Niese, Nachrichten von
der wissenschaftlichen Gesellschaft zu Goltingen, Phil. -Hist. Klasse,
(1906), 101 sqq. (M. N. T.)

PERIPATETICS (from Gr. TepnraTftV, to walk about), the
name given in antiquity to the followers of Aristotle (q.v.), either
from his habit of walking up and down as he lectured to his
pupils, or from the mpiwaTos (covered walk) of the Lyceum.

Aristotle's immediate successors,1 Theophrastus and Eudemus
of Rhodes, were diligent scholars rather than original thinkers.
They made no innovations upon the main doctrines of their
master, and their industry is chiefly directed to supplementing
his works in minor particulars. Thus they amplified rheo-
the Aristotelian logic by the theory of the hypo- phrastus.
thetical and disjunctive syllogism, and added to the first figure
of the categorical syllogism the five moods out of which the
fourth figure was afterwards constructed. The impulse towards
natural science and the systematizing of empirical details which
distinguished Aristotle from Plato was shared by Theophrastus
(q.v.). The same turn for detail is observable in his ethics,
where, to judge from the imperfect evidence of the Characters,
he elaborated still farther Aristotle's portraiture of the virtues

1 See Gellius, Noct. Alt. xiii. 5, for the story of how Aristotle
chose Theophrastus as his successor

PERIPATUS

163

and their relative vices. In his doctrine of virtue the distinctive
Peripatetic position regarding the importance of external goods
was defended by him with emphasis against the assaults of
the Stoics. He appears to have laid even more stress on this
point than Aristotle himself, being doubtless led to do so,
partly by the heat of controversy and partly by the importance
which leisure and freedom from harassing cares naturally
assumed to a man of his studious temperament. The meta-
physical a-Kopiai of Theophrastus which have come down to
us show that he was fully alive to the difficulties that beset
many of the Aristotelian definitions. But we are ignorant how
he proposed to meet his own criticisms; and they do not appear
to have suggested to him an actual departure from his master's
doctrine, much less any radical transformation of it. In the
difficulties which he raises we may perhaps detect a leaning
towards a naturalistic interpretation. The tendency of Eudemus,
on the other hand, is more towards the theological
or Platonic side of Aristotle's philosophy. The
Eudemian Ethics (which, with the possible exception of
the three books common to this treatise and the Nicomachean
Ethics, there need be no hesitation in ascribing to Eudemus)
expressly identify Aristotle's ultimate ethical ideal of fccopia
with the knowledge and contemplation of God. And this
supplies Eudemus with a standard for the determination of
the mean by reason, which Aristotle demanded, but himself
left vague. Whatever furthers us in our progress towards a
knowledge of God is good; every hindrance is evil. The same
spirit may be traced in the author of the chapters which appear
as- an appendix to book i. of Aristotle's Metaphysics. They
have been attributed to Pasicles, the nephew of Eudemus.
For the rest, Eudemus shows even less philosophical indepen-
dence than Theophrastus. Among the Peripatetics of the first
generation who had been personal disciples of Aristotle, the
other chief names are those of Aristoxenus (q.v.) of Tarentum
and Dicaearchus (q.v. ) of Messene. Aristoxenus, who had
formerly belonged to the Pythagorean school, maintained the
position, already combated by . Plato in the Phaedo, that the
soul is to be regarded as nothing more than the harmony of the
body. Dicaearchus agreed with his friend in this naturalistic
rendering of the Aristotelian entelechy, and is recorded to have
argued formally against the immortality of the soul.

The naturalistic tendency of the school reached its full
expression in Strato of Lampsacus, the most independent, and
probably the ablest, of the earlier Peripatetics. His
Lampsacus system is based upon th£ formal denial of a trans-
cendent deity. Cicero attributes to him the saying
that he did not require the aid of the gods in the construction
of the universe; in other words, he reduced the formation of
the world to the operation of natural forces. We have evidence
that he did not substitute an immanent world-soul for Aristotle's
extra-mundane deity; he recognized nothing beyond natural
necessity. He was at issue, however, with the atomistic
materialism of Democritus in regard to its twin assumptions of
absolute atoms and infinite space. His own speculations led
him rather to lay stress on the qualitative aspect of the world.
The true explanation of things was to be found, according to
Strato, in the forces which produced their attributes, and he
followed Aristotle in deducing all phenomena from the funda-
mental attributes or elements of heat and cold. His psycho-
logical doctrine explained all the functions of the soul as modes
of motion, and denied any separation of the reason from the
faculties of sense-perception. He appealed in this connexion
to the statement of Aristotle that we are unable to think without
a sense-image.

The successors of Strato in the headship of the Lyceum were
Lyco, Aristo of Ceos, Critolaus (<?.».), Diodorus of Tyre, and
Erymneus, who brings the philosophic succession down to about
100 B.C. Other Peripatetics belonging to this period are Hiero-
nymus of Rhodes, Prytanis and Phormio of Ephesus, the
delirus senex who attempted to instruct Hannibal in the art
of war (Cic. De oral. ii. 18). Sotion, Hermippus and Satyrus
were historians rather than philosophers. Heraclides Lembus,

Agatharchides and Antisthenes of Rhodes are names to us and
nothing more. The fact is that, after Strato, the Peripatetic
school has no thinker of any note for about 200 years.

Early in the ist century B.C. all the philosophic schools began
to be invaded by a spirit of eclecticism. This was partly
due to the influence of the practical Roman spirit. This in-
fluence is illustrated by the proconsul Lucius Gellius Publicola
(about 70 B.C.), who proposed to the representatives of the schools
in Athens that he should help them to settle their differences
(Cic. De leg. i. 20). This atmosphere of indifference imper-
ceptibly influenced the attitude of the contending schools to one
another, and we find various movements towards unity in the
views of Boethus the Stoic, Panaetius and Antiochus of Ascalon,
founder of the so-called " Fifth Academy." Meanwhile the
Peripatetic school may be said to have taken a new departure
and a new lease of life. The impulse was due to Andronicus
of Rhodes. His critical edition of Aristotle indicated to the
later Peripatetics the direction in which they could
profitably work, and the school devoted itself hence-
forth almost exclusively to the writing of commentaries on
Aristotle, e.g. those of Boethus of Sidon, Aristo of Alexandria,
Staseas, Cratippus, and Nicolaus of Damascus. The most
interesting Peripatetic work of the period is the treatise De
mundo, which is a good example within the Peripatetic
school of the eclectic tendency which was then in the air. The
admixture of Stoic elements is so great that some critics have
attributed the work to a Stoic author; but the writer's
Peripateticism seems to be the more fundamental constituent
of his doctrine.

Our knowledge of the Peripatetic school during the first
two centuries of the Christian era is very fragmentary; but
those of its representatives of whom anything is known con-
fined themselves entirely to commenting upon the different
treatises of Aristotle. Thus Alexander of Aegae, the teacher
of Nero, commented on the Categories and the De caelo.
In the and century Aspasius (q.v.) and Adrastus of Aphro-
disias wrote numerous commentaries. The latter also treated
of the order of the Aristotelian writings in a separate
work. Somewhat later, Herminus, Achaicus and Sosigenes
commented on the logical treatises. Aristocles of Messene,
the teacher of Alexander of Aphrodisias, was the author of a
complete critical history of Greek philosophy. This second
phase of the activity of the school closes with the comprehensive
labours of Alexander of Aphrodisias (Scholarch, c. 200), the
exegete par excellence, called sometimes the second Aristotle.
Alexander's interpretation proceeds throughout upon the natur-
alistic lines which have already become familiar to
us. Aristotle had maintained that the individual
alone is real, and had nevertheless asserted that the
universal is the proper object of knowledge. Alexander seeks
consistency by holding to the first position alone. The individual
is prior to the universal, he says, not only " for us," but also
in itself, and universals are abstractions which have merely a
subjective existence in the intelligence which abstracts them.
Even the deity must be brought under the conception of
individual substance. Such an interpretation enables us to
understand how it was possible, at a later date, for Aristotle
to be regarded as the father of Nominalism. Form, Alexander
proceeds, is everywhere indivisible from matter. Hence the soul
is inseparable from the body whose soul or form it is. Reason
or intellect is bound up with the other faculties. Alexander's
commentaries formed the foundation - of the Arabian and
Scholastic study of Aristotle. Soon after Alexander's death
the Peripatetic school was merged, like all others, in Neo-
platonism (q.v.).

PERIPATUS, a genus of animals belonging to the air-breathing
division of the phylum Arthropoda. It differs, however, from
all other Arthropoda in such important respects that a special
class, equivalent in rank to the old-established Arthropod classes,
had been created for its sole occupancy. This class has been
named the Prototracheata or Onychophora (see ARTHROPODA),
and may be most appropriately placed in the system in the

164

PERIPATUS

neighbourhood of the Myriapoda, though it must not be forgotten
that it differs from the Myriapoda more than the Myriapoda
differ from other Arthropoda, and that in some respects it
presents features which recall the segmented worms (Annelida).
The genus has a wide distribution (see below), but it has not
been found in Europe or in North America. There is but little
variety of structure in the genus, and the species are limited in
number. They live beneath the bark of trees, in the crevices of
rock and of rotten stumps of trees, and beneath stones. They
require a moist atmosphere, and are exceedingly susceptible to
drought. They avoid light, and are therefore rarely seen. They
move slowly, picking their course by means of their antennae.
When irritated they eject with considerable force the contents
of their slime reservoirs by means of the sudden contraction of
the muscular body- wall. The slime, which appears to be harm-
less, is extremely sticky, but it easily comes away from the skin
of the animal itself. Locomotion is effected by means of the
legs, with the body fully extended. Hutton describes his
specimens as sucking the juices of flies, which they had stuck
down with their slime, and they have been observed in captivity
to devour the entrails which have been removed from their
fellows, and to eat raw sheep's liver. They move their mouths in
a suctorial manner, tearing the food with their jaws. They have
the power of extruding their jaws from the mouth, and of working
them alternately backwards and forwards. They are viviparous;
the young are fully formed at birth, and differ from the adult
only in size and colour. The mother does not appear to pay any
special attention to her offspring, which wander away and get
their own living. It has lately been stated that some of the
Australian species are normally oviparous, but this has not
been fully proved. Sexual differences are not strongly marked,
and are sometimes absent. There does not appear to be
any true copulation. In some species the male deposits
small oval spermatophores indiscriminately on any part of
the body of the female. It seems probable that in such
cases the spermatozoa make their way from the adherent
spermatophore through the body-wall into the body, and
so by traversing the tissues reach the ovary. In other
species which possess receptacula seminis it is probable that
fertilization is effected once only in early life before any ova
. pass into the uterus.

External Features. — The anterior part of the body may be called
the head, though it is not sharply marked off from the rest of the
body (fig. i). The head carries three pairs of appendages, a pair
of simple eyes, and a ventrally placed mouth. The body is elon-
gated and vermiform; it bears a number of paired appendages,
each terminating in a pair of claws, and all very much alike. The
number varies in the different species. The anus is always at the

called the buccal cavity, and is surrounded by an annular tumid
lip, raised into papilliform ridges and bearing a few spines (fig. 2).
Within the buccal cavity are the two jaws. They are short, stump-
like, muscular structures, armed at their free extremities by a pair
of cutting blades or claws, and are placed one on each side of the
mouth. In the median line of the buccal cavity in front is placed
a thick muscular protuberance, which may be called the tongue,
though attached to the dorsal instead of to the ventral wall of the
mouth (fig. 2). The tongue
bears a row of small, chiti-
nous teeth. The jaw-claws
(figs. 3 and 4), which resemble
in all essential points the
claws borne by the feet, and,
like these, are thickenings of
the cuticle, are sickle-shaped.
They have their convex edge
directed forwards, and their
concave, or cutting edge,
turned backwards. The inner
cutting plate (fig. 3) usually
bears a number of cutting
teeth. The oral papillae are
placed at the sides of the
head (fig. 2). The ducts of
the slime-glands open at
their free end. They possess
two main rings of projecting
tissue, and their extremities
bear papillae irregularly
arranged. The ambulatory
appendages vary in number.
There are seventeen pairs in
P. capensis and eighteen in P.
balfouri, while in P. jamai-
censis the number varies
from twenty-nine to forty-three. They consist of two main divisions,
which we may call the leg and the foot (fig. 5). The leg (/) has the
form of a truncated cone, the broad end of which is attached to

(After Sedgwick.)

FIG. 2. — Ventral view of the head of

P. capensis.

ant, Antennae; or.p, Oral papillae;
F.I, First leg; T, Tongue.

I

(After Sedgwick.)

FlG. I. — Peripatus capensis, drawn from life. Life size.

posterior end of the body, and the generative opening is on the
ventral surface, just in front of the anus; it may be between the
legs of the penultimate pair, or between the legs of the last pair,
or it may be subterminal. The colour varies considerably in the
different species, and even in different individuals of the same
species. The skin has a velvety appearance, and is thrown into
a number of transverse ridges, along which wart-like papillae are
placed. These papillae, which are found everywhere, are the
primary papillae; they are covered with small, scale-like projections
called secondary papillae, and are specially developed on the dorsal
surface, less so on the ventral. Each papilla carries at its extremity
a well-marked spine. Among the primary papillae smaller accessory
papillae are sometimes present.

The appendages of the head are the antennae, the jaws and the
oral papillae. The mouth is at the hinder end of a depression

(After BalJour.) (After Balfour.)

FIG. 3. — Inner jaw-claw of FIG. 4. — Outer jaw-claw of

P. capensis. P. capensis.

the ventro-lateral wall of the body, of which it is a prolongation.
It is marked by a number of rings of papillae placed transversely
to its long axis, the dorsal of which are pigmented like the dorsal
surface of the body, and the ventral like the ventral surface. At the
narrow distal end of the leg there are on the ventral surface three or

four (rarely five) spiniferous

pads, each of which is con-
tinued dorsally into a row of

papillae. The foot is attached

to the distal end of the leg.

It is slightly narrower at its

attached extremity than at

its free end. It bears two

sickle-shaped claws, • and at

its distal end three (rarely

four) papillae. The part of

the foot which carries the

claws is especially retractile,

and is generally found more

or less telescoped into the

proximal part. The legs of
the fourth and fifth pairs differ
from the others in the fact that
the third pad (counting from the
distal end of the leg) carries the
opening of the enlarged nephridia
of these segments. In some species FIG. 5. — Ventral view of last
certain of the legs bear on their leg of a male P. capensis.
ventral sides furrows with tumid lips ft Foot ; /, leg ; *, spinifer-
and lined by smooth non-tuberculate cms pads. The white papilla
epithelium ; they are called coxal of the proximal part of this
organs, and it appears that they can leg is characteristic of the
be everted. The males are generally maie of this species,
rather smaller and less numerous

than the females. In those species in which the number of legs
varies the male has a smaller number of legs than the female.

PERIPATUS

165

Breeding. — As already stated, Peripatus is viviparous. The
Australasian species come nearest to laying eggs, inasmuch as the
eggs are large, full of yolk, and enclosed in a shell ; but development
normally takes place in the uterus, though abnormally, incompletely
developed eggs are extruded. The uterus always contains several
young, which are usually at different stages of development and
are born at different times of the year. In most of the African
species, however, the embryos of the uterus are almost of the same
age and are born at a definite season. The young of P. capensis
are born in April and May. They are almost colourless at birth,
excepting the antennae, which are green, and their length is 10 to
15 mm. A large female will produce thirty to forty young in one
year. The period of gestation is thirteen months, that is to say,
the ova pass into the oviducts about one month before the young
of the preceding year are born.

Anatomy. — The alimentary canal (fig. 6). The buccal cavity,
as explained above, is a secondary formation around the true

mouth, which is at its dorsal
posterior end. It contains the
tongue and the jaws, which have
already been described, and into
the hind end of it there open
ventrally by a median opening
the salivary glands. The mouth
leads into a muscular pharynx,
which is connected by a short
oesophagus with the stomach . The
stomach forms by far the largest
part of the alimentary canal. It
is a dilated soft-walled tube, and
leads behind into the short narrow
rectum, which opens at the anus.
There are no glands opening into
the alimentary canal. The central
nervous system, the anterior part
of which is shown in fig. 7, is of the
" rope-ladder " type, and the ven-
tral cords meet over the rectum.
The cuticle is a thin layer, of
which the spines, jaws and claws
are special developments. Its
surface is not, however, smooth,
but is everywhere, with the ex-
ception of the perioral region,
raised into minute secondary

pe...

(After Balfour.)

FIG. 6. — Peripatus capensis dis-
sected so as to show the ali-
mentary canal, slime glands and
salivary glands. The dissection
is viewed from the ventral side,
and the lips (L) have been cut
through in the middle line behind
and pulled outwards so as to
expose the jaws (;'), which have
been turned outwards, and the
tongue (T) bearing a median
row of chitinous teeth, which
branches behind into two. The
muscular pharynx, extending back
into the space between the first
and second pairs of legs, is
followed by a short tubular oeso-
phagus. The latter opens into
the large stomach with plicated
walls, extending almost to the hind
end of the animal. The stomach
at its point of junction with the
rectum presents an S-shaped ven-
tro-dorsal curve.

A, Anus; at, antenna; F.I, F.2,
first and second feet; j, jaws;
L, lips; oe, oesophagus; or.p,
oral papilla; ph, pharynx; R,
rectum; s.d, salivary duct;
s.g, salivary gland; sl.d, slime
reservoir; sl.g, portion of tub-
ules of slime gland ; st, stomach ;
T, tongue in roof of mouth.

CO

(After Balfour.)

FIG. 7. — Brain and anterior
part of the ventral nerve-cords
of Peripatus capensis enlarged
and viewed from the ventral
surface.

ate, Antennary nerves; co,
commissures between ventral
cords; d, ventral appendages
of brain; E, eye; en, nerves
passing outwards from ventral
cord; F.g.i, ganglionic en-
largements from which nerves
to feet pass ofi;jn, nerves to
jaws; org, ganglionic enlarge-
ment from which nerves to
oral papillae pass off; orn,
nerves to oral papillae; pc,
posterior lobe of brain; pn,
nerves to feet; sy, sym-
pathetic nerves.

papillae, which in most instances bear at their free extremity a
somewhat prominent spine. The epidermis, placed immediately
within the cuticle, is composed of a single row of cells. The
pigment which gives the characteristic colour to the skin is
deposited in the protoplasm of the outer ends of the cells in the
form of small granules. Beneath the epidermis is a thin cutis,
which is followed by the muscular layers (external circular and
internal longitudinal). The muscular fibres of the jaws are
transversely striated, the other muscles are unstriated.

The apertures of the tracheal system are placed in the depressions
between the papillae or ridges of the skin. Each of them leads
into a tube, which may be called the tracheal pit (fig. 8) ; the walls

... tr.a

(After Balfour.)

FlG. 8. — Section through a tracheal pit and diverging bundles
of tracheal tubes taken transversely to the long axis of the body.
tr. Tracheae, showing rudimentary spiral fibre; tr.c, Cells resembling
those lining the tracheal pits, which occur at intervals along the
course of the tracheae; tr.o, Tracheal stigma; tr.p, Trachea! pit.
of this are formed of epithelial cells, bounded towards the lumen of
the pit by a very delicate cuticular membrane continuous with
the cuticle covering the surface of the body. Internally it expands
in the transverse plane, and from the expanded portion the tracheal
tubes arise in diverging bundles. The tracheae are minute tubes
exhibiting a faint transverse striation which is probably the indication
of a spiral fibre. They appear to branch, but only exceptionally.
The tracheal apertures are diffused over the surface of the body,
but are especially developed in certain regions.

The vascular system consists of a dorsal tubular heart with
paired ostia leading into it from the pericardium, of the peri-
cardium, and the various other divisions of the perivisceral cavity
(fig. 12, D). As in all Arthropoda, the perivisceral cavity is a
haemocoele, i.e. contains blood, and forms part of the vascular
system. It is divided by septa into chambers (fig. 12, D), of which
the most important are the central chamber containing the ali-
mentary canal and the dorsal chamber or pericardium. Nephridia
are present in all the legs. In all of them (except the first three)
the following parts may be recognized (fig. 9) : (i) a vesicular portion

FlG. 9. — Nephridium from the ninth pair of legs of P. capensis.

o.s. External opening of segmen-

tal organ.
p.f, I nternal opening of nephrid-

s.c.i, s.c.2, s.c.j, s.c.4, Successive
regions of coiled portion of
nephridium.

ium into the body cavity s.o.t, Third portion of nephridium

(lateral compartment).
s, Vesicle of segmental organ.

broken off at p.f from the in-
ternal vesicle, which is not
shown.

(s) opening to the exterior on the ventral surface of the legs by a
narrow passage (s.d) ; (2) a coiled portion, which is again subdivided
into several sections (s.c); (3) a section with closely-packed nuclei
ending by a somewhat enlarged opening (p.f); (4) the terminal
portion, which consists of a thin-walled vesicle. The nephridia
of the first three pairs of legs are smaller than the rest, consisting
only of a vesicle and duct. The fourth and fifth pairs are larger
than those behind, and are in other respects peculiar; for instance,
they open on the third pad (counting from the distal end of the

i66

PERIPATUS

leg), and the external vesicular portion is not dilated. The external
opening of the other nephridia is placed at the outer end of a trans-
verse groove at the base of the legs. The salivary glands are the
modified nephridia of the segment of the oral papillae.

The male generative organs (fig. 10) consist of a pair of testes
(te), a pair of seminal vesicles (ti), vasa deferentia (v.d.), and acces-
sory glandular tubules (/). All the above parts lie in the central

P"

( (After Balfour.)
FIG. 10. — Male Generative Organs of Peripatus capensis. Dorsal view.

p, Common duct into which vasa

deferentia open.

te, Testes. v, Seminal vesicles.
v.c, Nerve-cord.
v.d, Vas deferens.

a.g, Enlarged crural glands of last

pair of legs.

F. 10, 17, Last pair of legs.
/, Small accessory glandular

tubes.

compartment of the body cavity. The ovaries consist of a pair of
tubes closely applied together, and continued posteriorly into the
oviducts. Each oviduct, after a short course, becomes dilated
into the uterus. The two uteri join behind and open to the exterior
by a median opening. The ovaries always contain spermatozoa,
some of which project through the ovarian wall into the body
cavity. Spermatozoa are not found in the uterus and ovi-
ducts, and it appears probable, as we have said, that they
reach the ovary directly by boring through the skin and
traversing the body cavity. In all the species except the
African species there is a globular receptaculum seminis
opening by two short ducts close together into the oviduct,
and in the neotropical species there is in addition a small
receptaculum ovorum, with extremely thin walls, opening
into the oviduct by a short duct just in front of the recep-
taculum seminis. The epithelium of the latter structure is
clothed with actively moving cilia. There appear to be
present in most, if not all, of the legs some accessory
glandular structures opening just externally to the nephridia.
They are called the crural glands:

The development has been worked out in P. capensis, to which
species the following description refers. The segmentation is
peculiar, and leads to the formation of a solid gastrula, consisting
of a cortex of ectoderm nuclei surrounding a central endodermal
mass, which is exposed at one point — the blastopore. The enteron
arises as a space in the endoderm, and an opacity — the primitive
streak — appears at the hind end of the blastopore (fig. 11, B).
The elongation of the embryo is accompanied by an elongation of
the blastopore, which soon becomes dumb-bell shaped (fig. II, C).
At the same time the mesoblastic somites (embryonic segments
of mesoderm) make their appearance in pairs at the hind end, and
gradually travel forwards on each side of the blastopore to the
front end, where the somites of the anterior pair soon meet in
front of the blastopore (fig. II, D). Meanwhile the narrow middle
part of the blastopore has closed by a fusion of its lips, so that the
blastopore is represented by two openings, the future mouth and
anus. A primitive groove makes its appearance behind the blasto-
pore (fig. ii, D). At this stage the hind end of the body becomes
curved ventrally into a spiral (fig. II, E), and at the same time
the appendages appear as hollow processes of the body-wall, a
mesoblastic somite being prolonged into each of them. The first
to appear are the antennae, into which the praeoral somites are
prolonged. The remainder appear from before backwards in regular
order, viz. jaw, oral papillae, legs 1—17. The full number of somites
and their appendages is not, however, completed until a later stage.
The nervous system is formed as an annular thickening of ectoderm
passing in front of the mouth and behind the anus, and lying on
each side of the blastopore along the lines of the somites. The
praeoral part of this thickening, which gives rise to the cerebral
ganglia, becomes pitted inwards on each side (fig. II, F, e.g.).
These pits are eventually closed, and form the hollow ventral
appendages of the suprapharyngeal ganglia of the adult (fig. 7, d).
The lips are formed as folds of the side wall of the body, extending
from the praeoral lobes to just behind the jaw (fig. II, F, L).
They enclose the jaws (j), mouth (M), and opening of the salivary
glands (o.s), and so give rise to the buccal cavity. The embryo has
now lost its spiral curvature, and becomes completely doubled
upon itself, the hind end being in contact with the mouth (fig.
n, G). It remains in this position until birth. The just-born
young are from 10 to 15 mm. in length, and have green antennae,
but the rest of the body is either quite white or of a reddish colour.
This red colour differs from the colour of the adult in being soluble
in spirit. The mesoblastic somites are paired sacs formed from the
anterior lateral portions of the primitive streak (fig. n, C). As
they are formed they become placed in pairs on each side of the

D

Development. — Peripatus is found in Africa, in Austral-
asia, in South America and the West Indies, in New
Britain, and in the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra. The
species found in these various localities are closely similar
in their anatomical characters, the principal differences
relating to the structure of the female generative organs
and to the number of the legs. They, however, differ in
the most striking manner in the structure of the ovum
and the early development. In all the Australasian
species the egg is large and heavily charged with food-
yolk, and is surrounded by a tough membrane. In the
Cape species the eggs are smaller, though still of con-
siderable size; the yolk is much less developed, and the
egg membrane is thinner though dense. In the New Britain
species the egg is still smaller (-1 mm.), and there is a
large trophic vesicle. In the neotropical species the egg is
minute, and almost entirely devoid of yolk. The unsegmented
uterine ovum of P. novae zealandiae measures 1-5 mm. in length
by -8 mm. in breadth; that of P. capensis is -56 mm. in length:
and that of P. trinidadensis -04 mm. in diameter. In corre-
spondence with these differences in the ovum there are differences
in the early development, though the later stages are closely
similar.

(After Sedgwick.)

FIG. ii. — A Series of Embryos of P. capensis. The hind end of
embryos B, C, D is uppermost in the figures, the primitive streak is the
white patch behind the blastopore.

A, Gastrula stage, ventral view,

showing blastopore.

B, Older gastrula stage, ventral

view, snowing elongated blasto-
pore and primitive streak.

C, Ventral view of embryo with

three pairs of mesoblastic
somites, dumb-bell shaped blas-
topore and primitive streak.
Ventral view of embryo, in
which the blastopore has com-
pletely closed in its middle
portion. The anterior pair

of somites have moved to the
fr6nt end of the body.

E, side view of later embryo.

At, Antenna; d, dorsal pro-
jection; p.s., praeoral somite.

F, Ventral view of head of embryo,

intermediate between E and
G. At, Antennae; c.g, cerebral
groove; _;, jaws; j.s. swelling at
base of jaws ; L, lips ;M , mouth ;
or.p, oral papillae; o.s, opening
of salivary gland.

G, side view of older embryo.

blastopore. The somites of the first pair eventually obtain
a position entirely in front of the blastopore (Fig. n, D).
They form the somites of the praeoral lobes. The full comple-
ment of somites is acquired at about the stage of fig. n, E.
The relations of the mesoblastic somites are shown in fig. 12, A,
which represents a transverse section taken between the mouth
and anus of an embryo of the stage of fig. ii, D. The his-
tory of these somites is an exceedingly interesting one, and
may be described shortly as follows: They divide into two
parts — a ventral part which extends into the appendage, and
a dorsal part (fig. 12, B). Each of the ventral parts acquires
an opening to the exterior, just outside the nerve-cord,

PERIPATUS

167

and becomes entirely transformed into a nephridium (fig. 12,
D, 2'). The dorsal part shifts dorsalwards and diminishes rela-
tively in size (fig. 12, C). Its fate differs in the different parts
of the body. In the anterior somites it dwindles and disappears,
but in the posterior part it unites with the dorsal divisions of con-
tiguous somites of the same side, and forms a tube — the generative
tube (fig. 12, D, 2). The last section of this tube retains its con-
nexion with the ventral portion of the somite, and so acquires an
external opening, which is at first lateral, but soon shifts to the
middle line, and fuses with its fellow, to form the single generative
opening. The praeoral somite develops the rudiment of a nephri-
dium, but eventually entirely disappears. The jaw somite also
disappears; the oral papilli somite forms ventrally the salivary
glands, which are thus serially homologous with nephridia. The
various divisions of the perivisceral cavity develop as a series of

though not characteristic of all the classes of the Arthropoda,
are found nowhere outside that group, and constitute a very
important additional reason for uniting Peripatus with it. Peri-
patus, though indubitably an Arthropod, differs in such impor-
tant respects from all the old-established Arthropod classes,
that a special class, equivalent in rank to the others, and called
Prototracheata or Onychophora, has had, as we have seen, to
be created for its sole occupancy. This unlikeness to other
Arthropoda is mainly due to the Annelidan affinities which it
presents, but in part to the presence of the following peculiar
features: (i) the number and diffusion of the tracheal apertures;
(2) the restriction of the jaws to a single pair; (3) the dis-
position of the generative organs; (4) the texture of the
skin; and (5) the simplicity and similarity of all the
segments of the body behind the head. The Annelidan
affinities are superficially indicated in so marked a
manner by the thinness of the cuticle, the dermo-
muscular body-wall, the hollow appendages, that, as
already stated, many of the earlier zoologists who
examined Peripatus placed it among the segmented
worms; and the discovery that there is some solid
morphological basis for this determination constitutes
one of the most interesting points of the recent work
on the genus. The Annelidan features are: (i) the
paired nephridia in every segment of the body behind
the first two (Saenger, Balfour); (2) the presence of
cilia in the generative tracts (Gaffron). It is true
that neither of these features is absolutely distinctive
of the Annelida, but when taken in conjunction with
the Annelidan disposition of the chief systems of
organs, viz. the central nervous system, and the main
vascular trunk or heart, they may be considered as
indicating affinities in that direction.

(After Sedgwick.) «is£gia2»-- "*£S3!i3S>

, .. . , , n .. , SYNOPSIS OF SPECIES.

FIG. 12. — A series of diagrams of transverse sections through Pertpatus embryos \crt_j-j -r i

to show the relations of the coelom at successive stages. PERIPATUS (Guilding).— Soft-bodied vermiform animals,

, . , . , with one pair of ringed antennae, one- pair of laws, one

A, Early stage; no trace of the vascular space; endoderm and ectoderm in pair Q{ „£, papiila* and a varying number of claw-

contact. bearing ambulatory legs. Dorsal surface arched and more

B, Endoderm has separated from the dorsal and ventral ectoderm. The darkly pigmented thin the flat ventral surface. Skin
somite is represented as having divided on the left side into a dorsal and transversely ridged and ^set by wart-like spiniferous
ventral portion. papillae. Mouth anterior, ventral ; anus posterior, terminal.

C.The haemocoele (3) has become divided up into a number of spaces, the 5e^eradve opening single, median, ventral and posterior,
arrangement of which is unimportant. The dorsal part of the somite has Qne ;r of si ,e Brain , whh tw£ ventra,

travelled dorsalwards, and now constitutes a small space (triangular in hollow appendages. ventral cords widely divaricated,
section) just dorsal to the gut. The ventral portion (2) has assumed a without c&ct ganglia. Alimentary canal simple, un-
tubuar character, and has acquired an external opening. The internal co;,ed Segmentally arranged paired nephridia are present,
vesicle is already indicated, and is shown in the diagram by the thinner Bod cavi u continuous with the va^uiar system, and
back line: I, gut; 2, somite; 2', nephridial part of coelom ; 3, haemocoele; doe/not COmmunicate with the paired nephridia. Heart
3', part of haemocoele which wi 1 form the heart— the part of the tubul with aired ostia_ Respiration by means of
haemocoele on each side of this will form the pericardium; 4, nerve-cord; tracheae. Dioecious; males smaller and generally less
4, slime glands. ,._., TU i • 4- A numerous than females. Generative glands tubular, con-

D represents the conditions at the time of birth. The coelom is represented tinuous wkh the ducts viviparous Young born fully
surrounded^ by ji^thiidc j)jack line, except in the part which forms the dcveloped. Distribution: Africa (Cape Colony, Natal, and

the Gaboon), New Zealand, Australia and Tasmania, New

internal vesicle of the nephridium.

spaces between the ectoderm and e»doderm, and later in the meso-
derm. The mesoderm seems to be formed entirely from the
proliferation of the cells of the mesoblastic somites. It thus appears
that in Peripatus the coelom does not develop a perivisceral portion,
but gives rise only to the renal and reproductive organs.

The genus Peripatus was established in 1826 by L. Guilding,
who first obtained specimens of it from St Vincent in the
Antilles. He regarded it as a mollusc, being no doubt deceived
by the slug-like appearance given by the antennae. Specimens
were subsequently obtained from other parts of the neotropical
region, and from South Africa and Australia, and the animal
was variously assigned by the zoologists of the day to the Anne-
lida and Myriapoda. Its true place in the system, as a primitive
member of the group Arthropoda, was first established in 1874
by H. N. Moseley, who discovered the tracheae. Peripatus
is an Arthropod, as shown by (i) the presence of appendages
modified as jaws; (2) the presence of paired lateral ostia per-
forating the wall of heart and putting its cavity in communication
with the pericardium; (3) the presence of a vascular body cavity
and pericardium (haemocoelic body cavity); (4) absence of a
perivisceral section of the coelom. Finally, the tracheae,

Britain, South and Central America and the West Indies, the
Malay Peninsula Jand in Sumatra ?].

The genus Peripatus, so far as adult conformation is concerned,
is a very homogeneous one. It is true, as was pointed out by
Sedgwick, that the species from the same part of the world re-
semble one another more closely than they do species from other
regions, but recent researches have shown that the line between
them cannot be so sharply drawn as was at first supposed, and
it is certainly not desirable in the present state of our knowledge
to divide them into generic or subgeneric groups, as has been
done by some zoologists. (The following genera have been pro-
posed: Peripatus for the neotropical species, Peripatoides for the
Australasian, Peripatopsis and Opisthopatus for the African,
Paraperipalus for the New Britain, Eoperipatus for the Malayan
species, and Ooperipatus for the supposed oviparous species of
Australia and New Zealand.) The colour is highly variable in
species from all regions; it is perhaps more constant in the species
from the neotropical region than in those from elsewhere. The
number of legs tends to be variable whenever it exceeds 19
praegenital pairs; when the number is less than that it is usually,
though not always, constant. More constant points of difference
are the form of the jaws, the position of the generative orifice,
the presence of a receptaculum seminis and a receptaculum ovorum,
the arrangement of the primary papillae on the distal end of the
feet,' and above all the early development.

South African Species. — With three spinous pads on the legs,

i68

PERIPATUS

and feet with two primary papillae on the anterior side and one
on the posterior side; outer jaw with one minor tooth at the base
of the main tooth, inner jaw with no interval between the large
tooth and the series of small ones ; last fully developed leg of the
male with enlarged crural gland opening on a large papilla placed
on its ventral surface; coxal organs absent; the nephridial open-
ings of the 4th and 5th pairs of legs are placed in the proximal
spinous pad. Genital opening subterminal, behind the last pair
of fully developed legs; oviduct without receptacula seminis or
receptacula ovorum ; the terminal unpaired portion of vas deferens
short. Ova of considerable size, but with only a small quantity
of yolk. The embryos in the uterus are all nearly of the same
age, except for a month or two before birth, when two broods
overlap.

The following species are aberrant in respect of these characters:
Peripatus (Opisthopatus) cinctipes, Purcell (Cape Colony and Natal),
presents a few Australasian features; there is a small receptaculum
seminis on each oviduct, some of the legs are provided with well-
developed coxal organs, the feet have one anterior, one posterior
and one dorsal papilla, and the successive difference in the ages of
the embryos in the uterus, though nothing like that found in the
neotropical species, is slightly greater than that found in othe
investigated African species. Several pairs of legs in the middle
region of the body are provided with enlarged crural glands which
open on a large papilla. Male with four accessory glands, opening
on each side of and behind the genital aperture. P. tholloni, Bouvier,
(Equatorial West Africa [Gaboon]), shows some neotropical features;
there are 24 to 25 pairs of legs, the genital opening is between the
penultimate legs, and though there are only three spinous pads
the nephridial openings of the 4th and 5th legs are proximal to the
3rd pad, coxal organs are present, and the jaws are of the neo-
tropical type ; the oviducts have receptacula seminis. The following
South African species may be mentioned: P. capensis (Grube),
with 17 (rarely 18) pairs of claw-bearing legs; P. balfouri (Sedgw.)
with 18 (rarely 19) pairs; P. moseleyi (Wood-M.), with 20 to 24
pairs.

Australasian Species. — With 14, 15 or 1 6 pairs of claw-bearing
ambulatory legs, with three spinous pads on the legs, and nephridial
opening of the 4th and 5th legs on the proximal pad; feet with one
anterior, one posterior and one dorsal primary papilla; inner jaw
without diastema, outer with or without a minor tooth. Last leg
of the male with or without a large white papilla on its ventral
surface for the opening of a gland, and marked papillae for the
crural glands are sometimes present on other legs of the male;
well-developed coxal glands absent. Genital opening between the
legs of the last pair; oviducts with receptacula seminis, without
receptacula ovorum; the terminal portion of the vas deferens long
and complicated ; the accessory male glands open between the genital
aperture and the anus, near the latter. Ova large and heavily
charged with yolk, and provided with a stoutish shell. The uterus
appears to contain embryos of different ages. Specimens are
recorded from West Australia, Queensland, New South Wales,
Victoria and New Zealand. The Australasian species are in some
confusion. The number of claw-bearing legs varies from 14 to
16 pairs, but the number most often found is 15. Whether the
number varies in the same species is not clear. There appears to
be evidence that some species are occasionally or normally oviparous,
and in the supposed oviparous species the oviduct opens at the end
of a papilla called from its supposed function an ovipositor, but
the oviparity has not yet been certainly proved as a normal occur-
rence. Among the species described may be mentioned P. leuckarti
(Saenger), P. msignis (Dendy), P. oviparus (Dendy), P. viridimacu-
latus (Dendy), P. novae zealandiae (Hutton), but it is by no means
certain that future research will maintain these. Mr I. J.Fletcher,
indeed, is of opinion that the Australian forms are all varieties of
one species, P. leuckarti.

Neotropical Species. — With three to five spinous pads on the legs,
nephridial opening of the 4th a_nd 5th legs usually proximal to
the 3rd pad, and feet either with two primary papillae on the
anterior side and one on the posterior, or with two on the anterior
and two on the posterior; outer jaw with small minor tooth or
teeth at the base of the main tooth, inner jaw with diastema. A
variable number of posterior legs of the males anterior to the
genital opening with one or two large papillae carrying the open-
ings of the crural glands; well-developed coxal organs present
on most of the lejjs. The primary papillae usually divided into
two portions. Genital opening between the legs of the penultimate
pair; oviduct provided with receptacula seminis and ovorum;
unpaired part of vas deferens long and complicated; accessory
organs of male opening at the sides of the anus. Ova minute,
with little food-yolk; embryos in the uterus at very different stage's
of development. The number of legs usually if not always variable
in the same species; the usual number is 28 to 32 pairs, but in some
species 40 to 43 pairs are found. The neotropical species appear
to fall into two groups: (i) the so-called Andean species, viz. those
which inhabit the high plateaus or Pacific slope of the Andes; in
these there are 4 (sometimes 5) pedal papillae, and the nephridial
openings of the_4th and 5th legs are on the third pad; and (2) the
Caribbean species, viz. the remaining neotropical species, in which
there are 3 papillae on the foot and the nephridial openings of the

4th and 5th legs are between the 3rd and 4th pads. The Andean
species are P. eisenii (Wh.), P. tuberculatus (Bouv.), P. lankesteri
(Bouv.), P. quitensis (Schm.), P. corradi (Cam.), P. cameranoi
(Bouv.) and P. balzani (Cam.). Of the remaining species, which
are the majority, may be mentioned P. edwardsii (Blanch), P.
jamaicensis (Gr. and Cock.), P. trinidadensis (Sedgw.), P. torquatus
(Ken.), P. im thurmi (Scl.).

New Britain Peripatus. — With 22 to 24 pairs of claw-bearing
legs, with three spinous pads on the legs, and nephridial openings of
legs 4 and 5 (sometimes of 6 also) on the proximal pad; feet with
one primary papilla on the anterior, one on the posterior side,
and one on the dorsal side (median or submedian) ; outer jaw with
a minor tooth, inner jaw without diastema; crural glands absent;
well-developed coxal organs absent. Genital opening subterminal
behind the last pair of legs; oviduct with receptaculum seminis,
without receptaculum ovorum; unpaired part of vas deferens very
short ; accessory glands two, opening medianly and dorsally. Ova
small; -i mm. in diameter, with little yolk, and the embryos pro-
vided with large trophic vesicles (Willey). Embryos in the uterus
of very different ages, and probably born all the year round. One
species only known, P. novae britanniae (Willey).

Sumatran Peripatus. — Peripatus with 24 pairs of ambulatory
legs, and four spinous pads on the legs. The primary papillae of
the neotropical character with conical bases. Generative opening
between the legs of the penultimate pair. Feet with onfy two
papillae. Single species. P. sumalranus (Sedgw.). The existence
of this species is doubtful.

Peripatus from the Malay Peninsula. — With 23 to 25 pairs of
claw-bearing legs, four spinous pads on the legs, and nephridial open-
ings of legs 4 and 5 in the middle of the proximal pad or on its
proximal side; feet with two primary papillae, one anterior and
one posterior; outer jaw with two, inner jaw with two or three minor
teeth at the base of the main tooth, separated by a diastema from
the row of small teeth; crural glands present in the male only, in the
two pairs of legs preceding the generative opening; coxal glands
present. Genital opening between the penultimate legs; oviduct
with receptacula seminis and ovorum ; unpaired part of vas deferens
long; male accessory glands two, opening medianly between the
legs of the last pair. Ova large, with much yolk and thick mem-
brane, like those of Australasian species; embryos with slit-like
blastopore and of very different ages in the same uterus, probably
born all the year round. The species are P. weldoni (Evans),
P. horsti (Evans) and P. butleri (Evans). It will thus be seen
that the Malay species, while resembling the neotropical species
in the generative organs, differ from these in many features of the
legs and feet, in the important characters furnished by the size and
structure of the ovum, and by their early development.

AUTHORITIES. — F. M. Balfour, " The Anatomy and Development
of P. capensis" posthumous memoir, edited by H. N. Moseley
and A. Sedgwick, Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci. vol. xxiii. (1883) ; E. L.
Bouvier, " Sur 1'organisation du Peripatus tholloni, Bouv.," Cpmptes
rendus, cxxvi. 1358-1361 (1898); "Contributions a 1'histoire des
Peripates Americains," Ann. de la societe entomologique de France,
Ixviii. 385-450 (1899); " puelques observations sur les qnycho-
phores du musee britannique, Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci. xliii.
367 (1900); A. Dendy, "On the Oviparous Species of Onycho-
phorea," Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci. xlv. 362 (1902); R. Evans, "On
Onychpphora from the Siamese Malay States," Quart. Journ. Mic.
-S«. xliv. 473 (1901), and " On the Development of Ooperipatus,"
ibid. xlv. i (1901); J. J. Fletcher, "On the Specific Identity
of the Australian Peripatus, usually supposed to be P. leuckarti,
Saenger," Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, x. 172 (1895); E.
Gaffron, " Beitrage z. Anat. u. Physiol. v. Peripatus," Th. i
and 2, Zool. Beitrage (Schneider), i. 33, 145; L. Guilding, " Mol-
lusca caribbaeana: an account* of a new genus of Mollusca,"
Zool. Journ. ii. 443, pi. 14 (1826); reprinted in Isis, xxi. 158,
pi. ii. (1828); H. N. Moseley, "On the Structure and Develop-
ment of Peripatus capensis," Phil. Trans. (1874); R. I. Pocock,
" Contributions to our Knowledge of the Arthropod Fauna of the
West IndieV' pt. 2, Malacopoda, &c., Journ. Linn. Soc. xxiv.
518; W. F. Purcell, " On the South African Species of Peripatus,"
&c., Annals of the South African Museum, i. 331 (1898-1899);
and "Anatomy of Opisthopatus cinctipes," ibid. vol. ii. (1900);
W. L. Sclater, " On the Early Stages of the Development of a
South American Species of Peripatus," Quart. Journ. of Mic. Sci.
xxviii. 343-361 (1888); A. Sedgwick, "A Monograph of the De-
velopment of Peripatus capensis " (originally published in various
papers in the Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci., 1885-1888); Studies from the
Morphological Lab. of the University of Cambridge, iv. 1-146 (1889);
" A Monograph of the Species and Distribution of the Genus
Peripatus, Guilding," Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci. xxviii. 431—494
(1888); L. Sheldon, "On the Development of Peripatus novae
zealandiae," pts. I and 2, Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci. xxviii. and xxix.
(1888 and 1889). The memoirs quoted by Sclater, Sedgwick and
Sheldon are all reprinted in vol. iv. of the Studies from the Mor-
phological Lab. of the University of Cambridge, vol. iv. (Cambridge
University Press, 1889). T. Steel, " Observations on Peripatus,"
Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, p. 94 (1896); A. Willey, "The
Anatomy and Development of P. novae britanniae," Zoological
Results, pt. i, pp. 1-52 (Cambridge, 1898). (A. SE.*;

PERIPTERAL— PERISSODACTYLA

169

PERIPTERAL (Gr. Trepi, round, and irrtpbv, a wing), in
architecture, the term applied to a temple or other structure
where the columns of the front portico are returned along its
sides as wings at the distance of one or two intercolumniations
from the walls of the naos or cella. Almost all the Greek temples
were peripteral, whether Doric, Ionic, or Corinthian (see
TEMPLE).

PERISSODACTYLA (i.e. odd-toed), the name proposed by
Sir R. Owen for that division of ungulate mammals in which
the toe corresponding to the middle (third) digit of the human
hand and foot is symmetrical in itself, and larger than those
on either side (when such are present). The Perissodactyla
have been brigaded with the Artiodactyla (q.v.) to form the
typical group of the ungulates, under the name of Diplarthra,
or Ungulata Vera, and the features distinguishing the combined
group from the less specialized members of the order Ungulata
will be found under the heading of that order.

The following are the leading characteristics by means of
which the sub-order Perissodactyla is distinguished from the
Artiodactyla. The cheek-teeth (premolars and molars) form a

FIG. i. — Bones of Right Fore-Foot of existing Perissodactyla.

A, Tapir (Tapirus indicus), X \.

B, Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sumatrensis) , X&.

C, Horse (Equus caballus), X i.

U, ulna; R, radius; c, cuneiform ; /, lunar; i, scaphoid; «, unciform;
m, magnum; td, trapezoid; tm, trapezium.

continuous series, with massive, quadrate, transversely ridged
or complex crowns — the posterior premolars usually resembling
the molars in structure. Crown of the last lower molar commonly
bilobed. Dorso-lumbar vertebrae never fewer than twenty-
two, usually twenty-three in the existing species. Nasal bones
expanded posteriorly. An alisphenoid canal. Femur with a
third trochanter. The middle or third digit on both fore and hind
feet larger than any of the others, and symmetrical in itself,
the free border of the terminal phalanx being evenly rounded
(see fig. i). This may be the only functional toe, or the second
and fourth may be subequally developed on each side. In
the tapirs and many extinct forms the fifth toe also remains
on the fore-h'mb, but its presence does not interfere with the
symmetrical arrangement of the remainder of the foot on each
side of the median line of the third or middle digit. The astraga-
lus has a pulley-like surface above for articulation into the tibia,
but its lower surface is flattened and unites to a much greater
extent with the navicular than with the cuboid, which bone is of
comparatively less importance than in the Artiodactyles. In
existing forms the calcaneum does not articulate with the
lower end of the fibula. The stomach is simple, the caecum
large and capacious, the placenta diffused, and the teats inguinal.
The Perissodactyla may be divided into the four following
sections, namely the extinct Titanotheroidea, the Hippoidea,
represented by the horse tribe and their ancestors, the Tapiroidea,

typified by the tapirs, and the Rhinocerotoidea, which includes
the modern rhinoceroses and their forerunners.

1. Titanotheres. — In the Titanotheroidea the dentition may be
expressed by the formula t|;,^g, c\, p^, m\. There is usually
a short gap between the canine and first premolar; the upper
molars are short-crowned and transitional between the bunodont
(tubercular) and selenodont (crescentic) types, with two outer
concave tubercles and two inner conical ones; while the lower
molars are crescentic, with three lobes in the last of the series.
The skull is elongated, with the orbit not separated from the tem-
poral fossa and the nasals, which may or may not carry horns,
reaching at least as far forwards as the union of the premaxillae.
The post-glenoid, post-tympanic and paroccipital processes of the
skull are large, and there is an alisphenoid canal. There are four
functional toes in front and three behind; while the calcaneum,
unlike that of the other three groups, articulates with the fibula.
The group is represented by the families Palaeosyopidae and Titano-
theriidae in the Tertiary deposits of North America. Both families
are described under the heading TITANOTHERHDAE.

2. Horse Group. — In the Hippoidea there is generally the full
series of 44 teeth, but the first premolar, which is always small, is
often deciduous or even absent in the lower or in both jaws.
The incisors are chisel-shaped, and the canines tend to become
isolated, so as in the more specialized forms to occupy a more or
less midway position in a longer or shorter gap between the incisors
and premolars. In the upper molars the two outer columns or
tubercles of the primitive tubercular molar coalesce to form an
outer wall, from which proceed two crescentic transverse crests,
the connexion between the crests and the wall being slight or im-
perfect, and the crests themselves sometimes tubercular. Each
of the lower molars carries two crescentic ridges. In the earlier
forms the cheek-teeth are low-crowned, but in the higher types
they become high-crowned. The number of front toes ranges
from four to one, and of hind ones from three to one. The post-
glenoid, post-tympanic and paroccipital processes of the skull
are large; the second of these being always distinct. Nasals long,
normally without traces of horns.

The section is divisible into the families Equidae and Palaeo-
theriidae, of which the latter is extinct.

In the Equidae the premolars are generally | or J. In the earlier
short-crowned forms these teeth are unlike the molars, and the
first of the series is separated by a gap from the second. In the
high-crowned types, as well as in some of the intermediate ones,
they become molar-like, and roots are not developed in the whole
cheek-series till late. Orbit in higher forms closed by bone; and
ridges of lower cheek-teeth terminating in large loops.. Front
toes 4, 3 or i, hind; 3 or i. (See EQUIDAE and HORSE.)

In the Palaeotheriidae the premolars may be | or |, and are
generally molar-like, while the first (when present) is always close
to the second; all the cheek-teeth short-crowned and rooted, with
or without cement. Outer walls of upper cheek-teeth W-shaped,
and transverse crests oblique. Orbit open behind; and ridges of
lower cheek-teeth generally terminating in small loops. Feet
always 3-toed. (See PALAEOTHERIUM.)

3. Tapir Group. — In the Tapiroidea the dentition may be either
the full 44, or lack the first premolar in the lower or in both jaws.
The incisors are chisel-shaped; and (unlike the early Hippoidea)
there is no gap between the first premolar, when present, and the
second. The upper cheek-teeth are short-crowned and without
cement, and show distinct traces of the primitive tubercles ; the two
outer columns form a more or less complete external wall, connected
with the inner ones by a pair of nearly straight transverse crests ;
and the premolars are originally simpler than the molars. Lower
cheek-teeth with two straight transverse ridges. Nasals long in
early, but shorter in later forms, hornless; orbit open behind.
Front toes, 4; hind toes, 3.

This group is also divided into two families, the Tapiridae and
Lophiodontidae, the latter extinct.

In the Tapiridae the dentition may be reduced below the typical
44 by the loss of the first lower premolar. Hinder premolars
either simple or molar-like. Outer columns of upper molars similar,
the hinder ones not flattened; ridges of lower molars oblique or
directly transverse, a third ridge to the last molar in the earlier
forms. The Lophiodontidae, which date from the Eocene, come
very close to Hyracotherium in the horse-line; and it is solely on
the authority of American palaeontologists that the division of
these early forms into equoids and tapiroids is attempted. In North
America the earliest representative of the group is Systemodon of
the Lower Eocene, in which all the upper premolars are quite
simple; while the molars are of a type which would readily develop
into that of the modern tapirs, both outer columns being conical
and of equal size. The absence of a gap between the lower canine
and first premolar and between the latter and the following tooth
is regarded as an essentially tapir-like feature. Lophiodochoerus
apparently represents this stage in the European Lower Eocene;
Isectolophus, of the American Middle Eocene, represents a distinct
advance, the last upper premolar becoming molar-like, while a
second species from the Upper Eocene is still more advanced ; the
third lobe is, however, retained in the last lower molar. In the

IJO

PERISSODACTYLA

Oligocene of both hemispheres appears Protapirus, which ranges
well into the Miocene, and is essentially a tapir, having lost the third
lobe of the last lower molar, and being in process of acquiring
molar-like upper premolars, although none of these teeth have two
complete inner columns. Finally, Tapirus itself, in which the last
three upper premolars, makes its appearance in the Upper Miocene,
and continues till the present day. The characters of the genus
may be expressed as follows in a more detailed manner.

The dentition is » S> c i. p\,m\, total 42. Of the upper incisors
the first and second are nearly equal, with short, broad crowns,
the third is large and conical, considerably larger than the canine,
which is separated from it by an interval. Lower incisors diminish-
ing in size from the first to the third ; the canine, which is in contact
with the third incisor, large and conical, working against (and
behind) the canine-like third upper incisor. In both jaws there is
a long space between the canines and the commencement of the
teeth of the cheek-series, which are all in contact. First upper
premolar with a triangular crown narrow in front owing to the
absence of the anterior inner column. The other upper premolars
and molars all formed on the same plan and of nearly the same
size, with four roots and quadrate crowns, rather wider transversely
than from before backwards, each having four columns, connected
by a pair of transverse ridges, anterior and posterior. The first
lower premolar compressed in front ; the others composed of a single
pair of transverse crests, with a small anterior and posterior basal
ridge. Skull elevated and compressed ; with the orbit and temporal
fossa widely continuous, there being no true post-orbital process
from the frontal bone. Nasal apertures very large, and extending
high on the face between the orbits; nasal bones short, elevated,
triangular and pointed in front. Vertebrae: cervical, 7; dorsal, 18;
lumbar, 5; sacral, 6; caudal about 12. Limbs short and stout.
Fore-feet with four toes, having distinct hoofs: the first toe being
absent, the third the longest, the second and fourth nearly equal, and
the fifth the shortest and scarcely reaching the ground in the
ordinary standing position. Hind-feet with the typical perisso-
dactyle arrangement of three toes — the middle one being the
largest, the two others nearly equal. Nose and upper lip
elongated into a flexible, mobile snout or short proboscis, near
the end of which the nostrils are situated. Eyes rather small.
Ears of moderate size, ovate, erect. Tail very short. Skin
thick and but scantily covered with hair. Tapirs are common
to the Malay countries and tropical America; two species from
the latter area differ from the rest in having a vertical bony
partition to the nasal septum, and are hence subgenerically or
generically separated as Tapirella (Elasmognathus) (see TAPIR).
Nearly related is the extinct family Lophiodontidae (inclusive of
the American Helalelidae), in which both the upper and lower
first premolar may be absent, while the upper molars present a
more rhinoceros-like form, owing to the lateral compression and
consequent lengthening of the outer columns, of which the hinder
is bent somewhat inwards and is more or less concave externally,
thus forming a more complete outer wall. In America the family
is represented by Heptodon, of the Middle Eocene, which differs
from the early members of the tapir-stock in having a long gap
between the lower canine and first premolar; the dentition is com-
plete, and the upper premolars are simple. The next stage is
Helaletes, also of Middle Eocene age, in which the first lower pre-
molar has disappeared, and the last two upper premolars have
become molar-like. Finally, in the Oligocene Colodon the last
three upper premolars are like the molars, and the first pair of
lower incisors is lost. In Europe the group is represented by the
long-known and typical genus Lophiodon with three premolars
in each jaw, of which the upper are simpler than the molars. The
genus is especially characteristic of the Middle and Upper Eocene,
and some of the species attained the size of a rhinoceros.

4. Rhinoceros Group. — The last section of the Perissodactyla is
that of the Rhinocerotoidea, represented by the modern rhinoce-
roses and their extinct allies. In this group the incisors and canines
are very variable in number and form; the lower canine being
separated by only a short gap from the outer incisor (when present),
but by a long one from the first premolar, which is in contact with
the second. The second and third premolars, which are always
present, are large and molar-like; the whole of these teeth being
essentially of the lophodont type of Lophiodon, but the last upper
molars assume a more or less triangular form, with an oblique outer
wall, and there are certain complications in the structure of all
these teeth in the more specialized types (fig. 2). The lower cheek-
teeth have, unlike those of the Tapiroidea, crescentic ridges, which
have not the loops at their extremities characteristic of the advanced
Hippoidea; the last lower molar has no third lobe. The facial
portion of the skull is generally shorter than the cranial ; the orbit is
freely open behind; and the premaxillae tend to be reduced and
fused with the nasals. Front toes, 3 or 4; hind toes, 3.

The most primitive group is that of the American Hyracodontidae,
represented in the Oligocene by Hyrachyus, Hyracodon and Triplo-
pus. With the exception of the first lower premolar, the dentition
is complete; the incisors being normal, but the canine rudimen-
tary, and the last upper molar distinctly triangular. The upper
molars have a crista and a crochet (fig. 2). The skull is high,
with the facial and cranial portions approximately equal. There

are only three front toes, and the limbs are long and adapted for
running.

In the Amynodontidae, represented by the North American
Middle Eocene Amynodon and Metamynodon, the premolars may
be either J or §, making the total number of teeth either 44 or 40.
The incisors tend to become latera1, the canines are enlarged, and
the last upper molar is sub-quadrangular. The upper molars
have a crista but no crochet (fig. 2). As in the last family, the
post-glenoid process of the skull is broad; the whole skull being
depressed with a shortened facial portion. The fore-foot is five-
toed and spreading; indicating that the members of the family
were swamp-dwelling animals.

Finally, we have the family Rhinocerotidae, which includes the
existing representatives of the group. In this family the dentition
has undergone considerable reduction, and may be represented
inclusive of all the variations, by the formula i }^ c j-^
P 43*or2 "* !• The first upper incisor, when present, has an
antero-posteriorly elongated crown, but the second is small; when
fully developed, the lower canine is a large forwardly directed
tusk-like tooth with sharp cutting-edges, and biting against the
first upper incisor. The third upper molar is triangular, and most
of the teeth of the upper cheek-series may have both crochet and
crista (fig. 2). The post-glenoid process is small, and the facial
and cranial portions of the skull are approximately of equal length.
Usually there are three, but occasionally four front toes; and the
limb-bones are short.

A large number of representatives of the group are known from
both the Old and the New World; specialization displaying itself
in the later ones in the development of dermal horns over the nasal
bones, either in laterally placed pairs as in some of the early forms,
or in the median line, either single or double. In North America
rhinoceroses became extinct before the close of the Pliocene
period; but in the Old World, although their geographical distri-
bution has become greatly restricted, at least five well-marked
species survive. The group is unknown in South America.

As regards the dentition of the existing species, the cheek-series
consists of the four premolars and three molars above and below,
all in contact and closely resembling each other, except the first,
which is much smaller than the rest and often deciduous; the

2 '» 2

FIG. 2. — Grinding Surface of moderately worn Right Upper

Second Molars of Rhinoceros.
A, Rhinoceros unicornis. B, Rhinoceros sondaicus.

1 , Anterior surface. 6, Postero-internal pillar or

2, Posterior surface. column.

3, Internal surface. 7, Anterior valley.

4, External surface (wall or 8, Median valley.

dorsum). 9, Posterior valley.

5, Antero-internal pillar or 10, Accessory valley.

column. ii, Crista.

12, Crochet.

others gradually increasing in size up to the penultimate. The
upper molars present a characteristic pattern of crown, having
a much-developed flat or more or less sinuous outer wall, and two
transverse ridges running obliquely inwards and backwards from
it, terminating internally in conical eminences or columns, and
enclosing a deep valley between. The posterior valley is formed
behind the posterior transverse ridge, and is bounded externally
by a backward continuation of the outer wall and behind by the
cingulum. The anterior valley is formed in the same manner, but
is much smaller. The middle valley is often intersected by vertical
" crista " and " crochet " plates projecting into it from the anterior
surface of the posterior transverse ridge or from the wall, the
development of which is a useful guide in discriminating species,
especially those known only by teeth and bones. The depressions
between the ridges are not filled up* with cement. As stated above,
the lower molars have the crown formed by a pair of crescents;
the last having no third lobe.

The head is Targe, and the skull elongated, and elevated posteriorly
into a transverse occipital crest. No post-orbital processes or
any separation between orbits and temporal ' fossae. Nasal
bones large and stout, co-ossified, and standing out freely above
the premaxillae, from which they are separated by a deep and
wide fissure; the latter small, generally not meeting in the middle
line in front, often rudimentary. Tympanics small, not forming
a bulla. Brain-cavity small for the size of the skull. Vertebrae:
cervical, 7; dorsal. 19-20; lumbar, 3;' sacral, 4; caudal, about 22.

PERISTYLE— PERITONITIS

171

Limbs stout, and of moderate length. Three completely developed
toes, with distinct broad rounded hoofs on each foot. Teats two,
inguinal. Eyes small. Ears of moderate size, oval, erect, promi-
nent, placed near the occiput. Skin very thick, in many species
thrown into massive folds. Hairy covering scanty. One or two
median horns on the face. When one is present it is situated
over the conjoined nasal bones; when two, the hinder one is
over the frontals. These horns, which are of a more or less conical
form and usually recurved, and often grow to a great length
(three or even four feet), are composed of a solid mass of hardened
epidermic cells growing from a cluster of long dermal papillae.
The cells formed on each papilla constitute a distinct horny fibre,
like a thick hair, and the whole is cemented together by an inter-
mediate mass of cells which grow up from the interspaces between
the papillae. It results from this that the horn has the appearance
of a mass of agglutinated hairs, which, in the newly growing part
at the base, readily fray out on destruction of the softer intermediate
substance; but the fibres differ from true hairs in growing from a
free papilla of the derm, and not within a follicular involution of
the same. Considerable difference of opinion exists with regard
to the best classification of the family, some authorities including
most of the species in the typical genus Rhinoceros, while others
recognize quite a number of sub-families and still more genera.
Here the family is divided into two groups Rhinocerolinae and
Elasmotheriinae, the latter including only Elasmotherium, and the
former all the rest. In the Lower Oligocene of Europe we have
Ronzotherium and in that of America Leptaceratherium (Trigonias),
which were primitive species with persistent upper canines and
three-toed fore-feet. Possibly they belonged to the Amynodonlidae,
but they may have been related to the Upper Oligocene Dicera-
therium, in which the nasal bones formed a transverse pair; this
genus being common to Europe and North America. Caenopus
is an allied American type. Hornless rhinoceroses, with five front-
toes, ranging from the Oligocene to the Lower Pliocene in Europe,
represent the genus Aceratherium, which may also occur in America,
as it certainly does in India. With the short-skulled, short-footed,
three-toed and generally horned rhinoceroses ranging in Europe
and America from the Lower Miocene to the Lower Pliocene, typified
by the European R. goldfursi and R. brachypus, we may consider
the genus Rhinoceros to commence; these species constituting the
subgenus Teleoccras. The living R. (Dicerorhinus) sumatrensis of
south-eastern Asia indicates another subgenus, represented in the
European Miocene by R. sansaniensis and in the Indian Pliocene
by R, platyrhinus, in which two horns are combined with the
presence of upper incisors and lower canines. Next we have the
living African species, representing the subgenus Diceros, in which
there are two horns but no front teeth. To this group belongs the
extinct European and Asiatic woolly rhinoceros, Rhinoceros (Diceros)
antiquitatis, of Pleistocene age, of which the frozen bodies are
sometimes found in Siberia, and R. (D.) pachygnathus of the
Lower Pliocene of Greece. Finally the Great Indian rhinoceros
R. unicornis, the Javan R. sondaicus, and the Lower Pliocene Indian
R. sivalensis and R. palaeindicus, represent Rhinoceros proper,
in which front teeth are present, but there is only one horn. (See
RHINOCEROS.)

The subfamily Elasmotheriinae is represented only by the huge
E. sibircum of the Siberian Pleistocene, in which the premolars
were reduced to f while front-teeth were probably wanting, and
the cheek teeth developed tall crowns, without roots, but with
cement in the valleys, and the enamel of the central parts curiously
crimped. A hump on the forehead probably indicates the existence
of a large frontal horn.

LITERATURE. — J. L. Wortman and C. Earle, " Ancestors of the
Tapir from the Lower Miocene of Dakota," Bull. Amer. Mus. vol. v.
art. II. (1893); H. F. Osborn, " Phylogeny of the Rhinoceroses of
Europe," op. cit. vol. xiii. art. 19 (1900) ; O. Thomas, " Notes on
the Type Specimen of Rhinoceros lasiotis, with Remarks on the
Generic Position of the Living Species of Rhinoceros," Proc.
Zoo/. Soc. (London, 1901). (R. L.*)

PERISTYLE (Gr. irept, round, and orCXos, column), in archi-
tecture, a range of columns (whether rectangular or circular on
plan) in one or two rows, enclosing the sanctuary of a temple;
the term is also applied to the same feature when built round
the court in which the temple is situated and in Roman houses
to the court in the rear, round which the private rooms of the
family were arranged, which were entered from the covered
colonnade round the court.

PERITONITIS, inflammation of the peritoneum — the serous
membrane which lines the abdominal and pelvic cavities and
gives a covering to their viscera. It may exist in an acute or
a chronic form, and may be either localized or diffused.

Acute peritonitis may be brought on, like other inflammations,
by exposure to wet or cold, or in connexion with injury to, or
disease of, some abdominal organ, or with general feebleness
of health. It is an occasional result of hernia and of obstruction

of the bowels, of wounds penetrating the abdomen, of the perfora-
tion of viscera, as in ulcer of the stomach, and of the intestine
in typhoid fever, of the bursting of abscesses or cysts into the
abdominal cavity, and also of the extensions of inflammatory
action from some abdominal or pelvic organ, such as the appendix,
the uterus, or bladder. At first localized, it may afterwards
become general. The changes effected in the peritoneum are
similar to those undergone by other serous membranes when
inflamed. Thus, there are congestion; exudation of lymph in
greater or less abundance, at first greyish and soft, thereafter
yellow, becoming tough and causing the folds of the intestine
to adhere together; effusion of fluid, either clear, turbid, bloody
or purulent. The tough, plastic lymph connecting adjacent
folds of intestine is sometimes drawn out like spun-glass by the
movements of the intestines, forming bands and loops through
or beneath which a piece of bowel may become fatally snared.

The symptoms of acute peritonitis usually begin by a shivering
fit or rigor, together with vomiting, and with pain in the
abdomen of a peculiarly severe and sickening character, accom-
panied with extreme tenderness, so that pressure, even of the
bed-clothes, causes aggravation of suffering. The patient lies
on the back with the knees drawn up so as to relax the abdominal
muscles; the breathing becomes rapid and shallow, and is
performed by movements of the chest only, the abdominal
muscles remaining quiescent — unlike what takes place in
healthy respiration. The abdomen becomes swollen by flatulent
distension of the intestines,' which increases the distress. There
is usually constipation. The skin is hot, although there may be
perspiration; the pulse is small, hard and wiry; the urine is
scanty and high coloured, and is passed with pain. The face is
pinched and anxious. These symptoms may pass off in a day
or two; if they do not the case is apt to go on to a fatal termina-
tion. In such event the abdomen becomes more distended;
hiccough, and the vomiting of brown or blood-coloured matter
occur; the temperature falls, the face becomes cold and clammy;
the pulse is exceedingly rapid and feeble, and death takes place
from collapse, the mental faculties remaining clear till the close.
When the peritonitis is due to perforation- — as may happen in the
case of gastric ulcer or of ulcers of typhoid fever, or in the giving
way of a loop of strangulated bowel — the above-mentioned
symptoms and the fatal collapse may all take place in from
twelve to twenty-four hours. The puerperal form of this disease,
which comes on within a day or two after childbirth, is often
rapidly fatal. The actual cause of death is the absorption of
the poisonous inflammatory products which have been poured
out into the peritoneal cavity, as well as of the toxic fluids which
have remained stagnant in the paralysed bowel.

Perhaps the commonest cause of septic peritonitis is the
escape of micro-organisms (bacillus coli) from the ulcerated,
mortified or inflamed appendix (see APPENDICITIS). A genera-
tion or so ago deaths from this cause were generally placed under
the single heading of " peritonitis," but at the present time the
primary disease is shown upon the certificate which too often
runs thus: appendicitis five days, acute peritonitis two days.

Chronic peritonitis may occur as a result of the acute attack,
or as a tuberculous disease. In the former case, the gravest
symptoms having subsided, some abdominal pain continues,
and there is considerable swelling of the abdomen, corresponding
to a thickening of the peritoneum, and to the presence of fluid
in the peritoneal cavity. This kind of peritonitis may also
develop slowly without there having been any preceding acute
attack. There is a gradual loss of strength and flesh. The
disease is essentially a chronic one; it is not usually fatal.

Tuberculous peritonitis occurs either alone or in association
with tuberculous disease of a joint or of the lungs. The chief
symptoms are abdominal discomfort, or pain, and distension of'
the bowels. The patient may suffer from either constipation or
diarrhoea, or each alternately. Along with these local mani-
festations there may exist the usual phenomena of tuberculous
disease, viz. high, fever, with rapid emaciation and loss of
strength. But some cases of tuberculous peritonitis present
symptoms which are not only obscure, but actually misleading.

172

There may be no abdominal distension, and no pain or tender-
ness. The patient may lie quietly in bed, flat on his back,
with the legs down straight, and he may have no marked
elevation of temperature. There may be no vomiting and no
constipation or diarrhoea: In some cases, the neighbouring
coils of intestine having been glued together, a collection of
serous fluid takes its place in the midst of the mass, and, being
walled in by the adhesions, forms a rounded tumour, dull on
percussion, but not tender or painful. Such cases, especially
when occurring in women, are apt to be mistaken for cystic disease
of the ovary.

As regards the treatment of acute peritonitis, the first thing that
the surgeon has to do is to assure himself that the disease is not
due to some cause which itself should be dealt with, to a septic
disease of appendix or Fallopian tube, for instance, or to a toxic
condition of the uterus, the result, perhaps, of a criminal or innocent
abortion, or to a perforated ulcer of stomach or intestine. In many
obscure cases the safest treatment is likely to be afforded by an
exploratory abdominal section. If the medical attendant has
made up his mind that the question of exploration is not to be
entertained — a decision which should be arrived at only after most
deliberate consultation — the best thing will be to apply fomenta-
tions to the abdomen, and to administer small and repeated doses
of morphia by the skin — J or J grain — repeated every hour or
so until the physiological effect is produced. As regards other
drugs, it may be a question as to whether calomel or Epsom salts
should be given. As regards food, the only thing that can be
safely recommended is a little hot water taken in sips. A bed-
cradle should be placed over the patient in order to keep the
weight of the bed-clothes from the abdomen. (E. O.*)

PERIZONIUS (or ACCINCTUS), the name of JAKOB VOORBROEK
(1651-1715), Dutch classical scholar, who was born at Appin-
gedam in Groningen on the 26th of October 1651. He was the
son of Anton Perizonius (1626-1672), the author of a once well-
known treatise, De ratione sludii theologici. Having studied
at the university of Utrecht, he was appointed in 1682 to the
chair of eloquence and history at Franeker through the influence
of J. G. Graevius and Nicolas Heinsius. In 1693 he was pro-
moted to the corresponding chair at Leiden, where he died on
the 6th of April 1715. The numerous works of Perizonius
entitle him to a very high place among the scholars of his age.
Special interest attaches to his edition of the Minerva of Francisco
Sanchez or Sanctiusof Salamanca (ist ed., is87;ed. C. L. Bauer,
1793-1801), one of the last developments of the study of Latin
grammar in its pre-scientific stage, when the phenomena of
language were still regarded as for the most part disconnected,
conventional or fortuitous. Mention should also be made of
his Animadversiones historicae (1685), which may be said to
have laid the foundations of historical criticism, and of his
treatises on the Roman republic, alluded to by Niebuhr as
marking the beginning of that new era of historical study with
which his own name is so closely associated.

The article on Perizonius in Van der Aa's Biographisch Woorden-
boek der Nederlanden contains full biographical and bibliographical
particulars; see also F. A. Eckstein in Ersch and Gruber's Allge-
meine Encyklopadie.

PERJURY (through the Anglo-Fr. perjurie, modern parjure,
Lat. perjurium, a false oath, perjurare, to swear falsely), an
assertion upon an oath duly administered in a judicial pro-
ceeding before a competent court of the truth of some matter of
fact, material to the question depending in that proceeding,
which assertion the assertor does not believe to be true when he
makes it, or on which he knows himself to be ignorant (Stephen,
Digest of the Criminal Law, art. 135). In the early stages of
legal history perjury seems to have been regarded rather as a
sin than as a crime, and so subject only to supernatural penalties.
The injury caused by a false oath was supposed to be done not
so much to society as to the Divine Being in whose name the
oath was taken (see OATH). In Roman law, even in the time of
the empire, the perjurer fell simply under divine reprobation,
and was not dealt with as a criminal, except where he had been
bribed to withhold true or give false evidence, or where the oath
was by the genius of the emperor. In the latter case punishment
was no doubt inflicted more for the insult to the emperor than for
the perjury. False testimony leading to the conviction of a

PERIZONIUS— PERJURY

person for a crime punishable with death constituted the offence
of homicide rather than of perjury. In England, perjury, as
being a sin, was originally a matter of ecclesiastical cognisance.
At a later period, when it had become a crime, the jurisdiction of
the spiritual courts became gradually confined to such perjury as
was committed in ecclesiastical proceedings, and did not extend
to perjury committed in a temporal court. The only perjury
which was for a long time noticed at common law was the perjury
of jurors. Attaint of jurors (see ATTAINT, WRIT OF) who were
originally rather in the position of witnesses than of judges of
fact, incidentally subjected them to punishment for perjury.
Criminal jurisdiction over perjury by persons other than jurors
seems to have been first assumed by the Star Chamber, acting
under the powers supposed to have been conferred by an act
of Henry VII. (1487). After the abolition of the Star Chamber
by the Long Parliament in 1641 and the gradual diminution of
the authority of the spiritual courts, perjury (whether in the
strict sense of the word or the taking of a false oath in non-judicial
proceedings) practically fell entirely within the jurisdiction of
the ordinary criminal tribunals. At common law only a false
oath in judicial proceedings is perjury. But by statute the
penalties of perjury have been extended to extra-judicial matters
e.g. false declarations made for the purpose of procuring marriage
(The Marriage and Registration Act 1856), and false affidavits
under the Bills of Sale Act 1878. False affirmation by a person
permitted by law to affirm is perjury (The Evidence Further
Amendment Act 1869; The Evidence Amendment Act 1870).

In order to support an indictment for perjury the prosecution
must prove the authority to administer the oath, the occasion
of administering it, the taking of the oath, the substance of the
oath, the materiality of the matter sworn, the falsity of the
matter sworn, and the corrupt intention of the defendant.
The indictment must allege that the perjury was wilful and
corrupt, and must set out the false statement or statements
on which perjury is assigned, subject to the provisions of the
Prosecutions for Perjury Act 1749 (which also applies to subor-
nation of perjury). By that act it is sufficient to set out the
substance of the offence, without setting forth the bill, answer,
&c., or any part of the record and without setting forth the
commission or authority of the court before whom the perjury
was committed. The matter sworn to must be one of fact and
not of mere belief or opinion. It is not homicide, as in Roman
law, to procure the death of another by false evidence, but the
Criminal Code, ss. 118, 164, proposed to make such an offence
a substantive crime of greater gravity than ordinary perjury,
and punishable by penal servitude for life. It is a rule of evi-
dence, founded upon obvious reasons, that the testimony of
a single witness is insufficient to convict on a charge of perjury.
There must be corroboration of his evidence in some material
particular. Perjury is a common law misdemeanour, not triable
at quarter-sessions. Most persons in a judicial position have
the right of directing the prosecution of any witness, if it appears
to them that he has been guilty of perjury (The Criminal Pro-
cedure Act 1851). The provisions of the Vexatious Indictments
Act 1859 extend to perjury and subornation of perjury. By that
Act no indictment for either of such offences can be preferred
unless the prosecutor or accused is bound by recognisance, or
the accused is in custody, or the consent of a judge is obtained,
or (in the case of perjury) a prosecution is directed under the
act of 1851.

Subornation of perjury is procuring a person to commit a per-
jury which he actually commits in consequence of such procure-
ment. If the person attempted to be suborned do not take the
oath, the person inciting him, though not guilty of subornation,
is liable to fine and corporal punishment. Perjury and suborna-
tion of perjury are punishable at common law with fine and
imprisonment. By the combined operation of the Perjury
Act 1728 and later statutes, the punishment at present appears
to be penal servitude for any term, or imprisonment with or
without hard labour for a term not exceeding seven years
(see Stephen, Digest, art. 148). The punishment at common law
was whipping, imprisonment, fine and pillory.

PERKIN— PERLEBERG

Perjury or prevarication committed before a committee of
either House of Parliament may be dealt with as a contempt
or breach of privilege as well as by prosecution. As to
false oaths not perjury, it is a misdemeanor at common
law, punishable by fine and imprisonment, to swear falsely
before any person authorized to administer an oath upon a
matter of common concern, under such circumstances that the
false swearing, if committed in judicial proceedings, would have
amounted to perjury. There are some cases of making false
declarations which are punishable on summary conviction,
e.g. certain declarations under the Registration of Births and
Deaths Act 1874, and the Customs Consolidation Act 1876.

In Scotland the law, as a general rule, agrees with that of England.
Perjury may be- committed by a party on reference to oath as
well as by a witness. A witness making a false affirmation is
guilty of perjury (The Affirmation [Scotland] Act, 1865). The acts
of 1851 and 1859 do not extend to Scotland. The trial, though
usually by the court of justiciary, may be by the court of session
if the perjury is committed in the course of an action before that
court. The punishment is penal servitude or imprisonment at the
discretion of the court. Formerly a person convicted of perjury
was disabled from giving evidence in future; this disability was
abolished by the Evidence (Scotland) Act 1852.

In the United States the common law has been extended by most
states to embrace false affirmations and false evidence in proceedings
not judicial. Perjury in a United States court is dealt with by an
act of Congress of the 3rd of March 1825, by which the maximum
punishment for perjury or subornation of perjury is a fine of $2000
or imprisonment for not more than five years. Jurisdiction to
punish perjury committed in the state courts belongs to the states,
as the Federal Constitution did not give it to the Federal gov-
ernment. Statutory provisions founded upon the English act of
1749, have been adopted in some states. In the states which have
not adopted such provisions, the indictment must set out the offence
with the particularity necessary at common law.

On the continent of Europe perjury is also regarded as an offence
of gravity punishable by imprisonment for varying periods. In
Germany, as in England, it was at one time a matter for the spiritual
courts. In Austria it is treated as a form of fraud, and the punish-
ment is proportioned to the estimated amount of damage done to
the party aggrieved. In France the term perjury (parjure) is
specifically applied only to the making of false oaths by parties
in a civil suit.

PERKIN, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1838-1907), English
chemist, was born in London on the I2th of March 1838. From
an early age he determined to adopt chemistry as his profession,
although his father, who was a builder, would have preferred
him to be an architect. Attending the City of London School
he devoted all his spare time to chemistry, and on leaving,
in 1853, entered the Royal College of Chemistry, then under the
direction of A. W. Hofmann, in whose own research laboratory
he was in the course of a year or two promoted to be an assistant.
Devoting his evenings to private investigstions in a rough
laboratory fitted up at his home, Perkin was fired by some remarks
of Hofmann's to undertake the artificial production of quinine.
In this attempt he was unsuccessful, but the observations he
made in the course of his experiments induced him, early in
1856, to try the effect of treating aniline sulphate with bichro-
mate of potash. The result was a precipitate, aniline black,
from which he obtained the colouring matter subsequently known
as aniline blue or mauve. He lost no time in bringing this
substance before the managers of Pullar's dye-works, Perth,
and they expressed a favourable opinion of it, if only it should
not prove too expensive in use. Thus encouraged, he took out
a patent for his process, and leaving the College of Chemistry,
a boy of eighteen, he proceeded, with the aid of his father and
brother, to erect works at Greenford Green, near Harrow, for
the manufacture of the newly discovered colouring matter, and
by the end of 1857 the works were in operation. That date
may therefore be reckoned as that of the foundation of the coal-
tar colour industry, which has since attained such important
dimensions — in Germany, however, rather than in England,
the country where it originated. Perkin also had a large share
in the introduction of artificial alizarin (q.v.), the red dye of the
madder root. C. Graebe and C. T. Liebermann in 1868 pre-
pared that substance synthetically from anthracene, but their
process was not practicable on a large scale, and it was left to
him to patent a method that was commercially valuable. This

he did in 1869, thus securing for the Greenford Green works a
monopoly of alizarin manufacture for several years. About
the same time he also carried out a series of investigations into
kindred substances, such as anthrapurpurin. About 1874 he
abandoned the manufacture of coal-tar colours and devoted
himself exclusively to research in pure chemistry, and among
the discoveries he made in this field was that of the reaction
known by his name, depending on the condensation of aldehydes
with fatty acids (see CINNAMIC ACID). Later still he engaged
in the study of the relations between chemical constitution and
rotation of the plane of polarization in a magnetic field, and
enunciated a law expressing the variation of such rotation
in bodies belonging to homologous series. For this work he
was in 1889 awarded a Davy medal by the Royal Society,
which ten years previously had bestowed upon him a Royal
medal in recognition of his investigations in the coal-tar colours.
The Chemical Society, of which he became secretary in 1869
and president in 1883, presented him with its Longstaff medal
in 1889, and in 1890 he received the Albert medal of the Society
of Arts. In 1906 an international celebration of the fiftieth
anniversary of his invention of mauve was held in London,
and in the same year he was made a knight. He died near
Harrow on the I4th of July 1907.

His eldest son, WILLIAM HENRY PERKIN, who was born at
Sudbury, near Harrow, on the i7th of June 1860, and was
educated at the City of London School, the Royal College of
Science, and the universities of Wiirzburg and Munich, became
professor of chemistry at the Heriot-Watt College, Edinburgh,
in 1887, and professor of organic chemistry at Owens College,
Manchester, in 1892. His chief researches deal with the poly-
methylene compounds, the alkaloids, in particular hydrastine
and berberine, and the camphors and terpenes (q.v.). He
received the Davy medal from the Royal Society in 1904.

PERKINS, CHARLES CALLAHAN (1823-1886), American
artist and author, was born in Boston and educated at Harvard,
subsequently studying art in Rome and Paris. Returning
to Boston, he helped to found the Museum of Fine Arts, of
which he was honorary director, and for many years he played
a leading part in artistic circles as a cultured critic and writer.
His chief publications were Tuscan Sculptors (1864) and Italian
Sculptors (1868) — replaced in 1883 by The Historical Handbook
of Italian Sculptors — Art in Education (1870), and Sepulchral
Monuments in Italy (1885).

PERKINS, JACOB (1766-1849), American inventor and
physicist, was born at Newburyport, Massachusetts, in 1766, and
was apprenticed to a goldsmith. He soon made himself known
by a variety of useful mechanical inventions, and in 1818 came
over to England with a plan for engraving bank-notes on steel,
which ultimately proved a signal success, and was carried out
by Perkins in partnership with the English engraver Heath.
His chief contribution to physics lay in the experiments by
which he proved the compressibility of water and measured
it by a piezometer of his own invention (see Phil. Trans. ,1820,
1826). He retired in 1834, and died in London on the 3oth of
July 1849.

His second son, ANGIER MARCH PERKINS (i799?-i88i), also
born at Newburyport, went to England in 1827, and was the
author of a system of warming buildings by means of high-
pressure steam. His grandson, LOFTUS PERKINS (1834-1891),
most of whose life was spent in England, experimented with the
application to steam engines of steam at very high pressures,
constructing in 1880 a yacht, the " Anthracite," whose engines
worked with a pressure of 500 Ib to the sq. in.

PERLEBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Brandenburg, on the Stepenitz, 6 m. N.E. from Wittenberge
by the railway to Neustrelitz. Pop. (1905), 9502. It contains
a fine Gothic Evangelical church, a Roman Catholic church,
a synagogue and several schools, and has a town-hall, dating
from the I5th century, and a Roland column. Its chief manu-
factures are machinery, soap, blacking and clogs.

See Hopfner, Perleberger Reimchronik. Perleberg ton 1200 bis
1700 (Perleberg, 1876).

174

PERLES— PERM

PERLES, JOSEPH (1835-1894), Jewish rabbi, was born in
Hungary in 1835, and died at Munich in 1894. He was one
of the first rabbis trained at the new type of seminary (Breslau).
Perles' most important essays were on folk-lore and custom.
There is much that is striking and original in his history of
marriage (Die jiidische Hochzeit in nachbiblischer Zeit, 1860), and
of mourning customs (Die Leichenfeierlichkeiten im nachbiblischen
Judenthum, 1861), his contributions to the sources of the Arabian
Nights (Zur rabbinischen Sprach-und Sagenkunde, 1873), and his
notes on rabbinic antiquities (Beilrage zur rabbinischen Sprach-
und Altertumskunde, 1893). Perles' essays are rich in suggestive-
ness, and have been the starting-point of much fruitful research.
He also wrote an essay on Nachmanides, and a biography and
critical appreciation of Rashba (1863). (I. A.)

PERLITE, or PEARLSTONE, a glassy volcanic rock which, when
struck with a hammer, breaks up into small rounded masses
that often have a pearly lustre. The reason for this peculiarity
is obvious in microscopic sections of the rock, for many small
cracks may be seen traversing the glassy substance. These
mostly take a circular course, and often occur in groups, one
within another. The circular cracks bound the little spheres
into which the rock falls when it is struck, and the concentric
fissures are the cause of the pearly lustre, by the reflection of
light from enclosed films of air. Longer straight cracks run
across the sections separating areas in which the circular fissures
preponderate. By decomposition the fissures may be occupied
by deposits of limonite, which make them more obvious, or by
other secondary minerals. The glass itself often undergoes
change along the cracks by becoming finely crystalline or
devitrified, dull in appearance and slightly opaque in section.
In polarized light the perlitic glass is usually quite isotropic,
but sometimes the internal part of some of the spheres has a
slight double refraction which is apparently due to strain. The
glass found on the waste-heaps of glass-furnaces is sometimes
very coarsely perlitic.

Perlitic structure is not confined to glass, but may be seen
also in that variety of opal which is called hyalite. This forms
small transparent rounded masses like drops of gum, and in
microscopic section exhibits concentric systems of cracks.
Hyalite, like perlitic obsidian, is amorphous or non-crystalline.
It is easy to imitate perlitic structure by taking a little Canada
balsam and heating it on a slip of glass till most of the volatile
matters are driven out; then drop it in a basin of cold water
and typical perlitic structure will be produced. The reason is
apparently the sudden contraction when the mass is chilled.
In the glaze on tiles and china rounded or polygonal systems
of cracks may often be seen which somewhat resemble perlitic
structure but are less perfect and regular. Many rocks which
are cryptocrystalline or felsitic, and not glassy, have perfect
perlitic structure, and it seems probable that these were originally
vitreous obsidians or pitchstones and have in process of time
been changed to a finely crystalline state by devitrification.
Occasionally in olivine and quartz rounded cracks not unlike
perlitic structure may be observed.

Many perlitic rocks contain well-developed crystals of quartz,
feldspar, augite or magnetite, &c., usually more or less corroded
or rounded, and in the fine glassy base minute crystallites cfften
abound. Some of the rocks have the resinous lustre and the
high percentages of combined water which distinguish the
pitchstones; others are bright and fresh obsidians, and nearly
all the older examples are dull, cryptocrystalline felsites.
According to their chemical compositions they range from very
acid rhyolites to trachytes and andesites, and the dark basaltic
glasses or tachylytes are sometimes highly perlitic. It is prob-
able that most perlites are of intrusive origin, and the general
absence of steam cavities in these rocks would support this
conclusion, but some perlitic Hungarian rhyolites are believed
to be lavas.

Very well known rocks of this kind are found in Meissen, Saxony,
as dikes of greenish and brownish pitchstone. Other examples
are furnished by the Tertiary igneous rocks of Hungary (Tokai, &c.),
the Euganean Hills (Italy) and Ponza Island (in the Mediterranean).

In mineralogical collections rounded nodules of brown glass

varying from the size of a pea to that of an orange may often be
seen labelled Marekanite. They have long been known to geologists
and are found at Ockotsk, Siberia, in association with a large mass
of perlitic obsidian. These globular bodies are, in fact, the more
coherent portions of a perlite; the rest of the rock falls down in a
fine powder, setting free* the glassy spheres. They are subject
to considerable internal strain, as is shown by the fact that when
struck with a hammer or sliced with a lapidary's saw they often
burst into fragments. Their behaviour in this respect closely
resembles the balls of rapidly cooled, unannealed glass which are
called Prince Rupert's drops. In their natural condition the
marekanite spheres are doubly refracting, but when they have
been heated and very slowly cooled they lose this property and
no longer exhibit any tendency to sudden disintegration.

In Great Britain Tertiary vitreous rocks are not common, but
the pitchstone which forms the Scuir of Eigg is a dark andesitic
porphyry with perlitic structure in its glassy matrix. A better
example, however, is provided by a perlitic dacitic pitchstone
porphyry that occurs near the Tay Bridge in Fifeshire. The
tachylytic basalt dikes of Mull are occasionally highly perlitic. At
Sandy Braes in Antrim a perlitic obsidian has been found, and the Lea
Rock, near Wellington in Shropshire, is a devitrified obsidian which
shows perlitic cracks and the remains of spherulites. (J. S. F.)

PERM, a government of east Russia, bounded S. by the
governments of Orenburg and Ufa, W. by Vyatka, N.W. by
Vologda, and E. by Tobolsk (Siberia). It has an area of 128,173
sq. m. Though administratively it belongs entirely to Russia in
Europe, its eastern part (about 57, coo sq. m.) is situated in.
Siberia, in the basin of the Ob. The government is traversed
from north to south by the Ural Mountains, 30 to 45 m. in width,
thickly clothed with forests, and deeply excavated by rivers.
The highest summits do not rise above 3600 ft. in the northern
section of the range (the Vogulian Ural) ; in the central portion,
between 59° and 60° 30' N., they once or twice exceed 5000 ft.
(Denezhkin, 5360 ft.) ; but the chain soon sinks towards the south,
where it barely attains an elevation of 3000 ft. Where the great
Siberian road crosses it the highest point is 1400 ft.

The government is very well drained by rivers belonging to the
Pechora, Tobol (affluent of the Ob) and Kama systems. The
Pechora itself rises in the northern corner of the government, and
its tributary the Volosnitsa is separated by a distance of less than
3 m. from the navigable Vogulka, a tributary of the Kama, a
circumstance of some commercial importance. The chief river
of Perm, is however, the Kama, whose navigable tributaries the
Chusovaya, Sylva and Kolva are important channels for the
export of heavy iron goods to Russia. The government is
dotted with a great number of lakes of comparatively trifling size,
their total area being 730 sq. m., and with marshes, which are
extensive in the hilly tracts of the north. Granites, diorites,
porphyries, serpentines and Laurentian gneisses and limestones,
containing iron, copper and zinc ores, constitute the main axis
of the Ural chain; their western slope is covered by a narrow strip
of Huronian crystalline slates, which disappear in the east under
the Post-Tertiary deposits of the Siberian lowlands, while on the
west narrow strips of Silurian limestones, quartzites and slates,
and separate islands of Devonian deposits, appear on the surface.
These in their turn are overlain with Carboniferous clays and
sandstones, containing Coal Measures in several isolated basins.
The Permian deposits extend as a regular strip, parallel to the
main ridge, over these last, and are covered with the so-called
" variegated marls," which are considered as Triassic, and appear
only in the western corner of the territory.

Perm is the chief mining region of Russia, owing to its wealth
in iron, silver, platinum, copper, nickel, lead, chrome ore,
manganese and auriferous alluvial deposits. Many rare metals,
such as iridium, osmium, rhodium and ruthenium, are found
along with the above, as also a great variety of precious stones,
such as diamonds, sapphires, jaspers, tourmalines, beryls,
phenacites, chrysoberyls, emeralds, aquamarines, topazes,
amethysts, jades, malachite. Salt-springs occur in the west ;
and the mineral waters, though still little known, are worthy
of mention. No less than 70 % of the total area is occupied with
forest; but the forests are distributed very unequally, covering
95% of the area in the north and only 25% in the south-east.
Firs, the pine, cedar, larch, birch, alder and lime are the most
common; the oak appears only in the south-west. The flora of

PERM— PERMEABILITY, MAGNETIC

Perm presents a mixture of Siberian and Russian species, several
of which have their north-eastern or south-western limits within
the government. The climate is severe, the average temperature
at different places being as follows: —

Lat. N.

Altitude.

Yearly
Average.

January
Average.

July
Average.

Ft.

F.

F.

F.

Bogoslovsk

59° 45'

630

29-3°

3-o°

62-6°

Usolye (Kama)

59° 25'

300

34-0°

4-5°

63-8°

Nizhniy-Tagilsk
Ekaterinburg .

57 55'
56° 48'

590
890

33-1°
32-9°

2-0°

2-5°

64-9°
63-5°

The estimated population in 1906 was 3,487,10x3, and consists
chiefly of Great Russians, besides Bashkirs (including Meshcher-
yaks and Teptyars), Permyaks or Permians, Tatars, Cheremisses,
Syryenians, Votyaks and Voguls. Agriculture is the general occu-
pation; rye, oats, barley and hemp are raised in all parts, and
wheat, millet, buckwheat, potatoes and flax in the south. Cattle-
breeding is specially developed in the south-east among the
Bashkirs, who have large numbers of horses. Mining is develop-
ing steadily though slowly. The ironworks employ nearly
200,000 hands (12,000 being in the Imperial ironworks), and their
aggregate output reaches an estimated value of £6,000,000
annually. The annual production of gold is valued at nearly
half a million sterling, and of platinum at approximately a quarter
of a million, the output of platinum being equal to 95% of the
world's total output. Coal and coke to the extent of 300,000
to 500,000 tons, salt to 300,000 tons, asbestos and other minerals
are also obtained. The first place among the manufacturing
industries is taken by flour-mills. The cutting of precious stones
is extensively carried on throughout the villages on the eastern
slope of the Ural Mountains, the chief market for them being at
Ekaterinburg. An active trade, greatly favoured by the easy
communication of the chief centres of the mining industry with
the market of Nizhniy Novgorod on the one side and with the
network of Siberian rivers on the other, is carried on in metals
and metal wares, minerals, timber and wooden wares, tallow,
skins, cattle, furs, corn and linseed. Large caravans descend the
affluents of the Kama every spring, and reach the fairs of Laishev
and Nizhniy Novgorod, or descend the Volga to Samara and
Astrakhan; while Ekaterinburg is an important centre for the
trade with Siberia. The fairs at Irbit, second in importance only
to that of Nizhniy Novgorod, and Ivanov (in the district of
Shadrinsk) are centres for supplying Siberia with groceries and
manufactured wares, as also for the purchase of tea, of furs for
Russia, and of corn and cattle for the mining districts. The chief
commercial centres are Ekaterinburg, Irbit, Perm, Kamyshlov,
Shadrinsk and Cherdyn.

Perm is more largely provided with educational institutions
and primary schools than most of the governments of central
Russia. Besides the ecclesiastical seminary at Perm there is a
mining school at Ekaterinburg. The Perm zemstw or provincial
council is one of the most active in Russia in promoting the spread
of education and agricultural knowledge among the peasants.

The government is intersected by a railway from Perm east-
wards across the Urals, and thence southwards along their
eastern slope to Ekaterinburg, Chelyabinsk (main Siberian
trunk line) and Tyumen; also by a railway from Perm to Kotlas,
at the head of the Northern Dvina.

History. — Remains of palaeolithic man, everywhere very scarce
in Russia, have not yet been discovered in the upper basins of the
Kama and Ob, with the exception, perhaps, of a single human
skull found in a cavern on the Chanva (basin of Kama), together
with a skull of Ursus spelaeus. Neolithic remains are met with in
immense quantities on both Ural slopes. Still larger quantities
of implements belonging to an early Finnish, or rather Ugrian,
civilization are found everywhere in the basin of the Kama.
Herodotus speaks of the richness of this country inhabited by
the Ugrians, who kept up a brisk traffic with the Greek colony
of Olbia near the mouth of the Dnieper, and with the Bosporus
by way of the Sea of Azov and the Volga. The precise period
at which the Ugrians left the district for the southern steppes

of Russia (the Lebedia of Constantine Porphyrogenitus) is not
known. In the 9th century, if not earlier, the Norsemen were
acquainted with the country as Bjarmeland, and Byzantine
annalists knew it as Permia. Nestor describes it as a territory
of the Perm or Permians, a Finnish people.

The Russians penetrated into this region at an early date. In
the nth century Novgorod levied tribute from the Finnish
inhabitants, and undertook the colonization of the country,
which in the treaties of the i3th century is dealt with as a
separate territory of Novgorod. In 1471 the Novgorod colonies
in Perm were annexed to Moscow, which in the following year
erected a fort to protect the Russian settlers and tradesmen
against the Voguls, Ostiaks and Samoyedes. The mineral
wealth of the country attracted the attention of the Moscow
princes, and in the end of the isth century Ivan III. sent two
Germans to search for ores; these they succeeded in finding south
of the upper Pechora. The Stroganovs in the i6th century
founded the first salt- and ironworks, built forts, and colonized
the Ural region. The rapidly-growing trade with Siberia gave
a new impulse to the development of the country. This trade
had its centres at Perm and Solikamsk, and later at Irbit.

(P. A. K.; J. T. BE.)

PERM, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the
same name, stands on the left bank of the Kama, on the great
highway to Siberia, 1130 m. by rail and river N.E. from Moscow.
Pop. (1879), 32,350; (1897), 45,403. During summer it has
regular steam communication with Kazan, 605 m. distant, and
it is connected by rail (311 m.) with Ekaterinburg on the east
side of the Urals. The town is mostly built of wood, with
broad streets and wide squares, and has a somewhat poor aspect,
especially when compared with Ekaterinburg. It is the seat of a
bishop of the Orthodox Greek Church, and has an ecclesiastical
seminary and a military school, besides several scientific
institutions (the Ural society of natural sciences, archives
committee, technical society), and a scientific museum. Its
industries develop but slowly, the chief works being ship-building
yards, tanneries, chemical works, saw-mills, brickfields, copper
foundries, machinery works, soap and candle factories and rope-
works. The government has a manufactory of steel guns and
munitions of war in the immediate neighbourhood of the town.

The present site of Perm was occupied, as early as 1568, by a
settlement named Brukhanovo, founded by one of the
Stroganovs; this settlement seems to have received the name
of Perm in the i7th century. A copperworks was founded in
the immediate neighbourhood in 1723, and in 1781 it received
officially the name of Perm, and became an administrative centre
both for the country and for the mining region.

PERMEABILITY, MAGNETIC, the ratio of the magnetic
induction or flux-density in any medium to the inducing magnetic
force. In the C.G.S. electromagnetic system of units the
permeability is regarded as a pure number, and its value in
empty space is taken as unity. The permeability of a metal
belonging to the ferromagnetic class— iron, nickel, cobalt and
some of their alloys — is a function of the magnetic force, and
also depends upon the previous magnetic history of the specimen.
As the force increases from zero the permeability of a given
specimen rises to a maximum, which may amount to several
thousands, and then gradually falls off, tending to become unity
when the force is increased without limit. Every other sub-
stance has a constant permeability, which differs from unity only
by a very small fraction; if the substance is paramagnetic, its
permeability is a little greater than i ; if diamagnetic, a little less.
The conception of permeability (Lat. per, through, and meare, to
wander), is due to Faraday, who spoke of it as " conducting
power for magnetism " (Experimental Researches, xxvi.), and the
term now in use was introduced by W. Thomson (Lord Kelvin) ,
in 1872, having been suggested by a hydrokinetic analogy
(Reprint of Papers on Electrostatics and Magnetism, xxxi., xlii.).
It is generally of importance that the iron employed in the
construction of electrical machinery should possess high
permeability under the magnetic force to which it is to be
subjected. (See ELECTROMAGNETISM and MAGNETISM.)

PERMEAMETER— PERMIAN

PERMEAMETER, an instrument for rapidly measuring the
permeability of a sample of iron or steel with sufficient accuracy
for many commercial purposes. The name was first applied
by S. P. Thompson to an apparatus devised by himself in 1890,
which indicates the mechanical force required to detach one end
of the sample, arranged as the core of a straight electromagnet,
from an iron yoke of special form; when this force is known, the
permeability can be easily calculated. (See MAGNETISM.)

PERMIAN, in geology, the youngest and uppermost system of
strata of the Palaeozoic series, situated above the Carboniferous
and below the Trias. The term " Permian " (derived from the

Permian Period

Hypothetical distribution
of Ljuld * Sea

Russian province of Perm, where the rocks are extensively
developed) was introduced in 1841 by Sir R. I. Murchison. In
England the series of red sandstones, conglomerates, breccias
and marls which overlie the Coal Measures were at one time
grouped together in one great formation as the " New Red
Sandstone," in contradistinction to the Old Red Sandstone
below the Carboniferous: they were likewise known as the
Poikttitic series (from Gr. irowiXos, mottled) from their mottled
or variegated colour. They are now divided into two systems
or groups of formations; the lower portion being included in the
Palaeozoic series under the name Permian, the upper portion
being relegated to the Mesozoic series and termed Trias. In
Germany the name Dyas was proposed by J. Marcou for the rocks
of this age on account of the twofold nature of the series in
Thuringia, Saxony, &c. The intimate stratigraphical relation-
ship that exists in many quarters between the Permian rocks
and the Carboniferous beds, and the practical difficulties in the
way of drawing a satisfactory base-line to the system, have led
to the adoption of the term Permo-carboniferoits in South
Africa, southern Asia, America, Australia and Russia, for strata
upon this horizon: C. W. von Giimbel used " Post-carbon " in
this sense. In a similar manner Permo-triassic has been
employed in cases where a stratigraphical passage from rocks with
Permian fossils to others bearing a Triassic fauna is apparent.

The Permian system in England consists of the following sub-
divisions : —

W. of England. E. of England.
Red sandstones, clays, and

gypsum .
Magnesian limestone .

Marl slate

Red and variegated sandstone "j
Reddish-brown and purple
sandstones and marls, with
calcareous conglomerates
and breccias of volcanic
rocks

From the thicknesses here given it is evident that the Permian
rocks have a very different development on the two sides of England.
On the east side, from the coast of Northumberland southwards
to the plains of the Trent, they consist chiefly of a great central
mass of limestone. But on the west side of the Pennine Chain,
and extending southwards into the central counties, the calcareous

3. Upper ...
2. Middle..

I. Lower .

600 ft. 50-100 ft.

10-30

600 "

3000 " 100-250 "

zone disappears, and we have a great accumulation of red, arenaceous
and gravelly rocks.

The lower subdivision attains its greatest development in the
vale of the Eden, where it consists of brick-red sandstones, the
Penrith sandstone series, with some beds of calcareous conglomerate
or breccia, locally known as " brockram," derived from the waste
of the Carboniferous Limestone. These red rocks extend across
the Solway into the valleys of the Nith and Annan, in the south
of Scotland, where they lie unconformably on the Lower Silurian
rocks. Their breccias consist of fragments of the adjacent Silurian
greywackes and shales, but near Dumfries some calcareous breccias
or " brockrams " occur. These brecciated masses have evidently
accumulated in small lakes or narrow fiords. Much farther south,
in Staffordshire, and in the districts of the Clent and Abberley
Hills, the brecciated conglomerates in the Permian series attain a
thickness of 400 ft. They have been shown by Sir A. C. Ramsay
to consist in large measure of volcanic rocks, grits, slates and lime-
stones, which can be identified with rocks on the borders of Wales.
Some of the stones are 3 ft. in diameter and show distinct striation.
The same writer pointed out that these Permian drift-beds cannot be
distinguished by any essential character from modern glacial drifts ;
on the other hand, W. W. King and others have opposed this view.
The middle subdivision is the chief repository of fossils in the
Permian system. Its strata are not red, but consist of a lower
zone of hard brown shale with occasional thin limestone bands
(Marl Slate) and an upper thick mass of dolomite (Magnesian
Limestone). The latter is the chief feature in the Permian develop-
ment of the east of England. It corresponds with the Zechstein
of Germany, as the Marl Slate does with the Kupfer-schiefer. It
is a very variable rock in its lithological characters, being sometimes
dull, earthy, fine-grained and fossiliferous, in other places quite
crystalline, and composed of globular, reniform, botryoidal, or
other irregular concretions of crystalline and frequently internally
radiated dolomite. Though the Magnesian Limestone runs as a
thick persistent zone down the east of England, it is represented
on the Lancashire and Cheshire side by bright red and variegated
sandstone covered by a thin group of red marls, with numerous
thin courses of Hmestone, containing Schizodus, Bakevettia and
other characteristic fossils of the Magnesian Limestone.

Concerning the rocks classed as Permian in the central counties
of England there exists some doubt, for recent work tends to show
that the lower parts are clearly related to the Carboniferous rocks
by their fossils ; while there is little evidence to warrant the exclusion
of the higher beds from the Trias. Similarly in south Devon,
where red sandstones and coarse breccias are well exposed, it has
been found difficult to say whether the series should be regarded
as Triassic or Permian, though the prevailing tendency is to retain
them in the latter system.

The " Dyas " type of the system is found in enormous masses
of strata flanking the Harz Mountains, and also in the Rhine
provinces, Saxony, Thuringia, Bavaria and Bohemia. In general
terms it may be said that in this region there is a lower sandy and
conglomeratic subdivision with an upper one more calcareous;
the former is known as the Rothliegende, the latter as the Zechstein
group. On the south side of the Harz Mountains the following
subdivisions are recognized: —

(" Anhydrite, gypsum, rock-salt, dolomite, marl, fetid
TT I shale and limestone. The amorphous gypsum is the

I chief member of this group; the limestone is some-

L times full of bitumen. •

[ Dolomite (Haupt-dolomit), crystalline granular
Middle -j (Rauchwacke) , and fine powdery (Asche) with gypsum

I at bottom.

iZechstein-limestone, an argillaceous, thin-bedded
compact limestone 15 to 90 ft. thick.
Kupfer-schiefer, a black bituminous copper-bearing
shale, not more than 2 ft. thick, often much less,
but very constant.
Zechstein-conglomerate and calcareous sandstone.
(Red sandstones (Kreuznach beds), red shales
(Monsig beds) with sheets of melaphyre tuff, and
quartz-porphyry-conglomerate (Wadern, Oberhof,
Sotern and Tambach beds).

Sandstones and glomerates (Tholayer beds) on
black shales with poor coal seams and clay iron-
stones (Lebach and Goldlauter beds).

Lower -\ Sandstones and shales with seams of coal on red
and grey sandstones and shales with impure
limestones (Cusel beds, including Manebach beds,
upper, and Gehren beds, lower).
The name Rothliegende or Rothtodtliegende (red-dead-layer) was
given by the miners because their ores disappeared in the red
rocks below the copper-bearing Kupfer-schiefer. The Kupfer-
schiefer, although so thin, has been worked in the Mansfeld district
for a long period; it contains abundant remains of fish (Palaeoniscus,
Platysomus) and plants (Uttmannia). The beds of rock-salt in the
German Zechstein are of the greatest importance; at Sperenberg
near Berlin it has been penetrated to a depth of 4000 ft.
Associated with the salt, gypsum and anhydrite are numerous

PERMIAN

177

potassium and magnesium salts, including carnallite, kieserite
and polyhalite, which are exploited at Stassfurt and are the only
important potassium deposits known. Permian rocks of the
Rothliegende type are scattered over a wide area in France,
where the lower beds are usually conformable with the Coal Measures.
In the upper beds occur the bituminous or " Boghead " shale of
Autun. In Russia strata of this age cover an enormous area, in
the Ural region, in the governments of Perm, Kasan, Kostroma,
and in Armenia. The Russian Permian shows no sharp division
into two series; the two types of deposit tend to be more mixed
and include in addition some deposits of the more open sea. The
general sequence begins with the Artinsk beds, sandy and marly or
conglomeratic beds in close connexion with the Carboniferous,
overlain by the Kungur limestones and dolomites; these are followed
by red fresh-water sandstones, over which comes an important
series of copper-bearing sandstones and conglomerates. Above
this, in Kostroma, Vyatka and Kasan there is a calcareous and
dolomitic series, the so-called " Russian Zechstein " with marine
fossils; the uppermost beds are red marls, with few fresh-water
fossils, the Tartarian beds.

The character of the fossils in the Permian of the Mediterranean
and south-east Europe — well exemplified in the deposits of Sicily —
together with their more generally calcareous nature, indicate
a more open sea and more stable marine conditions than obtained
farther north. This sea is traceable across south-east Russia
into the middle of Asia, through Turkestan and Persia, into the
Salt Range of India, where the Productus limestone may be taken
as representative of the normal marine plan of Permian times.
Southwards, however, of the Nerbudda River another and quite
distinct continental assemblage of deposits holds the ground,
viz. the lower portion of the great fresh-water Gondwana system.
The coarse Tatchir conglomerates at the base are succeeded by the
sandstones and shales of the Karharbari group, with numerous
coal seams, and these in turn are followed by the Damuda series
(upwards of 10,000 ft.) of similar rocks, with ironstones and very
valuable coal seams. All these strata are characterized by the
presence of the Glossopteris flora. A similar succession of beds has
been recorded in north-west Afghanistan. In close relationship
with the lower members of the Indian Gondwana series, both as
regards fossil contents and lithological characters, are the lower
Karoo beds of South Africa (Dwyka conglomerate, Ecca shales and
mudstones, Beaufort beds and Kimberley shales), also the coal-
bearing beds of the Transvaal; the Permo-carboniferous rocks of
Australia (including the rich coal measures of Newcastle, the Greta
coal measures and marine beds, upper and lower, of New South
Wales; those of Tasmania, the Bowen River beds of Queensland,
and the Bacchus Marsh glacial beds of Victoria), and similar rocks
in New Zealand (Maitai formation, south island ; Dun Mountain lime-
stone and Rimutaka beds of the north island) and South America.
In North America Permian rocks occur in the east in Pennsylvania,
West Virginia, Maryland and Ohio (" Upper Barren Measures "),
and in Prince Edward Island, New Brunswick, where they succeed
the Carboniferous rocks very regularly. West of the Mississippi,
in Texas (7000 ft., including the Wichita beds, Clear Fork and
Double Mountain beds), Kansas and Nebraska, the Permian is
more extensive and on the whole is more readily separable from the
Carboniferous. Here the lower beds are marine and contain many
limestones and dolomites; the higher beds are mainly red sand-

stones and marls with gypsum; in Texas it is of interest to note
the occurrence of copper-stained strata. These upper " Red Beds "
are often not clearly distinguishable from the Trias.

Life of the Permian Period. — The records of the plants and animals
of this period are comparatively meagre. The plants show that
a gradual change from the Carboniferous types was in progress.
Two floral regions are clearly indicated, a northern and a southern.
In the latter, which may be regarded as conterminous with the
continent of Gondwana, the Lepidodendrons, Sigillarias, Catamites,
&c., of the Coal Measures gave place to a distinct flora, named from
the prevalence of Glossopteris, the Glossopteris (tongue-fern) flora.
Traces of this southern flora have been found in northern Russia.
Gangamopteris, Callipteris, Taeniopteris, Schizopteris, Walchia,
Voltzia, Uttmannia, Saportea, Baiera are characteristic Permian
genera. Among the larger animals amphibians occupied a promi-
nent position, their footprints being very common in the sandstones;
they include numerous Labyrinthodonts, Archegosaurus, Stereo-
rachis, Branchiosaurus. At this time the true reptiles began to
leave their remains in the rocks; many highly interesting forms are
known — Palaeohatleria, Proterosaurus, Stereosternum ; others having
certain mammalian characteristics include Pareiosaurus, Cynognathus,
Dicynodon. Among the fishes may be mentioned Platysontus,
Palaeoniscus, Amblypterus, Pleuracanthus. Turning to the inverte-
brates, undoubtedly the most interesting feature is gradual intro-
duction into the Cephalopoda of the ammonite-like forms such
as Medlicottia, Waagenoceras, Popanoceras, in place of the more
simple lobed goniatites of the Carboniferous. Brachiopods
(Productus horridus, Bakevellia tumida), Bryozoa and corals were
by no means scarce in the more open Permian seas. Schizodus
Schlolheimii, Strophalosia Goldfussi, Myophoria, Leimyalind, Bellero-
phon are characteristic Permian molluscs. The last of the trilobites
appears in the Permian of North America.

The evidence so far obtained indicates that in Permian times
much of the land in the northern hemisphere was near the general
sea-level, and that conditions of considerable aridity prevaijed
which involved the repeated isolation and evaporation of marine
lagoons and land-locked seas. South of this region in Europe and
Asia there extended an open " Mediterranean " sea, the " Tethys "
of E. Suess; while over an enormous area in the southern hemisphere
a great land area was spread, " Gondwana land," the land of the
Glossopteris flora. At many points in this vast tract, as we have
seen, coarse conglomeratic deposits, Talchir, Dwyka, Bacchus
Marsh, &c., indicate profound glacial conditions, which some have
thought were present also in Britain, Germany and elsewhere
in the north. Moderate earth movements were taking place in
North America, where the Appalachian and Ouachita mountains
were in course of elevation, and in Europe this was a time of great
volcanic activity. In the Saal region volcanic rocks in the lower
Rothliegende have been penetrated for noo ft. without reaching
the bottom, and elsewhere in central Europe great sheets of con-
temporaneous quartz porphyry, granite porphyry, melaphyre and
porphyrite are abundant with their corresponding tuffs. Melaphyres
and tuffs appear in the Vosges, which in the south of France are
enormous masses of melaphyre and quartz porphyry. Basic lavas
and tuffs — diabase, pierite, olivine basalt and andesite tuffs — were
erupted from many small vents in Ayrshire and the Nith basin,
and basic lavas occur also in Devonshire. Volcanic rocks occur
also in New Zealand, Sumatra and the Transvaal.

Table of Permian Strata, showing approximate correlations.

Stages.

Britain.

Saxony,
Thuringia,
Bohemia.

Basin of the
Saar.

Alps.

Russia.

India.

North America.

Bellerophon

Tartarian

tic M

j~

j

•

Thuringian

Marls and
gypsum.
Magnesian
limestone.
Marl slate.

Salt beds of
Stassfurt.
Zechstein lime-
stones.
Kupfer-schiefer.

d
I

1
N

Upper red
sandstones,
breccias and
conglomerates.

limestone.
Dolomites
and shales
of Neumarkt
Sandstones

Marls.
Cephalopod
beds of
Armenia.
Copper-

muda grou
ones. Da
3 limestone

1 .

.sl

E
1

I dl

IK

Kansas. .§H--
Kiger «*>- g

of Groden.

bearing

nj in 3 .

Q i tJ q

£<

1.

stage. .Si wji .

»T X -0

d

Red sandstones

in Ural

111

>«

u

Salt Fork •§ "2 m"o
stage ° -^ 5 'S

Punjabian
or
Saxonian

conglomerate
rls doubtful
iod.
i Scotland ar

eruptive rocl

Weissliegendes.
Tambach beds.
Oberhof beds.
Goldlauter
beds.

•lothliegendes

with eruptive
rocks.
The beds of
Kreuznach,
Wadern,
Sotern,

Verrucano.

lestones.

region.
Limestones
and dolo-
mites of
Kostroma
(Russian

larbari group
Productus
Range. Pro
tone of Chiti

§^

OJ

|.2
11

•e

1

1

Q £1

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8" 1 8. a

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Tholey.

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vt

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Artinskian
(marine)

§ .2-3

I"i3 § '

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Manebach
beds.
Brandschiefer

CJ

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p

Lebach beds.
Cusel beds.

6

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Artinsk
sandstones.
Beds of

* 2(/5.5

H.

j.S

ue serie

Wellington U c 8
beds. £&
Marion

or
Autunian
(continental)

llll

ontem

beds of Wessig.
Gehren beds.
Braunau beds

tc
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Zemblya and
Spitzbergen.

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stage. 3.8 g

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-

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L ^ —

i78

PERNAMBUCO— PERNE

REFERENCES. — The literature dealing with the Permian and
Permo-Carboniferous is very extensive; H. B. Geinitz, J. Marcou,
Sir R. I. Murchison, Sir A. C. Ramsay, H. Potonie, R. Zeiller,
O. Feistmantel, E. A. Newell, Arber, A. C. Seward, F. Bischoff,
C. Ochsensius, E. Mojsisovics, V. Amalitzky, F. Noetling, C. Diener,
A. Tschneryschew, A. Karpinsky, W. Waagen, H. F. and W. T.
Blanford, G. H. Girty and very many others have made important
contributions to the subject. Numerous references will be found
in Sir A. Geikie, Textbook of Geology, 4th ed., and in the annual
Geological Literature of the Geological Society of London. See
also an interesting summary by C. Schuchert, " The Russian
Carboniferous and Permian compared with those of India and
America," Amer. Journ. Sci. (1906), ^th series, vol. xxii. pp. 29 seq.
and a general account of the system in Lethaea geognostica, Th. I.
Bd. II., F. Freeh and others (Stuttgart 1897-1902). H. Everding,
" Zur GeologiederdeutschenZechsteinsalze," Kgl. geolog. Landesanst.
(Berlin, 1907) gives a full account of the salt and potassium-bearing
beds. a- A. H.)

PERNAMBUCO, a north-eastern state of Brazil, bounded N.
by Ceara and Parahyba, E. by the Atlantic, S. by Alagoas and
Bahia, and W. by Piauhy. Area, 49,573 sq. m.; pop. (1900),
1,178,150. It comprises a comparatively narrow coastal zone,
a high inland plateau, and an intermediate zone formed by the
terraces and slopes between the two. Its surface is much broken
by the remains of the ancient plateau which has been worn down
by erosion, leaving escarpments and ranges of flat-topped
mountains, called chapadas, capped in places by horizontal
layers of sandstone. Ranges of these chapadas form the
boundary lines with three states — the Serras dos Irmaos and
Vermelha with Piauhy, the Serra do Araripe with Ceara, and the
Serra dos Cariris Velhos with Parahyba. The coastal zone is
low, well-wooded and fertile. It has a hot, humid climate,
relieved to some extent by the south-east trade winds. This
region is locally known as the mattas (forests). The middle zone,
called the caatinga or agreste region, has a drier climate and
lighter vegetation. The inland region, called the sertao, is high,
stony, and dry, and frequently devastated by prolonged droughts
(sdccas). The climate is characterized by hot days and cool
nights, and is considered healthy, though the daily change tends
to provoke bronchial, catarrhal and inflammatory diseases.
There are two clearly defined seasons, a rainy season from March
to June, and a dry season for the remaining months. The rivers
of the state include a number of small plateau streams flowing
southward to the Sao Francisco River, and several large streams
in the eastern part flowing eastward to the Atlantic. The former
are the Moxoto, Ema, Pajehu, Terra Nova, Brigida, Boa Vista
and Pontal, and are dry channels the greater part of the year.
The largest of the coastal rivers are the Goyanna, which is formed
by the confluence of the Tracunhaem and Capibaribe-mirim,
and drains a rich agricultural region in the north-east part of
the state; the Capibaribe, which has its source in the Serra de
Jacarara and flows eastward to the Atlantic at Recife with a
course of nearly 300 m. ; the Ipojuca, which rises in the Serra de
Aldeia Velha and reaches the coast south of Recife; theSerinhaen
and the Una. A large tributary of the last — the Rio Jacuhipe,
forms part of the boundary line with Alagoas.

Pernambuco is chiefly agricultural, the lowlands being devoted
to sugar and fruit, with coffee in some of the more elevated
localities, the agreste region to cotton, tobacco, Indian corn,
beans and stock, and the sertao to grazing and in some localities
to cotton. Sugar, molasses, rum (aguardente or cachaqa),
tobacco and fruit are largely exported. Coco-nuts, cacao,
bananas, mangoes and other tropical fruits are produced in
profusion, but the production of foodstuffs (beans, Indian corn,
mandioca, &c.) is not sufficient for local consumption. Manga-
beira rubber is collected to a limited extent, and piassava fibre
is an artide of export. Orchids are also collected for export in
the districts of Garanhuns and Timbauba. Cotton-weaving and
cigar-making are the principal manufacturing industries, after
the large engenhos devoted to the manufacture of sugar and rum.
The rail ways of the state are the Recife and Sao Francisco (77 m.),
Central de Pernambuco (132 m.) andSulde Pernambuco (120 m.)
— all government properties leased to the Great Western of
Brazil Railway Co., Ltd., since 1901. Besides these there are the
line from Recife to Limoeiro and Timbauba (112 m.), with an

extension from Timbauba to Pilar (24 m.). All these lines
concentrate at the port of Recife. The capital of the state is
Recife, commonly known among foreigners as Pernambuco.
There are a number of large towns in the state, but the census
returns include their populations in those of the municipios
(communes) to which they belong. The most important are:
Bezerros (17,484), Bom Jardim (40,160), Brejo da Madre de
Deus (13,655), a town of the higher agreste region, Cabo (13,337),
Caruaru (17,844), Escada (9331), Garanhuns (32,788, covering
six towns and villages), Gloria de Goyta (24,554), Goyanna,
Limoeiro (21,576), Olinda (8080), the old colonial capital and
episcopal see, Rio Formosa (6080), Timbauba (9514) and
Victoria (32,422).

Pernambuco was first settled in 1526 by Christovao Jacques
who founded a settlement on the Rio Iguarassu that was after-
wards abandoned. The first permanent settlement was made
by Duarte Coelho Pereira at Olinda in 1530, and four years later
he was granted a capitania of 50 leagues extending from the mouth
of the Sao Francisco northward to that of the Iguarassu. Adjacent
to this grant on the north was the capitania of Itamaraca,
granted to Pero Lopes de Souza, which covered the remainder
of the present state. The capitania of Pernambuco was ably
governed and took an active part in the expulsion of the French
from the trading posts established along the coast northward to
Maranhao, and in establishing Portuguese colonies in ' their
places. In 1630 Pernambuco was occupied by the Dutch and
continued under their rule until 1654. Although an active
guerrilla warfare was waged against the Dutch during a large part
of that period, they did much to promote the agricultural and
commercial interests of the colony, especially under the wise
administration of Maurice of Nassau. In 1817 Pernambuco was
the scene of a revolutionary outbreak, which resulted in the
separation of the present states of Alagoas and Rio Grande do
Norte, Ceara and Parahyba having been detached in 1799.
There'was another insurrection in 1822 when the Portuguese
captain-general, Luiz de Rego, and his garrison was expelled, and
in 1824 dissatisfaction with the arbitrary proceedings of Dom
Pedro I. at Rio de Janeiro led to a separatist revolution for the
formation of a new state, to be called the Federacao do Equador.
There was another outbreak in 1831 and frequent disorders down
to 1 848, when they culminated in another unsuccessful revolution.
The population of the Pernambuco sertao has always been noted
for its turbulent, lawless character, due partly to distance from
the coast where the bulk of the population is concentrated,
partly to difficult means of communication, and partly to the
fact that this remote region has long been the refuge of criminals
from the coast towns.

PERNAU (in Russ. Pernov and in Esthonian Pernolin), a
seaport and watering-place of western Russia, in the' government
of Livonia, 155 m. N. of Riga, on the left bank of the Pernau or
Pernova, which about half a mile farther down enters the Bay
of Pernau, the northern arm of the Gulf of Riga. Pop., 12,856.
The harbour is usually free from ice from the end of April to the
middle of December.

Founded on the right side of the river in 1255 by one of the
bishops of Oesel, Pernau soon became a flourishing place. In
the i6th century it was occupied in succession by the Swedes,
the Poles and the Teutonic Knights. After 1599 the Poles
transferred the town to the left side of the river; and in 1642
the Swedes, who had been in possession since 1617, strengthened
it with regular fortifications. In 1710 it was taken by the
Russians, and the fortress is now demolished.

PERNE, ANDREW (c. 1510-1589), vice-chancellor of Cam-
bridge University and dean of Ely, born about 1591, was son of
John Perne of East Bilney, Norfolk. He was educated at St
John's college, Cambridge, graduating B.A. in 1539, B.D. in
1547 and D.D, in 1552. He was elected fellow of Queens' in
1540, and vice-president in 1551, and was five times vice-
chancellor; but he owes his notoriety to his remarkable versatility,
and, like the vicar of Bray, he was always faithful to the national
religion, whatever it might be. In April 1547 he advocated
Catholic doctrines, but recanted two months later, and his

PERONNE— PERPENDICULAR PERIOD

179

Protestant faith was strengthened during Edward VI. 's reign;
he was appointed a royal chaplain and canon of Windsor. Soon
after Mary's accession, however, he perceived the error of his
ways and was made master of Peterhouse in 1554 and dean of
Ely in 1557. He preached the sermon in 1556 when the bodies
of Bucer and Fagius were disinterred and burnt for heresy, and
also in 1560 when these proceedings were reversed and the dead
heretics were rehabilitated. In Elizabeth's reign he subscribed
the Thirty-nine Articles, denounced the pope and tried to
convert Abbot Feckenham to Protestantism; and in 1584
Whitgift in vain recommended him for a bishopric. He died
on the 26th of April 1589. He was selected as the type of
Anglican prelate by the authors of the Martin Mar-prelate
tracts and other Puritans, who nicknamed him " Old Andrew
Turncoat," " Andrew Ambo," " Old Father Palinode." Cam-
bridge wits, it was said, translated " perno " by " I turn, I rat,
I change often "; and a coat that had often been turned was
said to have been " perned." (A. F. P.)

P&RONNE, a town of northern France, capital of an arron-
dissement of the department of Somme, on the right bank of
the Somme at its confluence with the Cologne, 35 m. E. by N.
of Amiens by rail. Pop. (1906), 3698. The church of St Jean
(1509-1525) was greatly damaged during the bombardment of
1870-71, but has since been restored. The castle of Peronne
still retains four large conical-roofed towers dating from the
middle ages, one of which is said to have been the prison of
Louis XI. in 1468, when he w^s forced to agree to the " Treaty
of Peronne." Peronne has a sub-prefecture, a tribunal of first
instance and a communal college. Its trade and industry are
of little importance.

The Prankish kings had a villa at Peronne, which ClovisII.
gave to Erchinoaldus, mayor of the palace. The latter founded
a monastery here, and raised in honour of St Fursy a collegiate
church, which was a wealthy establishment until the Revolution;
it is the burial-place of Charles the Simple, who died of starvation
in a dungeon in Peronne, into which he had been thrown by the
count of Vermandois (929). After the death of Philip of Alsace,
Peronne, which he had inherited through his wife, escheated to
the French Crown in the reign of Philip Augustus, from whom in
1209 it received a charter. By the treaty of Arras (1435) it
was given to the Burgundians; bought back by Louis XI., it
passed again into the hands of Charles the Bold in 1465. On
the death of Charles, however, in 1477, Louis XI. resumed
possession. In 1536 the emperor Charles V. besieged Peronne,
but without success; in its defence a woman called Marie Foure
greatly distinguished herself. A statue of her stands in the town;
and the anniversary of the raising of the siege is still celebrated
annually. It was the first town after Paris at which the League
was proclaimed in 1577. Peronne's greatest misfortunes
occurred during the Franco-German War. It was invested on
the 27th of December 1870, and bombarded from the 28th to
the gth of the following January, upon which date, on account of
the sufferings of the civil population, among whom small-pox
had broken out, it was compelled to capitulate.

PEROVSKITE, or PEROFSKITE, a mineral consisting of calcium
titanate, CaTiOs, usually with a small proportion of the calcium
replaced by iron. The crystals found in schistose rocks have
the form of cubes, which are sometimes modified on the edges
and corners by numerous small planes; on the other hand, the
crystals occurring as an accessory constituent of eruptive rocks
are octahedral in form and microscopic in size. Although
geometrically cubic, the crystals are always doubly refracting,
and they sometimes show evidence of complex mimetic twinning;
their structure as shown in polarized light is very similar to
that of the mineral boracite, and they are therefore described as
pseudo-cubic. There are distinct cleavages parallel to the faces
of the cube. The colour varies from pale yellow to blackish-
brown and the lustre is adamantine to metallic; the crystals are
transparent to opaque. The index of refraction is high, the
hardness 55 and the specific gravity 4-0. The mineral was
discovered at Achmatovsk near Zlatonst in the Urals by G.
Rose in 1839, and named in honour of Count L. A. Perovsky;

at this locality large cubes occur with calcite and magnetite in
a chlorite-schist. Similar crystals are also found in talc-schist
at Zermatt in Switzerland. The microscopic octahedral
crystals are characteristic of melilite basalt and nepheline
basalt; they have also been found in peridotite and serpen-
tine. (L. J. S.)

PEROWNE, JOHN JAMES STEWART (1823-1904), English
bishop, was born, of Huguenot ancestry, at Burdwan, Bengal,
on the i3th of March 1823. He was educated at Norwich and
at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, bcoming a fellow in 1849.
After holding a chair in King's College, London, he was appointed
vice-principal at St David's College, Lampeter (1862-1872).
In 1868 he was Hulsean lecturer, taking as his subject Immor-
tality. He was elected canon of Llandaff in 1869, dean of Peter-
borough 1878, and in 1891 succeeded Henry Philpott as bishop
of Worcester. Perowne was a good Hebrew scholar of the old
type and sat on the Old Testament Revision Committee. He
is best remembered as the general editor of the Cambridge
Bible for Schools and Colleges. His chief works were a Com-
mentary on the Book of Psalms (2 vols., 1864-1868) and a life of
Bishop Thirlwall (1877-1878). He resigned his see in 1901, and
died on the 6th of November 1904.

PEROZ (Peirozes, Priscus, fr. 33; Perozes, Procop. Pers. i. 3
and Agath. iv. 27; the modern form of the name is Feroz, Firuz,
cf. FIRUZABAD), Sassanid king of Persia, A.D. 457-484, son of
Yazdegerd II. He rebelled against his brother Homizd III.,
and in 459 defeated and killed him with the help of the Ephtha-
lites, or White Huns, who had invaded Bactria. He also killed
most of his other relatives, and persecuted the Christians. But
he favoured the introduction of Nestorianism, in opposition to
the orthodox creed of Byzantium. With the Romans he main-
tained peace, but he tried to keep down the Ephthalites, who
began to conquer eastern Iran. The Romans supported him
with subsidies; but all his wars were disastrous. Once he was
himself taken prisoner and had to give his son Kavadh as hostage
till after two years he was able to pay a heavy ransom. Then
he broke the treaty again and advanced with a large army.
But he lost his way in the eastern desert and perished with
his whole army (484). The Ephthalites invaded and plun-
dered Persia for two years, till at last a noble Persian from
the old family of Karen, Zarmihr (or Sokhra), restored some
degree of order. He raised Balash, a brother of Peroz, to the
throne. (ED. M.)

PERPENDICULAR PERIOD, the term given by Thomas
Rickman to the third period of Gothic architecture in England,
in consequence of the great predominance of perpendicular lines.
In the later examples of the Decorated period the omission of
the circles in the tracery had led to the employment of curves
of double curvature which developed into flamboyant tracery,
and the introduction of the perpendicular lines was a reaction
in the contrary direction. The mullions of the windows (which
are sometimes of immense size, so as to give greater space for
the stained glass) are carried up into the arch mould of the
windows, and the upper portion is subdivided by additional
mullions. The buttresses and wall surface are likewise divided
up into vertical panels. The doorways are frequently enclosed
within a square head over the arch mouldings, the spandrils
being fitted with quatrefoils or tracery. Inside the church the
triforium disappears, or its place is filled with panelling, and
greater importance is given to the clerestory windows which
constitute the finest features in the churches of this period. The
mouldings are flatter and less effective than those of the earlier
periods, and one of the chief characteristics is the introduction
of large elliptical hollows. The finest features of this period are
the magnificent timber roofs, such as those of Westminster Hall
(1395), Christ Church Hall, Oxford, and Crosby Hall.

The earliest examples of the Perpendicular period, dating
from 1360, are found at Gloucester, where the masons of the
cathedral would seem to have been far in advance of those in
other towns. Among other buildings of note are the choir and
tower of York Cathedral (1389-1407); the nave and western
transepts of Canterbury Cathedral (1378-1411), and the tower

i8o

PERPENT— PERPETUAL MOTION

(towards the end of the isth century); New College, Oxford
(1380-1386); the Beauchamp Chapel, Warwick (1381-1391);
the nave and aisles of Winchester Cathedral (1399-1419); the
transept and tower of Merton College, Oxford (1424-1450);
Manchester Cathedral (1422); the central tower of Gloucester
Cathedral (1454-1457), and that of Magdalen College, Oxford
(1475-1480). To those examples should be added the towers
at Wrexham, Coventry, Evesham, and St Mary's at Taunton,
the first being of exceptional magnificence.

PERPENT, or PARPENT STONES, in architecture, bond or
" through stones," the biarbvoi. of the Greeks and Romans, long
stones going right through walls, and tying them together from
face to face. The O. Fr. parpain, modern parpaing, from which
this word is derived, is obscure in origin. It may be from a
supposed Lat. perpago, perpaginis, formed like compago, a
joint, from the root of pangere, to fasten, and meaning " some-
thing fastened together," or from some popular corruption
of Lat. perpendiculum, plummet or plumb-line (pir or pendere,
to hang), referring to the smooth perpendicular faces of the
stone.

PERPETUAL MOTION, or PERPETUUM MOBILE, in its usual
significance, not simply a machine which will go on moving for
ever, but a machine which, once set in motion, will go on doing
useful work without drawing on any external source of energy, or a
machine which in every complete cycle of its operation will give
forth more energy than it has absorbed. Briefly, a perpetual
motion usually means a machine which will create energy.

The earlier seekers after the " perpetuum mobile " did not
always appreciate the exact nature of their quest; for we find
among their ideals a clock that would periodically rewind itself,
and thus go without human interference as long as its machinery
would last. The energy created by such a machine would
simply be the work done in overcoming the friction of its parts,
so that its projectors might be held merely to have been ignorant
of the laws of friction and of the dynamic theory of heat. Most
of the perpetual motionists, however, had more practical views,
and explicitly declared the object of their inventions to be the
doing of useful work, such as raising water, grinding corn, and
so on. Like the exact quadrature of the circle, the transmuta-
tion of metals and other famous problems of antiquity, the
perpetual motion has now become a venerable paradox. Still,
like these others, it retains a great historical interest. Just as
some of the most interesting branches of modern pure mathe-
matics sprang from the problem of squaring the circle, as
the researches of the alchemists developed into the science of
modern chemistry, so, as the result of the vain search after the
perpetual motion, there grew up the greatest of all the general-
izations of physical science, the principle of the conservation of
energy.

There was a time when the problem of the perpetual motion
was one worthy of the attention of a philosopher. Before that
analysis of the action of ordinary machines which led to the laws
of dynamics, and the discussion of the dynamical interdependence
of natural phenomena which accompanied the establishment of
the dynamical theory of heat, there was nothing plainly unreason-
able in the idea that work might be done by the mere concatena-
tion of machinery. It had not then been proved that energy is
uncreatable and indestructible in the ordinary course of nature;
even now that proof has only been given by induction from long
observation of facts. There was a time when wise men believed
that a spirit, whose maintenance would cost nothing, could by
magic art be summoned from the deep to do his master's work;
and it was just as reasonable to suppose that a structure of wood,
brass and iron could be found to work under like conditions.
The disproof is in both cases alike. No such spirit has ever
existed, save in the imagination of his describer, and no such
machine has ever been known to act, save in the fancy of its
inventor.

The principle of the conservation of energy, which in one
sense is simply denial of the possibility of a perpetual motion,
rests on facts drawn from every branch of physical science; and,
although its full establishment only dates from the middle of the

1 9th century, yet so numerous are the cases in which it has been
tested, so various the deductions from it that have been proved
to accord with experience, that it is now regarded as one of the
best-established laws of nature. Consequently, on any one who
calls it in question is thrown the burden of proving his case. If
any machine were produced whose source of energy could not at
once be traced, a man of science (complete freedom of investi-
gation being supposed) would in the first place try to trace its
power to some hidden source of a kind already known ; or in the
last resort he would seek for a source of energy of a new kind and
give it a new name. Any assertion of creation of energy by
means of a mere machine would have to be authenticated in
many instances, and established by long investigation, before it
could be received in modern science. The case is precisely as
with the law of gravitation; if any apparent exception to this
were observed in the case of some heavenly body, astronomers,
instead of denying the law, would immediately seek to explain
the occurrence by a wider application of it, say by including in
their calculations the effect of some disturbing body hitherto
neglected. If a man likes to indulge the notion that, after all,
an exception to the law of the conservation of energy may be
found, and, provided he submits his idea to the test of experiment
at his own charges without annoying his neighbours, all that can
be said is that he is engaged in an unpromising enterprise. The
case is otherwise with the projector who comes forward with
some machine which claims by the mere ingenuity of its contri-
vance to multiply the energy supplied to it from some of the
ordinary sources of nature and sets to work to pester scientific
men to examine his supposed discovery, or attempts therewith
to induce the credulous to waste their money. This is by far
the largest class of perpetual-motion-mongers nowadays. The
interest of such cases is that attaching to the morbid anatomy
of the human mind. Perhaps the most striking feature about
them is the woful sameness of the symptoms of their madness.
As a body perpetual-motion seekers are ambitious, lovers of the
short path to wealth and fame, but wholly superficial. Their
inventions are very rarely characterized even by mechanical
ingenuity.. Sometimes indeed the inventor has simply bewildered
himself by the complexity of his device; but in most cases the
machines of the perpetual motionist are of child-like simplicity,
remarkable only for the extraordinary assertions of the inventor
concerning them. Wealth of ideas there is none; simply asser-
tions that such and such a machine solves the problem, although
an identical contrivance has been shown to do no such thing by
the brutal test of standing still in the hands of many previous
inventors. Hosts of the seekers for the perpetual motion have
attacked their insoluble problem with less than a schoolboy's
share of the requisite knowledge; and their confidence as a rule
is in proportion to their ignorance. Very often they get no
further than a mere prospectus, on the strength of which they
claim some imaginary reward, or offer their precious discovery
for sale; sometimes they get the length of a model which wants
only the last perfection (already in the inventor's brain) to
solve the great problem; sometimes fraud is made to supply the
motive power which their real or pretended efforts have failed to
discover.

It was no doubt the barefaced fallacy of most of the plans for
perpetual motion that led the majority of scientific men to
conclude at a very early date that the " perpetuum mobile '.'
was an impossibility. We find the Paris Academy of Sciences
refusing, as early as 1775, to receive schemes for the perpetual
motion, which they class with solutions of the duplication of the
cube, the trisection of an angle and the quadrature of the circle.
Stevinus and Leibnitz seem to have regarded its impossibility as
axiomatic; and Newton at the beginning of his Principle, states,
so far as ordinary mechanics are concerned, a principle which
virtually amounts to the same thing.

The famous proof of P. De la Hire simply refers to some of
the more common gravitational perpetual motions. The truth
is, as we have said already, that, if proof is to be given, or
considered necessary, it must proceed by induction from all
physical phenomena.

PERPETUAL MOTION

181

FIG.

It would serve no useful purpose here to give an exhaustive
historical account ' of the vagaries of mankind in pursuit of the
" perpetuum mobile." The reader may refer to Henry Dircks's
Perpeluum Mobile (2 vols., 1861 and 1870), from which, for
the most Dart, we select the following facts.

By far the most numerous class of perpetual motions is that
which seeks to utilize the action of gravity upon rigid solids. We
have not read of any actual proposal of the kind, but the most
obvious thing to imagine in this way would be to procure some
substance which intercepts gravitational attraction. If this could
be had, then, by introducing a plate of it underneath a body while
it was raised, we could elevate the body without doing work;
then, removing the plate, we could allow the body to fall and do
work; eccentrics or other imposing device being added to move
the gravitation intercepter, behold a perpetual motion complete !
The great difficulty is that no one has found the proper material
for an intercepter.

Fig. I represents one of the most ancient and oftenest-repeated
of gravitational perpetual motions. The idea is that the balls

rolling in the compartments
between the felloe and the rim
of the wheel will, on the whole,
so comport themselves that the
moment about the centre of
those on the descending side
exceeds the moment of those on
the ascending side. Endless
devices, such as curved spokes,
levers with elbow-joints, eccen-
trics, &c., have been proposed
for effecting this impossibility.
The student of dynamics at
once convinces himself that no
machinery can effect any such
result; because if we give the
wheel a complete turn, so that
each ball returns to its original
position, the whole work done by the ball will, at the most,
equal that done on it. We know that if the laws of motion be
true, in each step the kinetic energy given to the whole system of
wheel and balls is equal to that taken from the potential energy
of the balls less what is dissipated in the form of heat by frictional
forces, or vice versa, if the wheel and balls be losing kinetic
energy — save that the friction in both cases leads to dissipation.
So that, whatever the system may lose, it can, after it is left to itself,
never gain energy during its motion.

The two most famous perpetual motions of history, viz. the
wheels of the marquis of Worcester (d. 1667) and of Councillor
Orffyraeus, were probably of this type. The marquis of Worcester
gives the following account of his machine in his Century of Inventions
(art. 56) :—

" To provide and make that all the Weights of the descending side
of a Wheel shall be perpetually further from the Centre than those
of the. mounting side, and yet equal in number and heft to one side
as the other. A most incredible thing, if not seen but tried before
the late king (of blessed memory) in the Tower, by my directions,
two Extraordinary Embassadors accompanying His Majesty, and
the Duke of Richmond, and Duke Hamilton, with most of the Court,
attending him. The Wheel was 14. Foot over, and 40. Weights of
50. pounds apiece. Sir William Balfore, then Lieutenant of the
Tower, can justify it, with several others. They all saw that no
sooner these great Weights passed the Diameter-line of the lower
side, but they hung a foot further from the Centre, nor no sooner
passed the Diameter-line of the upper side but they hung a foot
nearer. Be pleased to judge the consequence."

1 We may here notice, so far as more recent times are concerned,
the claim of an American enthusiast, who, having worked a Hampson
plant for liquefying air, stated that 3 ft of liquid air sufficed to
liquefy ten, and of these ten seven could be employed as a source
of motive power, whilst the remaining three could be utilized in the
production of another 10 ft of the liquid gas. There was thus
available an inexhaustible supply of energy ! The absurdity of
the proposition is obvious to any one acquainted with the laws
of thermodynamics. Of more interest is the radium clock devised
by the Hon. R. J. Strutt. This consists of a vacuum vessel from
the top of which depends a short tube containing a fragment of a
radioactive substance. At the lower end of this tube there are
two gold leaves as in an electroscope. Fused into the sides of the
vacuum vessel at points where the extended gold leaves touch
the glass are two platinum wires, the outer ends of which are
earthed. The " clock " acts as follows. The radio-active substance
emits a preponderating number of positively electrified particles,
so that the leaves become charged and hence extended. On contact
with the wires fused into the vessel, this charge is conducted away
and the leaves fall together. The process is then repeated, and
will continue until all the energy of the radium has been dissipated.
This period is extremely long, for 1000 years must elapse before
even half the radium has disappeared. — [ED.]

Orffyraeus (whose real name was Johann Ernst Elias Bessler)
(1680-1745) also obtained distinguished patronage for his invention.
His last wheel, for he appears to have constructed more than one,
was 12 ft. in diameter and I ft. 2 in. broad; it consisted of a
light framework of wood, covered in with oilcloth so that the
interior was concealed, and was mounted on an axle which had no
visible connexion with any external mover. It was examined
and approved^f by the landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, in whose castle
at Weissenstem it is said to have gone for eight weeks in a sealed
room. The most remarkable thing about this machine is that it
evidently imposed upon the mathematician W. T. 'sGravesande,
who wrote a letter to Newton giving an account of his examination
of Orffyraeus's wheel undertaken at the request of the landgrave,
wherein he professes himself dissatisfied with the proofs theretofore
given of vhe impossibility of perpetual motion, and indicates his
opinion that the invention of Orffyraeus is worthy of investigation.
He himself, however, was not allowed to examine the interior of
the wheel. The inventor seems to have destroyed it himself. One
story is that he did so on account of difficulties with the landgrave's
government as to a licence for it; another that he was annoyed at
the examination by 'sGravesande, and wrote on the wall of the room
containing the fragments of his model that he had destroyed it
because of the impertinent curiosity of 'sGravesande.

The overbalancing wheel perpetual motion seems to be as old as
the I3th century. Dircks quotes an account of an invention by
Wilars de Honecort, an architect whose sketchbook is still preserved
in the Ecoles des Chartes at Paris. De Honecort says, Many a
time have skilful _ workmen tried to contrive a wheel that shall
turn of itself ; here is a way to do it by means of an uneven number of
mallets, or by quicksilver." He thereupon gives a rude sketch
of a wheel with mallets jointed to its circumference. It would
appear from some of the manuscripts of Leonardo da Vinci that he
had worked with similar notions.

Another scheme of the perpetual motionist is a water-wheel
which shall feed its own mill-stream. This notion is probably
as old as the first miller who experienced the difficulty of a dry
season. One form is figured in the Mathematical Magic (1648) of
Bishop Wilkins (1614-1672) ; the essential part of it is the water-
screw of Archimedes, which appears in many of the earlier machines

of this class. Some of the later ones dispense with even the
subtlety of the water-screw, and boldly represent a water-wheel
pumping the water upon its own buckets.

Perpetual motions founded on the hydrostatical paradox are not
uncommon; Denis Papin exposes one of these in the Philosophical
Transactions for 1685. The most naive

of these devices is that illustrated in fig. 2,

the idea of which is that the larger

quantity of water in the wider part of the

vessel weighing more will overbalance the

smaller quantity in the narrower part, so

that the water will run over at C, and so

on continually.

Capillary attraction has also been a
'avourite field for the vain quest; for, if
}y capillary action fluids can be made to

disobey the law of never rising above

their own level, what so easy as thus to
sroduce a continual ascent and overflow,

and thus perpetual motion? Various schemes of this kind, in-
volving an endless band which should raise more water by its

capillary action on one side than on the other, have been proposed.

The most celebrated is that of Sir William Congreve (1772-1828).
FG (fig. 3) is an inclined plane over pulleys; at the top and bottom

travels an endless band of sponge, abed, and over this again an

endless band of heavy weights jointed together. The whole stands

over the surface of still water. The capillary action raises the

water in ab, whereas the

same thing cannot hap-
pen in the part ad, since

the weights squeeze the

water out. Hence, inch

for inch, ab is heavier

than ad; but we know

that if ab were only just

as heavy inch for inch

as ad there would be

equilibrium, if the heavy

chain be also uniform;

therefore the extra

weight of ab will cause

the chain to move round

in the direction of the

arrow, and this will go

on continually.

The more recondite

vehicles of energy, such as electricity and magnetism, are more

seldom drawn upon by perpetual-motion inventors than might

perhaps be expected. William Gilbert, in his treatise De

Magnete, alludes to some of them, and Bishop Wilkins mentions

among others a machine " wherein a loadstone is so disposed

FIG. 2.

182

PERPETUITY— PERPIGNAN

that it shall draw unto it on a reclined plane a bullet of steel,
which, still, as it ascends near to the loadstone, may be contrived
to fall through some hole in the plane and so to return unto
the place whence at first it began to move, and being there,
the loadstone will again attract it upwards, till, coming to this
hole, it will fall down again, and so the motion shall be perpetual."
The fact that screens do exist whereby electrical and magnetic
action can be cut off would seem to open a door for the perpetual-
motion seeker. Unfortunately the bringing up and removing of
these screens involves in all cases just that gain or loss of work which
is demanded by the law of the conservation of energy. A shoemaker
of Linlithgow called Spence pretended that he had found a black
substance which intercepted magnetic attraction and repulsion,
and he produced two machines which were moved, as he asserted,
by the agency of permanent magnets, thanks to the black substance.
The fraud was speedily exposed, but it is worthy of remark that
Sir David Brewster thought the thing worth mentioning in a letter
to the Annales de chimie (1818), wherein he states " that Mr Playfair
and Captain Kater have inspected both of these machines and are
satisfied that they resolve the problem of perpetual motion."

The present writer once was sent an elaborate drawing of a
locomotive engine which was to be worked by the agency of per-
manent magnets. He forgets the details, but it was not so simple
as the plan represented in fig. 4, where
M and N are permanent magnets, whose
attraction is " screened " by the wooden
blocks A and B from the upper left and
lower right quadrants of the soft iron
wheel \V, which consequently is attracted
round in the same direction by both M
and N, and thus goes on for ever.

One more page from this chapter of the
book of human folly; the author is the
famous Jean Bernoulli the elder. We
N translate his Latin, as far as possible, into
modern phraseology. In the first place
we must premise the following (see fig. 5).
(l) If there be two fluids of different
densities whose densities are in the ratio
of G to L, the height of equiponderating
cylinders on equal bases will be in the inverse ratio of L to G.
(2) Accordingly, if the height AC of one fluid, contained in the vase
AD, be in this ratio to the height EF of the other liquid, which is
in a tube open at both ends, the liquids so placed will remain at
rest. (3) Wherefore, if AC be to EF in a greater ratio than L
to G, the liquid in the tube will ascend; or if the tube be not
sufficiently long the liquid will overflow at the orifice E (this
follows from hydrostatic principles). (4) It is possible to have two
liquids of different density that will mix. (5) It is possible to
have a filter, colander, or other separator, by means of which the
lighter liquid mixed with the heavier may be separated again
therefrom.

Construction. — These things being presupposed (says Bernoulli),
I thus construct a perpetual motion. Let there be taken in any
(if you please, in equal) quantities two
liquids of different densities mixed
together (which may be had by hyp. 4),
and let the ratio of their densities be
first determined, and be the heavier to
the lighter as G to L, then with the
mixture let the vase AD be filled up
to A. This done let the tube EF, open
at both ends, be taken of such a length
that AC: EF>2L:G+L; let the lower
orifice F of this tube be stopped, or
rather covered with the filter or other
material separating the lighter liquid
from the heavier (which may also be
had by hyp. 5); now let the tube thus
prepared be immersed to the bottom of
the vessel CD ; I say that the liquid will
continually ascend through the orifice
F of the tube and overflow by the
orifice E upon the liquid below.

Demonstration. — Because the orifice
F of the tube is covered by the filter

FIG. 4.

FIG. 5.

(by constr.) which separates the lighter liquid from the heavier,
it follows that, if the tube be immersed to the bottom of the
vessel, the lighter liquid alone which is mixed with the heavier
ought to rise through the filter into the tube, and that, too, higher
than the surface of the surrounding liquid (by hyp. 2), so that
AC:EF = 2L: G+L; but since by constr. AC: EF>2L: G+L
it necessarily follows (by hyp. 3) that the lighter liquid will flow
over by the orifice E into the vessel below, and there will meet the
heavier and be again mixed with it; and it will then penetrate
the filter, again ascend the tube, and be a second time driven
through the upper orifice. Thus, therefore, will the flow be con-
tinued for ever. — Q E D.

Bernoulli then proceeds to apply this theory to explain the per-
petual rise of water to the mountains, and its flow in rivers to the

sea, which others had falsely attributed to capillary action — his
idea being that it was an effect of the different densities of salt and
fresh water.

One really is at a loss with Bernoulli's wonderful theory, whether
to admire most the conscientious statement of the hypothesis, the
prim logic of the demonstration, so carefully cut according to the
pattern of the ancients, or the weighty superstructure built on so
frail a foundation. Most of our perpetual motions were clearly
the result of too little learning; surely this one was the product
of too much. (G. CH.)

PERPETUITY (Lat. perpeluus, continuous), the state of being
perpetual or continuing for an indefinite time; in law the tying-up
of an estate for a lengthened period, for the purpose of preventing
or restricting alienation. As being opposed to the interest of
the state and individual effort, the creation of perpetuities has
been considerably curtailed, and the rule against perpetuities in
the United Kingdom now forbids the making of an executory
interest unless beginning within the period of any fixed number of
existing lives and an additional period of twenty-one years (with
a few months added, if necessary, for the period of gestation).
The rule applies to dispositions of personal property (see
ACCUMULATION) as well as of real property. There are certain
exceptions to the rule, as in the case of limitations in mortmain
and to charitable uses, and also in the case of a perpetuity created
by act of parliament (e.g. the estate of Blenheim, settled on
the duke of Marlborough, and Strathfieldsaye on the duke of
Wellington). In the United States the English common-law rule
against perpetuities obtains in many of the states; in others it
has been replaced or reinforced by statutory rules (see Gray on
Alienation, § 42). Charities may be established in perpetuity,
and provision may be made for an accumulation of the funds for a
reasonable time, e.g. for 100 years (Woodru/ v. Marsh, 63 Conn.
Rep. 125; 38 Amer. St. Rep. 346). The general tendency of
American legislation is to favour tying up estates to a greater
extent than was formerly approved.

PERPIGNAN, a town of south-western France, capital of the
department of Pyr6nees-Orientales, on the right bank of the TSt,-
7 m. from the Mediterranean and 42 m. S. by W. of Narbor.ne
by rail. 'Pop. (1906), town, 32,683; commune, 38,898. The
north-west quarter of the town is traversed by the Basse, a
tributary of the Tet, while to the south it is overlooked by a
citadel enclosing a castle (i3th century) of the kings of Majorca.
The chapel is remarkable as being a mixture of the Romanesque,
Pointed and Moorish styles. The ramparts surrounding the
citadel are the work of Louis XI., Charles V. and Vauban. The
sculptures and caryatides still to be seen on the gateway of the
citadel were placed there by the duke of Alva. The cathedral
of St Jean was begun in 1324 and finished in 1509. The most
noteworthy feature in the building is an immense reredos of
white marble (early X7th century) by Bartholomew Soler of
Barcelona.

In the north of the town commanding the gateway of Notre-
Dame (1481) there stands a curious machicolated stronghold
known as the Castillet (i4th and i'sth centuries), now used as a
prison. The buildings of the old university (i8th century)
contain the library and the museum, the latter possessing the
first photographic proofs executed by Daguerre and a collection
of sculptures and paintings. Statues of Francois Arago, the
astronomer, and Hyacinthe Rigoud, the painter, stand in the
squares named after them.

Perpignan is a fortified place of the first class, and seat of a
prefect, a bishop and a court of assizes, and has tribunals of first
instance and of commerce, a chamber of commerce, a branch of
the Bank of France, a communal college for boys, a school of
music and training colleges for both sexes. The higher tribunal
of Andovic sits at Perpignan. Trade is in wine, iron, wool, oil,
corks and leather.

Perpignan dates at least from the roth century. In the nth
and i2th centuries it was a capital of the counts of Roussillon,
from whom it passed in 1172 to the kings of Aragon. Philip the
Bold, king of France, died there in 1285, as he was returning from
an unsuccessful expedition into Aragon. At that time it belonged
to the kingdom of Majorca, and its sovereigns resided there
until, in 1344, that small state reverted to the possession of the

PERQUISITE— PERRON, P. C.

183

kings of Aragon, who in 1349 founded a university at Perpignan.
When Louis XI. occupied Roussillon as security for money
advanced by him to the king of Aragon, Perpignan resisted the
French arms for a considerable time, and only yielded through
stress of famine (March 15, 1475). Roussillon was restored to
Aragon by Charles VIII. and Perpignan was again besieged in
1542 .under Francis I., but without success. Later on, however,
the inhabitants, angered by the tyranny and cruelty of the
Spanish governor, surrendered the town to Louis XIII. The
citadel held out until the gth of September 1642, and the place
has ever since belonged to France, to which it was formally ceded
by the treaty of the Pyrenees (1659). In 1602 the bishopric of
Elne was transferred to Perpignan.

See P. Vibal, Perpignan depuis les origines jusqu' a nos jours
(Paris, 1898).

PERQUISITE (Lat. perquisitum, that which has been acquired
by careful search; perquirere, to search diligently), a term properly
used of the profits which accrue to the holder of an office over and
above the regular emoluments; also, in law, the casual profits,
such as accrue by heriots, fines, reliefs, &c., to a lord of a manor
above the yearly revenue from the copyholds. The word is
used generally of the casual profits allowed by custom to
servants or other employes from superfluous articles which the
employer has enjoyed the use of or which are supposed not to be
needed.

PERRAULT, CHARLES (1628-1703), French author, was
born in Paris on the i2th of January 1628. His father, Pierre
Perrault, was a barrister, all of whose four sons were men of some
distinction: Claude (1613-1688), the second, was by profession
a physician, but became the architect of the Louvre, and trans-
lated Vitruvius (1673). Charles was brought up at the College de
Beauvais, until he chose to quarrel with his masters, after which
he was allowed to follow his own bent in the way of study. He
took his degree of licencie en droit at Orleans in 1651, and was
almost immediately called to the Paris bar, where, however, he
practised for a very short time. In 1654 his brother became
receiver-general of Paris, and made Charles his clerk. After
nearly ten years of this employment he was, in 1663, chosen by
Colbert as his secretary to assist and advise him in matters
relating to the arts and sciences, not forgetting literature. He
was controller-general of the department of public works, member
of the commission that afterwards developed into the Academic
des inscriptions, and in 1671 he was admitted to the Academic
franQaise. Perrault justified his election in several ways. One
was the orderly arrangement of the business affairs of the
Academy, another was the suggestion of the custom of holding
public seances for the reception of candidates. Colbert's death in
1683 put an end to Perrault's official career, and he then gave
himself up to literature, beginning with Saint Paulin eveque de
Nole, aiiec une epitre chretienne sur la penitence, et une ode aux
nouveaux convertis. The famous dispute of the ancients and
moderns arose from a poem on the Siecle de Louis le Grand (1687),
read before the Academy by Perrault, on which. Boileau com-
mented in violent terms. Perrault had ideas and a will of his
own, and he published (4 vols., 1688-1696) his Paralleledes
anciens et des modernes. The controversy that followed in its
train raged hotly in France, passed thence to England, and in
the days of Antoine Houdart de la Motte and Fenelon broke
out again in the country of its origin. As far as Perrault is
concerned he was inferior to his adversaries in learning, but
decidedly superior to them in wit and politeness.

It is not known what drew Perrault to the composition of the
only works of his which are still read, but the taste for fairy
stories and Oriental tales at court is noticed by Mme de Sevigne
in 1676, and at the end of the i7th century gave rise to the fairy
stories of Mile L'Heritier de Villaudon, whose Bigarrures ingeni-
euses appeared in 1696, of Mme d'Aulnoy and others, while
Antoine Galland's translation of the Thousand-and-One Nights
belongs to the early years of the i8th century. The first of
Perrault's contes, Griselidis, which is in verse, appeared in 1691,
and was reprinted with Peau d'dne and Les Souhaits ridicules,
also in verse, in a Recueil de pieces curieuses — published at the

Hague in 1694. But Perrault was no poet, and the merit of
these pieces is entirely obscured by that of the prose tales, La
Belle au bois dormant, Petit chaperon rouge, La Barbe bleue, Le
Chat botte, Les Fees, Cendrillon, Riquet a la houppe and Le Petit
poucet, which appeared in a volume with 1697 on the title-page,
and with the general title of Histoires ou contes du temps passe
avec des moralites. The frontispiece contained a placard with
the inscription, Contes de ma mere I'oie. In 1876 Paul Lacroix
attributed the stories to the authorship of Perrault's son, P.
Darmancour, who signed the dedication, and was then, according
to Lacroix, nineteen years old. Andrew Lang has suggested
that the son was a child, not a young man of nineteen, that he
really wrote down the stories as he heard them, and that they
were then edited by his father. This supposition would explain
the mixture of naivete and satire in the text. Perrault's other
works include his Memoires (in which he was assisted by his
brother Claude), giving much valuable information on Colbert's-
ministry; an Eneide travestie written in collaboration with his
two brothers, and Les Hommes illujtres qui ont paru en France
pendant ce siecle (2 vols., 1696-1700). He died on the i6th of
May 1703, in Paris. His son, Perrault d'Arma-Court, was the
author of a well-known book, Contes des fees, containing the
story of Cinderella, &c.

Except the tales, Perrault's works have not recently been re-
printed. Of these there are many modern editions, e.g. by Paul
Lacroix (1876), and by A. Lefebvre (" Nouvelle collection Jannet,"
1875); also Perrault's Popular Tales (Oxford, 1888), which contains
the French text edited by Andrew Lang, with an introduction,
and an examination of the sources of each story. See also
Hippolyte Rigault, Hist, de la querelle des anciens et des modernes
(1856).

PERRERS (or DE WINDSOR), ALICE (d. 1400), mistress of
the English king Edward III., belonged probably to the Hert-
fordshire family of Ferrers, although it is also stated that she
was of more humble birth. Before 1366 she had entered the
service of Edward's queen, Philippa, and she appears later as
the wife of Sir William de Windsor, deputy of Ireland (d. 1384).
Her intimacy with the king began about 1366, and during the
next few years she received from him several grants of land
and gifts of jewels. Not content with the great influence which
she obtained over Edward, Alice interfered in the proceedings
of the courts of law to secure sentences in favour of her friends,
or of those who had purchased her favour; actions which induced
the parliament of 1376 to forbid all women from practising
in the law courts. Alice was banished, but John of Gaunt,
duke of Lancaster, allowed her to return to court after the death
of Edward the Black Prince in June 1376, and the parliament
of 1377 reversed the sentence against her. Again attempting
to pervert the course of justice, she was tried by the peers and
banished after the death of Edward III. in June 1377; but this
sentence was annulled two years later, and Alice regained some
influence at court. Her time, however, was mainly spent in
lawsuits, one being with William of Wykeham, bishop of
Winchester, and another with her dead husband's nephew and
heir, John de Windsor.

PERRON, PIERRE CUILLIER (1755-1834), French military
adventurer in India, whose name was originally Pierre Cuillier,
was born in 1755 at Chateau du Loire in France, the son of a
cloth merchant. In 1780 he went out to India as a sailor on a
French frigate, deserted on the Malabar coast, and made his
way to upper India, where he enlisted in the rana of Gohad's
corps under a Scotsman named Sangster. In 1790 he took
service under De Boigne, and was appointed to the command
of his second brigade. In 1795 he assisted to win the battle
of Kardla against the nizam of Hyderabad, and on De Boigne's
retirement became commander-in-chief of Sindhia's army.
At the battle of Malpura (1800) he defeated the Rajput forces.
After the defeat of Ujjain (1801) he refused to send his troops
to the aid of Sindhia. His treachery on this occasion shook his
position, and on the outbreak of war between Sindhia and the
British in 1803 Perron was superseded and fled to the British
camp. In the battles of Delhi, Laswari and Assaye, Perron's
battalions were completely destroyed by Lord Lake and

184

PERRON— PERRY, M. C.

Sir Arthur Wellesley. He returned to France with a large
fortune, and died in 1834.

See H. Compton, European Military Adventurers of Hindustan
(1892).

PERRON (a French word meaning properly a " large stone,"
Ital. petrone, from Lat. petra, Fr. pierre, stone), in architecture,
a term applied to a raised platform reached by steps in front of
the entrance to a building. The grand flight of external steps
entering the mansions of the medieval nobility or high officials
was considered in itself a mark of jurisdiction, as it is said that
sentence was there pronounced against criminals, who were
afterwards executed at the foot of the steps — as at the Giant's
Stairs of the Doge's palace at Venice.

PERRONE, GIOVANNI (1794-1876), Italian theologian, was
bora at Chieri (Piedmont) in 1794. He studied theology at
Turin, and in his twenty-first year went to Rome, where he
joined the Society of Jesus. In 1816 he was sent as professor
of theology to Orvieto, and in 1823 was appointed to a similar
post in the Collegium Romanum. From Ferrara, where he was
rector of the Jesuit College after 1830, he returned to his teaching
work in Rome, being made head of his old college in 1850. He
took a leading part in the discussions which led up to the promul-
gation of the dogma of the Immaculate Conception (1854), and
in 1869 was prominent on the Ultramontane side in the Vatican
Council. His numerous dogmatic works are characteristic
of orthodox modern Roman theology. They include Praelec-
tiones theologicae (9 vols., Rome, 1835 sqq.), Praelectiones
theologicae in compendium redactae (4 vols., Rome, 1845),
// Hermesianismo (Rome, 1838), // Protestantismo e la regola
difede (3 vols., 1853), De divinitate D. N. Jesu Christi (3 vols.,
Turin, 1870). He died on the 26th of August 1876.

PERROT, SIR JOHN (c. 1527-1592), lord deputy of Ireland,
was the son of Mary Berkley, who afterwards married Thomas
Perrot, a Pembrokeshire gentleman. He was generally reputed
to be a son of Henry VIII., and was attached to the household
of William Paulet, ist marquess of Winchester. He was in this
way brought to the notice of Henry VIII., who died, however,
before fulfilling his promises of advancement, but Perrot was
knighted at the coronation of Edward VI. During Mary's
reign he suffered a short imprisonment on the charge of harbour-
ing his uncle, Robert Perrot, and other heretics. In spite of
his Protestantism he received the castle and lordship of Carew
in Pembrokeshire, and at the beginning of Elizabeth's reign
he was entrusted with the naval defence of South Wales. In
1570 Perrot reluctantlyaccepted the newly created post of lord
president of Munster. He landed at Waterford in February
of the next year, and energetically set about the reduction of
the province. In the course of two years he hunted down James
Fitzmaurice Fitzgerald, whose submission he received in 1572.
Perrot resented the reinstatement of Gerald Fitzgerald, I5th
earl of Desmond, and after vainly seeking his own recall left
Ireland without leave in July 1573, and presenting himself at
court was allowed to resign his office, in which he was succeeded
by Sir William Drury. He returned to his Welsh home, where
he was fully occupied with his duties as vice-admiral of the
Welsh seas and a member of the council of the marches. Al-
though in 1578 he was accused by the deputy-admiral, Richard
Vaughan, of tyranny, subversion of justice and of dealings with
the pirates, he evidently retained the royal confidence, for he was
made commissioner for piracy in Pembrokeshire in 15 78, and in
the next year was put in command of a squadron charged to
intercept Spanish ships on the Irish coast.

The recall of Arthur Grey, Lord Grey de Wilton, in 1582, left
vacant the office of lord deputy of Ireland, and Perrot was
appointed to it early in 1584. Sir John Norris became lord
president of Munster and Sir Richard Bingham went to Con-
naught. Perrot's chief instructions concerned the plantation
of Munster, where the confiscated estates, some 600,000 acres
in extent, of the earl of Desmond were to be given to English
landlords at a nominal rent, provided that they brought with
them English farmers and labourers. Before he had had time
to embark on this enterprise he heard that the Highland clans

of Maclean and MacDonnell were raiding Ulster at the invitation
of Sorley Boy MacDonnell, the Scoto-Irish constable of Dunluce
Castle. He marched into Ulster, but Sorley Boy escaped him,
and crossed to Scotland, only to return later with reinforcements.
The lord deputy was roundly abused by Elizabeth for under-
taking " a rash, unadvised journey," but Sorley Boy was
reduced to submission in 1586. In 1585 Perrot succeeded in
completing the " composition of Connaught," a scheme for a
contract between Elizabeth and the landholders of the province
by which the queen should receive a small quitrent. During
his career as lord deputy he had established peace, and had
deserved well of Elizabeth. But a rash and violent temper,
coupled with unsparing criticism, not to say abuse, of his
associates, had made him numerous enemies. A hastily con-
ceived plan for the conversion of the revenues of St Patrick's
Cathedral, Dublin, to provide funds for the erection of two
colleges, led to a violent quarrel with Adam Loftus, archbishop
of Armagh. Perrot had interfered in Bingham's government
of Connaught, and in May 1587 he actually struck Sir Nicholas
Bagenal, the knight marshal, in the council chamber. Elizabeth
decided to supersede him in January 1 588, but it was only six
months later that his successor, Sir William Fitzwilliam, arrived
in Dublin. After his return to England his enemies continued
to work for his ruin, and a forged letter purporting to be from
him to Philip II. of Spain gave colour to an accusation of
treasonable correspondence with the queen's enemies, but when
he was tried before a special commission in 1592 the charge of
high treason was chiefly based on his alleged contemptuous
remarks about Elizabeth. He was found guilty, but died in the
Tower in September 1592. Elizabeth was said to have intended
his pardon.

A life of Sir John Perrot from a MS. dating from the end of
Elizabeth's reign was printed in 1728. Sir James Perrot (1571-
1637), writer and politician, was his illegitimate son.

PERRY, MATTHEW CALBRAITH (1794-1858), American
naval officer, was born in South Kingston, Rhode Island, on the
toth of April 1794. He became a midshipman in 1809, and
served successively in the schooner " Revenge " (then com-
manded by his brother, Oliver H. Perry) and the frigate
" President." In 1813 he became a lieutenant, and during the
War of 1812 served in the frigate " United States " (which, when
abandoned by Perry, was blockaded in the harbour of New
London, Connecticut), the " President " and the " Chippewa."
Soon after the war Perry was assigned to the Brooklyn (New
York) navy yard, where he served till 1819. He became a
commander in 1826, and during 1826-1830 was in the recruiting
service at Boston, where he took a leading part in organizing the
first naval apprentice system of the United States navy. He was
promoted in 1837 to the rank of captain (then the highest actual
rank in the United States navy), and in 1838-1840 commanded
the " Fulton II.," the first American steam war vessel. He also
planned the " Missouri " and the " Mississippi," the first steam
frigates of the United States navy, and was in command of the
Brooklyn navy yard from June 1841 until March 1843, when he
assumed command of a squadron sent to the African coast by
the United States, under the Webster-Ashburton treaty, to aid
in suppressing the slave trade. This command of a squadron
entitled him to the honorary rank of commodore. On the 23rd
of October 1846, during the Mexican War, Perry, in command of
the steam vessels " Vixen " and " McLane," and four schooners,
attacked and captured Frontera, at the mouth of the Tobasco
river, then pushed on up the river and (on the 24th) captured
the town of Tobasco, thereby cutting off Mexico from Yucatan.
He relieved Commodore David Conner at Vera Cruz on the 2ist
of March 1847, and after a two days' bombardment by a battery
landed from the ships the city wall was breached sufficiently
to admit the entrance of troops.

Commodore Perry's distinctive achievement, however, was
his negotiation in 1854 of the treaty between the United States
and Japan, which opened Japan to the influences of western
civilization. Perry sailed from Norfolk, Virginia, on the 24th of
November 1852, in the "Mississippi." He reached Hong- Kong

PERRY, O. H.— PERSEPOLIS

185

on the 7th of April and on the 8th of July dropped anchor off
the city of Uraga, on the western shore of the Bay of Yedo with
the " Susquehanna," his flagship, the " Mississippi," and the
sloops-of-war " Saratoga " and " Plymouth." On the i4th ol
July, accompanied by his officers and escorted by a body o:
armed marines and sailors (in all about 300 men), he went ashore
and presented to commissioners especially appointed by the
shogun to receive them, President Fillmore's letters to the em-
peror, and his own credentials. A few days later the American
fleet sailed for Hong-Kong with the understanding that Perry
would return in the following spring to receive the emperor's
reply. On the nth of February, accordingly, he reappeared in
the Bay of Yedo with his fleet — this time composed of the
" Susquehanna," " Powhatan " and " Mississippi," and the
sailing vessels " Vandalia," " Lexington "and "Southampton,"
and despite the protests of the Japanese selected an anchorage
about 1 2 m. farther up the bay, nearly opposite the present site
of Yokohama, and within about 10 m. of Yedo (Tokyo). Here,
on the 3 1 st of March 1854, was concluded the first treaty (ratified
at Simoda, on the 2ist of February 1855, and proclaimed on the
zand of June following) between the United States and Japan.
The more important articles of this treaty provided that the port
of Simoda, in the principality of Idzu, and the port of Hakodate,
in the principality of Matsmai, were constituted as ports for
the reception of American ships, where they could buy such
supplies as they needed; that Japanese vessels should assist
American vessels driven ashore on the coasts of Japan, and that
the crews of such vessels should be properly cared for at one of
the two treaty ports; that shipwrecked and other American
citizens in Japan should be as free as in other countries, within
certain prescribed limits; that ships of the United States should
be permitted to trade at the two treaty ports under temporary
regulations prescribed by the Japanese, that American ships
should use only the ports named, except under stress of weather,
and that privileges granted to other nations thereafter must also
be extended to the United States. Commodore Perry died in
New York City on the 4th of March 1858.

A complete and readable account of this expedition, and its
results, scientific as well as political, compiled from the journals
and reports of Commodore Perry and his officers, was published by
the United States government under the title, Narrative of the
Expedition of an American Squadron to the China Seas and Japan
(3 vols., Washington, 1856). The first volume of this work, con-
taining Commodore Perry's narrative, was also published separately.
A brief biography of Perry is included in Charles Morris^ Heroes
of the Navy in America (Philadelphia and London, 1907). See also
William E. Griffis's Matthew Calbraith Perry, a Typical American
Naval Officer (Boston, 1887).

PERRY, OLIVER HAZARD (1785-1819), American naval
officer, was born at South Kingston, Rhode Island, on the
23rd of August 1785. He entered the navy as midshipman
(1799) with his father, Christopher Raymond Perry (1761-1818),
a captain in the navy, and saw service against the Barbary
pirates. At the beginning of the War of 1812 he was in
command of a flotilla at Newport, but was transferred (Feb.
1813) to the Lakes. He served with Commodore Chauncey,
and then was sent from Lake Ontario to Lake Erie, where he
took up the chief command at the end of March 1813. With
the help of a strong detachment of officers and men from the
Atlantic coast he equipped a squadron consisting of one brig,
six fine schooners and one sloop. Other vessels were laid down
at Presque Isle (now Erie), where he concentrated the Lake
Erie fleet in July. When Captain Perry appeared off Amherst-
burg, where Captain Robert Heriot Barclay (d. 183 7), the
British commander, was lying with his squadron, he had a
very marked superiority. Captain Barclay, after a hot en-
gagement— the Battle of Lake Erie — in which Captain Perry's
flagship the " Lawrence," a brig, was so severely shattered
that he had to leave her, was completely defeated. Perry com-
manded the " Java " in the Mediterranean expedition of 1815-
1816, and he died at Port of Spain in Trinidad on the 23rd of
August 1819, of yellow fever contracted on the coast of Brazil.

See O. H. Lyman, Commodore 0. H. Perry and the War on the
Lakes (New York, 1905).

PERRY, a city and the county-seat of Noble county, Okla-
homa, U.S.A., 30 m. N. by E. of Guthrie. Pop. (1900), 3351
(399 negroes); (1910) 3133. Perry is served by the Atchison,
Topeka & Santa Fe railway and by the St Louis & San Francisco
system. It is the commercial centre of a large agricultural and
stock-raising region, which produces cotton and grain. Perry
was settled in 1889.

PERRY (from Fr. poire, from poire, a pear), an alcoholic
beverage, obtained by the fermentation of the juice of pears.
The manufacture is in all essentials identical with that of
CIDER (q.ii.).

PERRYVILLE, a town of Boyle county, Kentucky, U.S.A.,
about 10 m. W. of Danville. Pop. (1910), 407. Here on the
8th of October 1863 General Braxton Bragg, in command of the
Confederate army of the Mississippi of about 16,000 men, with
which he had invaded Kentucky, faced about in his slow retreat
across the state and gave battle to the Union army of the
Ohio of about 40,000 (of whom only about 22,000 were actually
engaged) commanded by Major-General Don Carlos Buell.
Bragg's order to attack was disregarded by Major-General
Leonidas Polk, who preferred adopting the " defensive-offensive "
rather than engage all of Buell's force. Bragg himself came on
the field about 10 a.m. and repeated his orders for an attack, but
it was 2 p.m. before there was an actual engagement. Then
after much delay on Folk's part the Confederate army joined
battle with McCook's corps. The Confederate lines were broken
and driven back through Perryville, where caissons, ammunition
wagons and 140 officers and men were captured. Darkness had
now come on, and in the night Bragg withdrew. His losses
were reported as 510 killed, 2635 wounded and 251 missing.
The Union loss was 845 killed, 2851 wounded and 515 captured
or missing. The battle was drawn tactically, but strategically
it was a Union victory and it virtually closed Bragg's unsuc-
cessful Kentucky campaign, which is sometimes called the
PerryviJle campaign.

PERSEPOLIS, an ancient city of Persia, situated some 40 m.
N.E. of Shiraz, not far from where the small river Pulwar flows
into the Kur (Kyrus). The site is marked by a large terrace
with its east side leaning on Kuhi Rahmet (" the Mount of
Grace "). The other three sides are formed by a retaining wall,
varying in height with the slope of the ground from 14 to 41 ft. ;
on the west side a magnificent double stair, of very easy steps,
leads to the top. On this terrace are the ruins of a number of
colossal buildings, all constructed of dark-grey marble from the
adjacent mountain. The stones were laid without mortar, and
many of them are still in situ. Especially striking are the huge
pillars, of which a number still stand erect. Several of the
buildings were never finished. F. Stolze has shown that in
some cases even the mason's rubbish has not been removed.1
These ruins, for which the name Kizil minare or Chihil menare
(" the forty columns or minarets "), can be traced back to the
i3th century, are now known as Takhti Jamshid (" the throne
of Jamshid "). That they represent the Persepolis captured
and partly destroyed by Alexander the Great has been beyond
dispute at least since the time of Pietro della Valle.2

Behind Takhti Jamshid are three sepulchres hewn out of the
rock in the hillside, the facades, one of which is incomplete,
being richly ornamented with reliefs. About 8 m. N.N.E., on
the opposite side of the Pulwar, rises a perpendicular wall of
rock, in which four similar tombs are cut, at a considerable
height from the bottom of the valley. The modern Persians
call this place Nakshi Rustam (" the picture of Rustam ") from
the Sassanian reliefs beneath the opening, which they take to
be a representation of the mythical hero Rustam. That the

Cf. J. Chardin, E. Kaempfer, C. Niebuhr and W. Ouseley.
SJiebuhr's drawings, though good, are, for the purposes of the archi-
tectural student, inferior to the great work of C. Texier, and still
more to that of E. Flandin and P. Coste. Good sketches, chiefly
after Flandin, are given by C. Kossowicz, Inscriptions palaeo-
persicae (St Petersburg, 1872). In addition to these we have
:he photographic plates in F. Stolze's Persepolis (2 vols., Berlin,
1882).

Lettera XV. (ed. Brighton, 1843), ii. 246 seq.

i86

PERSEPOLIS

occupants of these seven tombs were kings might be inferred from
the sculptures, and one of those at Nakshi Rustam is expressly
declared in its inscription to be the tomb of Darius Hystaspis,
concerning whom Ctesias relates that his grave was in the face of
a rock, and could only be reached by means of an apparatus
of ropes. Ctesias mentions further, with regard to a number of
Persians kings, either that their remains were brought " to the
Persians," or that they died there.1 Now we know that Cyrus was
buried at Pasargadae (q.v.) and if there is any truth in the
statement that the body of Cambyses was brought home " to the
Persians " his burying-place must be sought somewhere beside
that of his father. In order to identify the graves of Persepolis we
must bear in mind that Ctesias assumes that it was the custom for
a king to prepare his own tomb during his lifetime. Hence the
kings buried at Nakshi Rustam are probably, besides Darius,
Xerxes I., Artaxerxes I. and Darius II. Xerxes II., who reigned
for a very short time, could scarcely have obtained so splendid
a monument, and still less could the usurper Sogdianus (Secy-
dianus). The two completed graves behind Takhti Jamshid
would then belong to Artaxerxes II. and Artaxerxes III. The
unfinished one is perhaps that of Arses, who reigned at the
longest two years, or, if not his, then that of Darius III.
(Codomannus), who is one of those whose bodies are said to have
been brought " to the Persians "2 (see ARCHITECTURE, fig. 12).
Another small group of ruins in the same style is found at the
village of Hajjiabad, on the Pulwar, a good hour's walk above
Takhti Jamshid. These formed a single building, which was
still intact 900 years ago, and was used as the mosque of the
then existing city of Istakhr.

Since Cyrus was buried in Pasargadae, which moreover is
mentioned in Ctesias as his own city,3 and since, to judge from
the inscriptions, the buildings of Persepolis commenced with
Darius I., it was probably under this king, with whom the sceptre
passed to a new branch of the royal house, that Persepolis
became the capital4 (see PERSIA: Ancient History, V. 2) of Persia
proper. As a residence, however, for the rulers of the empire,
a remote place in a difficult alpine region was far from con-
venient, and the real capitals were Susa, Babylon and Ecbatana.
This accounts for the fact that the Greeks were not acquainted
with the city until it was taken and plundered by Alexander
the Great. Ctesias must certainly have known of it, and it is
possible that he may have named it simply Hkpaai, after the
people, as is undoubtedly done by certain writers of a somewhat
later date.5 But whether the city really bore the name of the
people and the country is another question. And it is extremely
hazardous to assume, with Sir H. Rawlinson and J. Oppert, that
the words and Parsa, " in this Persia," which occur in an inscrip-
tion on the gateway built by Xerxes (D. 1. 14), signify " in this
city of Parsa," and consequently prove that the name of the
city is identical with the name of the country. The form
Persepolis (with a play on irepffis, destruction) appears first
in Cleitarchus, one of the earliest, but unfortunately one of the
most imaginative annalists of the exploits of Alexander.

It has been universally admitted that " the palaces " or "the
palace " (TO. ^acriXeia) burned down by Alexander are those now in
ruins at Takhti Jamshid. From Stolze's investigations it appears
that at least one of these, the castle built by Xerxes, bears evident
traces of having been destroyed by fire. The locality described by
Diodorus after Cleitarchus corresponds in important particulars
with Takhti Jamshid, for example, in being supported by the

1 This statement is not made in Ctesias (or rather in the extracts
of Photius) about Darius II., which is probably accidental; in the
case of Sogdianus, who as a usurper was not deemed worthy of
honourable burial, there is a good reason for the omission.

* Arrian, iii. 22, I.

'Cf. also in particular Plutarch, Artax.m., where Pasargadae
is distinctly looked on as the sacred cradle of the dynasty.

4 The story of Aelian (H. A. i. 59), who makes Cyrus build his
royal palace in Persepolis, deserves no attention.

'So Arrian (iii. 18, I, 10), or rather his best authority, King
Ptolemy. So, again, the Babylonian Berossus, shortly after
Alexander. See Clemens Alex., Admon. ad gentes, c. 5, where, with
Georg Hoffmann (Pers. Martyrer, 137), xal is to be inserted before
s, and this to be understood ?.s the name of the metropolis.

mountain on the east.* There is, however, one formidable
difficulty. Diodorus says that the rock at the back of the palace
containing the royal sepulchres is so steep that the bodies could
be raised to their last resting-place only by mechanical appliances.
This is not true of the graves behind Takhti Jamshid, to which, as
F. Stolze expressly observes, one can easily ride up; on the other
hand, it is strictly true of the graves at Nakshi Rustam. Stolze
accordingly started the theory that the royal castle of Persepolis
stood close by Nakshi Rustam, and has sunk in course of time
to shapeless heaps of earth, under which the remains may be
concealed. The vast ruins, however, of Takhti Jamshid, and
the terrace constructed with so much labour, can hardly be
anything else than the ruins of palaces; as for temples, the Per-
sians had no such thing, at least in the time of Darius and
Xerxes. Moreover, Persian tradition at a very remote period
knew of only three architectural wonders in that region, which
it attributed to the fabulous queen Humai (Khumai) — the grave
of Cyras at Murgab, the building at Hajjiabad, and those on
the great terrace.7 It is safest therefore to identify these last
with the royal palaces destroyed by Alexander. Cleitarchus,
who can scarcely have visited the place himself, with his usual
recklessness of statement, confounded the tombs behind the
palaces with those of Nakshi Rustam; indeed he appears to
imagine that all the royal sepulchres were at the same place.

In 316 B.C. Persepolis was still the capital of Persis as a
province of the great Macedonian Empire (see Diod. xix, 21 seq.,
46 ; probably after Hieronymus of Cardia, who was living about
316). The city must have gradually declined in the course of
time; but the ruins of the Achaemenidae remained as a witness
to its ancient glory. It is probable that the principal town of the
country, or at least of the district, was always in this neighbour-
hood. About A.D. 200 we find there the city Istakhr (properly
Slakhr) as the seat of the local governors. There the foundations
of the second great Persian Empire were laid, and Istakhr
acquired special importance as the centre of priestly wisdom and
orthodoxy. The Sassanian kings have covered the face of the
rocks in this neighbourhood, and in part even the Achaemenian
ruins, with their sculptures and inscriptions, and must themselves
have built largely here, although never on the same scale of
magnificence as their ancient predecessors. The Romans knew
as little about Istakhr as the Greeks had done about Persepolis
— and this in spite of the fact that for four hundred years the
Sassanians maintained relations, friendly or hostile, with the
empire.

At the time of the Arabian conquest Istakhr offered a desperate
resistance, but the city was still a place of considerable impor-
tance in the ist century of Islam (see CALIPHATE), although its
greatness was speedily eclipsed by the new metropolis Shiraz.
In the loth century Istakhr had become an utterly insignificant
place, as may be seen from the descriptions of Istakhr, a native
(c. 950), and of Mukaddasi (c. 985). During the following cen-
turies Istakhr gradually declines, until, as a city, it ceased to
exist. This fruitful region, however, was covered with villages
till the frightful devastations of the i8th century; and even now
it is, comparatively speaking, well cultivated. The " castle
of Istakhr " played a conspicuous part several times during the
Mahommedan period as a strong fortress. It was the middle-
most and the highest of the three steep crags which rise from the
valley of the Kur, at some distance to the west or north-west
of Nakshi Rustam. We learn from Oriental writers that one
of the Buyid (Buwaihid) sultans in the loth century of the
Flight constructed the great cisterns, which may yet be seen,
and have been visited, amongst others, by James Morier and
E. Flandin. W. Ouseley points out that this castle was still
used in the i6th century, at least as a state prison. But when
Pietro della Valle was there in 1621 it was already in ruins.

3 The name of this mountain too, /3a<nXi«fe opoj, is identical with
Shahkuh, which is at least tolerably well established by W. Ouseley
(ii. 417) as a synonym of Kuhi rahntet.

7 See especially Hamza Isp., 38;Tabari, i. 690, 816 (cf. T. Noldeke,
Geschichte der Perser . . . aus . . . fabari, p. 8). The ruins at
Takhti Jamshid are alluded to as the work of Humai, in connexion
with an event which occurred shortly after A.D. 200.

PERSEUS— PERSIA

187

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — E. Flandin and P. Coste, Voyage en Perse
(1843-1847); F. Stolze, Die Achaemenidischen und Sassanidischen
Denkmaler und Inschriften von Persepolis, &c. (1882) ; G. Perrot
and C. Chipiez, Hisloire de I' art dans I antiquite,v. (1890). See also
DARIUS; PERSIA: Ancient History; and CALIPHATE.

(TH. N.; A. H. S.)

PERSEUS, in Greek legend, son of Danae and Zeus. When
Perseus was grown to manhood Polydectes, king of Seriphus,
cast his eye on Danae; and, in order to rid himself of the son,
exacted of him a promise that he would bring him the head
of the Gorgon Medusa. The Gorgons dwelt with their sisters
the Graeae (the grey women) by the great ocean, far away in
the west. Guided by Hermes and Athena, Perseus came to
the Graeae. They were three hags, with but one eye and one
tooth between them. Perseus stole the eye and the tooth, and
would not restore them till the Graeae had guided him to the
Nymphs, from whom he received the winged sandals, a wallet
(ici/Stcrw, resembling a gamekeeper's bag) and the helmet of
Hades, which rendered him invisible. Thus equipped and armed
by Hermes with a sharp sword like a sickle, he came upon the
Gorgons as they slept, and cut off Medusa's head, while with
averted eyes he looked at her reflection which Athena showed
him in the mirror 'of her shield. Perseus put the Gorgon's head
in his wallet and fled, pursued by Medusa's sisters, to Ethiopia,
where he delivered and married Andromeda (q.v.). With her he
returned to Seriphus in time to rescue his mother and Dictys
from Polydectes, whom he turned to stone with all his court
by showing them the Gorgon's head. The island itself was
turned to stone, and the very frogs of Seriphus (so ran the
proverb) were dumb (Aelian, Nat. anim. iii. 37). Perseus then
gave the head of Medusa to Athena, and, with Danae and Andro-
meda, hastened to Argos to see his grandfather, Acrisius, once
more. But before his arrival Acrisius, fearing the oracle, had
fled to Larissa in Thessaly. Thither Perseus followed him, and
at some funeral games held in honour of the king of that country
unwittingly slew his grandfather by the throw of a quoit, which
struck him on the foot. Ashamed to return to Argos, Perseus
gave his kingdom to Megapenthes (Acrisius's nephew), and
received from him Tiryns in exchange. There he reigned and
founded Mideia and Mycenae, and became the ancestor of the
Persides, amongst whom were Eurystheus and Heracles.

The legend of Perseus was localized in various places. Italy
claimed that the chest containing Danae and Perseus drifted
ashore on the Italian coast (Virgil, Aen. vii. 372, 410). The
Persian kings were said to have been descended from Perses a
son of Perseus, and, according to Pausanias of Damascus,1 he
taught the Persians to worship fire, and founded the Magian
priesthood. His cult was transferred to the kings of Pontus,
for on coins of Amisus he is represented with the features of
Mithradates Eupator. Like Andromeda, Hesione, the daughter
of Laomedon, king of Troy, was rescued by Heracles from a sea-
monster, and both stories have been interpreted of the sun
slaying the darkness, Andromeda and Hesione being the moon,
which the darkness is about to devour. In one version of the
story of Hesione, Heracles is said to have spent three days, like
Jonah, in the belly of the beast, and it is noteworthy that the
Greek representations of Andromeda's monster were the models
for Jonah's fish in early Christian art. Its bones and Andro-
meda's chains were shown on a rock at Joppa. Perseus appears
on coins of Pontus and Cappadocia, and of Tarsus in Cilicia,
which he was said to have founded. The legend of St George
was influenced by the traditions current regarding Perseus in
Syria and Asia Minor. •

For the slaying of the Medusa, see F. H. Knatz, Quomodo Persei
fabulam artifices graeci et romani tractaverint (1893) ; and, on the
whole story, E. S. Hartland, The Legend of Perseus (1894-1896).

PERSEUS, in astronomy, a constellation of the northern
hemisphere, called after the Greek legendary hero, it is mentioned
by Eudoxus (4th century B.C.) and Aratus (3rd century B.C.);

1 Author of a history of Antioch ; he is quoted by John Malalas,
Chronographia, pp._37~38, ed. Bonn (1831). Nothing further is
. W. "

known of him (see C
iv. 467).

Muller, Fragmenta historicorum graecorum,

Ptolemy and Tycho Brahe catalogued 29 stars, Hevelius 46.
The most important member of this constellation is (3 Persei
or Algol (q.v.), a famous variable star. Q Persei is a triple star,
composed of one 4th magnitude star and two of the loth magni-
tude; p Persei is an irregular variable, with a range in magnitude
of 3-4 to 4-1. Nova Persei is a " new " star discovered in 1887
and subsequently recognized on Harvard plates by Mrs Fleming
in 1895; another new star was discovered by Anderson on the
2ist of February 1901, which, after increasing in magnitude,
gradually became fainter and ultimately disappeared. There
is a nebula surrounding Nova Persei (1901) which was photo-
graphed at Yerkes observatory in September 1901 ; a pair of
star clusters, appearing as a bright patch in the Milky Way;
and the meteoric swarm named the Perseids, which appear in
August and have their radiant in Perseus. (See METEOR.)

PERSEUS OF MACEDONIA (b. c. 212 B.C.), the last king of
Macedonia, eldest son of Philip V. He had his brother
Demetrius killed, and thus cleared his way to the throne in 179.
War broke out with Rome in 171 B.C. when P. Licinius Crassus
was sent to' attack him. Perseus defeated Crassus at Callinicus
in Thessaly, but in 168 he was annihilated at Pydna by L.
Aemilius Paulus. He was led in triumph through Rome, and
died in captivity at Alba Fucens. (See MACEDONIA.)

PERSHORE, a market town in the Evesham parliamentary
division of Worcestershire, England, 1.13 m.W.N.W.of London
and 7 S.E. of Worcester by the Great Western railway. Pop.
(1901), 3348. The station is 15 m. from the town. Market
gardening and fruit-growing (especially plums) are carried on
and agricultural implements are manufactured. The churches
of the two parishes of Holy Cross and St Andrew face one another
across a road. Holy Cross is a remnant of a mitred abbey of
Benedictines, said to have been founded about 970 by King
Edgar, on the site of a Mercian religious settlement. There
remain only the fine Early English choir, with Decorated addi-
tions, the Norman south transept and the majestic Decorated
tower; while slight fragments of a Norman nave are seen.

PERSIA, a kingdom of western Asia, bounded on the N. by
the Caspian Sea and the Russian Transcaucasian and Trans-
caspian territories, on the E. by Afghanistan and Baluchistan,
on the S. by the Arabian Sea and the Persian Gulf, and on the
W. by Turkish territory. Long before the Christian era the
satrapies of Darius comprehended roughly an immense range
of territory, from the Mediterranean to the Indus and from the
Caucasian chain and Jaxartes to the Persian Gulf and Arabian
Ocean. In the I7th and i8th centuries A.D. the conquests of
'Abbas and Nadir kept up these boundaries more or less on the
east, but failed to secure them on the west, and were limited to
the Caucasus and Oxus on the north. Persia of the present day
is not only, in the matter of geographical definition, far from the
vast empire of Sacred Writ and remote history, but it is not
even the less extensive dominion of the Safawi kings and Nadir
Shah. It may be said, however, to comprise now quite as much
settled and consolidated territory as at any period of its political
existence of which we can speak with authority.

Boundaries. — The region of Ararat presents a good starting
point for the definition of the western and northern frontiers

of Persia. A line 20 m. in length from a point

ii_ • A • o / -XT j o / •£ Western

on the river Aras, in 39 45 N. and 44 40 E. to Frontier.

Mt Ararat, in the south-westerly direction, divides
Persia from Russia. Southwards from Mt Ararat the Perso-
Turkish frontier extends about 700 m. to the mouth of the
Shatt el Arab in the Persian Gulf in 30° N. and 48° 40' E.,
but is undefined with the exception of the western boundary of
the little district of Kotur. A mixed commission was appointed
in 1843 for the settlement of the Perso-Turkish frontier. The
labours of this commission resulted in the Erzerum treaty of
1847, by which both powers abandoned some lands and agreed
to appoint commissioners to define the frontier. The com-
missioners met in 1849, 1850 and 1851 at Bagdad and Muhamrah
without arriving at any result. In 1851 Lord Palmerston
proposed that the general line of frontier should be traced by the
agents of Turkey and Persia at Constantinople, assisted by the

PERSIA

[BOUNDARIES

commissioners, in conformity with the treaty of Erzerum,
leaving doubtful localities to be settled in future. The Russian
government agreed to this proposal, and the work of surveying
the country from Mt Ararat to the Persian Gulf was then
undertaken. When this was done the preparation of a map,
embracing territory 700 m. in length by 20 to 40 m. broad, was

unsettled, and disputes have frequently arisen between the
Turkish and Persian governments with regard to their respective
claims to land (Hertslet, Persian Treaties). In the autumn
of 1907 Turkish troops occupied not only "doubtful localities"
but also adjoining lands which were indisputably Persian
territory. The want of a determined line of demarcation

English Miles

100 ty> • «oo

3

Railways ------ ...... Roads .........

Capital! of Proolncet .............. _.

Boundary delimited ......

Boundary undelimlted .....

Deserts ______ +KiXZ> Swampt-

50°

put in hand, and this work lasted from November 1857 till
March 1865, when the Porte was informed in May of that year
that " in the opinion of the mediating Powers, the future line
of boundary between the respective dominions of the sultan and
the shah was to be found within the limits traced on the map;
that the two Mahommedan governments should themselves
mark out the line; and that in the event of any differences
arising between them in regard to any particular locality, the
points in dispute should be referred to the decision of the govern-
ments of England and Russia." This boundary has remained

between the two countries may have political advantages, but
is inconvenient to the geographer and most unfavourable to
the cause of order and good government.

From the point on the Aras River 20 m. north-east of Mt
Ararat, the river forms the northern boundary down to 48° E.
The frontier line then runs about 35 m. in a south-
easterly direction through the Moghan steppe to frontier.
Pilsowar on the Bulgharu River and then south with
a bend to the west to the Astara River and the port of Astara in
38° 27' N. and 48° 53' E. From Astara eastwards the boundary

PHYSICAL FEATURES]

PERSIA

189

is formed by the shore of the Caspian until it touches the Bay of
Hassan Kul north of As arabad. East of the Caspian Sea and
beginning at Has an Kuli Bay the river Atrek serves as the
frontier as far as Chat. It then extends east and south-east
to Serrakhs on the Tejen River in 36° 40' N. and 61° 20' E. The
distance from Mt Ararat to Serrakhs in a straight line is
about 930 m. The -frontier from Mt Ararat to Astara was
defined by the treaty of Turkmanchai (Feb. 22, 1828), and a
convention of the 8th of July 1893. The frontier east of the
Caspian was defined by the Akhal-Khorasan Boundary Conven-
tion of the 2ist of December 1881 and the frontier convention
of the 8th of July 1893.

The eastern frontier extends from Serrakhs to near Gwetter
on the Arabian Sea in 25° N. and 61° 30' E., a distance of about
800 m. From Serrakhs to near Kuhsan the boundary
is formed bX the Tejen River (called Hari Rud, or
river of Herat, in its upper course); it then runs
almost due south to the border of Seistan in 31° N., and then
through Seistan follows the line fixed by Sir Frederick Gold-
smid's and Sir Henry McMahon's commissions in 1872 and
1903-1905 to Kuh i Malik Siah. From this point to the sea the
frontier separates Persian territory from British Baluchistan
and runs south-east to Kuhak and then south-west to Gwetter.
This last section was determined by Sir Frederick Goldsmid's
commission in 1871.

The southern boundary is the coast line of the Arabian Sea
and the Persian Gulf from Gwetter to the mouth of the Shatt
el Arab, a distance of about 870 m., comprised
between 48° 40' E. and 61° 30' E. The islands situated
close to the northern shore of the Persian Gulf are
Persian territory; they are, from east to west, Hormuz (Ormus),
Larak, Kishm, Hengam, Furur, Kish (Kais), Hindarabi,
Shaikh-Shu'aib, Jebrin, Kharak, Kharaku (Khorgu).

Physical Geography. — Modern Persia occupies the western and
larger half of the great Iranian plateau which, rising to a height of
from 4000 to 8000 ft. between the valleys of the Indus and Tigris,
covers more than a million square miles. Taking the Kuren Dagh
or Kopet Dagh to form the northern scarp of this plateau east of
the Caspian, we find a prolongation of it in the highlands north of
the political frontier on the Aras, and even in the Caucasus itself.
On the north-west Persia is united by the highlands of Armenia to
the mountains of Asia Minor; on the north-west the Paropamisus
and Hindu Kush connect it with the Himalayas. The lines of
boundary on the western and eastern faces are to be traced amid
high ranges of mountains broken here and there by deserts and
valleys. These ranges lie for the most part north-east and south-
east, as do those in the interior, with a marked exception between
Teheran and Bujnurd, and in Baluchistan, where they lie rather
north-east and south-west, or, in the latter case, sometimes east
and west. The real lowlands are the tracts near the sea-coast
belonging to the forest-clad provinces of the Caspian in the north
and the shores of the Persian Gulf below Basra and elsewhere.
The Persians have no special names for the great ranges. Mountains
and valleys are known only by local names which frequently cover
but a few miles. Even the name Elburz, which European geo-
graphers apply to the chains and ranges that extend for a length
of over 500 m. from Azerbaijan in the west to Khorasan in the east,
stands with the Persians only for the 60 or 70 m. of mountains
north and north-east of Teheran, including the cone of Demavend.
The great central range, which extends, almost unbroken, for nearly
800 m. from Azerbaijan in the north-west to Baluchistan in the
south-east, may aptly be called the Central Range. It has many
peaks 9000 to 10,000 ft. in height, and some of its summits rise to
an elevation of 11,000 ft. and near Kerman of nearly 13,000 ft.
(Kuh-i-Jupar). The valleys and plains west of the Central Range,
as for instance those of Mahallat, Joshekan, Isfahan, Sirjan, have
an elevation of 5000 to 6500 ft.; those within the range, as Jasp,
Ardahal, So, Pariz, are about 1000 ft. higher; and those east of it
slope from an elevation of 5000 to 6000 ft. down to the depressions of
the central plateau which, east of Kum, are not more than 2600 ft.
and east of Kerman 1500 to 1700 ft. above the sea-level. Some
of the ranges west of the Central Range, which form the highlands
of Kurdistan, Luristan, Bakhtiari and Fars, and are parallel to
it, end near the Persian Gulf ; others follow the Central Range, and
take a direction to the east at some point between Kerman and the
sea on the western frontier of Baluchistan. Some of these western
ranges rise to considerable elevations; those forming the Turko-
Persian frontier west of the lake of Urmia have peaks 11,000 ft.
in height, while the Sahand, east of the lake and south of ^Tabriz,
has an elevation of 12,000 ft. Farther south, the Takht-i-Bilkis,
in the Afshar district, rises to 11,200 ft., the Elvend (ancient

Orontes), near Hamadan, to ll,,6op. The Shuturun Kuh, south of
Burujird, is over 11,000 ft. in height, the Shahan Kuh, Kuh-i-
Gerra, Zardeh Kuh and Kuh-i-Karan (by some writers called
Kuh-i-Rang), all in the Bakhtiari country west of Isfahan, _ are
12,800 to 13,000 ft. in height; and the Kuh-i-Dina (by some writers
wrongly called Kuh-i-Dinar) has an elevation of over 14,000 ft.
Still farther south, towards Kerman, there are several peaks (Bid-
Khan, Lalehzar, Shah-Kuh, Jamal Bariz, &c.) which rise to an eleva-
tion of 13,000 ft. or more, and the Kuh-i-Hazar, south of Kerman .
is 14,700 ft. in height. Beginning near Ardebil in Azerbaijan,
where the cone of Savelan rises to an elevation of 15,792 ft. (Russian
trigonometrical survey), and ending in Khorasan, the great Elburz
range presents on its southern, or inward, face a more or less abrupt
scarp rising above immense gravel slopes, and reaches in some of
its summits a height of nearly 13,000 ft. ; and the peak of Demavend,
north-west of Teheran, has a height of at least 18,000 ft. There
are several important ranges in Khorasan, and one of them, the
Binalud, west of Meshed and north of Nishapur, has several peaks
of 11,000 to 12,000 ft. in height. In south-eastern Persia the Kuh-
i-Basman, a dormant volcano, 11,000 to 12,000 ft. in height, in the
Basman district, and the Kuh-i-Taftan, i.e. the hot or burning
mountain (also called Kuh-i-Nushadar from the " sal ammoniac, '
nushadar, found on its slopes), an active triple-peaked volcano in
the Sarhad district and 12,681 ft. in height (Captain Jennings), are
notable features.

Taking the area of Persia at 628,000 sq. m. the drainage may
thus be distributed: (i) into the Arabian Sea and Persian Gulf,
135,000 sq. m.; (2) into the Caspian, 100,000; (3) into D/.,™
the Seistan depression, 43,000; (4) into the Urmia
Lake, 20,000; (5) into the interior of Persia, 330,000. The first
district comprises most of the south-western provinces and the
whole of the coast region as far east as Gwetter; the second relates
to the tracts west, south and east of the southern part of the Caspian
Sea. The tracts south of the Caspian are not more than 20 to 50 _m.
wide; those on the west widen out to a depth of 250 m., meeting
the watershed of the Tigris on the one side and that ofthe Euphrates
and Lake Van on the other, and embracing between the two the
basin of Lake Urmia. On the east the watershed of the Caspian
gradually increases in breadth, the foot of the scarp extending
considerably to the north of the south-eastern angle of that sea,
three degrees east of which it turns to the south-east, parallel^ to
the axis of the Kopet Dagh. The third drainage area comprises
Persian Seistan with part of the Helmund (Hilmend) basin and a
considerable tract adjoining it on the west. The fourth is a com-
paratively small area on the western frontier containing the basin
of Lake Urmia, shut off from the rest of the inland drainage, and
the fifth area takes in a part of Baluchistan, most of Kerman,
a part of Fars, all Yezd, Isfahan, Kashan, Kum, Irak, Khamseh,
Kazvin, Teheran, Samnan, Damghan, Shahrud, Khorasan and the
central desert regions.

Four rivers belonging essentially to Persia, in reference to the
Caspian watershed, are the Seafid Rud or Kizil Uzain on the south-
west, the Herhaz on the south and the Gurgan and Atrek at the
south-eastern corner of that inland sea. The Seafid Rud rises
in Persian Kurdistan in about 35° 50' N. and 46° 45' E., a few
miles from, Senendij. » It has a very tortuous course of nearly
500 m., for the distance from its source to the Caspian, 57 m. east
of Resht, is only 210 m. in a straight line. The Kizil Uzain takes
up some important affluents and is called Seafid Rud from the point
where it breaks through the Elburz to the sea, a distance of 70 m.
It drains 25,000 to 30,000 sq. m. of the country. The Herhaz,
though not important in length of course or drainage, also, like the
Seafid Rud, breaks through the Elburz range from the inner southern
scarp to the north. It rises on the slopes of the Kasil Kuh, a peak
12,000 ft. in height within the Elburz, and about 25 m. north of
Teheran, flows easterly through the Lar plateau, where it is known
as the Lar River, and takes up several affluents; turns to the north-
east at the foot of Demavend, leaving that mountain to the
left, and flows due north past Amol to the Caspian. Its length is
about 120 m. The Gurgan rises on the Armutlu plateau in Khorasan
east of Astarabad, and enters the Caspian in 37° 4' N., north-
west of Astarabad, after a course of about 200 m. The Atrek
rises a few miles from Kuchan and enters the Caspian at the Bay
of Hassan Kuli in 37° 21' N., after a course of about 300 m.
From the sea to the Russian frontier post of Chat the river forms
the frontier between Persia and the Russian Transcaspian region.

The drainage of the rivers which have no outlet to the sea and
form inland lakes and swamps (kavir) may be estimated at 350,000
sq. m., including the drainage of Lake Urmia, which is about
20,000 sq. m. Fourteen rivers flow into the lake: the Aji Chai,
Safi Chai, Murdi Chai and Jaghatu from the east, the Tatau (Tataya)
from the south, and nine smaller rivers from the west. During
heavy rains and when the snows on the hills melt, thousands of
streams flow from all directions into the innumerable depressions
of inner Persia, or help to swell the perennial rivers which have no
outlet to the sea. These latter are few in number, and some of
them barely suffice for purposes of agricultural irrigation, and in
summer dwindle down to small rills. The perennial streams
which help to form the kavirs (salt swamps) east of Kum _ and
Kashan are the Hableh-rud, rising east of Demavend, the Jajrud,

PERSIA

[PHYSICAL .FEATURES

rising north of Teheran, the Kend and Kerej rivers, rising north-
west of Teheran, the Shureh-rud (also called Abhar-rud), rising
near Sultanieh on the road between Kazvin and Tabriz, and the
Kara-su, which rises near Hamadan and is joined by the Zarin-
rud (also known as Do-ab), the Reza Chai (also called Mazdakan-
rud), the Jehrud River and the Kum-rud. The river of Isfahan,
Zendeh-rud, i.e. " the great river " (from Persian zendeh [Pehleyi,
zendek], great), but now generally known as Zayendeh-rud, i.e.
" the life-giving river," flows into the Gavkhani or Gavkhaneh
' swamp, east of Isfahan. In Pars the Kur with its affluents forms
the lake of Bakhtegan (also known as Lake of Niriz), and in its
lower course, is generally called Bandamir (made famous by
Thomas Moore) from the band (dam) constructed by the Amir
(prince) Asad-ed-dowleh in the loth century. (" Note on the
Kur River in Pars," Proc. Royal Geog. Soc., London, 1891.) The
rivers flowing into the Persian Gulf and Arabian Sea diminish in
importance from west to east. There are first the Diyala and
Kerkheh flowing into the Tigris from the hills of Kurdistan; the
Ab i Diz and Karun which unite below Shushter, and reach the Shatt
el Arab at Muhamrah; and the Jarahi and Tab, which with the
Karun form "the delta of Persian Arabistan, the most extensive
and fertile plain in Persia." There are many streams which though
fordable at most seasons (some of them are often quite dry) are
unfordable during the rains. Two of these may be mentioned
here, viz. the Mand and the Minab, which St John (loc. oil. p. 9)
considered as being " of far more importance than the maps would
lead the observer to suppose." The former, after a run of over
300 m. from its sources in the hills west of Shiraz, debouches at
Khor-i-Ziaret about 6p m. south of Bushire. It is mentioned by
the old Arab and Persian geographers as the Sitakan (in some MSS.
misspelt Sakkan), and is the Sitakos of Arrian and the Sitioganus
of Pliny. In its upper course it is now known as the Kara-aghach
(Wych-elm) River (cf. " Notes on the River Mand in Southern
Persia," Royal Geog. Soc., London, December 1883). The Minab
has two outlets into the Persian Gulf, one the Khor-i-Minab, a
salt-water creek into which the river overflows during the rains,
about 30 m. east of Bander Abbasi, the other the true Minab, at
Khagun, some miles south of the creek. It rises in the hills about
too m. north of Bander Abbasi, and has a considerable drainage.
Its bed near the town of Minab (15 m. from the coast) is nearly
a mile in width, and during the rains the water covers the whole
bed, rendering it quite unfordable. During ordinary weather,
in March 1884, the water flowing past the town was 100 yds. in
width and 2 ft. deep (Preece, Proc. Royal Geog. Soc., January 1885).
In ordinary seasons very little water of the river runs into its original
bed, being diverted into canals, &c. The creek, the Anamis of
Nearchus, is navigable nearly all through the year as far as
Shahbander, the custom-house, about 7 m. inland, for vessels of
20 tons burden.

" The great desert region of Persia," writes Le Strange (Lands
of the Eastern Caliphate, 1905), " stretches right across the high
Desert plateau of Iran going from north-west to south-east,
and dividing; the fertile provinces of the land into two
groups; for the desert is continuous from the southern base of the
Elburz mountains, that to the north overlook the Caspian, to the
arid ranges of Makran, which border the Persian Gulf. Thus it
measures nearly 800 m. in length, but the breadth varies consider-
ably; for in shape this immense area of drought is somewhat that
of an hour-glass with a narrow neck, measuring only some TOO m.
across, dividing Kerman from Seistan, while both north and south
of this the breadth expands and in places reaches to over 200 m.
At the present day the desert, as a whole, is known as the Lflt or
Dasht-i-Lut; the saline swamps and the dry salt area being more
particularly known as the Dasht-i-Kavir, the term Kavir being
also occasionally applied to the desert as a whole."

A three-wire telegraph line on iron posts, completed in March
1907, passes through this region, and it is the unenviable lot of
some Englishmen stationed at Bam and Nusretabad Ispi (Isbidh
of medieval Arab geographers) on the confines of the desert regu-
larly to inspect and test it. Of the northerly Great Kavir Dr
Tietze thought that it was composed of a complex of isolated salt
swamps separated by sand-dunes, low ridges of limestone and
gypsum, perhaps also by volcanic rocks (Jahrbuch k. k. geolog.
Reichsanstalt, Vienna, 1877). Dr Sven Hedin explored the northern
part of the Great Desert in 1906. (A. H.-S.)

Geology. — Persia consists of a central region covered by
Quaternary deposits and bordered on the north, west and south
by a raised rim composed of older rocks. These older rocks also
form the isolated ranges which rise through the Quaternary deposits
of the central area.

In northern Persia the rocks of the elevated rim are thrown into
folds which form a curve round the southern shore of the Caspian.
The mountain ranges of Khorasan show the western portion of a
second curve of folding which is probably continued into the Hindu
Kush. In the western rim of Persia the folds run from north-west
to south-east, and in the south these folds appear to curve gradually
eastward, following the trend of the coast. The folds in the central
Persian chains run from north-west to south-east, parallel to those
of the western border. It is seldom that the old crystalline rocks,
which form the floor upon which the sedimentary strata were

deposited, are exposed to view. Gneiss, granite and crystalline
schist, however, are found in the Elburz and in some of the central
ranges; and similar rocks form a large part of the Zagros. Some
of these rocks are probably Archean, but some appear to be meta-
morphosed sedimentary deposits of later date. The oldest beds
in which fossils have yet been found belong to the Upper Devonian.
They are well developed in the Elburz range, where they attain
a thickness of some 9000 to 10,000 ft., and they have been found
also in some 01 the central ranges and in the Bakhtiari Mountains.
In the Elburz range the Devonian is succeeded by a series of lime-
stones with Productus. The greater part of the series belongs to
the Carboniferous, but the upper beds are probably of Permian
age. The limestones are followed by sandstones and shales with
occasional seams of coal. The plants which have been found in
these beds indicate a Rhaetic or Liassic age. The Middle and
Upper Jurassic form a considerable portion of the Elburz and have
yielded marine fossils belonging to several different horizons.
The Cretaceous system is very widely spread in Persia. It is one
of the most conspicuous formations in the Zagros and in the central
ranges, and probably forms a large part of the plateau, beneath
the Quaternary deposits. The most prominent member of the
series is a massive limestone containing Hippurites and belonging
to the upper division of the system. The Tertiary deposits include
nummulitic limestone (Eocene); a series of limestones, sandstones
and conglomerates, with marine Miocene fossils; and red marls,
clays and sandstones with rock-salt and gypsum, believed to belong
to the Upper Miocene. In the Elburz there is a considerable
deposit of palagonite tuff which appears to be of Oligocene age.
The nummulitic limestone takes part in the formation of the
mountain chains. The Miocene deposits generally lie at the foot
of the chains, or in the valleys; but occasionally they are found at
higher levels. Pliocene deposits cover a considerable area near
the coast. Both in the Elburz range and near the Baluchistan
frontier there are numerous recent volcanoes. Some of these
seem to be extinct, but several continue to emit vapours and
gases. Demavend in the Elburz and Kuh-i-Taftan on the Balu-
chistan frontier are among the best-known. (P. LA.)

See W. K. Loftus, " On the Geology of Portions of the Turko-
Persian Frontier, and of the Districts adjoining," Quart. Journ.
Geol. Soc. vol. xi. pp. 247-344, pi- i*. (London, 1855) ; W. T. Blanford,
Eastern Persia, vol. ii. (Zoology and Geology) (London, 1876); C. L.
Griesbach, Field-notes: No. 5, to accompany a Geological Sketch
Map of Afghanistan and North-Eastern Khorasan, Rec. Geol.
Surv. India, xx. 93-103 (1887), with map; A. F. Stahl, " Zur Geologic
von Persien," Peterm. Mitt., Erganzungsheft 122 (1897); J. de
Morgan, Mission scientifique en Perse, vol. lii. (completed 1905, Paris).
A summary by H. Douville of the principal geological results of
de Morgan's expedition will be found in Bull. soc. geol. France,
4th series, vol. iv. pp. 539-553-

Climate. — For the rainfall on the watershed of the Persian Gulf
there are two places of observation, Bushire and Jask; at the first
it is a little in excess of that of inner Persia, while at the second it
is very much less. The rainfall on the Caspian watershed greatly
exceeds that of inner Persia; at Astarabad and Ashurada, in the
south-eastern corner of the Caspian, it is about 50 % more ; and
at Resht and Lenkoran, in the south-western corner, it is four and
five times that of the adjoining districts across the ridges to the
south. With the exception of the Caspian watershed and that of
the Urmia basin, the country has probably in no part a yearly
rainfall exceeding 13 or 14 in., and throughout the greater part of
central and south-eastern Persia the yearly rainfall probably does
not exceed 6 in. The following mean values of the rainfall at
Teheran have been derived from observations taken by the writer
during 1892-1907: —

Mean . -

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

April.

May.

June.

Total for
Year.

9-86 in.

in.
1-76

in.
1-17

in.

1-87

in.

1-41

in.
•50

in.
•06

July.

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

in.
•»5

in.
•°5

in.
•06

in.
•32

in.
1-35

in.-
1-26

Good harvests depend on the rainfall from October to April,
and on an amount of snow sufficient to cover the crops during
frosts. During normal winters in Teheran and surrounding dis-
tricts the rainfall amounts to 9 or 10 in., with 3 to 4 of snow, but
in the winter 1898-1899 it was only 5J in., with only I in. of snow;
and in 1899-1900 the harvests were in consequence exceptionally
bad, and large quantities of wheat and flour had to be brought
from the provinces and even from Russia at high freights, causing
the price of bread at Teheran to rise 200%. The first table on p. 191
shows the mean annual rainfall in inches at fifteen stations in and
near Persia.

The prevailing winds throughout Persia and the Persian Gulf
are the north-west and south-east owing partly to the position of
the Black Sea and Mediterranean and of the Arabian Sea, and partly

FAUNA AND FLORA]

PERSIA

191

to the bearing of the axes of the great mountain chains. A dry
and warm wind comes down from the snowy Elburz to Gilan in
December and January, and much resembles the fohn of the Alps
(Dr Tholozan, " Sur les vents du Nord de la Perse et sur le foehn
du Guilan," Comptes rendus, Acad. d. Sciences, March 1882).

"o o

Station.

Lat. N.

Long.
E.

Alti-
tude.

ll

Year.

Authority.

O

Feet.

Years.

Lenkoran
Resht . .

38° 46'

37° 17'

48° 51'
49° 35'

£ -60

-50

2

46-82

Supan.1
British Consul.2

Ashurada

36° 54'

53° 55'

-80

19

17-17

Supan.1

Astarabad

36° 51;

54° 25'

-40

7

16-28

Symons.3

Meshed .

59° 36'

3180

9

9-33

British Consul.4

Quetta .

30° n'

67° 3'

5500

19

10-09

Supan.1

Kalat. . .

28° 53'

66° 28'

6500

15

8-98

„

Maskat . .

23° 29'

58° 33'

—

3

6-13

Jask . . .

25° 39'

57° 46'

—

10

3-24

English Telegraph.6

Bushire .

28° 59'

50° 49

—

19

13-36

Supan.1

Isfahan .

32° 37'

Si 4°

5370

7

5-44

English Telegraph.6

Teheran

35° 4i'

51° 25'

3810

15

9-86

The writer.

Urmia (Sair).

37° 28'

45° 8?

6225

i

21-51

Symons.3

Bagdad .

33° 19'

44° 26'

—

7

10-59

Supan.1

Merv

37° 35'

6i°5o'

700

i

6-36

Symons.3

Observations for temperature have been taken for many years
at the stations of the lado-European Telegraph and for a few years
at the British consulate in Meshed, and the monthly and annual
means shown in the following table have been derived from the
indications of maximum and minimum thermometers in degrees
Fahrenheit.

Frequently when the temperature in the shade at Bushire is not
more than 85° or 90°, and the great humidity of the air causes
much bodily discomfort, life is almost pleasant 12 or 20 m. inland
with a temperature of over 1 00°.

Fauna. — Mr W. T. Blanford has described with great care and
minuteness the zoology of Persia. In company with
Major St John, R.E., he made a large collection of
the vertebrate fauna in a journey from Gwetter to
Teheran in 1872. Having added to this a previous
collection made by the same officer with the assist-
ance of a native from Calcutta, he had before him
the principal materials for his work. Before com-
mencing his analysis he adverted to his prede-
cessors in the same field, i.e. Gmelin (whose travels
were published in 1774-1784), Olivier (1807), Pallas
(1811), Menetries (1832), Belanger (1834), Eichwald
(1834-1841), AucherEloy (1851), Loftus, Count Key-
serling, Kokschy, Chesney, the Hon. C. Murray, De
Filippi (1865), Hume (1873), and Professor Strauch
of St Petersburg. All of these had, more or less,
contributed something to the knowledge of the
subject, whether as writers or as collectors, or in
both capacities, and to all the due meed of credit was
assigned. Blanford divided Persia into five zoological
provinces: (i) the Persian plateau, or from the Kopet
Dagh southwards to nearly 28° N. lat., including all
Khprasan to the Perso-Afghan border, its western
limit being indicated by a long line to the north-
west from near Shiraz, taking in the whole upper
country to the Russian frontier and the Elburz ; (2) the
provinces south and south-west of the Caspian;
(3) a narrow strip of wooded country south-west of the Zagros
range, from the Diyala River in Turkey in Asia to Shiraz; (4)
the Persian side of the Shatt-el-Arab, and Aralictan, east of
the Tigris; and (5) the shores of the Persian Gulf and Baluchistan.
The fauna of the Persian plateau he described as " Palaearctic,
with a great prevalence of desert forms; or, perhaps more correctly,

Station.

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

April.

May.

June.

July-

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

•

Dec.

Year.

Highest
observed.

Lowest
observed.

Difference
between
Extremes.

Meshed
Teheran . . .
Tabriz6 . . .
Kashan ' .

H
17
35

34
38
25
36

49
48

39

43

59
5i
54
60

68
71
63
74

76

Hi

74
83

78
84
79
90

70
81
81

85

67
73
73

77

55
64
62
68

48
53
48
53

40
43
34
42

56-3
60-4

54-1
62-2

91
Hi

99

"3

TO^

15
3
-18

9

76

1 08
117
104

Abadeh' . . .
Dehbid' . . .
Shiraz10 . . .
Kazerun u
Borazjuan B .
Bushire

4i
27
48
Si

55

58

41
30
47
50

57
60

47
38
55
52
66

65

56

45

63
67
80

74

68
57
73

84

94
82

75
65
80

93
97

86

79
69

85
95

100

90

75
65
81

94
99
90

71
61

76
87
92

87

59
52
67
79

83

80

55
43
55
70
72
7i

46
36
49
56
64
62

59-5
49-0
65-0
73'2
80-0

75-4

96
91
H3
no
117
109

~ 3
H
-19

21

36
48
41

109
82
no
92
74
69
68

Very few hygrometrical observations have been taken, and
only those of the British residency at Bushire are more or less
trustworthy, and have been regularly registered for a number of
years. In inner Persia the air is exceptionally dry, and in many
districts polished steel may be exposed in the open during a great
part of the year without becoming tarnished. Along the shores
of the Caspian, particularly in Gilan and Mazandaran, and of the
Persian Gulf from the mouth of the Shatt el Arab down to Bander
Abbasi, the air during a great part of the year contains much
moisture — dry- and wet-bulb thermometers at times indicating the
same temperature — and at nights there are heavy falls of dew. In
Gilan and Mazandaran the air contains much moisture up to con-
siderable elevations and as far as 30 to 40 m. away from the sea;
but along the Persian Gulf, where vegetation is very scanty, stations
only a few miles away from the coast and hot more than 20 or
30 ft. above the sea-level have a comparatively dry climate.

1 Dr A. Supan, " Die Vertheilung des Niederschlag's auf der
festen Erdoberflache," Pet. MM., Suppl. 124 (1898).
* Consular report (Gilan, 1897).

3 Symons's Monthly Meteorological Mag. (Dec. 1893).

4 1899-1907.

6 Observations taken at the telegraph stations, and kindly
communicated by Mr R. C. Barker, C.I.E., director of the Indo-
European Telegraph Department in Persia. Those for Isfahan

«38°5' N.;46°i8'E.

altitude 4423 ft

•j — . O

;5i°27',

3190

83i°l8'

;52°38',

, 6200

9 30° 37'

; 53° 10' ,

, 8000

10 29» ,

;52°32',

5000 .

11 2g» 3/

* ^1 ° dV

, 2800

* 29° 15'

551° 3''-

100 ,

as being of the desert type with Palaearctic species in the more
fertile regions." In the Caspian provinces he found the fauna,
on the whole, Palaearctic also, " most of the animals being identical
with those of south-eastern Europe." But some were essentially
indigenous, and he observed " a singular character given to the
fauna by the presence of certain Eastern forms, unknown in other
parts of Persia, such as the tiger, a remarkable deer of the Indo-
Malayan group, allied to Cervus axis, and a pit viper (Halys)."
Including the oak-forests of Shiraz with the wooded slopes of the
Zagros, he found in his third division that, however little known
was the tract, it appeared to contain, like the second, " a Palaearctic
fauna with a few peculiar species." As to Persian Mesopotamia,
he considered its fauna to belong to the same Palaearctic region
as Syria, but could scarcely speak with confidence on its character-
istic forms. The fifth and last division, Baluchistan and the shores
of the Persian Gulf, presented, however, in the animals common to
the Persian highland " for the most part desert types, whilst the
characteristic Palaearctic species almost entirely disappear, their
place being taken by Indian or Indo-African forms." The Persian
Gulf Arab, though not equal to the pure Arabian, is a very service-
able animal, and has always a value in the Indian market. Among
others the wandering Turkish tribes in Fars have the credit of
possessing good steeds. The Turkoman horse of Khorasan and the
Atak is a large, bony and clumsy-looking quadruped, with marvel-
lous power and endurance. Colonel C. E. Stewart stated that the
Khorasan camel is celebrated for its size and strength, that it has
very long hair, and bears cold and exposure far better than the
ordinary Arabian or Persian camel, and that, while the ordinary
Persian camel only carries a load of some 320 ft and an Indian
camel one of some 400 ft, the Khorasan camel will carry from 600
to 700 ft. The best animals, he notes, are a cross between the
Bactrian or two-humped and the Arabian or one-humped camel.
Sheep, goats, dogs and cats are good of their kind ; but not all the
last are the beautiful creatures which, bearing the name of the

192

PERSIA

[POPULATION

country, have arrived at such distinction in Europe. Nor are
these to be obtained, as supposed, at Angora in Asia Minor. Van
or Isfahan is a more likely habitat. The cat at the first place,
called by the Turks " Van kedisi," has a certain local reputation.
Among the wild animals are the lion, tiger, leopard, lynx, brown
bear, hyena, hog, badger, porcupine, pole-cat, weasel, marten,
wolf, jackal, fox, hare, wild ass, wild sheep, wild cat, mountain-
goat, gazelle and deer. The tiger is peculiar to the Caspian pro-
vinces. Lovett says they are plentiful in Astrabad; he measured
two specimens, one 10 ft. 8 in., the other 8 ft. 10 in. from the tip
of the nose to the end of the tail. Lynxes and bears were to be
found in the same vicinity, and the wild pig was both numerous
and destructive.

According to Blanford there are about four hundred known
species of birds in Persia. The game birds have admirable repre-
sentatives in the pheasant, " karkavul " (Phasianus colchicus, L.) ;
snowcock or royal partridge, " kebk-i-dari " (Tetraogallus Caspius,
Gmel.); black partridge, " durraj " (Francolinus vulgaris, Steph.);
red-legged partridge, " kebk " (Caccabis chukar. Gray) ; sand-
partridge or seesee, " tihu " (Ammoperdix bonhami, Gray); Indian
grey partridge, " jirufti " (Ortygorms ponticerianus , Gmel.); quail,
' belderjin " (Coturnix communis, Bonn.); sandgrouse, " siyah-
sineh " (Pterocles arenarius. Pall.) ; bustard, " hubareh " (Otis
tetrax, L. and O. McQueenii, Gray); woodcock, snipe, pigeon,
many kinds of goose, duck, &c. The flamingo comes up from
the south as far north as the neighbourhood of Teheran ; the stork
abounds. Poultry is good and plentiful. A large kind of fowl
known as " Lari (from the province Lar, in southern Persia) is
said to be a descendant of fowls brought to Persia by the Portu-
guese in the i6th century.

The fish principally caught along the southern shore of the
Caspian are the sturgeon, " sagmahi," dogfish (Acipenser ruthenus
and A. huso); sheat-fish or silure, " simm," " summ " (Silurus
giants) ; salmon, " azad mahi " (Salmo solar) ; trout, " maseh "
(Salmo trutta) ; carp, " kupur " (Cyprinus ballerus and C. carpio) ;
bream," subulu " (Abramisbrama); pike-perch, " mahisafid"(.Perai
lucioperca or Lucioperca sandra). There is also a herring which
frequents only the southern half of the Caspian, not passing over
the shallow part of the sea which extends from Baku eastwards.
As it was first observed near the mouth of the river Kur it has been
named Clupea Kurensis. Fish are scarce in inner Persia; salmon
trout and mud-trout are plentiful in some of the mountain streams.
Many underground canals are frequented by carp and roach. The
silure has also been observed in some streams which flow into the
Urmia lake, and in Kurdistan.

Flora. — In the provinces of Gilan, Mazandaran and Astarabad on
the Caspian, from the shore to an altitude of about 3000 ft. on the
northern slopes of the great mountain range which separates those
provinces from the highlands of Persia, the flora is similar to that
of Grisebach's " mediterranean region." At higher altitudes many
forms of a more northern flora appear. As we approach inner
Persia the flora rapidly makes place to " steppe vegetation " in
the plains, while the mediterranean flora predominates in the hills.
The steppe vegetation extends in the south to the outer range of
the hills which separate inner Persia from the Persian Gulf and the
Indian Ocean. Beyond this outer range and along the shore of
the sea the flora is that of the " Sahara region," which extends
eastwards to Sind.

Generally speaking, everywhere, excepting in the northern
lowlands and in a few favoured spots in the hilly districts, the vege-
tation is scanty. In inner Persia the hills and plains are bare of
trees, and steppe and desert predominate. The date-palm thrives
well as far north as Tabbas in latitude 33° 36' and at an altitude
of 2000 ft. and in the south extensive date-groves, producing ex-
cellent fruit, exist at altitudes of 2000 to 5000 ft. The olive is
cultivated at Rudbar south of Resht in Gilan, and a few isolated
olive-trees have been observed in central and southern Persia.

Of fruits the variety is great, and nearly all the fruits of Europe
are well represented. The common, yet excellent melons, water-
melons, grapes, apricots, cherries, plums, apples, are within the
reach of the poorest. Less common and picked fruits are expensive,
particularly so when cost of transport has to be considered; for
instance, a good orange costs 2d. or 3d. in Teheran, while in Mazan-
daran (only 100 m. distant), whence the oranges are brought, it
costs Jd. Some fruits are famous and vie in excellence with any
that European orchards produce; such are the peaches of Tabriz
and Meshed, the sugar melons of Kashan and Isfahan, the apples
of Demavend, pears of Natanz, figs of Kermanshah, &c. The
strawberry was brought to Persia about 1859, and is much culti-
vated in the gardens of Teheran and neighbourhood ; the raspberry
was introduced at about the same time, but is not much appreci-
ated. Currants and gooseberries are now also grown. The common
vegetables also are plentiful and cheap, but only a few, such as
the broad-bean, egg-plant (Solanum melongena), onion, carrot,
beetroot, black turnip, are appreciated by the natives, who gener-
ally do not take kindly to newly-introduced varieties. The potato,
although successfully cultivated in Persia since about 1780, has not
yet found favour, and the same may be said of the tomato, asparagus,
celery and others. Flowers are abundant, but it is only since
the beginning of Nasr ed din Shah's reign (1848), when European

gardeners were employed in Persia, that they were rationally
cultivated. Nearly all the European garden flowers, even the
rarer ones, can now be seen not only in the parks and gardens of
the rich and well-to-do but in many unpretentious courtyards
with only a few square yards of surface.

Population. — In 1881 the present writer estimated the popula-
tion of Persia at 7,653,600; 1,963,800 urban, 3,780,000 rural and
1,909,800 wandering (" Bevolkerung der Erde," p. 28; Ency. Brit.
9th ed. p. 628); and, allowing for an increase of about i%
per annum the population for 1910 may be estimated at 10
millions. No statistics whatever being kept, nothing precise
is known of the movement of the population. During the ninth
decade of the igth century many Persian subjects emigrated,
and many Persian villages were deserted and fell to ruins; since
then a small immigration has set in and new villages have been
founded. Persians say that the females exceed the males by
10 to 20%, but wherever the present writer has been able
to obtain trustworthy information he found the excess to be
less than 2%. Of the deaths in any place the only check
obtainable is from the public body-washers, but many corpses
are buried without the aid of the public body- washers; and the
population of the place not being accurately known, the number
of deaths, however correct, is useless for statistical purposes.
Medical men have stated that the number of deaths, in times
when there are no epidemics, amounts to 19 or 20 per thousand,
and the number of births to 25 to 40 per thousand.

The prices of the staple articles of food and all necessaries of
life have risen considerably since 1880, and, particularly in the
large cities, are now very high. As salaries and wages have not
increased at the same rate, many of the upper classes and officials
are not so well off as formerly. By dismissing their servants in
order to reduce expenditure, they have thrown great numbers of
men out of employment, while many labourers and workmen are
living very poorly and often suffer want. Tradesmen are less
affected, because they can sell the articles which they manufacture
at values which are more in proportion with the increased prices
of food. In 1880 a labourer earning 25 krans, or £i sterling a
month, could afford to keep a family; by 1908, in krans, he earned
double what he did in 1880, but his wage, expressed in sterling, was
the same, and wherever the prices of food have risen more than his
wages he could not afford to keep a family. In many districts
and cities the number of births is therefore reduced, while at the
same time the mortality, in consequence of bad and often insufficient
food, is considerably increased.

The description of the Persian character by C. J. Wills, in his
In the Land oj the Lion and Sun (1883), is still worth quoting: —

" The character of the Persian is that of an easy-going man with
a wish to make things pleasant generally. He is hospitable,
obliging, and specially well disposed to the foreigner. His home
virtues are many: he is very kind and indulgent to his children
and, as a son, his respect for both parents is excessive, developed
in a greater degree to his father, in whose presence he will rarely
sit, and whom he is in the habit of addressing and speaking of as
' master.' The full stream of his love and reverence is reserved for
his mother; he never leaves her to starve, and her wishes are laws
to him. The mother is always the most important member of the
household, and the grandmother is treated with veneration. The
presence of the mother-in-law is coveted by their sons-in-law, who
look on them as the guardians of the virtue of their wives. The
paternal uncle is a much nearer tie than with us; while men look
on their first cousins on the father's side as their most natural
wives.

' Black slaves and men-nurses or ' lallahs ' are much respected ;
the ' dayah ' or wet nurse is looked on as a second mother and
usually provided for for life. Persians are very kind to their
servants; a master will often be addressed by his servant as his
father, and the servant will protect his master's property as he
would his own. A servant is invariably spoken to as bacha '
(child). The servants expect that their master will never allow
them to be wronged. The slaves in Persia have a good time; well
fed, well clothed, _ treated as spoiled children, given the lightest
work, and often given in marriage to a favourite son or taken as
' segah ' or concubine by the master himself, slaves have the cer-
tainty of a well-cared-for old age. They are looked on as con-
fidential servants, are entrusted with large sums of money, and the
conduct of the most important affairs; and seldom abuse their
trust. _ The greatest punishment to an untrustworthy slave is to
give him his liberty and let him earn his living. They vary in
colour and value : th_e ' Habashi ' or Abyssinian is the most valued ;
the Suhali or Somali, next in blackness, is next in price; the Bom-
bassi, or coal-black negro of the interior, being of much less price,
and usually only used as a cook. The prices of slaves in Shira2
are, a good Habashi girl of twelve to fourteen £40, a good Somali

COSTUME]

PERSIA

same age, half as much; while a Bombassi is to be got for £14, being
chosen merely for physical strength. They are never sold, save on
importation, though at times they are given away. ... I have
never seen a Persian unkind to his own horse or his slave, and when
overtaken by poverty he will first sell his shirt, then his slave.

" In commercial morality, a Persian merchant will compare not
unfavourably with the European generally. . . . To the poor,
Persians are unostentatiously generous; most of the rich have
regular pensioners, old servants, or poor relations who live on their
bounty ; and though there are no workhouses, there are in ordinary
times no deaths from starvation; and charity, though not organized,
is general. . . . Procrastination is the attribute of all Persians,
' to-morrow ' being ever the answer to any proposition, and the
' to-morrow ' means indefinite delay. A great dislike is shown
generally to a written contract binding the parties to a fixed date ;
and, as a rule, on breaking it the Persian always appeals for and
expects delay and indefinite days of grace. . . .

" Persians are clean in their persons, washing themselves and
their garments frequently. The Persian always makes the best of
his appearance; he is very neat in his dress, and is particular as
to the sit of his hat and the cut of his coat. All Persians are fond
of animals, and do not treat them badly when their own property.

" Cruelty is not a Persian vice; torture and punishments of an
unusual and painful nature being part of their judicial system.
There are no vindictive punishments, such as a solitary confinement,
penal servitude for long terms of years, &c. Seldom, indeed, is
a man imprisoned more than twelve months, the rule being that
there is a general jail delivery at the New Year. Royal clemency
is frequently shown, often, perhaps, with want of judgment."

Costume. — The costume of the Persians may be shortly described
as fitted to their active habits. The men invariably wear an un-
starched shirt of cotton, sewn with white silk, often, particularly
in the south of Persia, elaborately embroidered about the neck.
It fastens in front by a flap, having two small buttons or knots at
the left shoulder, and seldom comes below the hips. It has no
collar, and the sleeves are loose. The lower orders often have it
dyed blue ; but the servant and upper classes always prefer a white
shirt. Silk shirts are now seldom seen on men. Among the very
religious during the mourning month (" Muharram ") the shirt is
at times dyed black. The " zir-jamah," or trousers,1 are of cloth
among the higher classes, particularly those of the military order,
who affect a garment of a tightness approaching that worn by
Europeans. The ordinary " zir-jamah " are of white, blue or red
cotton, very loose, and are exactly similar to the pyjamas worn
by Europeans in India. They are held up by a thin cord of red or
green silk or cotton round the waist, and the labouring classes,
when engaged in heavy or dirty work, or when running, generally
tuck the end of these garments under the cord, which leaves their
legs bare and free to the middle of the thigh. The amplitude of
this part of his attire enables the Persian to sit without discomfort
on his heels; chairs are only used by the rich, great or Europeanized.
Over the shirt and " zir-jamah " comes the " arkhalik," generally
of quilted chintz or print, a closely-fitting garment, collarless, with
tight sleeves to the elbow, whence, to the wrist, are a number
of little metal buttons, fastened in winter, but not in summer.
Above this is the " kamarchin," a tunic of coloured calico, cloth,
Kashmir or Kerman shawl, silk, satin or velvet (gold embroidered,
or otherwise), according to the time of the year and the purse and
position of the wearer. This, like the " arkhalik," is open in front,
and shows the shirt. It sometimes has a small standing collar,
and is double-breasted. It has a pocket-hole on either side, giving
access to the pockets, which are always in the " arkhalik," where
also is the breast-pocket in which watch, money, jewels, and seals
are kept. The length of the " kamarchin " denotes the class of
the wearer. The military and official classes and the various
servants wear it short, to the knee, while fops and sharpers wear
it even shorter. Priests, merchants, villagers, especially about
Shiraz, townsmen, shopkeepers, doctors and lawyers wear it very
long, often nearly to the heels. Over the " kamarchin " is worn
the " kulijah," or coat. This is, as a rule, cast off in summer, save
on formal occasions, and is often borne by a servant, or carried over
the shoulder by the owner. It is of cloth, shawl or camel-hair
cloth, and is lined with silk or cloth, flannel or fur. It has, like
the Turkish frockcoat, a very loose sleeve, with many plaits behind.
It has lapels, as with us, and is trimmed with gold lace, shawl or
fur, or is worn quite plain. It has a roll collar and false pockets.

Besides these garments there are others: the long " jubba," or
cloth cloak, worn by " mirzas " (secretaries), government employes
of high rank, as ministers, farmers of taxes, courtiers, physicians,
priests; the "abba," or camel-hair cloak of the Arab, worn by
travellers, priests and horsemen; the " pustin," or Afghan skin-
cloak, used by travellers and the sick or aged; the " nimtan," or
common sheepskin jacket, with short sleeves, used by shopkeepers
and the lower class of servants, grooms, &c., in winter; the " ya-
panjah," or woollen Kurdish cloak, a kind of felt, having a shaggy
side, of immense thickness, worn generally by shepherds, who use
it as greatcoat, bed and bedding. There is also the felt coat of the

1 Zir jamah are loose trousers and also drawers worn under the
shalvar, or tight trousers.

xxi. 7

villager, very warm and inexpensive, the cost being from 5 to 15'
krans (a kran= lod.). The " kamarband," or girdle, is also charac-
teristic of class. It is made of muslin, shawl or cotton cloth among
the priests, merchants, bazaar people, the secretary class and the
more aged government employes. In it are carried, by literati and
merchants, the pen-case and a roll of paper; its voluminous folds
are used as pockets; by the bazaar people and villagers, porters
and merchants' servants, a small sheath knife is struck in it; while
by " farrashes," the carpet-spreader class, a large " khanjar," or
curved dagger, with a heavy ivory handle, is carried. The headgear
is very distinctive. The turban worn by priests is generally white,
consisting of many yards of muslin. When the wearers are " saiyid "
of the Prophet, a green2 turban is worn, also a " kamarband " of
green muslin, or shawl or cotton cloth. Merchants generally wear
a turban of muslin embroidered in colours, or of a yellow pattern
on straw-coloured muslin, or of calico, or shawl. The distinctive
mark of the courtier, military, and upper servant class is the belt,
generally of black varnished leather with a brass clasp; princes and
courtiers often replace this clasp by a huge round ornament of cut
stones. The " kulah," or hat, is of cloth or sheepskin on a frame
of pasteboard. The fashions in hats change yearly. The Isfahan
merchant and the Armenian at times wear the hat very tall. (The
waist of the Persian is generally small, and he is very proud of
his fine figure and broad shoulders.)

The hair is generally shaved at the crown, or the entire head is
shaved, a " kakul," or long thin lock, being sometimes left, often
2 ft. long, from the middle of the crown. This is to enable the
prophet Mahomet to draw up the believer into paradise. The
lower orders generally, have the hair over the temporal bone long,
and brought in two long locks turning backwards behind the ear,
termed " zulf ."; the beaux and youths are constantly twisting
and combing these. The rest of the head is shaven. Long hair,
however, is going out of fashion in Persia, and the more civilized
affect the cropped hair worn by Europeans, and even have a parting
in it. The chin is never shaved, save by " beauty men," or
" kashangs," though often clipped, while the moustache is usually
left long. At forty a man generally lets his beard grow its full
length, and cherishes it much ; part of a Persian's religious exercises
is the combing of his beard. Socks, knitted principally at Isfahan,
are worn; they are only about 2 in. long in the leg. The rich,
however, wear them longer. They are of white cotton in summer
and coloured worsted in winter. Villagers only wear socks on state
occasions. Shoes are of many patterns. The " urussi," or Russian
shoe is the most common; next, the " kafsh " or slipper of various
kinds. The heel is folded down and remains so. The priests wear
a peculiar heavy shoe, with an ivory or wooden lining at the heel.
Green shoes of shagreen are common at Isfahan. Blacking is un-
known to Persians generally. Boots are only used by horsemen,
and are then worn much too large for ease. Those worn by couriers
often come up the thigh. With boots are worn " shalwars," or
baggy riding breeches, very loose, .and tied by a string at the ankle;
a sort of kilt is worn by couriers. Pocket-handkerchiefs are seldom
used, save by the rich or the Teheranis. Most Persians wear a
" shab kulah," or night hat, a loose baggy cap of shawl or quilted
material, often embroidered by the ladies.

Arms are usually carried only by tribesmen. The natives of the
south of Persia and servants carry a " kammah," or dirk. The
soldiery, on or off duty, always carry one of these or their side-
arms, sometimes both. They hack but never thrust with them.
On the road the carrying of weapons is necessary.

The costume of the women has undergone considerable change
in the last century. It is now, when carried to the extreme of
fashion, highly indecent and must be very uncomfortable. The
garment doing duty as a chemise is called a " pirahan "; it is, with
the lower orders, of white or blue calico, and comes down to the
middle of the thigh, leaving the leg nude. Among the upper classes
it is frequently of silk. At Shiraz it is often of fine cotton, and
elaborately ornamented with black embroidery. With the rich it is
often of gauze, and much embroidered with gold thread, pearls, &c.
The head is usually covered with a " char-kadd," or large square
of embroidered silk or cotton, folded so as to display the corners,
and fastened under the chin by a brooch. It is often of consider-
able value, being of Kashmir shawl, embroidered gauze, &c. A
" jika," a jewelled feather-like ornament, is often worn at the side
of the head, while the front hair, cut to a level with the mouth, is
brought up in love-locks on either cheek. Beneath the " char-
kadd " is generally a small kerchief of dark material, only the edge
of 'which is visible. The ends of the " char-kadd " cover the
shoulders, but the gauze " pirahan " is quite transparent. A pro-
fusion of jewellery is worn of the most solid description, none hollow;
silver is worn only by the very poor, coral only by negresses. Neck-
laces and bracelets are much affected, and chains with scent-caskets
attached, while the arms are covered with clanking glass bangles
called " alangu," some twenty even of these being on one arm.
Jewelled " bazubands," containing talismans, are often worn on the
upper arm, while among the lower orders and south Persian or Arab
women nose-rings are not uncommon, and bangles or anklets of beads.

* Green turbans are now rarely seen ; the colour is generally dark
blue, or black.

194

PERSIA

[POLITICAL DIVISIONS

The face on important occasions is usually much painted, save
by young ladies in the heyday of beauty. The colour is very freely
applied, the cheeks being as much raddled as a clown's, and the
neck smeared with white, while the eyelashes are marked round
with " kuhl." This is supposed to be beneficial to the eyes, and
almost every woman uses it. The eyebrows are widened and
painted till they appear to meet, while sham moles or stars are
painted on the chin and cheek; even spangles are stuck at times on
the chin and forehead. Tattooing is common among the poor and
in villages, and is seen among the upper classes. The hair, though
generally hidden by the " char-kadd," is at times exposed and
plaited into innumerable little tails of great length, while a coquettish
little skull-cap of embroidery, or shawl, or coloured silk is worn.
False hair is common. The Persian ladies' hair is very luxuriant
and never cut ; it is nearly always dyed red with henna, or with
indigo to a blue-black tinge; it is naturally a glossy black. Fair
hair is not esteemed. Blue eyes are not uncommon, but brown
ones are the rule. A full-moon face is much admired, and a dark
complexion termed " namak " (salt) is the highest native idea of
beauty. Most Persian women are small, with tiny feet and hands.
The figure is always lost after maternity, and no support of any
kind is worn.

A very short jacket, of gay colour, quite open in front, having
tight sleeves with many metal buttons, is usually worn in summer,
and a lined outer coat in cold weather. In winter a pair of very
short white cotton socks are used, and tiny slippers with a high
heel; in summer in the house ladies go often barefoot. The rest
of the costume is composed of the " tumbun " or " shalvar," short
skirts of great width, held by a running string — thev outer one being
usually of silk, velvet, or Kashmir shawl, often trimmed with gold
lace, or, among the poor, of loud-patterned chintz or print. Beneath
are innumerable other garments of the same shape, varying in
texture from silk and satin to print. The whole is very short,
among the women of fashion extending only to the thigh. In
winter an over-mantle like the " kulijah," or coat of the man, with
short sleeves, lined and trimmed with furs, is worn. Leg-coverings
are now being introduced. In ancient days the Persian ladies
always wore them, as may be seen by the pictures in the South
Kensington Museum. Then the two embroidered legs, now so
fashionable as Persian embroideries (" naksh "), occupied a girl
from childhood to marriage in making; they are all sewing in
elaborate patterns of great beauty, worked on muslin in silk. The
outdoor costume of the Persian women is quite another thing.
Enveloped in a huge blue sheet, with a yard of linen as a veil per-
forated for two inches square with minute holes, the feet thrust
into two huge bags of coloured stuff, a wife is perfectly unrecogniz-
able, even by her husband, when out of doors. The dress of all is
the same; and, save in quality or costliness, the effect is similar.

As for the children, they are always when infants swaddled;
when they can walk they are dressed as little men and women,
and with the dress they generally ape the manners. It is a strange
custom with the Persian ladies to dress little girls as boys, and
little boys as girls, till they reach the age of seven or eight years;
this is often done for fun, or on account of some vow — oftener to
avert the evil eye.

Towns. — The principal cities of Persia with their populations
as estimated in 1908 are: Teheran (280,000); Tabriz (200,000);
Isfahan (100,000); Meshed (80,000); Kerman, Resht, Shiraz
(60,000); Barfurush, Kazvin, Yezd (50,000); Hamadan, Ker-
manshah (40,000); Kashan, Khoi, Urmia (35,000); Birjend,
Burujird, Bushire, Dizful, Kum, Senendij (Sinna), Zenjan
(25,000 to 30,000); Amol, Ardebil, Ardistan, Astarabad,
Abekuh, Bam, Bander, Abbasi, Bander Lingah, Damghan,
Dilman, Istahbanat, Jahrum, Khunsar, Kumishah, Kuchan,
Marand, Maragha, Nishapur, Sari, Sabzevar, Samnan, Shahrud,
Shushter (10,000 to 20,000).

Political and Administrative Divisions. — The empire of Persia,
officially known as Mamalik i Mahruseh i Iran, " the protected
kingdoms of Persia," is divided into a number of provinces,
which, when large, and containing important sub-provinces
and districts, are called mamlikat, " kingdom," when smaller,
vilayat and ayalat, and are ruled by governors-general and
governors appointed by and directly responsible to the Crown.
These provinces are further divided into sub-provinces, vilayats,
districts, sub-districts and parishes, buluk, nahiyeh, mahal, and
towns, cities, parishes and villages, shehr, kassabeh, mahalleh,
dih, which are ruled by lieutenant-governors and other function-
aries appointed by and responsible to the governors. All
governors are called hakim, or hukmran, but those of large
provinces generally have the title of vali, and sometimes firman-
firma. A governor of a small district is a zabit; a deputy-
governor is called naib el hukumeh, or naib el ayaleh; an adminis-
trative division is a kalamro, or hukumat. Until recently the

principal governorships were conferred upon the shah's sons,
brothers, uncles and other near relatives, but now many of them
are held by men who have little if any connexion with the royal
family. Also, the governors are now, as a rule, resident in their
provinces instead of being absentees at the capital. There are
also some small districts or dependencies generally held in fief,
luryitl, by princes or high functionaries who take the revenues
in lieu of salaries, pensions, allowances, &c., and either them-
selves govern or appoint others to do so.

Every town has a mayor, or chief magistrate, called beglerbegi,
" lord of lords," kalantar, " the greater," and sometimes darogha,
" overseer," or chief of police; every ward or parish, mahalleh,
of a town and every village has a head-man called ked khoda,
" house-lord." These officers are responsible to the governor
for the collection of the taxes and the orderly state of their towns,
parishes and villages. In the important provinces and sub-
provinces the governors are assisted by a man of experience, to
whom the accounts and details of the government are entrusted.
This person, called viziar, or paishkar, is often nominated by the
shah, and his functions in the provincial government are similar
to those of the grand vizir in the central government, and com-
prise very extended administrative powers, including at times
the command of the military forces in his province. Among the
nomads a different system of titles prevails, the chiefs who are
responsible for the taxes and the orderly conduct of their
tribes and clans being known as ilkhani, ilbegi,(both meaning
" tribe-lord," but the latter being considered an inferior title
to the former), khan, mis, amir, mir, shaikh, tushmal, &c.

The governors and chiefs, excepting those possessing heredi-
tary rights, are frequently changed; appointments are for one
year only and are sometimes renewed, but it does not often
occur that an official holds the same government for longer than
that period, while it happens rarely that a province is governed
by the same person for two or three years. This was not so
formerly, when not infrequently an official, generally a near
relation of the shah, held the same governorship for five, ten
or even more years. The governorship of the province of
Azerbaijan was an exception until the end of 1906, being
always held by the Valiahd, " heir apparent," or crown prince.

The political divisions of Persia, provinces, sub- provinces, dis-
tricts, &c., ruled by hakims number over 200 (cf. the statement in
Noldeke's Geschichle des ArtacKsir Papakan, " after Alexander's
death there were in Iran 240 local governors "), but the adminis-
trative divisions, hukumat, or kalamro, with governors appointed
by the Crown and responsible to it for the revenues, have been
under fifty for sixty-five years or more. In 1840 there were twenty-
nine administrative divisions, in 1868 twenty-two, in 1875 twenty-
nine, in 1884 nineteen, in 1890 forty-six, and in 1908 thirty-five,
as follows : — •

(a) Provinces: —

1. Arabistan and Bakhtiari. 14. Kamseh.

2. Astarabad and Gurgan. 15. Khar.

3. Azerbaijan. 16. Khorasan.

4. Pars. 17. Kum.

5. Gerrus. 18. Kurdistan.

6. Gilan and Talish. 19. Luristan and Burujird.

7. Hamadan. 20. Mazandaran.

8. Irak.Gulpaigan, Khunsar, 21. Nehavend, Malayir and

Kamcreh, Kezzaz, Fera- Tusirkhan.

kan. 22. Savah.

9. Isfahan. 23. Samnan and Damghan.

10. Kashan. 24. Shahrud and Bostam.

11. Kazvin. 25. Teheran.

12. Kerman and Baluchistan. 26. Zerend and Bagdadi

13. Kermanshah. Shahsevens.
(b) Dependencies, or Fiefs: —

1. Asadabad. 6. Natanz.

2. Dcmavend. 7. Talikan.

3. Firuzkuh. 8. Tarom Ulia.

4. Josehekan. 9. Kharakan.

5. Kangaver.

Roads. — With the exception of five short roads, having an aggre-
gate length of less than 900 m., all the roads of the country are
mere mule tracks, carriageable in the plains and during the dry
season, but totally unfit for continuous wheeled traffic during all
seasons, and in the hilly districts often so difficult as to cause much
damage to goods and the animals carrying them. There are a
few miles of roads in the immediate neighbourhood of Teheran
leading from the city to royal palaces, but not of any commercial

POSTS AND TELEGRAPHS]

PERSIA

195

importance. The five exceptions are- (i) Resht-Kazvin-Teheran,
227m.; (2) Julfa-Tabriz, 80 m. ; (3) Teheran-Kum-Sultanabad,
160 m. ; (4) Meshed-Kuchan-Askabad, 150 m. ; 30 of which are on
Russian territory; (5) Isfahan-Ahvaz, 280 m. The first of these
roads consists of two sections: Resht-Kazvin, 135 m., and Kazvin-
Teheran, 92 m. The first section was constructed in 1897-1899
by a Russian company, in virtue of a concession which the Persian
government granted in 1893; and the second section was con-
structed in 1878-1879 by the Persian government at a cost of
about £20,000, ceded to the concessionnaire of the first section in
1896, and repaired and partly reconstructed by the Russian company
in 1898-1899. Both sections were officially opened to traffic in
August 1899. The capital of the company is 3,200,000 roubles
(£341,330), of which 1,700,000 is in shares taken by the public, and
1,500,000 in debentures taken by the Russian government, which
also guarantees 5 % on the shares. About two-thirds of the capital
has been expended on construction. The company's income is
derived from tolls levied on vehicles and animals using the road.
These tolls were at first very high but were reduced by 15% in
1904, and by another 10% in 1909. If all the trade between Russia
and Teheran were to pass over this road, the tolls would no doubt
pay a fair dividend on the capital, but much of it goes by way of the
Teheran-Meshed-i-Sar route, which is much shorter and has no tolls.
The second road, Julfa-Tabriz, 80 m., was constructed by the
same Russian company in 1903. The third road, Teheran-Kum-
Sultanabad, 160 m., also consists of two sections: the first, Teheran-
Kum, 92 m., the other, Kum-Sultanabad, 68 m. The first section
was constructed by the Persian government in 1883 at a cost of
about £12,000, purchased by the Imperial Bank of Persia in 1890
for £10,000, and reconstructed at a cost of about £45,000. The
second section formed part of the " Ahvaz road concession " which
was obtained by the Imperial Bank of Persia in 1890 with the
object of connecting Teheran with Ahvaz on the Karun by a direct
cart road via Sultanabad, Burujird, Khorremabad (Luristan),
Dizful and Shushter. The concession was ceded to Messrs Lynch,
of London, " The Persian Road and Transport Company," in 1903.
The fourth cart-road, Meshed— Askabad, 120 m. to the Persian
frontier, was constructed by the Persian government in 1889-1892
in accordance with art. y. of the Khorasan Boundary Convention
between Russia and Persia of December 1881. The Persian section
cost £13,000. The fifth road, Isfahan-Ahvaz, 280 m., is the old
mule track provided with some bridges, and improved by freeing
it of boulders and stones, &c., at a total cost of £5500. The con-
cession for this road was obtained in 1897 by the Bakhtiari chiefs and
ceded to Messrs Lynch, of London, who advanced the necessary
capital at 6% interest and later formed the Persian Road and
Transport Company. The road was opened for traffic in the
autumn of 1900. The revenue is derived from tolls levied on animals
passing with loads. The tolls collected in 1907 amounted to £3100.

Railways. — Persia possesses only 8 m. of railway and 6J m. of
tramway, both worked by a Belgian company. The railway consists
of a single line,_one-metre gauge, from Teheran to Shah-abdul-Azim,
south of Teheran, and of two branch lines which connect the main
line with some limestone quarries in the hills south-east of the city.
The tramway also is a single line of one-metre gauge, and runs
through some of the principal streets of Teheran. The length
of the main railway line is si m., that of the branches 2\. The
main line was opened in 1888, the branches were constructed in
1893, and the tramway started in 1889. The capital now invested
in this enterprise, and largely subscribed for by Russian capitalists,
amounts to £320,000. There are also ordinary shares to the amount
of £200,000 put down in the company's annual balance-sheets as
of no value. The general opinion is that if Russian capitalists had
not been interested in the enterprise the company would have
liquidated long ago. (On railways in Persia, the many concessions
granted by the Persian government, and only one having a result,
ch. xviii. of Lord Curzon's Persia [i. 613-639], and on the Belgian
enterprise, Lorini's La Persia, economica [pp. 157-158] may be
consulted.)

Posts. — Down to 1874 the postal system was in the hands of an
official called chaparchi bashi, who was the head farmer of the post,
or chapars, and letters and small parcels were conveyed by him and
his agents at high and arbitrary rates and without any responsibility.
The establishment of a regular post was one of the results of the
shah Nasr-ed-din's first visit to Europe (1873). Two officials of
the Austrian postal department having been engaged in 1874, an
experiment of a post office upon European lines was made in the
following year with a postal delivery in the capital and some of the
neighbouring villages where the European legations have their
summer quarters. In the beginning of 1876 a regular weekly post
was established between Teheran, Tabriz and Julfa (Russo-Persian
frontier) and Resht. Other lines, connecting all the principal
cities with the capital, were opened shortly afterwards, and on the
1st of September 1877 Persia joined the international postal union
with the rates of 2jd. per j oz. for letters, id. for post-cards, Jd. per
2 oz. for newspapers, &c., between Persia and any union country.
The inland rates were a little less. There are now between Persia
and foreign countries a bi-weekly service via Russia (Resht-Baku,
Tabriz-Tiflis) and a weekly service via India (Bushire-Bombay).
On the inland lines, with the exception of that between Teheran

and Tabriz, the service is weekly. There are reported to be 140
post offices. Statistics as to the number of letters, post-cards,
newspapers, &c., conveyed are kept but not published; and since
1885, when a liberal-minded director communicated those for the
year 1884-1885 to the present writer, no others, although many
times promised, have been obtained. In the year 1884-1885 there
were conveyed 1,368,835 letters, 2050 post-cards, 7455 samples,
and 173,995 parcels, having a value of £304,720; and the receipts
exceeded the expenditure by £466. Since then the traffic has much
increased, and the excess of receipts over expenditure in the year
1898-1899 was reported to have been £10,000, but was probably more
than that, for the minister of posts farmed the department for
£12,000 per annum. The farm system was abolished in 1901 and
in the following year the post office was joined to the customs
department worked by Belgian officials. Under the most favourable
conditions letters from London via Russia are delivered at Tabriz
in 9 days, at Teheran in 10, at Isfahan in 14, and at Shiraz in 18 days;
and via India,_at Bushire in 26 days, at Shiraz in 31, at Isfahan in 36,
and at Teheran in 40 days; but during the winter letters between
London and Teheran sometimes take a month. In the interior
the mails are conveyed on horseback, and, being packed in badly-
made soft leather bags, are frequently damaged through careless
packing and wet. The first Persian postage stamps were issued in
1875 and roughly printed in Persia. Since then there have been
numerous issues, many practically bogus ones for collectors.
Authentic specimens of the early ones are much valued by stamp
collectors. (For information on the postal system of Persia, see
G. Riederer, Aus Persien, Vienna, 1882; Fr. Schueller, Die
persische Post und die Postwerthzeichen von Persien, Vienna, 1893.)

Telegraphs. — The first line of telegraphs — from Teheran to
Sultameh, about 160 m. on the road to Tabriz— was constructed
in 1859. In the following year it was continued to Tabriz, and in
1863 to Julfa on the Russian frontier. With the object of establish-
ing a direct telegraphic communication between England and
India, by connecting the European and Indian systems by a land
line through Persia from Bagdad — then the most easterly Turkish
telegraphic station — to Bushire and by a cable from Bushire east-
wards, a telegraphic convention was concluded in the same year
between the British and Persian governments, and a one-wire
line on wooden posts from the Turkish frontier, near Bagdad,
to Bushire via Kermanshah, Hamadan, Teheran, Isfahan and
Shiraz, was constructed at the cost and under the supervision
of the British government. In 1865 a new convention, providing
for a second wire, was concluded, and for some years messages
between Europe and India were transmitted either via Constanti-
nople, Bagdad, Teheran, Bushire, or via Russia, Tiflis, Tabriz,
Teheran, Bushire. An alternative line between Bagdad and India
was created by the construction of a land line to Fao, at the head
of the Persian Gulf, and the laying of a cable thence to Bushire.
The service was very inefficient, ancf messages between England and
India took several days and sometimes weeks to reach their desti-
nation. In 1869 Messrs Siemens of Berlin, in virtue of concessions
obtained in the year before and later disposed of to the Indo-European
Telegraph Company, Ltd. — who also took over Reuter's cable from
Lowestoft to Emden (274 knots) — constructed a two-wire line on
iron posts through Germany and Russia, and in Persia from Julfa
to Teheran. This line was opened on the 3lst of January 1870.
The British government then handed the Bagdad-Teheran section,
which had become unnecessary for international through traffic
between Europe and India, over to the Persian government, and
changed its Teheran-Bushire line into one of two wires on iron
posts. In 1873, according to a convention signed December 1872,
a third wire was added to the line, and there was then a three-wire
line on iron posts (439 m. Indo-European Telegraph Company,
675 m. Indian government) from Julfa to Bushire. In August
1901 a convention was concluded between the British and Persian
governments for a three-wire line on iron posts from Kashan (a
station on the Teheran-Bushire line) to Baluchistan via Yezd,
Kerman and Bam (805 m.). The construction of this " Central
Persia line," as it is known officially, was begun in December 1902
and completed^ in March 1907. The section Kashan-Isfahan of
the old Teheran-Bushire was then taken up and Isafahan was
connected with the Central Persia line by a two-wire line from
Ardistan, 71 m. south-east from Kashan. One of the three wires
between Isfahan and Bushire was also taken up, and there are now
a five-wire line from Teheran to Ardistan (224$ m.), a three- wire
line from Ardistan to the Baluchistan frontier (734 m.) and a two-
wire line from Ardistan to Bushire (497 m.). These lines, as
well as that of the Indo-European Telegraph Company from Julfa
to Teheran, are worked throughout by an English staff and may
be classed among the finest and most efficient in the world. The
central line is continued through Baluchistan to Karachi, and from
Bushire messages go by cable (laid in 1864) to Jask, and thence
either by cable or by land to Karachi, Bombay, &c. The telegraphic
convention between the British and Persian governments has
again been renewed, and is in force until 1925; and the concessions
to the company were prolonged to the same year by the Russian
government in March 1900. In addition to these lines, Persia
possesses 4191 m. of single-wire lines on wooden poles belonging
to the Persian government and worked by a Persian staff; the

196

PERSIA

[MANUFACTURES

Teheran-Meshed line (555 m.), however, is looked after by an
English inspector and two English clerics at Meshed, and since
1885 the Indian government has aljowed a sum not exceeding
20,000 rupees per annum for its maintenance; and the Meshed—
Seistan line, 523 m., is looked after by twelve Russian inspectors
and clerks. The Persian lines are farmed out for 1,800,000 krans
(about £36,000) per annum and no statistics are published. There
are in all 131 stations. Statistics of the traffic on the Indo-European
line are given in the administration reports of the Indo-European
telegraph department, published by government, and from them
the figures in the following table have been obtained : —

...

Traffic over Lines
between London
and Karachi.

Earnings in
thousands of
Pounds.

Net Profits of the
Government Dept.

Number of
Messages
transmitted.

Government
Department.

Id

Total
amount.
Rupees.

S|

fo

If

1887-1888
1892-1893
1897-1898
1902-1903
1905-1906
1906-1907

83,031
117,500
146,988
178,250
211,003
259.355

74
84
1 06
in

"3

1 08

IOO

116

H5
155
157
149

198,381
437,668
758,172
589-571
774-368
458,559

1-75
V8o

6-57
4-50
5-39
3'°9

Manufactures, &c. — The handbook on Persian art published by
Colonel Murdoch Smith, R.E., in 1876, with reference to the col-
lection purchased and sent home by him for the Victoria and Albert
Museum, has an instructive account of the more common manu-
factures of the country. They are classified under the respective
heads of " porcelain and earthenware," "tiles," " arms and armour,"
" textile fabrics," " needlework and embroidery," " metal-work,^'
" wood carving and mosaic-painting," " manuscripts," " enamel,"
" jewelry " and " musical instruments." Specimens of the greater
number are not only to be procured in England, but are almost
familiar to the ordinary Londoner. It need scarcely be said that
tiles have rather increased in value than deteriorated in the eyes
of the connoisseur, that the ornamentation of metal-work, wood
carving and inlaying, gem and seal engraving, are exquisite of their
kind, and that the carpets manufactured by skilled workmen, when
left to themselves and their native patterns, are to a great extent
unrivalled. Of the above-mentioned articles, carpets, shawls,
woollen and cotton fabrics and silk stuffs are the more important.
Carpets may be divided into three categories: (l) Kali, with a pile,
and cut like plush; (2) gilim, smooth; (3) nimads, felts. Only the
two first are exported. The Kali and its smaller sizes, called
Kalicheh (in Europe, rugs), are chiefly made in Ferahan, Sultanabad
(Irak), Khorasan, Kurdistan, Karadagh, Yezd, Kerman, and among
the nomad tribes of southern Persia. From the two first-mentioned
localities, where a British firm has been established for many
years, great quantities, valued in some years at £100,000, find their
way to European and American markets, while rugs to the value
of £30,000 per annum are exported from the Persian Gulf ports. Of
the second kind, gilim (used in Europe for curtains, hangings, and
chair-covers), considerable quantities are exported from Shushter
and Kurdistan. The value of the carpets exported during the year
1906^-1907 was close upon £900,000, Turkey taking £613,300,
Rtissia £196,700, United States £40,600, Great Britain £20,700,
Egypt £18,500 and India £5400. Shawls are manufactured in
Kerman and Meshed, and form an article of export, principally to
Turkey. Woollen fabrics are manufactured in many districts, but
are not exported in any great quantity. Coarse cotton stuffs,
chiefly of the kind called Kerbaz, used in their natural colour, or
dyed blue with indigo, are manufactured in all districts but not
exported ; cottons, called Kalamkar, which are made in Manchester
and block-printed in colours at Isfahan and Kumishah, find their
way to foreign markets, principally Russian. Of silk fabrics
manufactured in Persia, principally in Khorasan, Kashan and
Yezd, about £100,000 worth per annum is exported to Turkey,
Russia and India. In the environs of Kashan and in Fars, chiefly
at Maimand, much rose-water is made, and a considerable quantity
of it is exported by way of Bushire to India and Java. Many
attempts have been made to start manufactures, supported by
foreign capital and conducted by foreigners, but nearly all have
resulted in loss. In 1879 the Persian government was induced to
spend £30,000 on the erection of a gas factory in Teheran, but
work was soon stopped for want of good coal. A few years later
a Persian bought the factory and plant for £10,000, and made them
over in 1891 to the Compagnie generale pour 1'eclairage et le hauffage
en Perse, which after bringing out much additional plant, and
wasting much capital in trying for some years in vain to make

food and cheap gas out of bad and dear coal, closed the factory,
n 1891 another Belgian company, Societe anonyme des verreries
rationales de Perse, opened a glass factory in Teheran, but the
difficulty of obtaining the raw material cheaply and in large quanti-
ties was too great to make it a paying concern, and the factory

had to be closed. A third Belgian company, Societe anonyme
pour la fabrication du sucre en Perse, with a large capital, then
came to Persia, and began making beetroot sugar in the winter of
1895. But, like the gas and glass companies, it found the cost of
the raw material and the incidental expenses too great, and ceased
its operations in 1899. In 1890 a Russian company started a match
factory near Teheran with an initial outlay, it is said, of about
£20,000, but could not successfully compete with Austrian and
Swedish matches and ceased operations very soon. A Persian
gentleman erected a cotton-spinning factory at Teheran in 1894
with expensive machinery; it turned out some excellent yarn but
could not compete in price with imported yarns.

Agricultural Products. — Wheat, barley and rice are grown in all
districts, the two former up to considerable altitudes (8000 ft.), the
last wherever the water supply is abundant, and in inner Persia
generally along rivers; and all three are largely exported. The
most important rice-growing districts which produce more than
they require for local consumption and supply other districts, or
export great quantities, are Astarabad, Mazandaran, Gilan, Veramin,
(near Teheran). Lenjan (near Isfahan), and some localities in Fars
and Azerbaijan. Peas, beans, lentils, gram, maize, millet, are also
universally cultivated, and exported Trom the Persian Gulf ports
to India and the Arabian coast. The export of rice amounted to
52,200 tons in 1906-1907, and was valued at £472,550. The
Persian fruit is excellent and abundant, and large quantities, princi-
pally dried and called khushkbar (dry fruit), as quinces, peaches,
apricots, plums (of several kinds), raisins, figs, almonds, pistachios,
walnuts and dates (the last only from the south), as well as oranges
(only from the Caspian provinces), are exported. The fruit exported
during 1906-1907 had a value of £1,019,000. Nothing is being
done to improve the vine, and the Persian wines, until recently of
world-wide reputation, are yearly getting thinner and poorer.
The phylloxera has done much damage. The naturalist S. G.
Gmelin, who explored the southern shores of the Caspian in 1771,
observed that the wines of Gilan were made from the wild grape.
Cotton is largely grown, principally in the central districts and
Khorasan, and some qualities are excellent and command high
prices in the European markets; 18,400 tons of raw cotton, valued
at £ 838,787, were exported to Russia in 1906-1907. Good hemp
grows wild in Mazandaran. Tobacco of two kinds, one the tumbaku
(Nicotiana persica, Lindl.), for water pipes, the other the tutun
(Nicotiana rustica, L.), for ordinary pipes and cigarettes, is much
cultivated. The tumbaku for export is chiefly produced in the
central districts round about Isfahan and near Kashan, while the
tumbaku of Shiraz, Fessa, and Darab in Fars, considered the best
in Persia, is not much appreciated abroad. Tutun is cultivated
in Azerbaijan, near Urmia and other places near the Turkish frontier,
in Kurdistan, and, since 1875, in the district of Resht.in Gilan. About
1885 the quantity of tobacco exported amounted to between 4000
and 5000 tons. In 1906-1907 only 1820 tons, valued at £42,000,
were exported. The cultivation of poppy for opium greatly
increased after 1880, and it was estimated in 1900 that the annual
produce of opium amounted to over 1000 tons, of which about
two-fifths was consumed and smoked in the country. The principal
opium-producing districts are those of Shiraz, Isfahan, Yezd,
Kerman, Khorasan, Burujird and Kermanshah. While the quantity
consumed in the country is now probably the same, the quantity
exported is much less: 239 tons, valued at £237,270 in 1906-1907.
The value of the silk produced in Persia in the 'sixties was
£1,000,000 per annum, and decreased in consequence of silk-worm
disease to £30,000, in 1890. The quantity produced has since
then steadily increased and its yearly value is estimated at half a
million. Cocoons and raw silk valued at £316,140 were exported
in 1906-1907. Of oil-yielding plants the castor-oil plant, sesame,
linseed and olive are cultivated, the last only in a small district
south of and near Resht. Very little oil is exported. The potato,
not yet a staple article of fooa, tomatoes, celery, cauliflower, arti-
chokes and other vegetables are now much more grown than formerly,
chiefly in consequence of the great influx of Europeans, who are
the principal consumers.

Among the valuable vegetable products forming articles of
export are various gums and dyes, the most important being
gum tragacanth, which exudes from the astragalus plant in the
hilly region from Kurdistan in the north-west to Kerman in the
south-east. Other gums are gum-ammoniac, asafetida, galbanum,
sagapanum, sarcocolla and opoponax. In 1906-1907, 3310 tons of
various gums of a value of £300,000 were exported. Of dye-stuffs
there are produced henna (Lawsonia inermis) principally grown at
Khabis near Kerman, woad and madder; a small quantity of
indigo is grown near Dizful and Shushter. The export of dyes in
1906-1907 was 985 tons, valued at £32,326.

Horses, mules and donkeys, formerly exported in great numbers,
are at present not very abundant, and their prices have risen
much since 1880. Some nomad tribes who owned many brood
mares, and yearly sold hundreds of horses, now hardly possess suffi-
cient animals for their own requirements. The scarcity of animals,
as well as the dearness of fodder, is one of the causes of the dearness
of transport, and freights have risen on the most frequented roads
from 3d. per ton-mile in 1880 to iod., and even I3d., per ton-mile.

The prices of staple articles of food rose steadily from 1880 and

COMMERCE]

PERSIA

197

reached a maximum in 1900 and 1901, as will be seen from the

following table : —

Average

Price, April

Price, June

Price, 1880.

1900.

1908.

s. d.

i. d.

s. d.

Wheat, per kharvar . .

22 6

IO2 O

32 o

(649 Ib)

Rice

56 3

64 o

64 o

Bread, ordinary, per

mann (6J Ib) . .

3-60

9-60

3-84

Meat,mutton(per mann)

i 2-40

2 9-60

i 5-28

Cheese ,,

I 6

2 4-80

I O

Clarified butter „

2 3

4 9-60

5 4'8o

Milk

4-50

9-60

7-68

Eggs, per 100. .

i 6

3 7-2°

3 2-40

Forests and Timber. — Timber from the forests of Mazandaran
and Gilan has been a valuable article of export for many years,
and since about 1870 large quantities of boxwood have also been
exported thence; in some years the value of the timber and box-
wood exported has exceeded £50,000. This value represented
about 200,000 box trees and quite as many others. Much timber
is also used for charcoal-burning, and occasionally large parts of
forest are burned by the people in order to obtain clearings for
the cultivation of rice. The destruction of the forests by timber-
cutters and charcoal-burners has been allowed to go on unchecked,
no plantations have been laid out, and nothing has been done
for forest conservation. Indiscriminate cutting has occasionally
been confined within certain bounds, but such restrictions were
generally either of short duration or made for the convenience and
profit of local governors. The oak forests of Kurdistan, Luristan
and the Bakhtiari district are also being rapidly thinned. A small
step in the right direction was made in 1900 by engaging the services
of an official of the Prussian forest department, but unfortunately,
beyond sending him to inspect the Mazandaran forests belonging
to the Crown, and employing him to lay out a small plantation in
the Jajrud valley, east of Teheran, nothing was done. The monopoly
for cutting and exporting the timber of the Mazandaran forests is
leased to European firms, principally for box and oak. Boxwood
has become scarce. There are many kinds of good timber-yielding
trees, the best known being alder (Alnus glutinosa, Wild., A. barbata,
A. cordifolia, Ten.), ash (Fraxinus excelsior, L.), beech (Fagus
sylvatica), elm (Ulmus campestris, U. effusa, U. pedunculata) ,
wych-elm (Ulmus montana), hornbeam (Carpinus betulus, L.),
juniper (Juniperus excelsa, J. communis, J. sabina), maple (Acer
insigne, Boiss., A. campestre, A. pseudo-platanus, L.), oak (Quercus
ballota, Q. castaneaefolia, Q. sessiliflora, Q. pedunculata), wamut,
nettle tree (Celtis australis, L.), Siberian elm (Zelkova crenata,
Spach.), and various kinds of poplar. Pipe-sticks, from the wild
cherry tree, are exported to Turkey.

Fisheries. — Fish is a staple food along the shores of the Persian
Gulf, but the Crown derives no revenue from fisheries there. The
fisheries of the Caspian littoral are leased to a Russian firm (since
1868), and most of the fish goes to Russia (31,120 tons, value
£556,125, in 1906-1907). The fish principally caught are sturgeon,
giving caviare, sheat fish or silure, salmon, carp, bream and perch.

Minerals and Mining. — Persia possesses considerable mineral
riches, but the absence of cheap and easy means of transport, and
the scarcity of fuel and water which prevails almost everywhere,
make any exploitation on a remunerative scale impossible, and the
attempts which have been made to work mines with European
capital and under European superintendence have been financially
unsuccessful. Deposits of rich ores of copper, lead, iron, manganese,
zinc, nickel, cobalt, &c., abound. A few mines are worked by
natives in a primitive, systemless manner, and without any great
outlay of capital. There are turquoise mines near Nishapur (for
description of mines, manner of working, &c., see A. Houtum-
Schindler, Report on tire Turquoise Mines in Khorasan, F. O. Reports,
1884, and " Die Gegend zwischen Sabzwar und Meschhed," Jahrbuch
k. k. geol. R. A. Wien, vol. xxxvi. ; also E. Tielze, Verhandl.
k. k. geol. R. A., 1884, p. 93); several copper mines in Khorasan,
Samnan, Azerbaijan and Kerman; some of lead, two considerably
argentiferous, in Khorasan, Tudarvar (near Samnan), Anguran,
Afshar (both west of Zenjan), and Kerman; two of iron at Mesula
in Gilan and Nur in Mazandaran; two of orpiment in Afshar and
near Urmia ; one of cobalt at Kamsar (near Kashan) ; one of alum
in Tarom (near Kazvin) ; and a number of coal in the Lar district,
north-east of Teheran, and at Hiv and Abyek, north-west of Teheran.
There are also many quarries of rock-salt, gypsum, lime and some of
marble, alabaster, soapstone, &c. The annual revenue of the
government from the leases, rents and royalties of mines does
not amount to more than £15,000, and about £6000 of this amount
is derived from the turquoise mines near Nishapur. As the rents
and royalties, excepting those on the turquoise mines, amount to
about one-fifth of the net proceeds, it may be estimated that the
value of the annual output does not exceed £50,000, while the
intrinsic value of the ores, particularly those of lead, iron, cobalt
and nickel, which have not yet been touched can be estimated at

millions. There are also some very rich coal seams in eastern
Persia, far away on the fringe of the desert, and under existing
conditions quite valueless. The richest deposits of nickel, cobalt
and antimony ores are also situated in localities where there is little
water and the nearest useful fuel some hundred miles away.
Auriferous alluvial strata have been discovered in various localities,
but everywhere the scarcity of water has been a bar to their being
exploited with profit. A rich naphtha-bearing zone stretches
from the Luristan hills near Kermanshah down to the Persian Gulf.
Competent engineers and specialists have declared that borings
in the Bakhtiari hills, west of Shushter, would give excellent results,
but the difficult hilly country and the total absence of roads, as well
as the antipathy of the inhabitants of the district, would make
the transport and establishment of the necessary plant a most
difficult matter. A British syndicate has been boring at several
places in the zone since 1903.

Commerce. — The principal centres of commerce are Tabriz,
Teheran, Resht, Meshed and Yezd; the principal ports Bander
Abbasi, Lingah, Bushire and Muhamrah on the Persian Gulf, and
Astara, Enzeli, Meshed i Sar and Bander i Gez on the Caspian.

Until 1899 all the customs were farmed out (1898-1899 for
£300,000), but in March of that year the farm system was abolished
in the two provinces of Azerbaijan and Kermanshah, and, the
experiment there proving successful, in all other provinces in the
following year. At the same time a uniform duty of 5 % ad valorem
was established. In October 1901 a treaty fixing a tariff and re-
serving " the most favoured nation " treatment for the countries
already enjoying it was concluded between Persia and Russia.
It was ratified in December 1902 and came into force on the 1 4th
of February 1903. The commercial treaty with Great Britain,
concluded in 1857, provided for the " most favoured nation "
treatment, but nevertheless a new treaty under which the duties
levied on British imports would be the same as on Russian
imports was made with Great Britain a few days before the new
tariff came into force and was ratified in May.

For the value of imports and exports previous to 1901 the only
statistics available were the figures given in consular reports, which
were not always correct. In 1897 it was estimated that the value of
the imports from and exports to Great Britain, including India,
amounted to £3,250,000. About a quarter of this trade passed
over the western frontier of Persia, while three-quarters passed
through the Persian Gulf ports. The value of the trade between
Russia and Persia was then about £3,500,000. Since 1901 detailed
statistics have been published by the customs department, and
according to them the values of the imports and exports in thousands
of pounds sterling for the six years 1901-1907 were as follows: —

Imports.

Exports.

Total.

1901-1902
1902-1903
1903-1904
1904-1905
1905-1906

1906-1907

5429
4970
7000
5832
6441
7982

2738
3388
4632
4132
4886

6544

8,167
8,358
11,632

9.964
n,327
14-526

The imports and exports during the year 1906-1907 (total value
£14,526,234) were distributed as follows (values in thousands
sterling) : —

Russia ..... 8292

Great Britain . . .3128

Turkey ..... 1335

France ..... 700

Austria ..... 277

Afghanistan . . . 203

Germany . . . . 182

China ..... 142

U.S. America
Italy ....
Egypt . . .
Netherlands
Belgium
Switzerland
Sweden .
Other countries .

65
41
37
24

22

8
i

14-526

While the value of the trade between Great Britain and Persia in
1906-1907 was almost the same as in 1897, that of the trade with
Russia had increased from 3$ millions to 8J or 137 %. The
average yearly value of the trade between Great Britain and Persia
during the six years was £2,952,185 (imports £2,435,016, exports
£517,169) ; between Russia and Persia £6,475,866 (imports £3,350,072,
exports £3,125,794). The average values of the trade with other coun-
tries were: France £666,000, Austria £246,000, Germany £124,000,
Italy £79,ooo,United States of America £52,ooo,Netherlands £39,000.

The principal imports into Persia in approximate order of value
are cottons, sugar, tea, woollens, cotton yarn, petroleum, stuffs
of wool and cotton mixed, wool, hardware, ironmongery, matches,
iron and steel, dyes, rice, spices and glassware. The principal
exports are fruits (dried and fresh), carpets, cotton, fish, rice, gums,
wool, opium, silk cocoons, skins, live animals, silks, cottons, wheat,
barley, drugs and tobacco.

Shipping and Navigation. — Shipping under the Persian flag is
restricted to vessels belonging to the Persian Gulf ports. Some
of the larger craft, which are called baglah, and vary from 50 to
300 tons, carry merchandise to and from Bombay, the Malabar

PERSIA

[CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT

coast, Zanzibar, &c. ; while the smaller vessels, called bagarah,
and mostly under 20 tons, are employed in the coasting trade and
the pearl-fisheries on the Arabian coast. It is estimated that the
four principal ports and the many smaller ones (as Mashur, Hindian,
Zaidin, Bander, Dilam, Rig, Kongan, Taheri, Kishm, Hormuz, &c.)
possess at least 100 baglahs and several hundred bagarahs, besides a
large number of small boats. The following figures from the
commercial statistics published by the Persian Customs Department
show the total shipping at the four principal Persian Gulf ports,
Bushire, Bander Lingah, Bander Abbasi and Muhamrah during
the years 1904-1907.

1904-1905.

1905-1906.

1906-1907.

British . . .
Persian .
Russian
Arabian.
Turkish
French .
German.

Total . .

Tons.
671,386

36,797
24,121
22,487

3.176
2,901

Tons.

827,539
25,069
29,182
16,749
3,877
57°

Tons.
826,594

6,425
40,616
7.932
5.005

52,935

760,868

902,986

939.507

The British shipping amounted to 89-2 % of the total shipping
at the four ports during the years 1904-1907. There was no
German shipping in the gulf before 1906, but in the first year of
its appearance (1906-1907), its tonnage at the gulf ports was
almost as much as that of all other nations with the exception of
Great Britain.

The shipping of 1906-1907 was distributed among the four ports
as follows : —

Bushire . . . 354,798 tons. Bander Abbasi . 245,746 tons.
Bander Lingah 155,720 „ Muhamrah . . 183,243 „

Bander Lingah being the port where most of the pearls obtained
on the Arabian coast of the gulf are brought to and exported from,
has more native shipping (all sailing vessels) than the other ports.

All the shipping on the Caspian is under the Russian flag1 and
no returns of the arrivals and departures of vessels at the Persian
ports were published before 1906. According to the statistics
of the customs department the shipping of the Persian ports
amounted in 1906-1907 to 650,727 tons. The shipping at the
principal Persian ports on the Caspian in the year 1906-1907 was:
Astara 137,935 tons; Enzeli 202,132 tons; Meshed i Sar 90,799
tons; Bander-i-Gez 56,135 tons. Two or three flat-bottomed sailing
vessels navigate the lake of Urmia in north-western Persia, carrying
merchandise, principally agricultural produce, from the western and
south-western shores to the eastern for the supply of Tabriz. The
navigation is a state monopoly, leased out for £250 per annum.

Coinage, Weights and Measures. — The monetary unit is the kran,
a silver coin, formerly weighing 28 nakhods (88 grains), then reduced
to 26 nakhods (77 grains), and now weighing only 24 nakhods (71
grains) or somewhat less. Before the new coinage came into use
(1877) the proportion of pure silver was from 92 to 95%;
subsequently the proportion was for some time 90%; now it is
about 89^%. In consequence of this depreciation of the coin-
age and the fall in the price of silver, partly also in consequence
of exchange transactions by banks, the value of the kran has
since 1895 rarely been more than 4-8od., or half what it was in
1874, and fell to less than 4d. in 1905. In 1874 the kran was worth
a franc; in June 1908 the exchange for a £i bill on London was
50 krans which gives the value of i kran as 4$d. Taking this
value of the kran, the values of the various nickel and silver coins
in circulation work out as : —

Nickel Coins.

Shahi = 2 pul . . o-24d.
Two shahis = 4 pul . o-48d.

Silver Coins.

Five shahis = 1 kran . i-2od.
Ten shahis = j kran . 2-4od.
One kran = 20 shahis =

40 pul .... 4-8od.
Two krans .... 9-6od.

In 1899 from 80 to 83 copper shahis (weighing about £ ft) were
being given for one silver kran. This was owing to the depreciation
of the copper coinage from 1896 onwards, consequent upon there
being an excess of coinage due to the excessive quantities formerly
put in circulation from the mint. Accordingly the government
in 1900 replaced the copper by a nickel coinage (face value of nickel
coin in circulation end of 1907, 4,000,000 krans). Accounts are

1 By article v. of the Treaty of Gulistan of 1813, confirmed by article
viii. of the Treaty of Turkmanchai of 1828, it was declared that
Russia alone should have the right of maintaining vessels of war
on the Caspian, and that no other Power should fly the military
flag on that sea; and by a decision of the council of the Russian
Empire, published on the 24th of November 1869, the establishment
of companies for the navigation of the Caspian, except by Russian
subjects, and the purchase of shares of such companies by foreigners
were prohibited. (State Papers, vol. Ixiii. 925.)

640 miskals = 6-49 Ib

720

= 7-30

1000

= 10-14

1280

= 12-98

2560

= 25-96

840

= 8-52

720

= 116-80

kharvar = ioo Tabriz mans

kept in dinars, formerly a gold piece, now an imaginary coin T^5j
of a kran. Ten thousand dinars are equal to one toman (a word
meaning ten thousand), or 10 krans silver, and 50 dinars are one
shahi.

Gold coins are: }, J, I, 2, 5, and 10 toman pieces, but they are
not in circulation as current money because of their ever-varying
value in silver krans, which depends upon the exchange on London.
The unit of weight is the miskal (71 grains), subdivided into
24 nakhods (2-96 grains), a nakhod being further subdivided into
4 gandum (-74 grains). Larger weights, again, are the sir (16 miskals)
and the abbasi, wakkeh, or kervankeh (5 sir). Most articles are
bought and sold by a weight called batman, or man, of which there
are several kinds, the principal being: —

Man-i-Tabriz = 8 abbasis

Man-i-Noh abbasi =9 abbasis

Man-i-Kohneh (the old man)

Man-i-Shah = 2 Tabriz mans

Man-i-Rey = 4 „_ „

Man-i- Bander abbasi

Man-i-Hashemi = 16 mans of
Corn, straw, coal, &c., are sold by kharvar =
= 649 Ib.

The unit of measure is the zar or gez, of which, as in the case of
the man, there are several variants. 40-95 in. is the most common
length for the zar, but in Azerbaijan the length is 44-09 in. Long
distances are calculated in farsakhs, a farsakh being equal to 6000
zar. Probably the zar in this measure =40-95 in., which makes
the farsakh 3-87 m., but the other length of the zar is sometimes
used, when the farsakh becomes 4-17 m. Areas are measured in
jeribs of from 1000 to 1066 square zar of 40-95 in., the surface unit
thus being from 1294 to 1379 sq. yds.

Constitution and Government. — Up to the year 1906 the govern-
ment of Persia was an absolute monarchy, and resembled in its
principal features that of the Ottoman Empire, with the excep-
tion, however, that the monarch was not the religious head
of the community. The powers of the Shah (Shahanshah,2 or
" king of kings ") over his subjects and their property were
absolute, but only in so far as they were not opposed to the shar',
or " divine law," which consists of the doctrines of the Mahom-
medan religion, as laid down in the Koran, the oral commentaries
and sayings of the Prophet, and the interpretations by his
successors and the high priesthood. In 1905, however, the
people began to demand judicial reforms, and in 1906 cried out
for representative institutions and a constitution. By a rescript
dated the sth of August Muzaffar-ud-Dm Shah gave his assent
to the formation of a national council {Majlis i shora i milli),
to be composed of the representatives of the various classes:
princes, clergy, members of the Kajar family and tribe — chiefs
and nobles, landowners, agriculturists, merchants and trades-
men. By an ordinance of the loth of September the number of
members was fixed at 162 (60 for Teheran, 102 for the provinces)
to be raised to 200 if necessary, and elections were held soon
after. Electors must be males and Persian subjects of not less
than 25 years of age and of good repute. Landowners must
possess land of at least 1000 tomans (£ 200) in value, merchants
and tradesmen must have a fixed and well-known place of
business or shop with an annual value of not less than the
average values in the localities where they are established.
Soldiers and persons convicted of any criminal offence are not
entitled to vote. The qualifications for membership are know-
ledge of the Persian language and ability to read and write it and
good repute in the constituency. No person can be elected who
is an alien, is under the age of 30 years or over the age of 70 years,
is in the employ of the government, is in the active service of
the army or navy, has been convicted of any criminal offence, or
is a bankrupt.

On the 7th of October the national council, or as many mem-
bers of it as could be got together, was welcomed by the shah
and elected a president. This was considered as the inaugura-
tion and formal opening of parliament. An ordinance signed

* We see this title in its old Persian form, Khshayathiya Khshaya-
thiy, in the cuneiform inscriptions; as BacnXeco? Baai\i£»> on the
coins of the Arsacides, and as the Pahlavi Malkan Malka on the
coins and in the inscriptions of the Sassanians. With the Mahom-
medan conquest of Persia and the fall of the Sassanians the title
was abolished ; it was in use for a short time during the loth century,
having been granted to Shah Ismail Samani by the Caliph Motadid
A.D. 900; it appeared again on coins of Nadir Shah, 1736-1747, and
was assumed by the present dynasty, the Kajars, in 1 799.

RELIGION]

PERSIA

199

by Muzaffar-ud-Din Shah, Mahommed Ali Mirza (his successor)
and the grand vizir, on the 3Oth of December 1906, deals with
the rescript of the 5th of August, states the powers and duties
of the national council and makes provision for the regulation
of its general procedure by the council itself. The members
have immunity from prosecution except with the knowledge of
the national council. The publicity of their proceedings except
under conditions accepted by the council is secured. Ministers,
or their delegates may appear and speak in the national council
and are responsible to that body, which also has special control
of financial affairs and internal administration. Its sanction
is required for all territorial changes, for the alienation of state
property, for the granting of concessions, for the contracting
of loans, for the construction of roads and railways, for the
ratification of treaties, &c. There was to be a senate of 60
members of whom 30 were to be appointed to represent the shah
and 30 to be elected on behalf of the national council, 15 of each
class being from Teheran and 15 from the provinces (the senate,
however, was not immediately formed).

By a rescript dated February 2, 1907, Mahommed Ali Shah
confirmed the ordinance of the 3oth of December, and on the
8th of October 1907 he signed the final revised constitution, and
took the oath which it prescribes on the i2th of November in
the presence of the national council.

In accordance with the constitution the shah must belong to
the Shiah faith, and his successor must be his eldest son, or next
male in succession, whose mother was a Kajar princess. The
shah's civil list amounts to 500,000 tomans (£100,000).

The executive government is carried on under a cabinet
composed of seven or eight vizirs (ministers), of whom one,
besides holding a portfolio, is vizir azam, prime minister. The
vizirs are the ministers of the interior, foreign affairs, war,
justice, finance, commerce, education, public works.

Until 1906 the shah was assisted in the task of government by
the sadr azam (grand vizir), a number of vizirs, ministers or heads
of departments somewhat on European lines, and a " grand council
of state," composed of some ministers and other members nomin-
ated by the shah himself as occasion required. Many of the
" ministers " would have been considered in Europe merely as
chiefs of departments of a ministry, as, for instance, the minister
for Crown buildings, that for Crown domains, the minister of cere-
monies, those for arsenals, army accounts, &c. ; also an accumulation
of several offices without any connexion between their functions,
in the hands of a single person, was frequently a characteristic
departure from the European model. The ministers were not
responsible to the Crown in a way that ministers of a European
government are; they rarely took any initiative, and generally
referred their affairs to the grand vizir or to the shah for final
decision.

There were twenty-seven vizirs (ministers), but only some of
them were consulted on affairs of state. The departments that
had a vizir at their head were the following: court, ceremonies,
shah's secretarial department, interior, correspondence between
court and governors, revenue accounts and budget, finance, treasury,
outstanding accounts, foreign affairs, war, army accounts, military
stores, arsenals, justice, commerce, mines and industries, agri-
culture and Crown domains, Crown buildings, public works, public
instruction, telegraphs, posts, mint, religious endowments and
pensions, customs, press. In addition to these twenty-seven
vizirs with portfolios, there were some titulary vizirs at court,
like Vizir i Huzur i Humayun (minister of the imperial presence),
Vizir i makhsus (extraordinary minister), &c., and a number in the
provinces assisting the governors in the same way as the grand
vizir assists the shah. Most of these ministers were abolished
under the new constitution, and the heads of subsidiary depart-
ments are entitled mudir or rais, and are placed under the responsible
ministers.

Religion. — About 9,000,000 of the population are Mahom-
medans of the Shiah faith, and 800,000 or 900,000, principally
Kurds in north-western Persia, are said to belong to the other
great branch of Islam, the Sunni, which differs from the former
in religious doctrine and historical belief, and is the state religion
of the Turkish Empire and other Mahommedan countries. Other
religions are represented in Persia by about 80,000 to 90,000
Christians (Armenians, Nestorians, Greek Orthodox and Roman
Catholics, Protestants), 36,000 Jews, and 9000 Zoroastrians.

Society in Persia, being based almost exclusively on religious
law, is much as it was in Biblical times among the Jews, with this

difference, however, that there exists no sacerdotal caste. In
Persia any person capable of reading the Koran and interpreting
its laws may act as a priest (mullah), and as soon as such a priest
becomes known for his just interpretation of the shar' and his
superior knowledge of the traditions and articles of faith, he
becomes a mujtahid, literally meaning " one who strives " (to
acquire knowledge), and is a chief priest. The mullahs are
referred to in questions concerning religious law, hold religious
assemblies, preach in mosques, teach in colleges, and are appointed
by the government as judges, head-preachers, &c. Thus the
dignitaries, whose character seems to us specially a religious one,
are in reality doctors, or expounders and interpreters of the law,
and officiating ministers charged with the ordinary accomplish-
ment of certain ceremonies, which every other Mussulman,
" true believer," has an equal right to fulfil. Formerly there
were only four or five mujtahids in Persia, now there are many,
sometimes several in one city — Teheran, for instance, has ten;
but there are only a few whose decisions are accepted as final
and without appeal. The highest authority of all is vested in
the mujtahid who resides at Kerbela, or Nejef, near Bagdad,
and is considered by many Shi'ites as the vicegerent of the
Prophet and representative of the imam. The shah and the
government have no voice whatever in the matter of appointing
mullahs or mujtahids, but frequently appoint sheikhs-ul-islam
and cadis, and occasionally chief priests of mosques that receive
important subsidies out of government funds. The chief priest
of the principal mosque of a city, the masjid i jami', is called
imam juma', and he, or a representative appointed by him, reads
the khutba, " Friday oration," and also preaches. The reader
of the khutba is also called khatib. The leader of the prayers
in a mosque is the pishnamaz, and the crier to prayers is the
mu'azzin. Many priests are appointed guardians of shrines
and tombs of members of the Prophet's family (imams and
imamzadehs) and are responsible for the proper administration
of the property and funds with which the establishments are
endowed. The guardian of a shrine is called mutavali, or, if
the shrine is an important one with much property and many
attendants, mulavali-bashi, and is not necessarily an ecclesiastic,
for instance, the guardianship of the great shrine of Imam Reza
in Meshed is generally given to a high court functionary or
minister as a reward for long services to the state. In the
precincts of a great shrine a malefactor finds a safe refuge
from his pursuers and is lodged and fed, and from the security
of his retreat he can arrange the ransom which is to purchase
his immunity when he comes out.

Formerly all cases, civil and criminal, were referred to the
clergy, and until the i7th century the clergy were subordinate to
a kind of chief pontiff, named sadr-us-sodur, who possessed a
very extended jurisdiction, nominated the judges, and managed
all the religious endowments of the mosques, colleges, shrines, &c.
Shah Safi (1629-1642), in order to diminish the influence of the
clergy, appointed two such pontiffs, one for the court and nobility
the other for the people. Nadir Shah (1736-1747) abolished
these offices altogether, and seized most of the endowments of the
ecclesiastical establishments in order to pay his troops, and, the
lands appropriated by him not having been restored, the clergy
have never regained the power they once possessed. Many
members of the clergy, particularly those of the higher ranks,
have very liberal ideas and are in favour of progress and reforms
so long as they are not against the shar', or divine law; but,
unfortunately, they form the minority.

The Armenians of Persia, in so far as regards their ecclesiastical
state, are divided into the two dioceses of Azerbaijan and Isfahan,
and, since the late troubles in Turkey, which caused many to
take refuge in Persia, are said to number over 50,000. About
three-fifths of this number belong to the diocese of Azerbaijan,
with a bishop at Tabriz, and reside in the cities of Tabriz, Khoi,
Selmas, Urmia and Maragha, and in about thirty villages close
to the north-western frontier; the other two-fifths, under the
diocese of Isfahan, with a bishop in Julfa, reside in Teheran,
Hamadan, Julfa, Shiraz, Bushire, Resht, Enzeli and other towns,
and in some villages in the districts of Chahar Mahal, Feridan,
Barbarud, Kamareh, Kazaz, Kharakan, &c. Many Persian
Armenians are engaged in trade and commerce, and some of

200

PERSIA

[EDUCATION : ARMY

their merchants dispose of much capital, but the bulk live on the
proceeds of agriculture and are poor.

The Nestorians in Persia, all living in cities and villages close to
the Turkish frontier, numbered about 25,000 to 30,000 but many
of them, some say half, together with two or three bishops, recently
went over to the Greek Orthodox (Russian) Church, in consequence
of the unsatisfactory protection afforded them by their patriarch,
who resides in Mosul. These latter are now cared for by an archi-
mandrite of Russian nationality and some Russian priests.

The Greek Orthodox Catholics are represented by Russians, who re-
side in northern Persia ; they have a church at the Russian legation
in Teheran, and another at the Russian consulate in Tabriz.

The Roman Catholics in Persia, Europeans and natives (mostly
Armenians), number about three or four thousand, and have
churches in Teheran, Julfa and Azerbaijan, served by members of
the French Lazarist Mission. They also have some orphanages,
schools and medical dispensaries, under the care of sisters of charity
of St Vincent de Paul.

The Protestants, Europeans and natives (converted Armenians
and Nestorians), number about 6500. The religious missions
ministering to their spiritual welfare are: (l) The board of foreign
missions of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America,
which has six establishments in Persia: Urmia since 1835, Teheran
since 1872, Tabriz since 1873, Ramadan since 1880, Resht since
1902 and Kazvin since 1903. The establishments of Tabriz and
Urmia form the Western Persia Mission, those of Teheran, Hamadan,
Resht and Kazvin the Eastern Persia Mission. The former mission
has 24 churches, 1 18 schools, 2 hospitals and 4 dispensaries; the latter
has 4 churches, 1 1 schools, 2 hospitals and 4 dispensaries. (2) The
Church Missionary Society, established in Persia since 1869. In June
1908 it had 4 places of worship (Julfa, Yezd, Kerman, Shiraz),
5 schools (Julfa, Isfahan, Yezd, Kerman and Shiraz). There are
also hospitals and dispensaries for men and women at Julfa, Isfahan,
Yezd and Kerman. The hospitals at Julfa and Isfahan have ac-
commodation for 100 patients each, and are sometimes full to
overflowing; the dispensaries are generally overcrowded. The
establishment of the Church Missionary Society is under the care
of a bishop, who resides at Julfa and is under the bishop of London.
(3) The Anglican mission, which was established by Dr Benson,
archbishop of Canterbury, and has its work among the Nestorians
in Azerbaijan. (4) The London Society for promoting Christianity
among the Jews, which was established at Teheran in 1876, and
at Isfahan and Hamadan in 1889. It has in Teheran a church
and a school, at Isfahan a school and at Hamadan a small school.
(5) The British and Foreign Bible Society has been represented
at Isfahan since 1879.

The Jews in Persia number about 36,000, and are found in nearly
all cities of the country, but communities with synagogues and
priests exist only in the larger cities like Teheran, Isfahan, Yezd,
Shiraz, Hamadan, &c.

The Zoroastrians , commonly called " gabrs," numbering about
9000, reside principally in the cities and villages of Yezd and Ker-
man, and only three or four hundred live in Teheran, Kashan,
Isfahan and Shiraz, some engaged in trade and commerce, but
most of them employed in agricultural work and gardening. Their
interests are attended to by a delegate who is appointed by the
Bombay Parsis and resides at Teheran.

The non-Mussulman Persian subjects, particularly those in the
provinces, were formerly much persecuted, but since 1873, when
Nasru 'd-DIn Shah returned to Persia from his first journey to Europe
they have been treated more liberally. In cities where many non-
Mussulman subjects reside a special official is appointed to protect
them; and the ministry of justice has a special section to look
after them and see that they are protected against fanaticism and
injustice.

Instruction. — Primary schools, maktab (where Persian and a
little Arabic, sufficient for reading the Koran, and sometimes
also a little arithmetic, are taught to boys between the ages
of seven and twelve), are very numerous. These schools are
private establishments, and are under no supervision whatever.
The payment for tuition varies 'from fourpence or fivepence to
tenpence a month for each child. Colleges, madrasah (where
young men are instructed, fed, and frequently also lodged
gratuitously), exist in nearly every town. Most of them are
attached to mosques, and the teachers are members of the clergy,
and receive fixed salaries out of the college funds. The students
are instructed in Arabic and Persian literature, religion, inter-
pretation of the Koran, Mussulman law, logic, rhetoric, philo-
sophy and other subjects necessary for admittance to the clergy,
for doctors of law, &c., while modern sciences are neglected.
Families who have means and do not desire their children to
become members of the clergy, employ private tutors, and
several have latterly obtained the services of English and French
professors to educate their children, while others send their
boys to school in England, France, Germany and Russia. At

the beginning of Nasru'd-Din Shah's reign, a public school on
the lines of a French lycee was opened in Teheran, principally
with the object of educating officers for the army, but also of
introducing a knowledge of Western science and languages,
and a ministry of public instruction was created at the same
time. Military and civilian teachers were obtained from Europe,
and the state granted a large sum of money for the support- of
the establishment. The tuition is gratuitous, and the pupils
are clothed and partly fed at government expense. Some
years later a similar school, but on a much smaller scale, was
opened in Tabriz. After a time the annual grant for the support
of these two schools was reduced, and during the years 1890-1908
amounted to only £5000. The average number of pupils was
about 250, and until the beginning of 1899 these two schools
were the only establishments under the supervision of the
minister of public instruction. Soon after his accession in
1896 Muzaffar-ud-Din Shah expressed a desire that something
more should be done for public instruction, and in the following
year a number of Persian notables formed a committee and
opened some schools in Teheran and other places in the beginning
of 1898. A year later the new schools, until then private estab-
lishments, were placed under the minister of public instruction.
The new schools at Teheran have from 1000 to 1400 pupils.

A German school with an annual grant of £2400 from Persia and
of £1000 from Germany was opened at Teheran in 1907. There
is also established a French school under the auspices of the Alliance
Francaise. Much has been and is being done for education by the
Armenians and the Protestant and Roman Catholic missions in
Persia, and a large percentage of the pupils is composed of Mussul-
mans. The Alliance Israelite has opened a school in Teheran.
In 1907 the American Protestant mission had 129 schools with
3423 pupils, the English Protestant missions had 5 schools with
425 pupils, the Roman Catholic mission (Lazaristes) had 3 schools
with 400 pupils, and the Armenians had 4 schools and 646 pupils.
All these schools are supported by voluntary subscriptions and
donations, and instruct both boys and girls.

Army. — Persia had no regular army until 1807, when some
regiments of regular infantry (sarbaz) were embodied and drilled
by the first French military mission to Persia under General
Gardane. Since then seven other military missions (two British,
two French, two Austrian, and one Russian) have come to Persia
at the request of the Persian government, and many officers
and non-commissioned officers, and even civilians, of various
nationalities, have been engaged as army instructors. The
last serious attempt to reorganize the Persian army was made in
1879, when the second Austrian mission formed the " Austrian
corps " of seven new battalions of 800 men each. These new
battalions were disbanded in 1882. The Russian mission of
1879 has been the most successful, and the so-called " Cossack
brigade " which it formed has always been commanded by
Russian officers. The brigade has a strength of about 1800 men
and costs £50,000 per annum. The total annual expenditure
for the army amounts to about a third of the total revenues of
the government.

According to statistics published for 1905 the Persian army has
an effective force of about 91,000 men, but the number of men
actually serving with the colours does not exceed 35,000: —

Artillery 5309

Irregular cavalry . . 14,957

Infantry, 79 battalions of 400-1000 men each . . 63,865
Cossack brigade, artillery, horse and foot . . . 1800

Road and frontier guards, horse and foot . . . 54^3

Total 91,334

Navy. — The Persian government possesses nine steamers.
One is the "Nasru 'd-Din," an old yacht of about 120 tons,
presented in the 'seventies by the emperor of Russia, and
stationed at Enzeli, the port of Resht. The others, all employed
in the customs service in the Persian Gulf, are the following:
The " Persepolis," built 1884, 600 tons, 450 h.p., with three 75
cm. and one 8| cm. Krupp. The " Susa," built 1884,
36 tons, with one Krupp. An old Belgian yacht " Sehka,"
purchased 1903 and renamed " Muzafferi," with two Hotchkiss
guns. Five launches built in the Royal Indian Marine Docks,
Bombay, in 1905, at a cost of 60,000 rupees each, of about 80
tons.

JUSTICE: FINANCE]

PERSIA

2OI

Justice. — By the theory of a Mahommedan state there should
be no other courts of justice except those established for the ad-
ministration of the shar', the " divine or written law," but in
Persia there is another judicature, which is called 'urf and repre-
sents the " customary " or " known and unwritten law." Justice,
therefore, is administered by the shah and his representatives
according; to one law and by the clergy according to another, but
the decisions of the former must not be opposed to the fundamental
doctrines of Islam. The shah's representatives for the adminis-
tration of justice are the governors and other officers already
mentioned. The officials charged with the administration of
justice according to the shar' are judges, called sheikh-ul-islam and
kazi (kadhi, kadi or cadi of Arabs and Turks), members of the clergy
appointed by the government and receiving a fixed salary, but
some cities are without regular appointed judges and the title of
cadi is almost obsolete; decisions according to the shar' are given
by all members of the clergy, ranging from ignorant mullahs of
little villages and cantons to learned mujtahids of the great cities.
If the parties to the suit are dissatisfied with the judgment, they
may appeal to a priest who stands higher in public estimation, or
one of the parties may induce a higher authority by bribery to
quash the judgment of the first. Unfortunately, many members
of the clergy are corrupt, but the mujtahids, as a rule are honest
and entirely trustworthy. The functions of the representatives of
the shar' are now limited to civil cases, while all criminal cases
are referred to the 'urf, which, however, also takes cognizance of
civil disputes, should the parties desire it.

In criminal cases the dispensation of justice is always summary,
and, when the offence is small, the whole procedure, including the
examination of witnesses and criminal, as well as the decision
and the punishment, a bastinado, is a matter of some minutes.
For commercial cases, not paying a bill in time, bankruptcies, &c.,
a kind of jurisdiction is exercised by the minister of commerce,
or a board of merchants, but the decisions of the minister, or those
of the board, are rarely final. In Teheran the board of merchants
is presided over by the malik ut tujjar, " King of Merchants," in
the provincial cities by a person called malik amin, and muin of
merchants.

After his second journey to Europe in 1878 Nasru'd-DIn Shah
desired to organize a police for the whole of Persia on the European
system, but only a small body of police, in the capital and its
immediate neighbourhood, was created in 1879. Its strength is
60 mounted policemen and 190 foot, with 1 1 superior and 40
subaltern officers.

There is also a " Tribunal of the Ministry for Foreign Affairs,"
presided over at Teheran by an official of the foreign office, and in
the provincial cities by the karguzars, " agents," of that depart-
ment. The functions of this tribunal are to inquire into and judge
differences and suits between Persian subjects and foreigners, and
it is stipulated in the treaty of Turkmanchai, which is the basis
of all existing treaties between Persia and other countries, that
" such differences and suits shall only be examined and judgment
given in the presence of the dragoman of the mission or consulate
(of the foreign subject), and that, once judicially concluded, such
suits shall not give cause to a second inquiry. If, however, cir-
cumstances should be of a nature to require a second inquiry, it
shall not take place without previous notice given to the minister,
or the charge d'affaires, or the consul, and in this case the business
shall only be proceeded with at the supreme chancery of the shah
at Tabriz or Teheran, likewise in the presence of a dragoman of
the mission, or of the consulate." (Article vii.)

A foreign subject implicated in a criminal suit cannot be pursued
or molested in any way unless there exist full proofs of his having
taken part in the crime imputed to him, and should he be duly
convicted of the crime, he is handed over to his legation, which
either sends him back to his own country to undergo the punish-
ment established by law, or, according to more recent usage, punishes
him in Persia by fine, imprisonment, &c. In this respect the
powers of the foreign representatives in Persia, now numbering
ten (Great Britain, Russia, France, Turkey, Austria-Hungary,
Germany, United States of America, Italy, Belgium and 'the
Netherlands) vary considerably, some having the power of con-
demning a criminal to death, while others cannot do more than
fine and imprison for short periods. Suits, civil and criminal,
between foreign subjects are altogether out of Persian jurisdiction,
and are judged by the representatives of the foreign powers
accredited to Persia.

In 1889, after Nasru 'd-Din Shah's return from his third visit to
Europe, the council of state was instructed to compile a code of
law for the regulation of justice. A beginning was made by order-
ing the translation of the Code Napoleon, the Indian Mahommedan
code, and the Code Napoleon as modified for Algeria; but nothing
further was done.

Finance. — The fixed revenues of Persia are derived from (i)
regular taxation (maliat) composed of taxes on lands, flocks, herds,
shopkeepers, artisans and trade; (2) revenues from Crown lands;
(3) customs; (4) rents and leases of state monopolies. There is
also a kind of irregular revenue derived from public requisitions,
presents, fines, confiscations, &c., nowadays not producing much.
The land tax, which varies according to localities, is paid in money

and kind, and should amount on an average to about 25% of the
yield of the soil. The taxation on flocks and herds exists either as
a supplementary method of land taxation, or as a contribution of
a certain sum per animal, and the tax on shopkeepers, artisans and
trades sometimes takes the form of a poll-tax, sometimes that of
an impost on the profits of the trades. The revenue from Crown
lands consists of a certain proportion of the produce, and also
varies much according to localities. Until March 1899 all the
customs were farmed out, but since then they have been organized
on European principles, with the help of Belgian officials. By
treaties with Russia and Great Britain, concluded in 1001 and 1903
respectively, the 5% duty fixed by the Turkmanchai treaty was
abolished, and an equitable tariff was established. The revenues
from rents and leases of state monopolies are derived from posts,
telegraphs, mines, mint, forests, banks, fisheries, factories, &c.,
and amount to about £110,000 per annum.

The total revenue of Persia, from all sources, amounted in 1876
to 58,700,000 krans, in 1884 to 50,800,000, in 1890 to 60,000,000;
and in 1907-1908 to about 80,000,000 krans. This would seem to
show a steady increase, but when we consider that the value of
the kran in 1876 was nearly Sfo d., and has fallen in consequence
of the great depreciation of silver to only 4! d., the total revenue
really decreased from £1,950,000 in 1876 to £1,600,000 in 1907-
1908. Out of the actual total revenue £500,000 is represented by
customs and £110,000 by rents and leases of state monopolies,
leaving £990,000 for maliat and revenues of Crown lands. In
1876 the two latter items amounted to about £1,600,000, while
the two former were only £350,000 instead of £610,000 in 1907—
1908. While the prices in krans of agricultural produce, and hence
the profits of the landowners and the wages and profits of artisans
and tradesmen, were in 1907-1908 more than double what they
were in 1876, the maliat, the backbone of the revenue, has hardly
increased at all, being 50,000,000 krans (£1,000,000) against
43,200,000 krans (£1,600,000) in 1876, and showing a decrease of
over 37% in sterling money. A new assessment of the maliat,
based upon the present value of the produce of lands and actual
profits of artisans and tradesmen, has frequently been spoken of,
and government, aided by a strong minister of the interior and an
able minister of finance, ought to have no difficulty in raising the
maliat to its proper level and the total revenues of the country
to about two millions sterling.

Until 1888 the yearly expenditure was less than the yearly
income, but subsequently the revenues were not sufficient to cover
the expenditure, and many payments fell in arrear in spite of empty-
ing the treasury of its reserve and contracting numerous loans.

In May 1892 the Persian government concluded a contract with
the Imperial Bank of Persia, established by British royal charter
in 1889, for a loan of £500,000 at 6%, repayable in the course of
forty years, and guaranteed by the customs of Fars and the Persian
Gulf ports. The produce of this loan served for the payment of
an indemnity to the Imperial Tobacco Corporation, which began
in 1890 and had to cease its operations in January 1892. In
January 1900 the Persian government, in order to pay the arrears
and start afresh with a clear balance-sheet, contracted a loan
through the Banque des Pre"ts de Perse, a Russian institution
connected with the Russian state bank, and established in 1890.
This loan was for 22j million roubles (£2,400,000) at 5% interest,
guaranteed by all the Persian customs with the exception of those
of Fars and the Persian Gulf ports, and repayable in the course
of seventy-five years. In the contract, which was signed at St
Petersburg at the end of January 1900, the Persian government
undertook to redeem all its former foreign obligations (the 1892
loan) out of the proceeds of the new loan, and not to contract any
other foreign loan before the redemption of the new loan without
the consent of the Russian bank. The loan was at 86f, less if
for commission and charges, the Persian government thus receiving
85% of the nominal capital, or £2,040,000. The bonds enjoy
the full guarantee of the Russian government. The yearly charge
for interest and amortization, about £124,000, is to be paid in two
half-yearly instalments, and in the event of default the Russian
bank will have the right to exercise effective control of the customs
with a maximum number of twenty-five European employes.
When the contract for the new loan was concluded, the liabilities
of the Persian government for the balance of the 1892 loan (about
£435,000), temporary loans from various banks, arrears of pays
and salaries, and other debts, amounted to over £1,500,000, so
that not much margin was left. The shah's visit to Europe in the
same year cost the exchequer about £180,000. In March 1902 the
Russian bank agreed to grant a further loan of 10 million roubles
on the same conditions as those of the first loan, and the whole
amount was paid by the end of the year, but another visit of the
shah to Europe and reckless expenditure at home made the position
worse than before. After November 1903 the expenditure was
reduced, and the new customs tariff which came into force on the
I4th of February 1903 increased the revenue by nearly £200,000
per annum; it was thought that the expenditure would not exceed
the receipts, even if the shah undertook a third voyage in Europe
(which he did in 1905). However, in November 1907, when_the
national assembly or council demanded a budget and made inquiries
as to the financial position, it was found that the expenditure for

2O2

some years past had been half a million sterling per annum in excess
of the receipts and that considerable sums were owing to banks
and commercial firms who had lent money. Most of the money
borrowed is at 12 to 15% interest.

Banking. — It was only in 1888 that a European bank (the New
Oriental Bank Corporation, Limited) established itself in Persia
and modern ideas of banking were introduced into the country.
Until then the banking was done by the native money-changers
(sarrafs) and some merchants — foreign and native — who occasion-
ally undertook special outside transactions. In 1889 the shah
granted a concession to Baron Julius de Reuter for the formation
of a state bank with the exclusive right of issuing bank-notes —
not exceeding £800,000 without special assent of the Persian
government — on the basis of the local currency, the silver kran.
With the title of " The Imperial Bank of Persia " the bank was
formed in the autumn of the same year, and incorporated by royal
charter granted by Queen Victoria and dated the 2nd of September
1889. The authorized capital was four millions sterling, but the
bank started with a capital of one million, and began its business
in Persia in October 1889. In April 1890 it took over the Persian
business of the New Oriental Bank Corporation, soon afterwards
opened branches and agencies at the principal towns, and issued
notes in the same year. During the first two years the bank re-
mitted the greater part of its capital to Persia at the then prevailing
exchange, and received for every pound sterling 32 to 34 krans;
but in consequence of the great fall in silver in 1893 and 1894,
the exchange rose to 50 krans per pound sterling and more, and the
bank's capital employed in Persia being reduced in value by more
than one-third— 100 krans, which at the beginning represented
£3, then being worth only £2 or less — the original capital of one
million sterling was reduced to £650,000 in December 1894. The
bank has made steady progress in spite of innumerable difficulties,
and paid a fair dividend to its shareholders. In his paper on
" Banking in Persia " (Journal of the Institute of Bankers, 1891),
Mr Joseph Rabino pointed out the great difficulties which make
the easy distribution of funds — that is, the providing them when
and where required— a matter of impossibility in Persia, and gives
this fact as the reason why the Imperial Bank of Persia has local
issues of notes, payable at the issuing branches only, " for, in a
country like Persia, where movements of specie are so costly, slow
and difficult as to become impracticable except on a small scale,
the danger of issuing notes payable at more than one place is
obvious. On the 2oth of September 1907 the value of the notes
in circulation was £395,000, and the bank held £550,000 deposits
in Persia.

In 1889 the shah also granted a concession to Jaques de Poliakov
of St Petersburg for the establishment of a " Joan bank," or, as
the original concession said, " mont-de-piete," with exclusive
rights of holding public auctions. A company was formed in the
same year and started business at Teheran in 1890 as the " Banque
des PrSts de Perse." After confining its operations for some years
to ordinary pawnbroking, without profits, it obtained the aid of
the Russian State Bank, acquired large premises in Teheran, made
advances to the Persian government (since 1898), and in January
1900 and March 1902 financed the loans of £2,400,000 and £l ,000,000
to Persia. It has branches at Tabriz, Resht, Mesheol and other
places.

Various Armenian firms, one with branches at many places in
Persia and Russia, also do banking business, while various European
firms at Tabriz, Teheran, Isfahan, Shiraz and Bushire, facilitate
remittances between Europe and Persia.

The chief business of the native sarrafs (money-changers, bankers,
&c.) is to discount bills at high rates, hardly ever less than 12%,
and remit money from place to place in Persia for a commission
amounting to from I to 5, or even 6% on each transaction; and
in spite of the European banks giving lower rates of discount and
remitting money at par, the majority of the people and mercantile
classes still deal with the natives. For advances with good security
a native sarraf charges at least 12% interest per annum; as the
security diminishes in value the rate of interest increases, and
transactions at 10% a month, or more than 120% per annum,
are not infrequent. A Persian who obtains an advance of money
at less than 12 % considers that he gets money " for nothing."

(A. H.-S.)

HISTORY

A. — Ancient, to the Fall of the Sassanid Dynasty.

I. The Name. — "Persia," in the strict significance of the
word, denotes the country inhabited by the people designated
as Persians, i.e. the district known in antiquity as Persis (q.v.),
the modern Pars. Custom, however, has extended the name to
the whole Iranian plateau; and it is in this sense that the term
Persia is here employed.

II. Ancient Ethnography. — In historical times we find the
major portion of Iran occupied by peoples of Indo-European
origin, terming themselves Aryans (Arya; Zend, Airya) and
their language Aryan — so in the inscriptions of Darius — the

PERSIA

[HISTORY: ANCIENT

same name, which is used by the consanguineous tribes of
India who were their nearest relations. The whole country
is designated Ariana (Zend, Airyana) — " the land Descent
of the Aryans " — the original of the Middle-Persian of the
Eran and the modern Iran; the Greek geo- Iranians.
graphers Eratosthenes and Strabo were in error when they
limited the name to the eastern districts of Iran. Thus the
name of Iranians is understood to comprehend all these people
of Aryan nationality.

Besides the Iranians, numerous tribes of alien origin were
found in Iran. In Baluchistan, even yet, we find side by side
with the eponymous Iranian inhabitants, who
only penetrated thither a few centuries ago, t
ethnologically and philologically distinct race of
the Brahui, who are probably connected with the Dravidians
of India. In them we may trace the original population of
these districts; and to the same original population may be
assigned the tribes here settled in antiquity: the Paricanii and
Gedrosii (Gadrosii), and the Myci (Herod, iii. 93, vii. 68; the
Maka of Darius, the modern Mekran), to whom the name
" Aethiopians " is also occasionally applied (Herod, iii. 94, vii.
70). In Media the Greek geographers mention a people of
Anariacae (Strabo xi. 508, 514; Pliny, Nat. Hist. vi. 48; Ptolem.
vi. 25; in Polyb. v. 44. 9, 'Aciapa/cai), i.e. " Non-Aryans." To
these the Tapuri, Amardi, Caspii, and especially the Cadusii or
Gelae — situated in Ghilan on the Caspian — probably belonged.
Presumably they were also related to the tribes of Armenia and
the Caucasus. In the chains of Zagros we find, in Babylonian
and Assyrian times, no trace of Iranians; but partly Semitic
peoples — the Gutaeans, Lulubaeans, &c. — partly tribes that
we can refer to no known ethnological group, e.g. the Cossaei
(see below), and in Elymais or Susiana the Elymaeans
(Elamites).

That the Iranians must have come from the East to their
later home, is sufficiently proved by their close relationship to
the Indians, in conjunction with whom they pre- Iranians
viously formed a single people, bearing the name and Aryan
Arya. Their residence must have lain chiefly in l"dlans-
the great steppe which stretches north of the Black Sea and
the Caspian, through South Russia, to Turan (Turkestan)
and the Oxus and Jaxartes. For here we continually discover
traces of Iranian nationality. The names and words of the
Scythians (Scoloti) in South Russia, which Herodotus has
preserved, are for the most part perfectly transparent Iranian
formations, identified by Zeuss and Mullenhoff ; among them are
many proper names in Aria-(A.pto-) and aspa (-horse-aoTros;
Zend, aspa). The predatory tribes of Turan (e.g. the Massa-
getae) seem to have belonged to the same stock. These
tribes are distinguished by the Iranian peasants as Daha (Gr.
Adat), "enemies," "robbers"; by the Persians as Sacae; and
by the Greeks generally as Scythians.

From the region of the steppes the Aryans must have pene-
trated into the cultivable land of Eastern Iran: thence one part
spread over the district of the Indus, then on again to the Ganges;
another moved westward to Zagros and the borders of the
Semitic world.

The date of this migration cannot yet be determined with
certainty. We know only that the Aryans of India- already
occupied the Punjab in the Vedic era, c. 1600 B.C. i^rioti
On the other hand, about the same period a number of the
of names, undoubtedly Iranian, made their appear- Iranian
ance in Western Asia, (cf. Edward Meyer, " Zur M'*""
altesten Geschichte der Iranier," in Zeilschrift fur vergleichende
Sprochforsckung, 1907). In the cuneiform letters from Tell
el-Amarna in Egypt (1400 B.C.), we find among the princelings
of Syria and Palestine names like Artamanya, Arzawiya, Shu-
wardata, a name terminating in -warzana, &c.; while the kings
of Mitanni on the Euphrates are Artalama, Shutarna, Arta-
shumara, and Dushralta — names too numerous and too genuinely
Iranian to allow of the hypothesis of coincidence. Later still,
in the Assyrian inscriptions we occasionally meet with Iranian
names borne by North-Syrian princes — e.g. Kundaspi and

HISTORY: ANCIENT]

PERSIA

203

Kustaspi ( = Hystaspis). Their subjects, on the contrary,
speak absolutely different tongues: for the attempts to explain
the languages of the Cossaeans, Mitannians, and Arzapians as
Indo-European (Iranian) have ended in failure (cf. Blomfield
in the American Journal of Philology, xxv. p. i sqq.).

It appears, then, that towards the middle of the second
millennium before Christ, the Iranians made a great forward
movement to the West, and that certain of their princes — at first,
probably in the role of mercenary leaders — reached Mesopotamia
and Syria and there founded principab'ties of their own, much as
did the Germans under the Roman Empire, the Normans,
Turks, &c. With this we may probably connect the well-known
fact that it was about this very period (1700 B.C. approximately)
that the horse made its appearance in Babylonia, Egypt and
Greece, where for centuries subsequently its use was confined to
war and the war-chariot. Before this it was as foreign to the
Babylonians, even in the time of Khammurabi, as to the Egyp-
tians under the Xllth Dynasty. On the other hand, it had
been familiar to the Aryans from time immemorial: indeed they
have always been peculiarly a people of riders. Thus it is
quite conceivable that they brought it with them into Western
Asia: and the quarter from which it came is sufficiently indicated
by the fact that the Babylonians write the word " horse " with
a group of signs denoting "ass of the East."

Of the Assyrian kings, Shalmaneser (Salmanassar) II. was
the first to take the field against the Medes in 836 B.C., and from
that period onwards they are frequently mentioned in the
Assyrian annals. Sargon penetrated farthest, receiving in
7 1 S B.C. the tribute of numerous Median town-princes. He gives
a list of their names, twenty-three of which are preserved either
wholly or in part, and almost all are unmistakably Iranian;
as is also the case with those preserved by Esar^haddon
(Assarhaddon) and elsewhere.

The Medes, then, were an Iranian nation, already occupying
in the gth century B.C. their later home in the centre of the
Median highland. On the other hand, among their neighbours
in Zagros and the north — corresponding to the Anariacae
(Non-Aryans) of the Greeks — Iranian names are at best isolated
phenomena. With other Iranian tribes the Assyrians never
came in contact: for the oft-repeated assertion, that the Parsua,
so prominent in their annals, were the Persians or the Parthians,
is quite untenable. The Parsua of the Assyrians are located
south of Lake Urmia, and can hardly have been Iranians.

None the less, the Assyrian statements with regard to the
Medes demonstrate that the Iranians must have reached the
west of Iran before 900 B.C. It is probable that at this period
the Persians also were domiciled in their later home, even
though we have no direct evidence to adduce. If this reasoning
is correct, the Iranian immigration must be assigned to the
first half of the second pre-Christian millennium.

The Aryans of Iran are divided into numerous tribes; these,
again, being subdivided into minor tribes and clans. The
Tribes principal, according to the inscriptions of Darius
of the — which closely agree with Herodotus — are the
Iranians, following, several of them being also enumerated
in the Avesta: —

1. The Medes (Mada) in the north-west (see MEDIA).

2. The Persians (Parsa) in the south (see PERSIS). To these
belong the Carmanians and the Utians (Yutiya), who are mentioned
expressly by Darius as inhabiting a district in Persis (Beh. III. 40).

3. The Hyrcanians (Varkdna in Darius, Zend Vehrkdna) on the
eastern corner of the Caspian, in the fertile district of Astarabad.

4. The Parthians (Parthyaei; Pers. Parthava) in Khorasan (see
PARTHIA).

5. The Arians ("AptToi, Pers. Haraiva), in the vicinity of the
river Arius (Heri-rud) , which derived its name from them. This
name, which survives in the modern Herat, has of course no
connexion with that of the Aryans.

6. The Drangians (Zaranka in Darius, Sarangians in Herod,
iii. 93, 117, vii. 67), situated south of the Arians, in the north-west
of Afghanistan (Arachosia} by the western affluents of Lake Hamun,
and extending to the present Seistan.

7. Arachotians (Pers. Haramati) , in the district of the Helmand
and its tributaries, round Kandahar. They are mentioned in the
lists of Darius, also by the Greeks after Alexander. In Herodotus
their place is taken by the Pactyans, whose name survives to the

present day in the word Pushtu, with which the Afghans denote
their language (Herod, iii. 102, iv. 44, vii. 67, 85). Probably it was
the old tribal name; Arachosia being the local designation. The
Thamanaeans, who appear in Herodotus (iii. 93, 117), must be
classed with them.

8. The Bactrians (Pers. Bdkhtri), on the northern declivity of
the Hindu Kush, as far as the Oxus. Their capital was Bactra,
the modern Balkh (see BACTRIA).

9. The Sogdians (Pers. Sugudu), in the mountainous district
between the Oxus and Jaxartes.

10. The Chorasmians (Khwarizmians, Pers. Uvarazmiya), in
the great oasis of Khiva, which still bears the name Khwarizm.
They stretched far into the midst of the nomadic tribes.

11. The Margians (Pers. Margu), on the river Margus (Murghab) ;
chiefly inhabiting the oasis of Merv, which has preserved their name.
Darius mentions the district of Margu but, like Herodotus, omits
them from his list of peoples; so that ethnographically they are
perhaps to be assigned to the Arians.

12. The Sagartians (Pers. Asagarta) ; according to Herodotus
(vii. 85), a nomadic tribe of horsemen; speaking, as he expressly
declares, the Persian language. Hence he describes them (i. 125)
as a subordinate nomad clan of the Persians. They, with the
Drangians, Utians and Myci, formed a single satrapy (Herod,
iii. 93). Ptolemy (vi. 2, 6) speaks of Sagartians in the Eastern
Zagros in Media.

13. We have already touched on the nomadic peoples (Daha,
Dahans) of Iranian nationality, who occupied the steppes of
Turkestan as far as the Sarmatians and Scythians of South Russia.
That these were conscious of their Aryan origin is proved by the
names Ariantas and Ariapeithes borne by Scythian (Scolot) kings
(Herod, iv. 76, 87). Still they were never counted as a portion of
Iran or the Iranians. To the settled peasantry, these nomads of
the steppe were always " the enemy " (dana, daha, Ad<u, Dahae).
Side by side with this name we find " Turan " and " Turanian ";
a designation applied both by the later Persians and by modern
writers to this region. The origin of the word is obscure, derived
perhaps from an obsolete tribal name. It has no connexion what-
ever with the much later " Turks," who penetrated thither in the
6th century after Christ. Though found neither in the inscriptions
of Darius nor in the Greek authors, the name Turan must never-
theless be of great antiquity; for not merely is it repeatedly found
in the Avesta, under the form Turn, but it occurs already in a
hymn, which, without doubt, originates from Zoroaster himself,
and in which " the Turanian Fryana " and his descendants are
commemorated as faithful adherents of the prophet (Yasna, 46, 62).

The dividing line between Iranian and Indian is drawn by
the Hindu Kush and the Soliman mountains of the Indus
district. The valley of the Kabul (Copheri) is already occupied
by Indian tribes, especially the Gandarians; and the Satagydae
(Pers. Thatagu) there resident were presumably also of Indian
stock. The non-Aryan population of Iran itself has been
discussed above. Of its other neighbours, we must here mention
the Sacae, a warlike equestrian people in the mountains of the
pamir plateau and northward; who are probably of Mongol
origin. Herodotus relates that the Persians distinguished " all
the Scythians " — i.e. all the northern nomads — as Sacae; and
this statement is confirmed by the inscriptions of Darius. The
Babylonians employ the name Gimiri (i.e. Cimmerians) in the
same sense.

III. Civilization and Religion of the Iranians. — In the period
when the ancestors of Indian and Iranian alike still formed
a single nation — that of the Aryans — they developed
a very marked character, which can still be distinctly
traced, not only in their language, but also in their
religion and in many views common to both peoples. A great
number of gods— Asura, Mithras, the Dragon-slayer Vereth-
raghna (the Indra of the Indians), the Water-shoot Apam napat
(the lightning), &c. — date from this era. So, too, fire-worship,
especially of the sacrificial flame; the preparation of the intoxicat-
ing soma, which fills man with divine strength and uplifts him
to the gods; the injunction to " good thoughts and good works,"
imposed on the pious by Veda and Avesta alike: the belief in
an unwavering order (rta) — a law controlling gods and men and
dominating them all; yet with this, a belief in the power of
magical formulae (mantra), exclamations and prayers, to whose
compulsion not merely demons (the evil spirits of deception —
druti) but even the gods (daeva) must submit; and, lastly, the
institution of a priesthood of fire-kindlers (athravan), who are
at once the repositories of all sacral traditions and the mediators
in all intercourse between earth and heaven. The transition,
moreover, to settled life and agriculture belongs to the Aryan

204

PERSIA

[HISTORY: ANCIENT

™ "

period; and to it may be traced the peculiar sancitity of the
cow in India and Persia. For the cow is the animal which
voluntarily yields nourishment to man and aids him in his
daily labours, and on it depends the industry of the peasant
as contrasted with the wild desert brigand to whom the cow is
unknown.

Very numerous are the legends common to both nations.
These, in part, are rooted in the primeval Indo-European days,
though their ultimate form dates only from the Aryan epoch.
Foremost among them is the myth relating the battle of a sun-
god (Ind. Trita, generally replaced by Indra, Iran. Thraetona)
against a fearful serpent (Ind. Ahi, Iran. Azhi; known moreover
as Vrtra) : also, the legend of Yama, the first man, son of Vivas-
vant, who, after a long and'blessed life in the happy years of the
beginning, was seized by death and now rules in the kingdom
of the departed. Then come a host of other tales of old-world
heroes; as the " Glorious One " (Ind. Sushrava, Pers. Husrava,
Chosrau or Chosroes), or the Son who goes on a journey to seek
his father, and, unknown, meets his end at his hands.

These legends have lived and flourished in Iran at every period
of itsjiistory; and neither the religion of Zoroaster, nor yet Islam,
has availed to suppress them. Zoroastrianism — at
least in that form in which it became the dominant
creed of the Iranians — legitimized not only the old
gods, but the old heroes also; and transformed them into pious
helpers and servants of Ahuramazda; while the creator of the
great national epic of Persia, Firdousi ^.0.935-1020), displayed
astonishing skill in combining the ancient tradition with Islam.
Through his poem, this tradition is perfectly familiar to every
Persian at the present day; and the primitive features of tales,
whose origin must be dated 4000 years ago, are still preserved
with fidelity. This tenacity of the Saga stands in the sharpest
contrast with the fact that the historical memory of the Persian
is extremely defective. Even the glories of the Achaemenid
Empire faded rapidly, and all but completely, from recollection;
so also the conquest of Alexander, and the Hellenistic and
Parthian eras. In Firdousi, the legendary princes are followed,
almost without a break, by Ardashir, the founder of the Sassanid
dynasty: the intervening episode of Darius and Alexander
is not drawn from native tradition, but borrowed from Greek
literature (the Alexander-romance of the Pseudo-Callisthenes)
in precisely the same way as among the nations of the Christian
East in the middle ages.1

Needless to say, however, this long period saw the Saga much
recast and expanded. Many new characters — Siyawush, Rus-
tam, &c. — have swelled the original list: among them is King
Gushtasp (Vishtaspa). the patron of Zoroaster, who was known
from the poems of the prophet and is placed at the close of the
legendary age. The old gods and mythical figures reappear
as heroes and kings, and their battles are fought no longer in
heaven but upon earth, where they are localized for the most
part in the east of Iran. In other words, the war of the gods
has degenerated to the war between Iranian civilization and
the Turanians. Only the evil serpent Azhi Dahaka (Azhdahak)
is domiciled by the Avesta in Babylon (Baivri) and depicted
on the model of Babylonian gods and demons: he is a king in
human form with a serpent growing from either shoulder and
feeding on the brains of men. In these traits are engrained
the general conditions of history and culture, under which the
Iranians lived: on the one hand, the contrast between Iranian
and Turanian; on the other, the dominating position of Babylon,
which influenced most strongly the civilization and religion of
Iran. It is idle, however, to read definite historical events into
such traits, or to attempt, with some scholars, to convert them
into history itself. We cannot deduce from them a conquest of
Iran from Babylon: for the Babylonians never set foot in Iran,
and even the Assyrians merely conquered the western portion
of Media. Nor yet can we make the favourite assumption of
a great empire in Bactria. On the contrary, it is historically

1 The fundamental work on the history of the Iranian Saga is
Noldeke., Das iranische Nationalepos 1896 (reprinted from the
Grundriss der iran. Philologie, ii.).

evident that before the Achaemenids there were in Bactria
only small local principalities of which Vishtaspa 's was one:
and it is possible that the primeval empire of the Saga is only a
reflection of the Achaemenid and Sassanid empires of reality,
whose existence legend dates back to the beginning of the world,
simply because legend is pervaded by the assumption that the
conditions obtaining in the present are the natural conditions,
and, as such, valid for all time.

Closely connected as are the Mythology and Religion of
Indian and Iranian, no less clearly marked is the fundamental
difference of intellectual and moral standpoint, ,

' Difference

which has led the two nations into opposite paths between the
of history and culture. The tendency to religious Iranian ana
thought and to a speculative philosophy, compre- taataa
bending the world as a whole, is shared by both and *"*""'•
is doubtless an inheritance from the Aryan period. But with
the Indians this speculation leads to the complete abolition of
all barriers between God and man, to a mystic pantheism, and to
absorption in the universal Ego, in contrast with which the world
becomes an unsubstantial phantasm and sinks into nothingness.
For the Iranian, on the contrary, practical life, the real world,
and with them the moral commandment, fill the foreground.
The new gods created by Iran are ethical powers; those of India,
abstractions of worship (brahman) or of philosophy (atman).
These fundamental features of Iranian sentiment encounter
us not only in the doctrine of Zoroaster and the confessions of
Darius, but also in that magnificent product of the Persia of
Islam — the Sufi mysticism. This is pantheistic, like the Brahman
philosophy. But the pantheism of the Persian is always positive,
—affirming the world and life, taking joy in them, and seeking
its ideal in union with a creative god: the pantheism of the
Indian is negative — denying world and life, and descrying its
ideal in the cessation of existence.

This contrast in intellectual and religious life must have
developed very early. Probably, in the remote past violent
religious disputes and feuds broke out : for otherwise it is almost
inexplicable that the old Indo-European word, which in India,
also, denotes the gods — deva — should be applied by the Iranians
to the malignant demons or devils (daeva; mod. diii); while
they denote the gods by the name bhaga. Conversely the
Asuras, whose name in Iran is the title of the supreme god
(ahura, aura), have in India degenerated to evil spirits. It is
of great importance that among the Slavonic peoples the same
word bogu distinguishes the deity; since this points to ancient
cultural influences on which we have yet no more precise informa-
tion. Otherwise, the name is only found among the Phrygians,
who, according to Hesychius, called the Heaven-god (Zeus)
Bagaeus; there, however, it may have been borrowed from the
Persians. We possess no other evidence for these events; the
only document we possess for the history of Iranian religion is
the sacred writing, containing the doctrines of the prophet who
gave that religion a new form. This is the Avesta, the Bible of
the modern Parsee, which comprises the revelation of Zoroaster.

As to the home and time of Zoroaster, the Parsee tradition
yields us no sort of information which could possibly be of his-
torical service. Its contents, even if they go back _
to lost parts of the Avesta, are merely a late patch- °'
work, based on the legendary tradition and devoid of historical
foundation. The attempts of West (Pahlavi Texts Translated,
vol. v.) to turn to historical account the statements of the
Bundahish and other Parsee books, which date Zoroaster at
258 years before Alexander, are, in the present writer's opinion,
a complete failure. Jackson (Zoroaster, the Prophet oj Ancient
Iran, 1901) sides with West. The Greek theory, which rele-
gates Zoroaster to the mists of antiquity, or even to the period
of the fabulous Ninus and Semiramis, is equally valueless.
Even the statement that he came from the north-west of Media
(the later Atropatene), and his mother from Rai (Rhagae) in
eastern Media, must be considered as problematic in the extreme.
Our only trustworthy information is to be gleaned from his own
testimony and from the history of his religion. And here we
may take it as certain that the scene of his activity was laid in

HISTORY: ANCIENT]

PERSIA

205

the east of Iran, in Bactria and its neighbouring regions. The
contrast there existing between peasant and nomad is of vital
consequence for the whole position of his creed. Among the
adherents whom he gained was numbered, as already mentioned,
a Turanian, one Fryana and his household. The west of Iran
is scarcely ever regarded in the Avesta, while the districts and
rivers of the east are often named. The language, even, is
markedly different from the Persian; and the fire-priests are
not styled Magians as in Persia — the word indeed never occurs
in the Avesta, except in a single late passage — but athravan,
identical with the athanan of India (irvpaidoi, " fire-kindlers,"
in Strabo xv. 733). Thus it cannot be doubted that the king
Vishtaspa, who received Zoroaster's doctrine and protected
him, must have ruled in eastern Iran: though strangely enough
scholars can still be found to identify him with the homonymous
Persian Hystaspes, the father of Darius. The possibility that
Zoroaster himself was not a native of East Iran, but had immi-
grated thither (from Rhagae?), is of course always to be con-
sidered; and this theory has been used to explain the pheno-
menon that the Gathas, of his own composition, are written in
a different dialect from the rest of the Avesta. On this
hypothesis, the former would be his mother-tongue: the latter
the speech of eastern Iran.

This district is again indicated as the starting-point of Zoro-
astrianism, by the fact that dead bodies are not embalmed and
then interred, as was usual, for instance, in Persia, but cast
out to the dogs and birds (cf. Herod, i. 140), a practice, as is
well known, strictly enjoined in the Avesta, ruthlessly executed
under the Sassanids, and followed to the present day by the
Parsees. The motive of this, indeed, is to be found in the
sanctity of Earth, which must not be polluted by a corpse; but
its origin is evidently to be traced in a barbaric custom of
nomadic or semi-nomadic tribes who leave the dead to lie on the
steppe; and we know from Greek sources that this custom was
widely diffused among the tribes of eastern Iran.

The next clue towards determining the period of Zoroaster
is, that Darius I. and all his successors, as proved by their
inscriptions and by Greek testimony, were zealous adherents of
the pure word of Zoroastrianism; which consequently must
already have been accepted in the west of Iran. That Cyrus
too owned allegiance to the creed, cannot be doubted by an
unprejudiced mind, although in the dearth of contemporary
monuments we possess no proof at first hand. The Assyrian
inscriptions demonstrate, however, that Zoroaster's teaching
was dominant in Media two centuries before Cyrus. For in
the list of Median princes, to which we have already referred,
are two bearing the name of Mazdaka — evidently after the god
Mazda. Now this name was the invention of Zoroaster himself;
and he who names himself after Mazda thereby makes a con-
fession of faith in the religion of Zoroaster whose followers,
as we know, termed themselves Mazdayasna, " worshippers of
Mazda."

Thus, if the doctrine of Zoroaster predominated in Media
in 714 B.C., obviously his appearance in the role of prophet
must have been much earlier. A more definite date cannot be
deduced from the evidence at our disposal, but his era may
safely be placed as far back as 1000 B.C.

The religion which Zoroaster preached was the creation of a
single man, who, having pondered long and deeply the problems
of existence and the world, propounded the solution he found as
a divine revelation. Naturally he starts from the old views, and
is indebted to them for many of his tenets and ideas; but out of
this material he builds a uniform system which bears throughout
the impress of his own intellect. In this world, two groups of
powers confront each other in a truceless war, the powers of Good,
of Light, of creative Strength, of Life and of Truth, and the powers of
Evil, of Darkness, Destruction, Death and Deceit. In the van
of the first stands the Holy Spirit (spenta mainyu) or the " Great
Wisdom " Mazdao. His helpers and vassals are the six powers of
Good Thought (vohu mano, 'Quarts'), of Right Order (asha, Ind.
rta, Pers. arta, " lawfulness "), of the Excellent Kingdom (khshathra
vairya), of Holy Character (spenta armaiti), of Health (haurvatat) ,
and of Immortality (ameretat). These are comprised under the
general title of " undying holy ones " (amesha spenta, amshaspand) ;
and a host of subordinate angels (yazata) are ranked with them.

The powers of evil are in all points the opposite of the good ; at their
head being the Evil Spirit (angra mainyu, Ahriman). These evil
demons are identical with the old gods of the popular faith — the
devas (div) — while Mazdao bears the name Ahura, above discussed;
whence Ahuramazda (Ormuzd).

From this it will be manifest that the figures of Zoroaster's
religion are purely abstractions; the concrete gods of vulgar belief
being set aside. All those who do not belong to the devils (devas),
might be recognized as inferior servants of Ahuramazda: chief
among them being the Sun-god Mithras (see MITHRAS) ; the goddess
of vegetation and fertility, especially of the Oxus-stream, Anahita
Ardvisura (Anaitis); and the Dragon-slayer Verethraghna (Gr.
Artagnes), with the god of the intoxicating Haoma (the Indian
Soma). In the religion of the people, these divinities always
survived ; and the popularity of Mithras is evinced by the numerous
Aryan proper names thence derived (Mithradates, &c.). The
educated community who had embraced the pure doctrine in its
completeness scarcely recognized them, and the inscriptions of
Darius ignore them. Only once he speaks of " the gods of the
clans," and once of " the other gods which there are." Not till
the time of Artaxerxes II. were Mithra and Anaitis received into
the official religion of the Persian kings. But they always played
a leading part in the propaganda of the Persian cults in the West.

Only one element in the old Aryan belief was preserved by Zoro-
aster in all its sanctity: that of Fire — the purest manifestation of
Ahuramazda and the powers of Good. Thus fire-altars were every-
where erected; and, to the prophet also, the Fire-kindlers (athravan)
were the ministers and priests of the true religion and the inter-
mediaries between God and man; at last in the popular mind,
Zoroastrianism was identified with Fire-worship pure and simple,
— inadequate though the term in reality is, as a description of its
essentials.

Midway in this opposition of the powers of Good and Evil, man
is placed. He has to choose on which side he will stand : he is called
to serve the powers of Good : his duty lies in speaking the truth
and combating the lie. And this is fulfilled when he obeys the com-
mands of law and the true order; when he tends his cattle and
fields, in contrast with the lawless and predatory nomad (Dahae) ;
when he wars on all harmful and evil creatures, and on the devil-
worshippers; when he keeps free from pollution the pure creations
of Ahuramazda — fire foremost, but also earth and water; and,
above all, when he practises the Good and True in thought, word
and work. And as his deeds are, so shall be his fate and his future '
lot on the Day of Judgment; when he must cross the Bridge Cinvat,
which, according to his works, will either guide him to the Paradise
of Ahuramazda or precipitate him to the Hell of Ahriman. Obvi-
ously, it was through this preaching of a judgment to come and a
direct moral responsibility of the individual man, that, like Mahomet
among the Arabs, Zoroaster and his disciples gained their adherents
and exercised their greatest influence.

In this creed of Zoroastrianism three important points are
especially to be emphasized : for on them depend its peculiar charac-
teristics and historical significance : —

1. The abstractions which it preaches are not products of meta-
physical speculation, as in India, but rather the ethical forces
which dominate human life. They impose a duty upon man, and
enjoin on him a positive line of action — a definite activity in the
world. And this world he is not to eschew, like the Brahman and
the Buddhist, but to work in it, enjoying existence and life to the
full. Thus a man's birthday is counted the highest festival (Herod,
i- 133) ; and thus the joie de vivre, rich banquets and carousals are
not rejected by the Persian as godless and worldly, but are even
prescribed by his religion. To create offspring and people the world
with servants of Ahuramazda is the duty of every true believer.1

2. This religion grew up in the midst of a settled peasant popu-
lation, whose mode of life and views it regards as the natural
disposition of things. Consequently, it is at once a product of,
and a main factor in civilization; and is thereby sharply differ-
entiated from the Israelite religion, with whose moral precepts
it otherwise coincides so frequently.

3. The preaching of Zoroaster is directed to each individual
man, and requires of him that he shall choose his position with
regard to the fundamental problems of life and religion. Thus,
even though it arose from national views, in its essence it is not
national (as, for instance, the Israelite creed), but individualistic,
and at the same time universal. From the first, it aims at propa-
ganda ; and the nationality of the convert is a matter of indifference.
So Zoroaster himself converted the Turanian Fryana with his kindred
(see above) ; and the same tendency to proselytize alien peoples sur-
vived in his religion. Zoroastrianism, in fact, is the first creed to
work by missions or to lay claim to universality of acceptance.
It was, however, only natural that its adherents should be won, first
and chiefly, among the countrymen of the prophet, and its further
success in gaining over all the Iranian tribes gave it a national
stamp. So the Susan translation of Darius' Behistun inscription

1 These ideas are strongly exposed in a polemic against the
Christians contained in an official edict of the Persian creed to the
Armenians by Mihr Narseh, the vizier of Yazdegerd II. (about
A.D. 450), preserved by the Armenian historian, Elishe.

206

PERSIA

[HISTORY: ANCIENT

terms Ahuramazda " the gcxl of the Aryans." Thus the creed
became a powerful factor in the development of an united Iranian
nationality.

That a religion, which lays its chief stress upon moral precepts,
may readily develop into casuistry and external formalism, with an
infinity of minute prescriptions, injunctions on purity and the like, is
well known. In the Avesta all these recur ad nauseam, so much so
that the primitive spirit of the religion is stifled beneath them,
as the doctrine of the ancient prophets was stifled in Judaism and
the Talmud. The Sassanid Empire, indeed, is completely dominated
by this formalism and ritualism; but the earlier testimony of Darius
in his inscriptions and the statements in Herodotus enable us still
to recognize the original healthy life of a religion capable of awaken-
ing the enthusiastic devotion of the inner man. Its formal character
naturally germinated in the priesthood (Herod, i. 140; cf. Strabo
xv- 733> &c.). The priests diligently practise all the precepts of
their ritual — e.g. the extermination of noxious animals, and the
exposure of corpses to the dogs and birds, that earth may not be
polluted by their presence. They have advice for every contingency
in life, and can say with precision when a man has been defileu, and
how he may be cleansed again; they possess an endless stock of
formulae for prayer, and of sentences which serve for protection
against evil spirits and may be turned to purposes of magic.

How the doctrine overspread the whole of Iran, we do not know.
In the West, among the Medes and Persians, the guardianship
_. and ministry of Zoroastrianism is vested in an exclusive

' . priesthood — the Magians. Whence this name — unknown

magians. ag airea(jy mentioned, to the Avesta — took its rise, we
have no knowledge. Herodotus (i. 101) includes the Magians in
his list of Median tribes; and it is probable that they and their
teaching reached the Persians from Media. At all events, they
play here not merely the r61e of the " Fire-kindlers " (athravan)
in the Avesta, but are become an hereditary sacerdotal caste, acting
an important part in the state — advisers and spiritual guides to
the king, and so forth. With them the ritualism and magical
character, above mentioned, are fully developed. In the narrations
of Herodotus, they interpret dreams and predict the future; and in
Greece, from the time of Herodotus and Sophocles (Oed. Tyr. 387)
onward, the word Magian connotes a magician-priest.

See further, ZOROASTER and works there quoted.

IV. Beginnings of History. — A connected chain of historical
evidence begins with the time when under Shalmaneser (Sal-
Assyrian manassar II.), the Assyrians in 836 B.C. began for
Conquest the first time to penetrate farther into the moun-
ot Media, tains of the east; and there, in addition to several
non-Iranian peoples, subdued a few Median tribes. These
wars were continued under successive kings, till the Assyrian
power in these regions attained its zenith under Sargon
(q.v.), who (715 B.C.) led into .exile the Median chief Dayuku
(see DEIOCES), a vassal of the Minni (Mannaeans), with all
his family, and subjected the princes of Media as far as the
mountain of Bikni (Elburz) and the border of the great desert.
At that time twenty-eight Median "town-lords" paid tribute
to Nineveh; two years later, (713 B.C.) no fewer than forty-six.
Sargon's successors, down to Assur-bani-pal (668-626 B.C.),
maintained and even augmented their suzerainty over Media,
in spite of repeated attempts to throw off the yoke in conjunc-
tion with the Mannaeans, the Saparda, the Cimmerians — who
had penetrated into the Armenian mountains — and others.
Not till the last years of Assur-bani-pal, on which the extant
Assyrian annals are silent, can an independent Median Empire
have arisen.

As to the history of this empire, we have an ancient account
in Herodotus, which, with a large 'admixture of the legendary,
The still contains numerous historical elements, and a

Median completely fanciful account from Ctesias, preserved
Empire. ;n Diodorus (ii. 32 sqq.) and much used by later
writers. In the latter Nineveh is destroyed by the Mede Arbaces
and the Babylonian Belesys about 880 B.C., a period when the
Assyrians were just beginning to lay the foundations of their
power. Arbaces is then followed by a long list of Median kings,
all of them fabulous. On the other hand, according to Herodotus
the Medes revolt from Assyria about 710 B.C., that is to say,
at the exact time when they were subdued by Sargon. Deioces
founds the monarchy; his son Phraortes begins the work of
conquest; and his son Cyaxares is first overwhelmed by the
Scythians, then captures Nineveh, and raises Media to a great
power. A little supplementary information may be gleaned
from the inscriptions of King Nabonidus of Babylon (555-539)

and from a few allusions in the Old Testament. Of the Median
Empire itself we do not possess a single monument. Consequently
its history still lies in complete obscurity (cf. MEDIA; DEIOCES;
PHRAORTES; CYAXARES).

The beginnings of the Median monarchy can scarcely go farther
back than 640 B.C. To ah1 appearance, the insurrection against
Assyria must have proceeded from the desert tribe of the
Manda, mentioned by Sargon: for Nabonidus invariably de-
scribes the Median kings as " kings of the Manda." According
to the account of Herodotus, the dynasty was derived from
Deioces, the captive of Sargon, whose descendants may have
found refuge in the desert. The first historical king would
seem to have been Phraortes, who probably succeeded in
subduing the small local princes of Media and in rendering
himself independent of Assyria. Further development was
arrested by the Scythian invasion described by Herodotus.
We know from Zephaniah and Jeremiah that these northern
barbarians, in 626 B.C., overran and harried Syria and Palestine
(cf. CYAXARES; JEWS). With these inroads of the Cimmerians
and Scythians (see SCYTHIA), we must doubtless connect the
great ethnographical revolution in the north of anterior Asia;
the Indo-European Armenians (Haik), displacing the old Alaro-
dians (Urartu, Ararat), in the country which has since borne
their name; and the entry of the Cappadocians — first mentioned
in the Persian period — into the east of Asia Minor. The Scythian
invasion evidently contributed largely to the enfeeblement of
the Assyrian Empire: for in the same year the Chaldaean Nabo-
polassar founded the New-Babylonian empire; and in 606 B.C.
Cyaxares captured and destroyed Nineveh and the other
Assyrian cities. Syria and the south he abandoned to Nabo-
polassar and his son Nebuchadrezzar; while, on the other hand,
Assyria proper, east of the Tigris, the north of Mesopotamia
with the town of Harran (Carrhae) and the mountains of Armenia
were annexed by the Medes. Cappadocia also fell before
Cyaxares; in a war with the Lydian Empire the decisive battle
was broken off by the celebrated eclipse of the sun on the z8th
of May 585 B.C., foretold by Thales (Herod, i. 74). After this a
peace was arranged by Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon and Syen-
nesis of Cilicia, recognizing the Halys as the borderh'ne. To the
east, the Median Empire extended far over Iran, even the
Persians owning its sway. Ecbatana (q.v.) became the capital.

Of the states which arose out of the shattered Assyrian Empire
(Media, Babylon, Egypt, Cilicia and Lydia), Media was by far
the strongest. In Babylon the kings feared, and the exiled
Jews hoped, an attack from the Medes (cf. Isa. xiii., xiv., xxi.;
Jer. 1., li.); and Nebuchadrezzar sought by every means —
great fortifications, canals and so forth — to secure his empire
against the menace from the north. He succeeded in maintain-
ing the status quo practically unimpaired, additional security
being found in intermarriage between the two dynasties. In
this state of equilibrium the great powers of Anterior Asia
remained during the first half of the 6th century.

V. The Persian Empire of the Achaemenids. — The balance,
however, was disturbed in 553 B.C., when the Persian Cyrus,
king of Anshan in Elam (Susiana), revolted against conquest*
his suzerain Astyages, the son of Cyaxares, and of Cyrus
three years later defeated him at Pasargadae (q.v.).1 aaa
Shortly afterwards Astyages was taken prisoner, Cawl>yse*-
Ecbatana reduced, and the Median Empire replaced by the
Persian. The Persian tribes were welded by Cyrus into a single
nation, and now became the foremost people in the world (see
PERSIS and CYRUS). At first Nabonidus of Babylon hailed
the fall of the Medes with delight and utilized the opportunity
by occupying Harran (Carrhae). But before long he recognized
the danger threatened from that quarter. Cyrus and his
Persians paid little heed 'to the treaties which the Median king
had concluded with the other powers; and the result was a
great coalition against him, embracing Nabonidus of Babylon,
Amasis of Egypt, Croesus of Lydia, and the Spartans, whose
highly efficient army seemed to the Oriental states of great value.
In the spring of 546 B.C., Croesus opened the attack. Cyrus
1 See further, BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA: § v. History.

HISTORY: ANCIENT]

PERSIA

207

flung himself upon him, beat him at Pteria in Cappadocia and
pursued him to Lydia. A second victory followed on the
banks of the Pactolus; by the autumn of 546 Sardis had already
fallen and the Persian power advanced at a bound to the Medi-
terranean. In the course of the next few years the Greek
littoral towns were reduced, as also the Carians and Lycians.
The king of Cilicia (Syennesis) voluntarily acknowledged the
Persian suzerainty. In 539 Nabonidus was defeated and Baby-
lon occupied, while, with the Chaldean Empire, Syria and Pales-
tine also became Persian (see JEWS). The east of Iran was
further subdued, and, after Cyrus met his end (528 B.C.) in a
war against the eastern Nomads (Dahae, Massagetae), his son
Cambyses conquered Egypt (525 B.C.). Cyprus and the Greek
islands on the coast of Asia Minor also submitted, Samos being
taken by Darius. On the other hand, an expedition by Cam-
byses against the Ethiopian kingdom of Napata and Meroe
came to grief in Nubia. The usurpation of Smerdis (522-521
B.C.) and his death at the hands of Darius was the signal for
numerous insurrections in Babylon, Susiana, Persis, Media,
Armenia and many of the Eastern provinces. But, within
two years (521-519), they were all crushed by Darius and his
generals.

The causes of this astonishing success, which, in the brief space
of a single generation, raised a previously obscure and secluded
tribe to the mastery of the whole Orient, can only be
partially discerned from the evidence at our disposal,
nour, The decisive factor was of course their military superi-
ority. The chief weapon of the Persians, as of all Iranians, was the
bow, which accordingly the king himself holds in his portraits,
e.g. on the Behistun rock and the coins (darics). In addition
to the bow, the Persians carried short lances and short daggers.
But it was not by these weapons, nor by hand to hand fighting,
that the Persian victories were won. They .overwhelmed their
enemy under a hail of arrows, and never allowed him to come to
close quarters. While the infantry kneeled to shoot, the cavalry
swarmed round the hostile squadrons, threw their lines into con-
fusion, and completed their discomfiture by a vigorous pursuit.
In a charge the infantry also might employ lance and dagger;
but the essential point was that the archers should be mobile and
their use of the bow unhampered.

Consequently, only a few distinguished warriors wore shirts of
mail. For purposes of defence the rank and file merely carried
a light hide-covered shield ; which the infantry, in shooting, planted
before them as a sort of barrier against the enemy's missiles. Thus
the Persian army was lost, if heavy-armed hoplites succeeded in
gaining their lines. In spite of all their bravery, they succumbed
to the Greek phalanx, when once the generalship of a Miltiades
or a Pausanias had brought matters to a hand to hand conflict;
and it was with justice that the Greeks — Aeschylus, for instance —
viewed their battles against the Persian as a contest between
spear and bow. None the less, till Marathon the Persians were
successful in discomfiting every enemy before he could close, whether
that enemy consisted of similarly accoutred bowmen (as the Medes),
of cavalry armed with the lance (as the Lydians), or of heavily
armoured warriors (as the Babylonians, Egyptians and Greeks).

To all this should be added the superiority of their leaders;
Cyrus especially must have been an exceedingly able general.
Obviously, also, he must have understood the art of organizing his
people and arousing the feeling of nationality and the courage of
self-sacrifice. In his time the Persians were a strong manly
peasantry, domiciled in a healthy climate and habituated to all
hardships — a point repeatedly emphasized, in the tales preserved
by Herodotus, as the cause of their successes (e.g. Herod, ix. 122).
Herodotus, however, also records (i. 135) that the Persians were
" of all mankind the readiest to adopt foreign customs, good or
bad," a sentence which is equally applicable to the Romans, and
which in the case of both nations goes far to explain, not merely
their successes, but also the character of their empires.

The fundamental features of the imperial organization must
have been due to Cyrus himself. Darius followed in his steps
Organiza- and completed the vast structure. His r61e, indeed,
tioa et was peculiarly that of supplementing and perfecting
Darius. tjje work of his great predecessor. The organization
of the empire is planned throughout on broad, free lines; there
is nothing mean and timorous in it. The great god Ahuramazda,
whom king and people alike acknowledge, has given them domi-
nion "over this earth afar, over many peoples and tongues;"
and the consciousness is strong in them that they are masters
of the world. Thus their sovereign styles himself " the king of
kings " and " the king of the lands " — that is to say, of the

whole civilized world. For the provinces remaining unsubdued
on the extreme frontiers to the west, the north and the east are
in their view almost negligible quantities. And far removed
as the Persians are from disavowing their proud sense of nation-
ality (" a Persian, the son of a Persian, an Aryan of Aryan
stock " says Darius of himself in the inscription on his tomb) —
yet equally vivid is the feeling that they rule the whole civilized
world, that their task is to reduce it to unity, and that by the
will of Ahuramazda they are pledged to govern it aright.

This is most clearly seen in the treatment of the subject
races. In contrast with the Assyrians and the Romans the
Persians invariably conducted their wars with great
humanity. The vanquished kings were honourably Natiws.
dealt with, the enemy's towns were spared, except
when grave offences and insurrections, as at Miletus and
Athens, rendered punishment imperative; and their inhabitants
were treated with mildness. Like Cyrus, all his successors
welcomed members of the conquered nationalities to their
service, employed them as administrators or generals and made
them grants of land: and this not only in the case of Medes,
but also of Armenians, Lydians, Jews and Greeks. The whole
population of the empire was alike bound to military service.
The subject-contingents stood side by side with the native
Persian troops; and the garrisons— in Egypt, for instance —
were composed of the most varied nationalities.

Among the subject races the Medes particularly stood high
in favour. Darius in his inscriptions always names them imme-
diately after the Persians. They were the predecessors of the
Persians in the empire and the more civilized people. Their
institutions, court ceremonial and dress were ail adopted by
the Achaemenids. Thus the tribal distinctions began to recede,
and the ground was prepared for that amalgamation of the
Iranians into a single, uniform nation, which under the Sassanids
was completely perfected — at least for west of Iran.

The lion's share, indeed, falls to the dominant race itself.
The inhabitants of Persis proper — from which the eastern tribes
of Carmanians, Utians, &c., were excluded and
formed into a separate satrapy — pay no taxes.
Instead, they bring the best of their possessions
(e.g. a particularly fine fruit) as a gift to their king
on festival days; peasants meeting him on his excursions
do the same (Plut. Artax. 4. 5; Dinon ap. Aelian. var.
hist. 1.31; Xen. Cyr. viii. 5, 21. 7, r). In recompense for this,
he distributes on his return rich presents to every Persian
man and woman — the women of Pasargadae, who are members
of Cyrus's tribe, each receiving a piece of gold (Nic. Dam. fr.
66. Plut. Alex. 69). In relation to his Persians, he is always the
people's king. At his accession he is consecrated in the temple
of a warrior-goddess (Anaitis ?) at Pasargadae, and partakes
of the simple meal of the old peasant days — a mess of figs, tere-
binths and sour milk (Plut. Artax. 3). The Persians swear
allegiance to him and pray to Ahuramazda for his life and the
welfare of the people, while he vows to protect them against
every attack, and to judge and govern them as did his fathers
before him (Herod, i. 132; Xen. Cyr. xviii. 5, 25, 27). For helpers
he has at his side the " law-bearers " (dalabara Dan. iii. 2, and in
Babyl. documents; cf. Herod, iii. 31, v. 25, vii. 194; Esther
i. 13, &c.). These — the Persian judges — are nominated by the
king for life, and generally bequeath their office to their sons.
The royal decision is based on consultation with the great ones
of his people: and such is the case with his officials and governors
everywhere (cf. the Book of Ezra).

Every Persian able to bear arms is bound to serve the king
• — the great landowners on horseback, the commonalty on foot.
The noble and well-to-do, who need not till their fields in person,
are pledged to appear at court as frequently as possible. Their
children are brought up in company with the princes " at the
gates of the king," instructed in the handling of arms, in riding
and hunting, and introduced to the service of the state and the
knowledge of the law, as well as the commandments of religion.
Then such as prove their worth are called to high office and
rewarded, generally with grants of land.

The
Persians.

208

PERSIA

[HISTORY: ANCIENT

The highest rank was held by the descendants of the six great
families, whose heads stood by Darius at the killing of the
Magian. The Greeks class them and the king together, under
the name of " the seven Persians." These enjoyed the right of
entering the presence unannounced, and possessed princely
estates in the provinces. Besides these, however, numbers of
other Persians were despatched to the provinces, settled there,
and endowed with lands. There existed, in fact, under the
Achaemenids a strong colonizing movement, diffused through
the whole empire; traces of this policy occur more especially in
Armenia, Cappadocia and Lycia, but also in the rest of Asia
Minor, and not rarely in Syria and Egypt. These colonists
formed the nucleus of the provincial military levy, and were a
tower of strength to the Persian dominion. They composed,
moreover, the Persian council, and vice-regal household of the
Satraps, exactly as the Persians of the home-country composed
that of the king.

Though the world-empire of Persia was thus deeply impressed
by a national character, care was nevertheless exercised that
the general duties and interests of the subject races should
receive due consideration. We find their representatives,
side by side with the Persians, occupying every sort of position
in the regal and vice-regal courts. They take their part in the
councils of the satraps, precisely as they do in military service
(cf. the evidence of Ezra); and they, too, are rewarded by
bounties and estates. To wield a peaceful authority over all
the subjects of the empire, to reward merit, and to punish
transgression — such is the highest task of king and officials.

On his native soil Cyrus built himself a town, with a palace
and a tomb, in the district of Pasargadae (now the ruins of
Murghab). This Darius replaced by a new capital,
R°y*deaces deeper in the centre of the country, which bore the
'name " Persian " (Parsa), the Persepolis (q.v.) of
the later Greeks. But the district of Persis was too remote to
be the administrative centre of a world-empire. The natural
centre lay, rather, in the ancient fertile tract on the lower Tigris
and Euphrates. The actual capital of the empire was therefore
Susa, where Darius I. and Artaxerxes II. erected their magnifi-
cent palaces. The winter months the kings chiefly spent in
Babylon: the hot summer, in the cooler situation of Ecbatana,
where Darius and Xerxes built a residence on Mt Elvend, south
of the city. From a palace of Artaxerxes II. in Ecbatana itself,
the fragments of a few inscribed columns (now in the possession
of Mr Lindo Myers and published by Evetts in the Zeitschr. f.
Assyr. V.) have been preserved. To Persis and Persepolis the
kings paid only occasional visits especially at their coronations.

Within the empire, the two great civilized states incorporated
by Cyrus and Cambyses, Babylon and Egypt, occupied a position
of their own. After his defeat of Nabonidus, Cyrus
Proclaimed himself " King of Babel "; and the same
title was born by Cambyses, Smerdis and Darius.
So, in Egypt, Cambyses adopted in full the titles of the Pharaohs.
In this we may trace a desire to conciliate the native population,
with the object of maintaining the fiction that the old state still
continued. Darius went still farther. He encouraged the
efforts of the Egyptian priesthood in every way, built temples,
and enacted new laws in continuance of the old order. In
Babylon his procedure was presumably similar, though here
we possess no local evidence. But he lived to see that his policy
had missed its goal. In 486 B.C. Egypt revolted and was only
reduced by Xerxes in 484. It was this, probably, that induced
him in 484 to renounce his title of " king of Babel," and to
remove from its temple the golden statue of Bel-Marduk (Mero-
dach), whose hands the king was bound to clasp on the first day
of each year. This proceeding led to two insurrections in
Babylon (probably in 484 and 479 B.C.), which were speedily
repressed. After that the " kingship of Babel " was definitely
abolished. In Egypt the Persian kings still retained the style
of the Pharaohs; but we hear no more of concessions to the
priesthood or to the old institutions, and, apart from the great
oasis of el-Kharga, no more temples were erected (see EGYPT:
History).

At the head of the court and the imperial administration
stands the commandant of the body-guard— the ten thousand
" Immortals," often depicted in the sculptures of The vizier
Persepolis with lances surmounted by golden apples, and other
This grandee, whom the Greeks termed " Chiliarch," OtOclOt.
corresponds to the modern vizier. In addition to him, we
find seven councillors (Ezra vii. 14; cf. Esther i. 14). Among
the other officials, the " Eye of the King " is frequently
mentioned. To him was entrusted the control of the whole
empire and the superintendence of all officials.

The orders of the court were issued in a very simple form of the
cuneiform script, probably invented by the Medes. This comprised
36 signs, almost all of which denote single sounds. In
the royal inscriptions, a translation into Susan (Elam- °™
itic) and Babylonian was always appended to the Languages.
Persian text. In Egypt one in hieroglyphics was added, as
in the inscriptions of the Suez canal; in the Grecian provinces,
another in Greek (e.g. the inscription of Darius on the Bos-
porus, Herod, iv. 37, cf. iv. 91). The cuneiform script could
only be written on stone or clay. Thus there has been discovered
in Babylon a copy of the Behistun (q.v.) inscription preserved on
a block of dolerite (Weissbach, Babylonische Miscellen. p. 24).
For administrative purposes, however, it would seem that this
inconvenient material was not employed; its place being taken
by skins (5«£0ep<u, parchment), the use of which was adopted
from the western peoples of the empire. On these were further
written the journals and records kept at the court (cf. Diod. ii.
22, 32; Ezra iv. 15, v. 17, vi. 2; Esther vi. I, ii. 23). With such
materials the cuneiform script could not be used; instead, the
Persian language was written in Aramaic characters, a method
which later led to the so-called Pahlavi, i.e. Parthian script. This
mode of writing was obviously alone employed in the state-services
since Darius I.; and so may be explained the fact that, under the
Achaemenids, the Persian language rapidly declined, and, in the
inscriptions of Artaxerxes III., only appears in an extremely
neglected guise (see CUNEIFORM INSCRIPTIONS, ALPHABET).

Side by side with the Persian, the Aramaic, which had long been
widely diffused as the speech of commerce, enjoyed currency in
all the western half of the empire as a second dominant language.
Thus all deeds, enactments and records designed for these provinces
were furnished with an official Aramaic version (Ezra iv. 7). Numer-
ous documents in this tongue, dating from the Persian period,
have been discovered in Egypt (cf. Sayce and Cowley, Aramaic
Papyri discovered at Assuan 1906), and the coins minted by the
satraps and generals usually bear an Aramaic inscription. (So,
also, a lion-weight from Abydos, in the British Museum.) The
Demotic in Egypt was employed in private documents alone.
Only in the Hellenic provinces of the empire Greek replaced
Aramaic (cf. the letter to Pausanias in Thuc. i. 120: an edict to
Gadatas in Magnesia, Cousin et Deschamps, Bulletin de cprresp.
hellenique xii. 530, Dittenberger, Sylloge 2; so, also, on coins) — a
clear proof that the Persians had already begun to recognize the
independent and important position of Greek civilization.1

Darius I. divided the Persian Empire into twenty great pro-
vinces, satrapies, with a " guardian of the country " (khshathra-
pavan; see SATRAP) at the head of each. A list is
preserved in Herodotus (iii. 89 sqq.); but the boun- satrapies
daries were frequently changed. Each satrapy was
again subdivided into several minor governorships. The satrap
is the head of the whole administration of his province. He
levies the taxes, controls the legal procedure, is responsible for
the security of roads and property, and superintends the subor-
dinate districts. The heads of the great military centres of the
empire and the commandants of the royal fortresses are outside
his jurisdiction: yet the satraps are entitled to a body of troops
of their own, a privilege which they used to the full, especially
in later periods. The satrap is held in his position as a subject
by the controlling machinery of the empire, especially the " Eye
of the King"; by the council of Persians in his province with

1 For the editions of the Persian inscriptions see BEHISTUN.
For the Persian documents, Ed. Meyer Entslehung des Judentums,
p. 19 sqq. The hieroglyphic inscriptions of the Suez Canal are pub-
lished in the Recueti de trav. d'eeyptol. et d'assyriol. vols. vii. ix.
xi. xiii; the private documents from Babylonia and Nippur, by
Strassmaier, Babyl. Urkunden, and Hilprecht and Clay, Babyl.
Exped. of Univ. of Pennsylvania, vols. ix. x. Numerous Jewish docu-
ments in Aramaic have been found at Elephantine (Sayce and
Cowley, Aramaic Papyri discovered at Assuan, 1906), among them an
official complaint of the Jewish colony settled at Elephantine,
addressed to the Persian satrap of Judaea, in 408 B.C., which throws
a new light on many passages in Ezra and Nehemiah, published by
Sachan in Abhandlungen der berl. Akademie, 1907.

HISTORY: ANCIENT]

PERSIA

209

whom he is bound to debate all matters of importance; and by
the army: while in the hands of the messengers (Pers. aaravSat.
or ayyapoi. — a Babylonian word: see ANGARIA) the government
despatches travel " swifter than the crane " along the great
imperial highways, which are all provided with regular postal
stations (cf. the description of the route from Susa to Sardis in
Herod, v. 52).

Within the satrapies the subject races and communities
occupied a tolerably independent position; for instance, the
Subject Jews, under their elders and priests, who were even
Cvmmua!- able to convene a popular assembly in Jerusalem
ties. (cf. the Books of Ezra and Nehemiah). Obviously

also, they enjoyed, as a rule, the privilege of deciding law-suits
among themselves; their general situation being similar to that
of the Christian nationalities under the Ottomans, or to that of
many tribes in the Russian Empire at the present day. The
pressure of despotism was manifest, not so much in that the
king and his officials consistently interfered in individual cases,
but that they did so on isolated and arbitrary occasions, and
then swept aside the privileges of the subject, who was impotent
to resist.

For the rest, the subject population falls into a number of
distinct groups. In the desert (as among the Arabian and
Turanian nomads), in wild and sequestered mountains (as in
Zagros in north Media, and Mysia, Pisidia, Paphlagonia and
Bithynia in Asia Minor), and also in many Iranian tribes, the
old tribal constitution, with the chieftain as its head, was left
intact even under the imperial suzerainty. The great majority
of the civilized provinces were subdivided into local administra-
tive districts governed by officials of the king and his satraps.
These the Greeks named Win], " peoples." Within these,
again, there might lie large town settlements whose internal
affairs were controlled by the elders or the officials of the com-
munity: as, for instance, Babylon, Jerusalem, the Egyptian
cities, Tarsus, Sardis and others. On the same footing were
the spiritual principalities, with their great temple-property;
as Bambyce in Syria, the two Comanas in Cappadocia, and so
forth. Besides these, however, vast districts were either con-
verted into royal domains (irapaSfKroi) with great parks and
hunting grounds under royal supervision, or else bestowed by
the king on Persians or deserving members of the subject-races
(the " benefactors") as their personal property. Many of these
estates formed respectable principalities: e.g. those of the
house of Otanes in Cappadocia, of Hydarnes in Armenia,
Pharnabazus in Phrygia, Demaratus in Teuthrania, Themis-
tocles in Magnesia and Lampsacus. They were absolute private
property, handed down from father to son for centuries, and
in the Hellenistic period not rarely became independent king-
doms. These potentates were styled by the Greeks Swacrrai
or iibvapxoi-

The last class, quite distinct from all these organizations,
was formed by the city-states (ir6X«s) with an independent
constitution — whether a monarchy (as in Phoenicia),
an aristocracy (as in Lycia), or a republic with council
and popular assembly (as in the Greek towns).
The essential point was that they enjoyed a separate legalized
organization (autonomy). This was only to be seen in the
extreme western provinces of the empire among the Phoeni-
cians, Greeks and Lycians, whose cities were essentially distinct
from those of the east; which, indeed, to Greek eyes, were only
great villages (woMoiroXeis). It is readily intelligible that
their character should have proved practically incomprehensible
to the Persians, with whom they came into perpetual collision.
These sought, as a rule, to cope with the difficulty by transferring
the government to individual persons who enjoyed their confi-
dence: the " tyrants " of the Greek towns. Mardonius, alone,
after his suppression of the Ionic revolt — which had originated
with these very tyrants — made an attempt to govern them by
the assistance of the democracy (492 B.C.).

The provinces of the Persian Empire differed as materially in
economy as in organization. In the extreme west, a money currency
in its most highly developed form — that of coinage minted by

the state, or an autonomous community — had developed since the
7th century among the Lydians and Greeks. In the commerce
main portion, however, of the Oriental world — Egypt, ana Finance.
Syria, Phoenicia and Babylonia — the old mode
of commerce was still in vogue, conducted by means of gold
and silver bars, weighed at each transaction. Indeed, a money
currency only began to make headway in these districts in the
4th century B.C. In the eastern provinces, on the other hand, the
primitive method of exchange by barter still held the field. Only
in the auriferous and civilized frontier districts of India (the
Punjab) did a system of coinage find early acceptance. There
Persian and Attic money was widely distributed, and imitations
of it struck, in the fifth and fourth pre-Christian centuries.

Thus the empire was compelled to grapple with all these varied
conditions and to reconcile them as best it might. At the court,
" natural economy " was still the rule. The officials and Oriental
troops received payment in kind. They were fed " by the table
of the king," from which 15,000 men daily drew their sustenance
(cf. Heraclides of Cyme in Athen. iv. 145 B, &c.) and were rewarded
by gifts and assignments of land. The Greek mercenaries, on the
contrary, had to be paid in currency; nor could the satraps of the
west dispense with hard cash. The king, again, needed the precious
metals, not merely for bounties and rewards, but for important
enterprises in which money payment was imperative. Conse-
quently, the royal revenues and taxes were paid partly in the
precious metals, partly in natural produce — horses and cattle,
grain, clothing and its materials, furniture and all articles of
industry (cf. Theopomp. fr. 124, 125, &c.). The satraps, also, in
addition to money payments, levied contributions " for their table,"
at which the officials ate (Nehem. v. 14).

The precious metals brought in by the tribute were collected in
the great treasure-houses at Susa, Persepolis, Pasargadae and
Ecbatana, where gigantic masses of silver and, more Money and
especially, of gold, were stored in bullion or partially coinage
wrought into vessels (Herod, iii. 96; Strabo xv. 731,
735 ; Arrian iii. 16, &c.) ; exactly as is the case to-day in the shah's
treasure-chamber (Curzon, Persia, ii. 484). It is also observable
that the conjunction of payments in kind and money taxes still
exists. The province of Khorasan, for instance, with some half
million inhabitants, paid in 1885 £154,000 in gold, and in addition
natural produce to the value of £43,000 (Curzon, op. cit. i. 181,
ii. 380). When the king required money he minted as much as
was necessary. A reform in the coinage was effected by Darius,
who struck the Daric (Pers. Zariq, i.e. " piece of gold " ; the word
has nothing to do \vith the name of Darius), a gold piece of 130
grains (value about. 235.); this being equivalent to 20 silver pieces
(" Median shekels," aiy\oi.) of 86-5 grains (value according to the
then rate of silver — 13$ silver to i gold — about is. ad.). The
coining of gold was the exclusive prerogative of the king; silver
could be coined by the satraps, generals, independent communities
and dynasts.

The extent of the Persian Empire was, in essentials, defined
by the great conquests of Cyrus and Cambyses. Darius was
no more a conquistador than Augustus. Rather,
the task he set himself was to round off the empire policy"
and secure its borders: and for this purpose in Asia
Minor and Armenia he subdued the mountain-tribes and
advanced the frontier as far as the Caucasus; Colchis alone
remaining an independent kingdom under the imperial
suzerainty. So, too, he annexed the Indus valley and the
auriferous hill-country of Kafiristan and Cashmir (KaoTuoi or
KaoTrapoi, Herod, iii. 93, vii. 67, 86; Steph. Byz.), as well as
the Dardae in Dardistan on the Indus (Ctesias, Ind. fr. 12.
70, &c.). From this point he directed several campaigns
against the Amyrgian Sacae, on the Pamir Plateau and
northwards, whom he enumerates in his list of subject races,
and whose mounted archers formed a main division of the
armies despatched against the Greeks. It was obviously an
attempt to take the nomads of the Turanian steppe in the
rear and to reduce them to quiescence, which led to his
unfortunate expedition against the Scythians of the Russian
steppes (c. 512 B.C.; cf. DARIUS).

Side by side, however, with these wars, we can read, even in
the scanty tradition at our disposal, a consistent effort to further
the great civilizing mission imposed on the empire. In the
district of Herat, Darius established a great water-basin, designed
to facilitate the cultivation of the steppe (Herod, iii. 117). He
had the course of the Indus explored by the Carian captain
Scylax (q.v.) of Caryanda, who then navigated the Indian Ocean
back to Suez (Herod, iv. 44) and wrote an account of his voyage
in Greek. The desire to create a direct communication between
the seclusion of Persis and the commerce of the world is evident

210

PERSIA

[HISTORY: ANCIENT

in his foundation of several harbours, described by Nearchus,
on the Persian coast. But this design is still more patent in
his completion of a great canal, already begun by Necho, from
the Nile to Suez, along which several monuments of Darius have
been preserved. Thus it was possible, as says the remnant of an
hieroglyphic inscription there discovered, " for ships to sail
direct from the Nile to Persia, over Saba." In the time of Hero-
dotus the canal was in constant use (ii. 158, iv. 39): afterwards,
when Egypt regained her independence, it decayed, till restored
by the second Ptolemy. Even the circumnavigation of Africa was
attempted under Xerxes (Herod, iv. 43).

It has already been mentioned, that, in his efforts to conciliate
the Egyptians, Darius placed his chief reliance on the priest-
hood: and the same tendency runs throughout the imperial
policy toward the conquered races. Thus Cyrus himself gave
the exiled Jews in Babylon permission to return and rebuild Jeru-
salem. Darius allowed the restoration of the Temple; and
Artaxerxes I., by the protection accorded to Ezra and Nehemiah,
made the foundation of Judaism possible (see JEWS: §§ 19 sqq.).
Analogously in an edict, of which a later copy is preserved in an
inscription (see above), Darius commands Gadatas, the governor
of a domain (irapaSttaoi) in Magnesia on the Maeander, to
observe scrupulously the privileges of the Apollo-sanctuary.
With all the Greek oracles— even those in the mother-country—
the Persians were on the best of terms. And since these might
reasonably expect an enormous extension of their influence from
the establishment of a Persian dominion, we find them all
zealously medizing during the expedition of Xerxes.

For the development of the Asiatic religions, the Persian Empire
was of prime importance. The definite erection of a single, vast,
world-empire cost them their original connexion with
Religion. the gtate and compelled them in future to address
themselves, not to the community at large, but to individuals, to
promise, not political success nor the independence of the people,
but the welfare of the man. Thus they became at once universal
and capable of extension by propaganda ; and, with this, of entering
into keen competition one with the other. These traits are most
clearly marked in Judaism; but, after the Achaemenid period,
they are common to all Oriental creeds, though our information
as to most is scanty in the extreme.

In this competition of religions that of Iran played a most
spirited part. The Persian kings — none more so than Darius,
whose religious convictions are enshrined in his inscriptions —
and, with the kings, their people, were ardent professors of the
pure doctrine of Zoroaster; and the Persians settled in the provinces
diffused his creed throughout the whole empire. Thus a strong
Persian propagandism arose especially in Armenia and Cappadocia,
where the religion took deep root among the people, but also in
Lydia and Lycia. In the process, however, important modifications
were introduced. In contrast with Judaism, Zoroastrianism did
not enter the lists against all gods save its own, but found no
difficulty in recognizing them as subordinate powers — helpers
and servants of Ahuramazda. Consequently, the foreign creeds
often reacted upon the Persian. In Cappadocia, Aramaic inscriptions
have been discovered (1900), in which the indigenous god, there
termed Bel the king, recognizes the " Mazdayasnian Religion "
(Din Mazdayasnish) — -i.e. the religion of Ahuramazda personified
as a woman — as his sister and wife (Lidzbarski, Ephem. f. semit.
Epigr. i. 59 sqq.).

The gorgeous cult of the gods of civilization (especially of Baby-
lon), with their host of temples, images and festivals, exercised a
corresponding influence on the mother-country. Moreover, the
unadulterated doctrine of Zoroaster could no more become a per-
manent popular religion than can Christianity. For the masses
can make little of abstractions and an omnipotent, omnipresent
deity ; they need concrete divine powers, standing nearer to them-
selves and their lot. Thus the old figures of the Aryan folk-religion
return to the foreground, there to be amalgamated with the Baby-
lonian divinities. The goddess of springs and streams (of the Oxus
in particular) and of all fertility — Aravisura Anahita, Anaitis—
is endowed with the form of the Babylonian Ishtar and Belit.
She is now depicted as a beautiful and strong woman, with prominent
breasts, a golden crown of stars and golden raiment. She is wor-
shipped as the goddess of generation and all sexual life (cf. Herod.
i. 131, where the names of Mithras and Anaitis are interchanged);
and religious prostitution is transferred to her service (Strabo xi.
532, xii. 559). At her side stands the sun-god Mithras, who is re-
presented as a young and victorious hero. Both deities occupy
the very first rank in the popular creed; while to the theologian
they are the most potent of the good powers — Mithras being the
herald and propagator of the service of Light and the mediator
betwixt man and Ahuramazda, who now fades more into the
background. Thus, in the subsequent period, the Persian religion

appears purely as the religion of Mithras. The festival of Mithras
is the chief festival of the empire, at which the king drinks and
is drunken, and dances the national dance (Ctes. fr. 55 ; Duris fr.
13). This development culminated under Artaxerxes II., who,
according to Berossus (fr. 16 ap. Clem. Alex. prot. i. 5, 65), first
erected statues to Anaitis in Persepolis, Ecbatana, Bactria, Susa,
Babylon, Damascus and Sardis. The truth of this account is
proved by the fact that Artaxerxes II. and. Artaxerxes III. are the
only Achaemenids who, in their inscriptions, invoke Anaitis and
Mithra side by side with Ahuramazda. Other gods, who come
into prominence, are the dragon-slayer Verethraghna (Artagnes)
and the Good Thought (Vohumano, Omanos) ; and even the Sacaean
festival is adopted from Babylon (Berossus fr. 3; Ctes. fr. 16;
Strabo xi. 512, &c.). The chief centres of the Persian cults in the
west were the district of Acilisene in Armenia (Strabo xi. 532, &c.),
the town of Zela in Cappadocia (Strabo xii. 559), and several cities
in Lydia.

The position of the Persian monarchy as a world-empire is
characteristically emphasized in the buildings of Darius and Xerxes
in Persepolis and Susa. The peculiarly national basis, . .

still recognizable in Cyrus's architecture at Pasargadae,
recedes into insignificance. The royal edifices and sculptures are
dependent, mainly, on Babylonian models, but, at the same time,
we can trace in them the influence of Greece, Egypt and Asia Minor;
the last in the rock-sepulchres. All these elements are combined
into an organic unity, which achieved the greatest creations that
Oriental architecture has found possible. Nevertheless, the result
is not a national art, but the art of a world-empire; and it is obvious
that foreign craftsmen must have been active in the royal services — ;
among them, the Greek sculptor Telephanes of Phocaea (Pliny
xxxiv. 68). So, with the collapse of the empire, the imperial art
vanishes also: and when, some 500 years later, a new art arose
under the Sassanids, whose achievements stand to those of Achae-
menid art in much the same relation as the achievements of the
two dynasties to each other, we discover only isolated reminiscences
of its predecessor.

For the organization and character of the Persian Empire, see
Barnabas Brisson, De regie Persarum principatu libri Hi. (1590);
Heeren, Ideen uber Politik, Handel tind Verkehr der alien Well, i. ,
G. Rawlinson, History of Herodotus, ii. 555 sqq.; Five Eastern Mon-
archies, iii. ; Eduard Meyer, Geschichte des Altertums, iii. On the
Satrapies, cf. Krumbholz, De Asiae minoris satrapiis persicis
(1883). See also MITHRAS.

3. History of the Achaemenian Empire. — The history of the
Persian Empire was often written by the Greeks. The most
ancient work preserved is that of Herodotus (q.v.), who supplies
rich and valuable materials for the period ending in 479 B.C.
These materials are drawn partly from sound tradition, partly
from original knowledge — as in the account of the satrapies
and their distribution, the royal highway, the nations in Xerxes'
army and their equipment. They also contain much that is
admittedly fabulous: for instance, the stories of Cyrus and Croe-
sus, the conquest of Babylon, &c. Forty years later (c. 390 B.C.),
the physician Ctesias of Cnidus, who for 17 years (414-398 B.C.)
remained in the service of the Great King, composed a great
work on the Persian history, known to us from an extract in
Photius and numerous fragments. Ctesias (q.v.) possesses a
more precise acquaintance with Persian views and institutions
than Herodotus; and, where he deals with matters that came
under his own cognisance, he gives much useful information.
For the early period, on the other hand, he only proves how
rapidly the tradition had degenerated since Herodotus; and here
his narrations can only be utilized in isolated cases, and that
with the greatest caution. Of more value was the great work of
Dinon of Colophon (c. 340), which we know from numerous
excellent fragments; and on the same level may be placed a few
statements from Heraclides of Cyme, which afford specially
important evidence on Persian institutions. To these must be
added the testimony of the other Greek historians (Thucydides,
Ephorus, Theopompus, &c., with the histories of Alexander), and,
before all, that of Xenophon in the Anabasis and Hellenica.
The Cyropaedia is a didactic romance, written with a view to
Greek institutions and rarely preserving genuine information
on the Persian Empire. Of Oriental sources, only the contem-
porary books of Ezra and Nehemiah are of much importance:
also, a few statements in the much later Esther romance. Beros-
sus's history of Babylon contained much valuable and trust-
worthy information, but next to nothing has survived. That
the native tradition almost entirely forgot the Achaemenid
Empire, has been mentioned above. For a more detailed account

HISTORY: ANCIENT] PERSIA

of these sources see separate articles on HERODOTUS, &c.; EZRA;
and NEHEMIAH.

Of modern accounts see especially Th. Noldeke, Aufsdtze zur
persischen Geschichte (1887). The works of Marquart, Unter-
suchungen zur Geschichte von Eran (2 pts., 1896-1905), abound in
daring theories and must be used with caution. On the chronology,
cf. Eduard Meyer, Forschungen zur alien Geschichte, ii.

The external history of the empire is treated under the
individual kings (see • also history sections of

211

List of the
Kings.

articles GREECE; EGYPT; &c.).
follows: —

The order is as

CYRUS (558-528); conquered the Medes in 550; king of Babylon
from 538.

CAMBYSES (528-521).

SMERDIS (521).

DARIUS I. (521-485).

XERXES I. (485-465).

ARTAXERXES I. (465-425).

(XERXES II. and Secydianus or Sogdianus, 425-424.)

DARIUS II. Nothus (424-404).

ARTAXERXES II. (404-359).

ARTAXERXES III. Ochus (359-338).

ARSES (338-336).

DARIUS III. (33^330).

The chronology is exactly verified by the Ptolemaic canon, by
numerous Babylonian and a few Egyptian documents, and by the
evidence of the Greeks. The present article gives only a brief
conspectus of the main events in the history of the empire.

Though, unlike Cyrus and Cambyses, Darius made no new
expeditions of conquest, yet a great empire, which is not bounded
The Wars by another equally great, but touches on many small
against tribes and independent communities, is inevitably
Greece. driven to expansion. We have already seen that the
attempt of Darius to control the predatory nomads in the north
led to his expedition against the Scythians; this, again, led to
the incorporation of Thrace and Macedonia, whose king Perdiccas
submitted. And since a great portion of the Mediterranean
coast-line belonged to the empire, further complications resulted
automatically. In contrast with the Greeks Carthage took the
part of Persia. Darius, indeed, numbers the city — under the
name of Karka — among his dominions: as also the Maxyans
(Maciya) on the Syrtes (Andreas, Verhandl. d. xiii. oriental.
Congresses, Hamburg, 1902, p. 97). But, above all, the Greek
cities with their endless feuds and violent internal factions, were
incessant in their appeals for intervention. Nevertheless,
Darius left European Greece to itself, till the support accorded
to the Ionian and Carian insurgents by Athens and Eretria
(499 B.C.) made war inevitable. But not only the expeditions
of Mardonius (492) and Datis (490), but even the carefully
prepared campaign of Xerxes, in conjunction with Carthage,
completely -failed (480-479). On the fields of Marathon and
Plataea, the Persian archers succumbed to the Greek phalanx
of hoplites; but the actual decision was effected by Themistocles,
who had meanwhile created the Athenian fleet which at Salamis
proved its superiority over the Perso-Phoenician armada, and
thus precluded beforehand the success of the land-forces.

The wreck of Xerxes' expedition is the turning-point in the
history of the Persian Empire. The superiority of the Greeks
was so pronounced that the Persians never found courage to
repeat their attack. On the contrary, in 466 B.C. their army
and fleet were again defeated by Cimon on the Eurymedon, the
sequel being that the Greek provinces on the Asiatic coast, with
all the Thracian possessions, were lost. In itself, indeed, this
loss was of no great significance to such a vast empire; and the
attempts of Athens to annex Cyprus and conquer the Nile
valley, in alliance with the revolted Egyptians, ended in failure.
Athens, in fact, had not sufficient strength to undertake a serious
invasion of the empire or an extensive scheme of conquest.
Her struggles with the other Hellenic states constrained her, by
the peace of Callias (448), definitely to renounce the Persian
war; to abandon Cyprus and Egypt to the king; and to content
herself with his promise — not that he would surrender the littoral
towns, but that he would abstain from an armed attack upon
them. The really decisive point was, rather, that the disasters
of Salamis and Plataea definitely shattered the offensive power

of the empire; that the centre of gravity in the world's history
had shifted from Susa and Babylon to the Aegean Sea; and
that the Persians were conscious that in spite of all their courage
they were henceforward in the presence of an enemy, superior
in arms as well as in intellect, whom they could not hope to
subdue by their own strength.

Thus the great empire was reduced to immobility and stagna-
tion— a process which was assisted by the deteriorating influences
of civilization and world -dominion upon the character latemal
of the ruling race. True, the Persians continued state of the
to produce brave and honourable men. But the Empire.
influences of the harem, the eunuchs, and similar Rebellions.
court officials, made appalling progress, and men of energy began
to find the temptations of power stronger than their patriotism
and devotion to the king. Thus the satraps aspired to inde-
pendence, not merely owing to unjust treatment, but also to
avarice or favourable conditions. As early as 465 B.C., Xerxes
was assassinated by his powerful vizier (chiliarch) Artabanus,
who attempted to seize the reins of empire in fact, if not in name.
A similar instance may be found in Bagoas (q.ti.), after the
murder of Artaxerxes III. (338 B.C.). To these factors must
be added the degeneration of the royal line — a degeneration
inevitable in Oriental states. Kings like Xerxes and more
especially Artaxerxes I. and Artaxerxes II., so far from being
gloomy despots, were good-natured potentates, but weak,
capricious and readily accessible to personal influences. The
only really brutal tyrants were Darius II., who was completely
dominated by his bloodthirsty wife Parysatis, and Artaxerxes
III. who, though he shed rivers of blood and all but exterminated
his whole family, was successful in once more uniting the empire,
which under the feeble sway of his father had been threatened
with dissolution.

The upshot of these conditions was, that the empire never
again undertook an important enterprise, but neglected more
and more its great civilizing mission. In considering, however,
the subsequent disorders and wars, it must be borne in mind
that they affected only individual portions of the empire, and
only on isolated occasions involved more extensive areas in
long and serious strife. To most of the provinces the Achae-
menid dominion was synonymous with two centuries of peace
and order. Naturally, however, the wild tribes of the mountains
and deserts, who could be curbed only by strict imperial control,
asserted their independence and harassed the neighbouring
provinces. Among these tribes were the Carduchians in Zagros,
the Cossaeans and Uxians in the interior of Elam, the Cadusians
and other non-Aryan tribes in northern Media, the Pisidians,
Isaurians and Lycaonians in the Taurus, and the Mysians in
Olympus. All efforts to restore order in these districts were
fruitless; and when the kings removed their court to Ecbatana,
they were actually obliged to purchase a free passage from the
mountain tribes (Strabo xi. 524; Arrian iii. 17, i). The
kings (e.g. Artaxerxes II.) repeatedly took the field in great force
against the Cadusians, but unsuccessfully. When, in 400 B.C.,
Xenophon marched with the mercenaries of Cyrus from the
Tigris to the Black Sea, the authority of the king was non-
existent north of Armenia, and the tribes of the Pontic moun-
tains, with the Greek cities on the coast, were completely inde-
pendent. In Paphlagonia, the native dynasts founded a power-
ful though short-lived kingdom, and the chieftains of the
Bithynians were absolutely their own masters. The frontier
provinces of India were also lost. Egypt, which had already
revolted under Libyan princes in the years 486-484, and again
with Athenian help in 460-454, finally asserted its independence
in 404. Henceforward the native dynasties repelled every
attack, till they succumbed once more before Artaxerxes III.
and Mentor of Rhodes.

In the other civilized countries, indeed, the old passion for
freedom had been completely obliterated; and after the days
of Darius I. — apart from the Greek, Lycian and Phoenician
towns — not a single people in all these provinces dreamed of
shaking off the foreign dominion. All the more clearly, then,
was the inner weakness of the empire revealed by the revolts

212

PERSIA

[HISTORY: ANCIENT

of the satraps. These were facilitated by the custom — quite
contrary to the original imperial organization — which entrusted
the provincial military commands to the satraps, who began
to receive great masses of Greek mercenaries into their service.
Under Artaxerxes I. and Darius II., these insurrections were
still rare. But when the revolt of the younger Cyrus against
his brother (401 B.C.) had demonstrated the surprising ease and
rapidity with which a courageous army could penetrate into
the heart of the empire — when the whole force of that empire
had proved powerless, not only to prevent some 12,000 Greek
troops, completely surrounded, cut off from their communica-
tions, and deprived through treachery of their leaders, from
escaping to the coast, but even to make a serious attack on
them — then, indeed, the imperial impotence became manifest.
After that, revolts of the satraps in Asia Minor and Syria were
of everyday occurrence, and the task of suppressing them was
complicated by the foreign wars which the empire had to sustain
against Greece and Egypt.

At this very period, however, the foreign policy of the empire
gained a brilliant success. The collapse of the Athenian power
Later Wars before Syracuse (413 B.C.) induced Darius II. to
with the order his satraps Tissaphernes and Pharnabazus,
Greets. in Asia Minor, to collect the tribute overdue from
Peace of the Greek cities. In alliance with Sparta (see
Aatakidas. pELOPONNESIAN WAR), Persia intervened in the
conflict against Athens, and it was Persian gold that made it
possible for Lysander to complete her overthrow (404 B.C.).
True, war with Sparta followed immediately, over the division
of the spoils, and the campaigns of the Spartan generals in Asia
Minor (399-395) were all the more dangerous as they gave
occasion to numerous rebellions. But Persia joined the Greek
league against Sparta, and in 394 Pharnabazus and Conon
annihilated the Lacedaemonian fleet at Cnidus. Thus the
Spartan power of offence was crippled; and the upshot of the
long-protracted war was that Sparta ruefully returned to the
Persian alliance, and by the Peace of Antalcidas (q.v.), concluded
with the king in 387 B.C., not only renounced all claims to the
Asiatic possessions, but officially proclaimed the Persian
suzerainty over Greece. Ninety years after Salamis and
Plataea, the goal for which Xerxes had striven was actually
attained, and the king's will was law in Greece. In the following
decades, no Hellenic state ventured to violate the king's peace,
and all the feuds that followed centred round the efforts of the
combatants — Sparta, Thebes, Athens and Argos — to draw the
royal powers to their side (see GREECE: Ancient History).

But, for these successes, the empire had to thank the internecine
strife of its Greek opponents, rather than its own strength. Its
feebleness, when thrown on its own resources, is evident from
the fact that, during the next years, it failed both to reconquer
Egypt and to suppress completely King Evagoras of Salamis
in Cyprus. The satrap revolts, moreover, assumed more and
more formidable proportions, and the Greek states began once
more to tamper with them. Thus the reign of Artaxerxes II.
ended, in 359 B.C., with a complete dissolution of the imperial
authority in the west. His successor, Artaxerxes Ochus,
succeeded yet again in restoring the empire hi its full extent.
In 355 B.C., he spoke the fatal word, which, a second — or rather
a third — time, demolished the essentially unsound power of
Athens. In 343 he reduced Egypt, and his generals Mentor
and Memnon, with his vizier Bagoas (q.i>.), crushed once and for
all the resistance in Asia Minor. At his death in 338, immedi-
ately before the final catastrophe, the empire to all appearances
was more powerful and more firmly established than it had been
since the days of Xerxes.

These successes, however, were won only by means of Greek
armies and Greek generals. And simultaneously the Greek
Progress civilization — diffused by mercenaries, traders, artists,
of Greet prostitutes and slaves, — advanced in ever greater
influence. force jn Asia Minor and Phoenicia we can clearly
trace the progress of Hellenism (q.v.), especially by the coinage.
The stamp is cut by Greek hands and the Greek tongue pre-
dominates more and more in the inscription. We can see that

the victory of Greek civilization had long been prepared on
every side. But the vital point is that the absolute superiority
of the Hellene was recognized as incontestable on both hands.
The Persian sought to protect himself against danger, by employ-
ing Greeks in the national service and turning Greek policy to
the interests of the empire. In the Greek world itself the dis-
grace that a people, called to universal dominion and capable
of wielding it, should be dependent on the mandate of an im-
potent Asiatic monarchy, was keenly felt by all who were not
yet absorbed in the rivalry of city with city. The spokesman
of this national sentiment was Isocrates; but numerous other
writers gave expression to it, notably, the historian Callisthenes
of Olynthus. Union between Greeks, voluntary or compulsory,
and an offensive war against Persia, was the programme they
propounded.

Nor was the time for its fulfilment far distant. The new power
which now rose to the first rank, created by Philip of Macedon,
had no engrained tendency inimical to the Persian
Empire. Its immediate programme was rather
Macedonian expansion, at the expense of Thrace
and Illyria, and the subjection of the Balkan Peninsula. But,
in its efforts to extend its power over the Greek states, it was
bound to make use of the tendencies which aimed at the unifica-
tion of Greece for the struggle against Persia: and this ideal
demand it dared not reject.

Thus the conflict became inevitable. In 340, Artaxerxes III.
and his satraps supported the Greek towns in Thrace — Perinthus
and Byzantium — against Macedonian aggression; in 338 he
concluded an alliance with Demosthenes. When Philip, after
the victory of Chaeronea, had founded the league of Corinth
(337) embracing the whole of Greece, he accepted the national
programme, and in 336 despatched his army to Asia Minor.
That he never entertained the thought of conquering the whole
Persian Empire is certain. Presumably, his ambitions would
have been satisfied with the liberation of the Greek cities, and,
perhaps, the subjection of Asia Minor as far as the Taurus.
With this his dominion would have attained much the same
compass as later under Lysimachus; farther than this the
boldest hopes of Isocrates never went.

But Philip's assassination in 336 fundamentally altered the
situation. In the person of his son, the throne was occupied
by a soldier and statesman of genius, saturated with Greek
culture and Greek thought, and intolerant of every goal but the
highest. To conquer the whole world for Hellenic civilization
by the aid of Macedonian spears, and to reduce the whole earth
to unity, was the task that this heir of Heracles and Achilles'
saw before him. This idea of universal conquest was with him
a conception much stronger developed than that which had
inspired the Achaemenid rulers, and he entered on the project
with full consciousness in the strictest sense of the phrase. In
fact, if we are to understand Alexander aright, it is fatal to forget
that he was overtaken by death, not at the end of his career, but
at the beginning, at the age of thirty-three.

VI. The Macedonian Dominion. — How Alexander conquered
Persia, and how he framed his world-empire,1 cannot be related
here. The essential fact, however, is that after the
victory of Gaugamela (Oct. i, 331 B.C.) and, still
more completely, after the assassination of Darius —
avenged according to the Persian laws, on the perpetrators —
Alexander regarded himself as the legitimate head of the Persian
Empire, and therefore adopted the dress and ceremonial of the
Persian kings.

With the capture of the capitals, the Persian war was at an
end, and the atonement for the expedition of Xerxes was com-
plete — a truth symbolically expressed in the burning of the palace
at Persepolis. Now began the world-conquest. For an universal
empire, however, the forces of Macedonia and Greece were
insufficient; the monarch of a world-empire could not be bound
by the limitations imposed on the tribal king of Macedon or the
general of a league of Hellenic republics. He must stand as

1 See ALEXANDER THE GREAT; MACEDONIAN EMPIRE; HELLEN-
ISM (for later results).

HISTORY: ANCIENT]

PERSIA

213

an autocrat, above them and above the law, realizing the
theoretical doctrines of Plato and Aristotle, as the true king,
who is a god among men, bound no more than Zeus by a law,
because " himself he is the law." Thus the divine kingship of
Alexander derives in direct line, not from the Oriental polities —
which (Egypt apart) know nothing of royal apotheosis — but
from these Hellenic theories of the state. Henceforward it
becomes the form of every absolute monarchy in a civilized land,
being formally mitigated only in Christian states by the assump-
tion that the king is not God, but king " by the grace of God."
The expedition of 332 B.C. to the shrine of Ammon was a pre-
liminary to this procedure, which, in 324, was sealed by his
official elevation to divine rank in all the republics of Greece.
To this corresponds the fact that, instead of acting on the
doctrines of Aristotle and Callisthenes, and treating the
Macedonians and Greeks as masters, the Asiatics as servants,
Alexander had impartial recourse to the powers of all his subjects
and strove to amalgamate them. In the Persians particularly
he sought a second pillar for his world-empire. Therefore, as
early as 330 B.C., he drafted 30,000 young Persians, educated
them in Greek customs, and trained them to war on the Mace-
donian model. The Indian campaign showed that his Mace-
donian troops were in fact inadequate to the conquest of the
world, and in the summer of 326 they compelled him to turn
back from the banks of the Hyphasis. On his return to Persia,
he consummated at Susa (Feb. 324 B.C.) the union of Persian
and Macedonian by the great marriage-feast, at which all his
superior officers, with some 10,000 more Macedonians, were
wedded to Persian wives. The Macedonian veterans were then
disbanded, and the Persians taken into his army. Simultane-
ously, at the Olympian festival of 324, the command was issued
to all the cities of Greece to recognize him as god and to receive
the exiles home.1 In 323 B.C. the preparations for the circum-
navigation and subjection of Arabia were complete: the next
enterprise being the conquest of the West, and the battle for
Hellenic culture against Carthage and the Italian tribes. At
that point Alexander died in Babylon on the i3th of June
323 B.C.

Alexander left no heir. Consequently, his death not only
ended the scheme of universal conquest, but led to an immediate
The Macedonian reaction. The army, which was con-

Kinzdoms sidered as the representative of the people, took
of the over the government under the direction of its
Diadochi. generais_ xhe Persian wives were practically all
discarded and the Persian satraps removed — at least from all
important provinces. But the attempt to maintain the empire
in its unity proved impracticable; and almost immediately
there began the embittered war, waged for several decades by
the generals (diadochi), for the inheritance of the great king.2
It was soon obvious that the eastern rulers, at all events, could
not dispense with the native element. Peucestas, the governor
of Persis, there played the role of Alexander and won the Persians
completely to his side; for which he was dismissed by Antigonus
in 315 (Diod. xix. 48). A similar position was attained by
Seleucus — the only one of the diadochi, who had not divorced
his Persian wife, Apama — in Babylonia, which he governed
from 319 to 316 and regained in the autumn of 312. While
Antigonus, who, since 315, had striven to win the kingdom of
Alexander for himself — was detained by the war with his rivals
in the west, Seleucus, with Babylon as his headquarters, con-
quered the whole of Iran as far as the Indus. In northern
Media alone, which lay outside the main scene of operations
and had only been partially subject to the later Achaemenids,
the Persian satrap Atropates, appointed by Alexander, main-
tained his independence and bequeathed his province to his
successors. His name is borne by north Media to the present
day — Atropatene, modern Azerbaijan or Adherbeijan (see
MEDIA). So, too, in Armenia the Persian dynasty of the

1 The discussion of these events by Hogarth " The Deification
of Alexander the Great," in the English Historical Review, ii.
(1887), is quite unsatisfactory.

2 See PTOLEMIES; SELEUCID DYNASTY.

Hydarnids held its ground; and to these must be added, in the
east of Asia Minor, the kingdoms of Pontus and Cappadocia,
founded c. 301, by the Persians Mithradates I. and Ariarathes I.
These states were fragments of the Achaemenid Empire, which
had safely transferred themselves to the Hellenistic state-system.

The annexation of Iran by Seleucus Nicator led to a war for
the countries on the Indian frontier; his opponent being Sandra -
cottus or Chandragupta Maurya (q.v.), the founder seleuaui.
of the great Indian Empire of Maurya (Palimbothra). Nicator, and
The result was that Seleucus abandoned to the Aat'°ci'"*1-
Indian king, not merely the Indian provinces, but even the
frontier districts west of the Indus (Strabo xv. 689-724),
receiving as compensation 500 elephants, with other presents
(Appian, Syr. 55; Justin xv. 4; Plut. Alex. 62; Athen. i. 18 D.).
His next expedition was to the west to assist Lysimachus,
Ptolemy and Cassander in the overthrow of Antigonus.

The battle of Ipsus, in 301, gave him Syria and the east of
Asia Minor; and from then he resided at the Syrian town of
Antiochia on the Orontes. Shortly afterwards he handed over
the provinces east of the Euphrates to his son Antiochus, who,
in the following years, till 282, exercised in the East a very
energetic and beneficial activity, which continued the work of
his father and gave the new empire and the Oriental Hellenistic
civilization their form. In order to protect his conquests
Alexander had founded several cities in Bactria, Sogdiana and
India, in which he settled his veterans. On his death, these
revolted and endeavoured to return to Greece, but were attacked
and cut to pieces by Pithon (Diod. xviii. 7). Of areek
the other Greek towns in Asia scarcely any were Towns in
founded by Alexander himself, though the plan lraa'
adopted by his successors of securing their dominions by building
Greek cities may perhaps be due to him (cf. Polyb. x. 27).
Most of these new cities were based on older settlements; but
the essential point is, that they were peopled by Greek and
Macedonian colonists, and enjoyed civic independence with
laws, officials, councils and assemblies of their own, in other
words, an autonomous communal constitution, under the
suzerainty of the empire. A portion, moreover, of the surround-
ing land was assigned to them. Thus a great number of the
country districts — the Wvrj above mentioned — were transformed
into municipal corporations, and thereby withdrawn from the
immediate government of the king and his officials (satraps
or strategi), though still subject to their control, except in the
cases where they received unconditional freedom and so ranked
as " confederates." The native population of these villages
and rural districts, at first, had no civic rights, but were governed
by the foreign settlers. Soon, however, the two elements began
to coalesce ; in the Seleucid Empire, the process seems generally
' to have been both rapid and complete. Thus the cities became
the main factors in the diffusion of Hellenism, the Greek language
and the Greek civilization over all Asia as far as the Indus.
At the same time they were the centres of commerce and
industrial life: and this, in conjunction with the royal favour,
and the privileges accorded them, continually drew new settlers
(especially Jews), and many of them developed into great and
flourishing towns (see further under HELLENISM).

Shortly after his conquest of Babylonia, Seleucus had founded
a new capital, Seleucia (q.v.), on the Tigris: his intention being
at once to displace the ancient Babylon from its former central
position, and to replace it by a Greek city. This was followed
by a series of other foundations in Mesopotamia, Babylonia and
Susiana (Elam). " Media," says Polybius (x. 27), " was en-
circled by a sequence of Greek towns, designed as a barrier
against the barbarians." Among those mentioned are: Rhagae
(Rai), which Seleucus metamorphosed into a Hellenic city,
Europus, Laodicea, Apamea and Heraclea (Strabo xi. 525;
Plin. vi. 43: cf. MEDIA). To these must be added Achaea in
Parthia, and, farther to the east, Alexandria Arion in Aria,
the modern Herat: also Antiochia Margiana (Strabo xi. 514, 516;
Plin. 46, 93), now Merv, and many others. Further, Alexandria
in Aradrosia, near Kandahar, and the towns founded by
Alexander on the Hindu-Kush and in Sogdiana.

214

PERSIA

[HISTORY: ANCIENT

Thus an active Hellenic life soon arose in the East; and Greek
settlers must have come in numbers and founded new cities,
which afterwards formed the basis of the Graeco-Bactrian
kingdom. Antiochus's general Demodamas crossed the Jaxartes
and set up an altar to the Didymaean Apollo (Plin. vi. 49).
Another general, Patrocles, took up the investigation of the
Caspian, already begun by Alexander. In contrast with the
better knowledge of an older period, he came to the conclusion
that the Caspian was connected with the ocean, and that it was
possible to reach India on ship-board by that route (Strabo
ii. 74, xi. 518; Plin. vi. 38). A project of Seleucus to connect
the Caspian with the Sea of Azov by means of a canal is men-
tioned by Pliny (vi. 31). To Patrocles is due the information
that an active commerce in Indian wares was carried on with
the shores of the Black Sea, via the Caspian (Strabo xi. 509).

While Hellenism was thus gaining a firm footing in all the
East, the native population remained absolutely passive. Apart
The Persian horn the rude mountain tribes, no national resis-
Reiigion tance was dreamed of for centuries. The Iranians
under quietly accepted the foreign yoke, and the higher
Greek Rule. ciasses adopted the external forms of the alien
civilization (cf. the dedication of a Bactrian, Hyspasines, son
of Mithroaxes, in the inventory of the temple of Apollo in
Delos, Dittenberger, Sylloge, 588, 1. 109) even though they were
unable to renounce their innate characteristics. Eratosthenes,
for instance, speaks (ap. Strabo i. 66) in high terms of the
Iranians (Ariani), ranking them (as well as the Indians, Romans
and Carthaginians) on a level with the Greeks, as regards their
capacity for adopting city civilization. The later Parsee
tradition contends that Alexander burned the sacred books
of Zoroaster, the Avesta, and that only a few fragments were
saved and afterwards reconstructed by the Arsacids and
Sassanids. This is absolutely unhistorical. The Persian
religion was never attacked by the Macedonians and Greeks.
Under their dominion, on the contrary, it expanded with great
vigour, not only in the west (Armenia, north Syria and Asia
Minor, where it was the official religion of the kings of Pontus
and Cappadocia), but also in the east, in the countries of the
Indian frontier. That the popular gods — Mithras, Anaitis, &c. —
had come to the forefront has already been mentioned. This
propagandism, however, was void of all national character,
and ran on precisely the same lines as the propagandism of
the Syrian, Jewish and Egyptian cults. Only in Persia itself,
so far as we can judge from a few scanty traces, the national
character of the religion seems to have survived among the
people side by side with the memory of their old imperial
position.

In 282 B.C. Seleucus took the field against Lysimachus, and
annexed his dominions in Asia Minor and Thrace. In 281 he
, ^ ^ i was assassinated in crossing to Europe, and his son

Independent . .

Kingdoms Antiochus I. was left supreme over the whole empire.
to Hactria From that time onward the Seleucid Empire was
and never at rest. Its gigantic extent, from the Aegean

Parthia. to tne jnciUS) everywhere offered points of attack
to the enemy. The Lagidae, especially, with their much more
compact and effective empire, employed every means to weaken
their Asiatic rivals; and auxiliaries were found in the minor
states on the frontier — Atropatene, Armenia, Cappadocia, Pontus
and Bithynia, the Galatians, Pergamum, Rhodes and other
Greek states. Moreover, the promotion of Greek civilization
and city life had created numerous local centres, with separate
interests and centrifugal tendencies, struggling to attain com-
plete independence, and perpetually forcing new concessions
from the empire. Thus the Seleucid kings, courageous as many
of them were, were always battling for existence (see SELEUCID
DYNASTY).

These disturbances severely affected the borders of Iran.
While the Seleucid Empire, under Antiochus II. Theos (264-247),
was being harried by Ptolemy II. Philadelphus, and the king's
attention was wholly engaged in the defence of the western
provinces, the Greeks revolted in Bactria, under their governor
Diodotus (?.».). Obviously, it was principally the need of

protection against the nomadic tribes which led to the founda-
tion of an independent kingdom; and Diodotus soon attained
considerable power over the provinces north of the Hindu-Rush.
In other provinces, too, insurrection broke out (Strabo xi. 575,
Justin xli. 4); and Arsaces, a chief of the Parni or Aparni — an
Iranian nomad tribe (therefore often called Dahan Scythians),
inhabiting the steppe east of the Caspian — made himself master
of the district of Parthia (q.v.) in 248 B.C. He and his brother
Tiridates (q.v.) were the founders of the Parthian kingdom, which,
however, was confined within very modest limits during the
following decades. Seleucus II. Callinicus (247-226) successfully
encountered Arsaces (or Tiridates), and even expelled him
(c. 238) ; but new risings recalled Seleucus to Syria, and Arsaces
was enabled to return to Parthia.

Greater success attended Antiochus III., the Great (222-187).
At the beginning of his reign (220) he subdued, with the help
of his minister Hermias, an insurrection of the Antiochus
satrap Molon of Media, who had assumed the royal ///., the
title and was supported by his brother Alexander, Oreat.
satrap of Persis (Polyb. v. 40 sqq.). He further seized the
opportunity of extorting an advantageous peace from King
Artabazanes of Atropatene, who had considerably extended his
power (Polyb. v. 55). After waging an unsuccessful war with
Ptolemy IV. for the conquest of Coele-Syria, but suppressing
the revolt of Achaeus in Asia Minor, and recovering the former
provinces of the empire in that quarter, Antiochus led a great
expedition into the East, designing to restore the imperial
authority in its full extent. He first removed (211) the Armenian
king Xerxes by treachery (Polyb. viii. 25; John of Antioch,
fr. 53), and appointed two governors, Artaxias and Zariadris,
in his place (Strabo xi. 531). During the next year he reduced
the affairs of Media to order (Polyb. x. 27); he then conducted
a successful campaign against Arsaces of Parthia (209), and
against Euthydemus (q.v.) of Bactria (208-206), who had over-
thrown the dynasty of Diodotus (Polyb. x. 28 sqq., 48 sqq.,
xi. 34; Justin xli. 5). In spite of his successes he concluded
peace with both kingdoms, rightly considering that it would
be impossible to retain these remote frontier provinces per-
manently. He next renewed his old friendship with the Indian
king Sophagasenus (Subhagasena), and received from him 150
elephants (206 B.C.). Through Arachosia and Drangiane, in the
valley of the Etymander (Helmand), he marched to Carmania
and Persis (Polyb. xi. 34). Both here and in Babylonia he
re-established the imperial authority, and in 205 undertook a
voyage from the mouth of the Tigris, through the Arabian gulf
to the flourishing mercantile town of Gerrha in Arabia (now
Bahrein) (Polyb. xiii. 9).

Shortly afterwards, however, his successful campaign against
Ptolemy V. Epiphanes led to a war with Rome in which the
power of the Seleucid Empire was shattered (190 B.C.), Decay of the
Asia Minor lost, and the king compelled to pay a Seleucid
heavy contribution to Rome for a long term of years. Empire.
In order to raise money he plundered a wealthy temple of Bel in
Elam, but was killed by the inhabitants, 187 B.C. (Diod. xxviii. 3,
xxix. 15; Strabo xvi. 744; Justin xxxii. 2; S. Jerome (Hierony-
mus) on Dan. xi. 19; Euseb. Chron. i. 253). The consequence of
this enfeeblement of the empire was that the governors of Armenia
asserted their independence. Artaxias founded the kingdom
of Great Armenia; Zariadris, that of Sophene on the Euphrates
and the sources of the Tigris (Strabo xi. 531). In other districts,
also, rebellions occurred; and in the east, Euthydemus and his
successors (Deipetrius, Eucratidas, &c.) began the conquest. of
the Indus region and the Iranian borderland (Arachosia, Aria).
(See BACTRIA; EUTHYDEMUS; EUCRATIDAS; DEMETRIUS;
MENANDER.)

But the energetic Seleucids fought desperately against their
fate. Antiochus IV. Epiphanes (176-163) restored once more the
Eastern dominion, defeated Artaxias of Armenia (Appian, Syr.
45; Diod. xxxi. i7a; S. Jerome on Dan. xi. -40), restored several
towns in Babylonia and subdued the Elymaeans. His attempt,
however, to plunder the sanctuary of Anaitis failed (Polyb. xxxi.
n; cf. Maccab. i. 6, ii. i, 13; App. Syr. 66). Persis, also, and

HISTORY; ANCIENT]

PERSIA

215

Media were still subject to him. But after his death at Tabae
in Persis (163 B.C.; cf. Polyb. xxxi. n; Maccab. i. 6, ii. g; Jos.
Ant. Jud. xii. 9, i), the Romans took advantage of the dynastic
broils to destroy the Seleucid Empire. They reduced its army
and fleet, and favoured every rebellion: among others, that of
the Jews. In spite of all, Demetrius I. Soter (161-150) succeeded
in suppressing (159) a revolt of Timarchus of Miletus, governor
of Babylon, who had occupied Media, assumed the title of
" great king," and had been recognized by the Romans (Appian,
Syr. 45-47; Trogus, Prol. 34; Diod. xxxi. 27 A: cf. the coins of
Timarchus).1

VII. The Parthian Empire of the Arsacids. — Meanwhile, in
the east, the Arsacids had begun their expansion. Phraates I.
(c. 175-170) subdued the Mardians in Elburz. His brother
Mithradates I. (c. 170-138) had to sustain a difficult war with
Eucratides of Bactria, but eventually succeeded in wresting
MHhra- from him a few districts on the Turanian frontier.
dates I. and Indeed, he penetrated as far as, and farther than, the
Phraates n. Indus (Diod xxxiii lg. Oros. v. 4, 16). In the west
he conquered Media, and thence subdued Babylonia. He further
reduced the Elymaeans, sacked their temple in the mountains,
and captured the Greek city of Seleucia on the Hedyphon (Strabo
xvi. 744; Justin xli. 6). The Seleucids, meanwhile, were harassed
by aggravated disorders and insurrections. Nevertheless, in
140, Demetrius II. Nicator took the field in order to save the
east, but was defeated and captured. Shortly afterwards
Mithradates I. died. His son Phraates II. (c. 138-127) was
attacked in 130 by Antiochus VII. Sidetes, the brother of
Demetrius II., on which the Parthian king released the latter.
Antiochus pressed successfully on, and once more recovered
Babylonia, but in 129 was defeated in Media and fell in a
desperate struggle. With this battle the Seleucid dominion over
the countries east of the Euphrates was definitely lost. The
Babylonian towns, especially Seleucia (q.v.), were handed over
by Phraates to his favourite, the Hyrcanian Himerus, who
punished them severely for their resistance.

During these wars great changes had taken place in eastern
Iran. In 159 Mongolian tribes, whom the Chinese call Yue-chi
MHhra- anc* tne Greeks Scythians, forced their way into
dates n. and Sogdiana, and, in 139, conquered Bactria (Strabo
his Sue- xi. 571; Justin xlii. i; Trog. Prol. 41; see BACTRIA).
cessors. From Bactria they tried to advance farther into
Iran and India. Entering into an alliance with Antiochus
VII., they assailed the Parthian Empire. Phraates II.
marched to encounter him, but was himself defeated and
slain, and his country ravaged far and wide. His successor
Artabanus I. (c. 127-124), the uncle of Phraates, also fell
in battle against the Tocharians, the principal Scythian
tribe (Justin xlii. i, 2; Jos. Ant. jr. 66); but his son Mith-
radates II., surnamed "The Great" (c. 124-88), defeated the
Scythians and restored for a while the power of the Arsacids.
He also defeated Artavasdes, the king of Great Armenia; his
son Tigranes, a hostage in the hands of the Parthians, was only
redeemed by the cession of 70 valleys (Strabo xi. 532). When
Tigranes attempted to seize Cappadocia, and the Roman praetor
P. Cornelius Sulla advanced against him, Mithradates in 92 B.C.
concluded the first treaty between Parthia and Rome (Plut.
Sulla, v.; Liv. epit. 70). The dynastic troubles of the Seleucids
in Syria gave him an opportunity for successful intervention
(Jos. Ant. Jud. xiii. 13, 4; 14, 3). Shortly afterwards he died;
and, with his death, the Arsacid power collapsed for the second
time. The possession of the western provinces and the dominant
position in western Asia passed to the Armenian Tigranes (?.».),
who wrested from the Parthians Mesopotamia and the suzerainty
of Atropatene, Gordyene, Adiabene, Osroene. Simultaneously
began a new and severe conflict with the Scythians. Parthian
coins, probably dating from this period (Wroth, Catal. of the
Coins of Parthia, 1903, p. xxx. and p. 40), mention victorious
campaigns of Parthian kings and a conquest of the provinces of
Aria, Margiane and (?) Traxiane (cf. Strabo xi. 505). But how

1 For the whole of this period see further ANTIGONUS; ANTIOCHUS
I.-IV. ; SELEUCID DYNASTY ; HELLENISM.

confused the situation was is shown by the fact that in 76 B.C.
the octogenarian king Sanatruces was seated on the Parthian
throne by the Scythian tribe of the Sacaraucians (cf. Strabo xi.
511; Trog. Prol. 42). The names of his predecessors are not
known to us. Obviously this period was marked by continual
dynastic feuds (cf. Trog. Prol. 42 : " ut varia complurium regum
in Parthia successione imperium accepit Orodes qui Crassum
delevit" ). Not till Sanatruces' successor Phraates III. (70-57)
do we find the kingdom again in a settled state.

A fact of decisive significance was that the Romans now began
to advance against Tigranes. In vain Mithradates of Pontus
and Tigranes turned to the Parthian king, the latter Contacts
even proffering restitution of the conquered frontier with the
provinces. Pbraates, though rightly distrusting Romans.
Rome, nevertheless concluded a treaty with Lucullus (69 B.C.)
and with Pompey, and' even supported the latter in his campaign
against Tigranes in 66. But after the victory it was manifest
that the Roman general did not consider himself bound by
the Parthian treaty. When Tigranes had submitted, Pompey
received him into favour and extended the Roman supremacy
over the vassal states of Gordyene and Osroene; though he had
allured the Parthian king with the prospect of the recovery of his
old possessions as far as the Euphrates. Phraates complained,
and simultaneously attacked Tigranes, now a Roman vassal
(64 B.C.). But when Pompey refused reparation Phraates recog-
nized that he was too weak to begin the struggle with Rome,
and contented himself with forming an alliance with Tigranes,
in hopes that the future would bring an opportunity for his
revenge (Dio Cass. xxxvi. 3, 5; xxxvii. 5 sqq.; Plut. Luc. 30;
Pomp. 33, 38; cf. Sallust's letter of Mithradates to Arsaces).

Although Phraates III. had not succeeded in regaining the full
power of his predecessors, he felt justified in again assuming the
title " king of kings" — which Pompey declined to acknowledge —
and even in proclaiming himself as "god" (Phlegon, fr. 12 ap.
Phot. cod. 97; and on part of his coins), but in 57 B.C. the " god "
was assassinated by his sons Orodes and Mithradates.

The Parthian Empire, as founded by the conquests of Mithra-
dates I. and restored, once by Mithradates II. and again by
Phraates III., was, to all exterior appearance, a con-
tinuation of the Achaemenid dominion. Thus the
Arsacids now began to assume the old title " king of
kings " (the shahanshah of modern Persia), though previously their
coins, as a rule, had borne only the legend " great king." The
official version, preserved by Arrian in his Parthica (ap. Phot.
cod. 58: see PARTHIA), derives the line of these chieftains of the
Parnian nomads from Artaxerxes II. In reality, however, the
Parthian Empire was totally different from its predecessor, both
externally and internally. It was anything rather than a world-
empire. The countries west of the Euphrates never owned its
dominion, and even of Iran itself not one half was subject to the
Arsacids. There were indeed vassal states on every hand, but
the actual possessions of the kings — the provinces governed by
their satraps — consisted of a rather narrow strip of land, stretch-
ing from the Euphrates and north Babylonia through southern
Media and Parthia as far as Arachosia (north-west Afghanistan),
and following the course of the great trade-route which from time
immemorial had carried the traffic between the west of Asia and
India. We still possess a description of this route by Isidore
of Charax, probably dating from the Augustan period (in C.
Miiller, Geographi graeci minores, vol. i.), in which is contained
a list of the 18 imperial provinces, known also to Pliny (vi. 112;
cf. 41). Isidore, indeed, enumerates nineteen; but, of these,
Sacastene formed no part of the Parthian Empire, as has been
shown by von Gutschmid.

The lower provinces (i.e. the districts west of Parthia) are:
( i ) Mesopotamia, with northern Babylonia, from the Euphrates bridge
at Zeugma to Seleucia on the Tigris; (2) Apolloniatis, the p^,,^,^
plain east of the Tigris, with Artemita; (3) Chalonitis,
the hill-country of Zagros; (4) Western Media; (5) Cambadene, with
Bagistana (Behistun) — the mountainous portions of Media; (6)
Upper Media, with Ecbatana; (7) Rhagiane or Eastern Media.
Then with the Caspian Gates — the pass between Elburz and the
central desert, through which lay the route from west Iran to
east Iran — the upper provinces begin; (8) Choarene and (9)

Organiza-
tion.

2l6

PERSIA

[HISTORY: ANCIENT

Comisene, the districts on the verge of the desert ; (10) Hyrcania ; (i i)
Astabene, with the royal town Asaac on the Attruck (see PARTHIA) ;
(12) Parthyene with Parthaunisa, where the sepulchres of the kings
were laid; (13) Apavarcticene (now Abiward, with the capital
Kelat); (14) Margiane (Merv); (15) Aria (Herat); (16) Anauon,
the southern portion of Aria; (17) Zarangiane, the country of
the Drangians, on the lake of Hamun; (18) Arachosia, on the
Etymander (Helmand), called by the Parthians " White India,"
extending as far as Alexandropolis (Kandahar), the frontier city
of the Parthian Empire.

On the lower Etymander, the Sacae had established themselves
— obviously on the inroad of the Scythian tribes — and after them
the country was named Sacastene (now Sejistan, Seistan). Through
it lay the route to Kandahar; and for this reason the district is
described by Isidore, though it formed no part of the Parthian
Empire.

Round these provinces lay a ring of numerous minor states,
which as a rule were dependent on the Arsacids. They might,
, however, partially transfer their allegiance on the rise
of a new power (e.g. Tigranes in Armenia) or a Roman
States. invasion. Thus it is not without justice that the
Arsacid period is described, in the later Persian and Arabian
tradition, as the period of " the kings of the part-kingdoms " —
among which the Ashkanians (i.e. the Arsacids, from Ashak, the
later pronunciation of the name A rshak = Arsaces) had won the
first place. This tradition, however, is nebulous in the extreme;
the whole list of kings, which it gives, is totally unhistorical ; only
the names of one Balash (=Vologaeses) and of the last Ardewan
( = Artabanus) having been preserved. The period, from the
death of Alexander to the Sassanid Ardashir I., is put by the Persian
tradition at 266 years; which was afterwards corrected, after
Syro-Grecian evidence, to 523 years. The actual number is 548
years (i.e. 323 B.C. to A.D. 226). The statements of the Armenian
historians as to this period are also absolutely worthless.

The ten most important of the vassal states were : —

1. The kingdom of Osroene (q.v.) in the north-east of Mesopotamia,
with Edessa as capital, founded about 130 B.C. by the chieftain of
an Arabian tribe, the Orrhoei, which established itself there.

2. To this must be added the numerous Arabian tribes of
the Mesopotamian desert, under their chiefs, among whom one
Alchaudonius comes into prominence in the period of Tigranes
and Crassus. Their settlement in Mesopotamia was encouraged by
Tigranes, according to Plutarch (Luc. 21) and Pliny (vi. 142). In
later times the Arabic town Atra in an oasis on the west of the
Tigris, governed by its own kings, gained special importance.

3 and 4. To the east of the Tigris lay two kingdoms: Gordyene
(or Cordyene), the country of the Carduchians (now Bohtan), a wild,
mountainous district south of Armenia; and Adiabene (Hadyab),
the ancient Assyria, on either side of the Zab (Lycus).

5. On the farther side of Zagrqs, adjoining Adiabene on the east,
was the kingdom of Atropatene in north Media, now often simply
called Media (q.v.).

While the power of Armenia was at its height under Tigranes
(86-69 B.C.) all these states owned his rule. After the victories
of Pompey, however, the Romans claimed the suzerainty, so that,
during the next decades and the expeditions of Crassus and Antony,
they oscillated between Rome and Parthia, though their inclination
was generally to the latter. For they were all Orientals and,
consciously or unconsciously, representatives of a reaction against
that Hellenism which had become the heritage of Rome. At the
same time the loose organization of the Parthian Empire, afforded
them a greater measure of independence than they could hope to
enjoy under Roman suzerainty.

6. In the south of Babylonia, in the district of Mesene (the
modern Maisan), after the fall of Antiochus Sidetes (129 B.C.),
an Arabian prince, Hyspaosines or Spasines (in a cuneiform in-
scription of 127, on a clay tablet dated after this year, he is called
Aspasine) founded a kingdom which existed till the rise of the
Sassanian Empire. Its capital was a city (mod. Mohammerah),
first founded by Alexander on an artificial hill by the junction of
the Eulaeus (Karun) with the Tigris, and peopled by his veterans.
The town, which was originally named Alexandria and then
rebuilt by Antiochus I. as Antiochia, was now refortified with dikes
by Spasines, and christened Spasinu Charax (" the wall of Spasines "),
or simply Charax (Plin. vi. 138 seq.). In the following centuries
it was the main mercantile centre on the Tigris estuary.

The kingdom of Mesene, also called Characene, is known to us
from occasional references in various authors, especially Lucian
(Macrobii, 16), as well as from numerous coins, dated by the Seleucian
era, which allow us to frame a fairly complete list of the kings.1
The Arabian dynasty speedily assimilated itself to the native
population ; and most of the kings bear Babylonian — in a few
cases, Parthian — names. The official language was Greek, till,
on the destruction of Seleucia (A.D. 164), it was replaced on the
coinage by Aramaic. Another Babylonian dynast must have

1 See Saint-Martin, Recherches sur la Aftsene et la Characene
(1838); Reinaud, Memoires sur le royaume de la Mesene (1861);
E. Babelon, " Numism. et chronol. des dynastes de la Characfene,"
in Journ. internal. d'archeol. numism. vol. i. (1898).

been Hadadnadinaches (c. 100 B.C.), who built in Tello the fortified
palace which has been excavated by de Sarzec.

7. East of the Tigris lay the kingdom of Elymais (Elam), to
which belonged Susa and its modern representative Ahwaz, farther
down on the Eulaeus. The Elymaeans, who had already offered
a repeated resistance to the Seleucids, were subdued by Mithra-
dates I., as we have mentioned above; but they remained a separate
state, which often rebelled against the Arsacids (Strabo xvi. 744 ; cf.
Plut. Pomp. 36; Tac. Ann. vi. 50). Of the kings who apparently
belonged to a Parthian dynasty, several bearing the name Cammas-
cires are known to us from coins dated 8 1 and 71 B.C. One of
these is designated by Lucian (Macrobii, 16) " king of the
Parthians "; while the coinage of another, Orodes, displays Aramaic
script (Allotte de la Fuye, Rev. num., 4me serie, t. vi. p. 92 sqq.,
1902). The kingdom, which is seldom mentioned, survived till
Ardashir I. In its neighbourhood Strabo mentions " the minor
dynasties of the Sagapenians and Silacenians " (xvi. 745). The
Uxians, moreover, with the Cossaeans and other mountain tribes,
maintained their independence exactly as under the later Achae-
menids (Strabo xvi. 744; Plin. vi. 133).

8. The district of Persis, also, became independent soon after
the time of Antiochus IV., and was ruled by its own kings, who
perpetuated the Achaemenian traditions, and on their coins — which
bear the Persian language in Aramaic characters, i.e. the so-called
Pahlavi — appear as zealous adherents of Zoroastrianism and the
Fire-cult (see PERSIS). They were forced, however, to acknowledge
the suzerainty of Parthia, to which they stood in the same position
as the Persians of Cyrus and his forefathers to the Median Empire
(cf. Strabo xv. 728, 733, 736; Lucian, Macrob. 15). In later times,
before the foundation of the Sassanid dominion, Persis was dis-
integrated into numerous small local states. Even in Carmania
we find independent kings, one of whom gave his name to a town
Vologesocerta (Balashkert) .

9. The east of Iran — Bactria with Sogdiana, Eastern Arachosia
and Gedrosia — was never subject to the Arsacids. Here the
Graeco-Bactrian and Graeco-Indian kingdoms held their own,
till, in 139 B.C., they succumbed before the invading Mongolian
and Scythian tribes (see BACTRIA and works quoted there). But
in the Indus district the Greek kings held their ground for an appre-
ciably longer period and, for a while, widely extended their power
(see MENANDER OF INDIA). Among the kings then following, only
known to us from their coins, there appears a dynasty with Iranian
and sometimes peculiarly Parthian names which seems to have
reigned in the Punjab and Arachosia. Its best-known representa-
tive, Gondophares or Hyndopherres, to whom legend makes the
apostle Thomas write, reigned over Arachosia and the Indus dis-
trict about A.D. 20. Further, about A.D. 70, the Periplus of the
Erythraean Sea mentions that the great commercial town of
Minnagar in the Indus Delta was under Parthian kings, " who
spent their time in expelling one another." Here, then, it would
seem there existed a Parthian dynasty, which probably went back
to the conquests of Mithradates I. (cf. Vincent A. Smith, " The
Indo-Parthian Dynasties from about 120 B.C. to A.D. 100," in the
Zeitschr. der deutschen morgenl. Gesellsch. 60, 1906). Naturally,
such a dynasty would not long have recognized the suzerainty of
the Arsacids. It succumbed to the Indo-Scythian Empire of the
Kushana, who had obtained the sovereignty of Bactria as early as
about A.D. 50, and thence pressed onward into India. In the
period of the Periplus (c. A.D. 70) the Scythians were already
settled in the Indus yalley (pp. 38, 41, 48), their dominion reaching
its zenith under Kanishka (c. A.D. 123—153)-

This empire of the Kushana merits special mention here, on
account of its peculiar religious attitude, which we may gather
from the coins of its kings, particularly those of Kanishka and his
successor Huvishka, on which an alphabet adapted from the Greek
is employed (cf. Aurel Stein, " Zoroastrian Deities on Indo-Scythian
Coins," in The Babylonian and Oriental Record, vol. i., 1887).
Kanishka, as is well known, had embraced Buddhism, and many of his
coins bear the image and name of Buddha. Iranian divinities, how-
ever, predominate on his currency: Mithras (Mihro or Helios); the
Moon Mah (also Selene); Athro, the Fire; Orthragno (Verethragna) ;
Pharro = Farna. (hvarena), " the majesty of kingship "; Teiro = Tir
(Tistrya " the archer "); Nana (Nanaia); and others, Here, then,
we have a perfect example of syncretism ; as in the Mithras cult in
Armenia, Asia Minor, and still further in the Roman Empire.
Buddhism and Zoroastrianism have been wedded in the state re-
ligion, and, in characteristic Indian fashion, are on the best of terms
with one another, precisely as, in the Chinese Empire at the present
day, we find the most varied religions, side by side, and on an equal
footing.

10. Originally a part of the Turanian steppe belonged to the
Arsacids; it was the starting-point of their power. Soon, however,
the nomads (Dahae) gained their independence, and, as we _ have
seen, repeatedly attacked and devastated the Parthian Empire in
conjunction with the Tocharians and other tribes of Sacae and
Scythians. In the subsequent period, again, we shall frequently
meet them.

It may appear surprising that the Arsacids made no
attempt to incorporate the minor states in the empire and

HISTORY: ANCIENT]

PERSIA

217

create a great and united dominion, such as existed under the
Achaemenids and was afterwards restored by the Sassanids.
This fact is the clearest symptom of the inner weakness of
Character of their empire and of the small power wielded by the
the Parthian " king of kings." In contrast alike with its prede-
Empire. cessors and its successors, the Arsacid dominion was
peculiarly a chance formation — a state which had come into
existence through fortuitous external circumstances, and had
no firm foundation within itself, or any intrinsic raison d'etre.

Three elements, of widely different kinds, contributed to its
origin and denned its character. It was sprung from a predatory
nomad tribe (the Parnian Dahae, Scythians) which had established
itself in Khorasan (Parthia), on the borders of civilization, and thence
gradually annexed further districts as the political situation or the
weakness of its neighbours allowed. Consequently, these nomads
were the main pillar of the empire, and from them were obviously
derived the great magnates, with their huge estates and hosts of
serfs, who composed the imperial council, led the armies, governed
the provinces and made and unmade the kings (Strabo xi. 515^
Justin xli. 2; the former terming them avyytvtii, " kinsmen "
of the king, the latter, probuli). Of these great families that of
Surenas held the privilege of setting the diadem on the head of the
new king (Plut. Crass. 21 ; Tac. Ann. vi. 42).

The military organization, moreover, was wholly nomadic in
character. The nucleus of the army was formed of armoured horse-
men, excellently practised for long-distance fighting with bow and
javelin, but totally unable to venture on a hand-to-hand conflict,
their tactics being rather to swarm round the enemy's squadrons
and ovenvhelm them under a hail of missiles. When attacked
they broke up, as it seemed, in hasty and complete flight, and
having thus led the hostile army to break its formation, they them-
selves rapidly reformed and renewed the assault. How difficult
it was for infantry to hold their own against these mounted squadrons
was demonstrated by the Roman campaigns, especially in broad
plains like those of Mesopotamia. In winter, however, the Parthians
were powerless to wage war, as the moisture of the atmosphere
relaxed their bows. The infantry, in contrast with its earlier
status under the Persians, was wholly neglected. On the other
hand, every magnate put into the field as many mounted warriors
as possible, chiefly servants and bought slaves, who, like the Janis-
saries and Mamelukes, were trained exclusively for war. Thus
Surenas, in 53 B.C., is said to have put at the king's disposal 1000
mailed horsemen and, in all, 10,000 men, including the train, which
also comprised his attendants and harem (Plut. Crass. 21; descrip-
tion of the military organization; Dio Cass. 40, 15; Justin xli. 2).
In the army of 50,000 mounted men which took the field against
Mark Antony there were, says Justin, only 400 freemen.

How vital was the nomadic element in the Parthian Empire is
obvious from the fact that, in civil wars, the deposed kings con-
-TA , .I.- sistently took refuge among the Dahae or Scythians
'"and were restored by them. But, in Parthia, these
nomads were amalgamated with the native peasantry,
and, with their religion, had adopted their dress and manners.
Even the kings, after the first two or three, wear their hair
and beard long, in the Iranian fashion, whereas their predecessors
are beardless. Although the Arsacids are strangers to any deep
religious interest (in contrast to the Achaemenids and Sassanids),
they acknowledge the Persian gods and the leading tenets of
Zoroastrianism. They erect fire-altars, and even obey the command
to abandon all corpses to the dogs and fowls (Justin xli. 3). The
union, moreover, recommended by that creed, between brother and
sister — and even son and mother — occurs among them. Conse-
quently, beside the council of the nobility, there is a second council
of " Magians and wise men " (Strabo xi. 515).

Again, they perpetuate the traditions of the Achaemenid Empire.
The Arsacids assume the title " king of kings " and derive their
line from Artaxerxes II. Further, the royal apotheosis, so common
among them and recurring under the Sassanids, is probably not so
much of Greek origin as a development of Iranian views. For at
the side of the great god Ahuramazda there stands a host of sub-
ordinate divine beings who execute his will — among these the
deified heroes of legend, to whose circle the king is now admitted,
since on him Ahuramazda has bestowed victory and might.

This gradual Iranianization of the Parthian Empire is shown
by the fact that the subsequent Iranian traditions, and Firdousi
in particular, apply the name of the " Parthian " magnates
(Pahlavan) to the glorious heroes of the legendary epoch. Con-
sequently, also, the language and writing of the Parthian period,
which are retained under the Sassanids, received the name Pahlavi,
i.e. " Parthian." The script was derived from the Aramaic.

But to these Oriental elements must be added that of Hellenism,

the dominant world-culture which had penetrated into Parthia

and Media. It was indispensable to every state which

a hoped to play some part in the world and was not so

HeTfenhm utterly secluded as Persis and Atropatene; and the

' Arsacids entertained the less thought of opposition as

they were destitute of an independent national basis. All their

external institutions were borrowed from the Seleucid Empire:
their coinage with its Greek inscriptions and nomenclature; their
Attic standard of currency; and, doubtless, a great part of their
administration also. In the towns Greek merchants were every-
where settled. Mithradates I. even followed the precedent of the
Seleucids in building a new city, Arsacia, which replaced the ancient
Rhagae (Rai, Europus) in Media. The further the Arsacids ex-
panded the deeper they penetrated into the province of Hellenism;
the first Mithradates himself assumed, after his great conquests,
the title of Philhellen, " the protector of Hellenism," which was
retained by almost all his successors. Then follow the surnames
Epiphanes " the revealed god," Dicaeus " the just," Euergetes
" the benefactor," all of them essentially Greek in their reference,
and also regularly borne by all the kings. After the conquest of
the Euphrates and Tigris provinces it was imperative that the
royal residence should be fixed there. But as no one ventured to
transfer the royal household and the army, with its hordes of wild
horsemen, to the Greek town of Seleucia, and thus disorganize its
commerce, the Arsacids set up their abode in the great village of
Ctesiphon, on the left bank of the Tigris, opposite to Seleucia,
which accordingly retained its free Hellenic constitution, (see
CTESIPHON and SELEUCIA). So, also, Orodes I. spoke good Greek,
and Greek tragedies were staged at his court (Plut. Crass. 33).

In spite of this, however, the rise of the Arsacid Empire marks
the beginning of a reaction against Hellenism — not, indeed, a
conscious or official reaction, but a reaction which was jjeacf/on
all the more effective because it depended on the impetus agalast
of circumstances working with all the power of a natural Hellealsm.
force. The essential point is that the East is completely
divorced from the Mediterranean and the Hellenic world, that it
can derive no fresh powers from that quarter, and that, consequently,
the influence of the Oriental elements must steadily increase. This
process can be most clearly traced on the coins — almost the sole
memorials that the Parthian Empire has left. From reign to reign
the portraits grow poorer and more stereotyped, and the inscriptions
more neglected, till it becomes obvious that the engraver himself
no longer understood Greek but copied mechanically the signs
before his eyes, as is the case with the contemporary Indo-Scythian
coinage, and also in Mesene. Indeed, after Vologaeses I. (51-77),
the Aramaic script is occasionally employed. The political opposi-
tion to the western empires, the Seleucids first, then the Romans,
precipitated this development. Naturally enough the Greek cities
beheld a liberator in every army that marched from the West,
and were ever ready to cast in their lot with such — a disposition
for which the subsequent penalty was not lacking. The Parthian
magnates, on the other hand, with the army, would have little
to do with Greek culture and Greek modes of life, which they con-
temptuously regarded as effeminate and unmanly. Moreover,
they required of their rulers that they should live in the fashion of
their country, practise arms and the chase, and appear as Oriental
sultans, not as Grecian kings.

These tendencies taken together explain the radical weakness
of the Parthian Empire. It was easy enough to collect a great
army and achieve a great victory; it was absolutely impossible to
hold the army together for any longer period, or to conduct a regular
campaign. The Parthians proved incapable of creating a firm,
united organization, such as the Achaemenids before them, and the
Sassanids after them gave to their empire. The kings themselves
were toys in the hands of the magnates and the army who, tenaci-
ously as they clung to the anointed dynasty of the Arsacids, were
utterly indifferent to the person of the individual Arsacid. Every
moment they were ready to overthrow the reigning monarch and
to seat another on his throne. The kings, for their part, sought
protection in craft, treachery and cruelty, and only succeeded in
aggravating the situation. More especially they saw an enemy in
every prince, and the worst of enemies in their own sons. Sanguin-
ary crimes were thus of everyday occurrence in the royal house-
hold; and frequently it was merely a matter of chance whether
the father anticipated the son, or the son the father. The conditions
were the same as obtained subsequently under the Mahommedan
Caliphate (q.v.) and the empire of the Ottomans. The internal
history of the Parthian dominion is an unbroken sequence of civil
war and dynastic strife.

For the literature dealing with the Parthian Empire and
numismatics, see PARTHIA, under which heading will be found
a complete list of the kings, so far as we are able to reconstitute
them.

These conditions elucidate the fact that the Parthian Empire,
though founded on annexation and perpetually menaced by
hostile arms in both the East and the West, yet Laterals-
never took a strong offensive after the days of toryofthe
Mithradates II. It was bound to protect itself
against Scythian aggression in the East and
Roman aggression in the West. To maintain, or regain, the
suzerainty over Mesopotamia and the vassal states of that region,
as also over Atropatene and Armenia, was its most imperative
task. Yet it always remained on the defensive and even so was

218

PERSIA

[HISTORY: ANCIENT

lacking in energy. Whenever it made an effort to enforce its
claims, it retreated so soon as it was confronted by a resolute
foe.

Thus the wars between Parthia and Rome proceeded, not
from the Parthians — deeply injured though they were by the
Wars with encroachments of Pompey — but from Rome herself.
Crassus and Rome had been obliged, reluctantly enough, to enter
Antonius. UpOn the inheritance of Alexander the Great; and,
since the time of Pompey, had definitely subjected to her
dominion the Hellenistic countries as far as the Euphrates.
Thus the task now faced them of annexing the remainder of the
Macedonian Empire, the whole East from the Euphrates to the
Indus, and of thereby saving Greek civilization (cf. Plut. Comp.
Nic. et Crass. 4). The aristocratic republic quailed before such
an enterprise, though Lucullus, at the height of his successes,
entertained the thought (Plut. Luc. 30). But the ambitious men,
whose goal was to erect their own sovereignty on the ruins of the
republic, took up the project. With this objective M. Licinius
Crassus, the triumvir, in 54 B.C., took the aggressive against
Parthia, the occasion being favourable owing to the dynastic
troubles between Orodes I., the son of Phraates III., and his
brother Mithradates III. Crassus fell on the field of Carrhae
(June 9, 53 B.C.). With this Mesopotamia was regained by the
Parthians, and King Artavasdes of Armenia now entered their
alliance. But, apart from the ravaging of Syria (51 B.C.) by
Pacorus the son of Orodes, the threatened attack on the Roman
Empire was carried into effect neither then nor during the civil
wars of Caesar and Pompey. At the time of his assassination
Caesar was intent on resuming the expedition of Crassus. The
Parthians formed a league with Brutus and Cassius, as previously
with Pompey, but gave them no support, until in 40 B.C. a
Parthian army, led by Pacorus and the republican general
Labienus, harried Syria and Asia Minor. But it was easily
repulsed by Ventidius Bassus, the lieutenant of Mark Antony.
Pacorus himself fell on the gih of June 38 B.C. at Gindarus in
northern Syria. Antony then attacked the Parthians in 36 B.C.,
and penetrated through Armenia into Atropatene, but was
defeated by Phraates IV. — who in 37 B.C. had murdered his
father Orodes I. — and compelled to retreat with heavy losses.
The continuation of the war was frustrated by the conflict
with Octavian. Armenia alone was again subdued in 34 B.C.
by Antony, who treacherously captured and executed King
Artavasdes.

Roman opinion universally expected that Augustus would
take up the work of his predecessors, annihilate the Parthian
dominion, and subdue the East as far as the
Augustus. Indians, Scythians and Seres (cf. Horace and the other
Augustan poets). (But Augustus disappointed these
expectations. His whole policy and the needs of the newly
organized Roman Empire demanded peace. His efforts were
devoted to reaching a modus vivendi, by which the authority
of Rome and her most vital claims might be peacefully vindicated.
This the weakness of Parthia enabled him to effect without
much difficulty. His endeavours were seconded by the revolt
of Tiridates II., before whom Phraates IV. was compelled to
flee (32 B.C.), till restored by the Scythians. Augustus lent no
support to Tiridates in his second march on Ctesiphon (26 B.C.),
but Phraates was all the more inclined on that account to
stand on good terms with him. Consequently in 20 B.C., he
restored the standards captured in the victories over Crassus
and Antony, and recognized the Roman suzerainty over Osroene
and Armenia. In return, the Parthian dominion in Babylonia
and the other vassal states was left undisputed.

Thus it was due not to the successes and strength of the Par-
thians but entirely to the principles of Roman policy as defined by
Augustus that their empire appears as a second great independent
power, side by side with Rome. The precedence of the Caesars,
indeed, was always admitted by the Arsacids; and Phraates IV.
soon entered into a state of dependency on Rome by sending
(9 B.C.) four of his sons as hostages to Augustus — a convenient
method of obviating the danger threatened in their person,
without the necessity of killing them. In 4 B.C., however,

Phraates was assassinated by his favourite wife Musa and her
son Phraates V. In the subsequent broils a Parthian faction
obtained the release of one of the princes interned in Rome
as Vonones I. (A.D. 8). He failed, however, to maintain his
position for long. He was a stranger to the Parthian customs,
and the feeling of shame at dependency on the foreigner was
too strong. So the rival faction brought out another Arsacid,
resident among the Scythian nomads, Artabanus II., who
easily expelled Vonones — only to create a host of enemies by
his brutal cruelty, and to call forth fresh disorders.

Similar proceedings were frequently repeated in the period
following. In the intervals the Parthians made several attempts
to reassert their dominion over Armenia and there
install an Arsacid prince ; but on each occasion votogaeses I.
they retreated without giving battle so soon as the
Romans prepared for war. Only the dynasty of Atropatene
was finally deposed and the country placed under an Arsacid
ruler. Actual war with Rome broke out under Vologaeses I.
(51-77), who made his brother Tiridates king of Armenia.
After protracted hostilities, in which the Roman army was
commanded by Cn. Domitius Corbulo, a peace was concluded
in A.D. 63, confirming the Roman suzerainty over Armenia but
recognizing Tiridates as king (see CORBULO). Tiridates himself
visited Rome and was there invested with the diadem by
Nero (A.D. 66). After that Armenia continued under the rule
of an Arsacid dynasty.

These successes of Vologaeses were counterbalanced by
serious losses in the East. He was hampered in an energetic
campaign against Rome by attacks of the Dahae and Sacae.
Hyrcania, also, revolted and asserted its independence under
a separate line of kings. A little later, the Alans, a great Iranian
tribe in the south of Russia — the ancestors of the present-day
Ossets — broke for the first time through the Caucasian passes,
and ravaged Media and Armenia — an incursion which they often
repeated in the following centuries.

On the other side, the reign of Vologaeses I. is characterized
by a great advance in the Oriental reaction against Hellenism.
The line of Arsacids which came to the throne in the person of
Artabanus II. (A.D. 10) stands in open opposition to the old
kings with their leanings to Rome and, at least external, tinge
of Hellenism. The new regime obviously laid much more stress
on the Oriental character of their state, though Philostratus,
in his life of Apollonius of Tyana(who visited the Parthian court),
states that Vardanes I. (A.D. 40-45), the rival king to the brutal
Gotarzes (A.D. 40-51), was a cultivated man (Vit. Ap. i. 22, 28,
31 sqq.); and Vologaeses I. is distinguished by the excellent
relations which subsisted all his life between himself and his
brothers Pacorus and Tiridates, the kings of Media and Armenia.
But the coins of Vologaeses I. are quite barbarous, and for the
first time on some of them appear the initials of the name of
the king in Aramaic letters by the side of the Greek legend.
The Hellenism of Seleucia was now attacked with greater deter-
mination. For seven years (A.D. 37-43) the city maintained
itself in open rebellion (Tac. Ann. xi. 8 seq.), till at last it
surrendered to Vardanes, who in consequence enlarged Ctesiphon,
which was afterwards fortified by Pacorus (A.D. 78-105:
v. Ammian. 23, 6, 23). In the neighbourhood of the same town
Vologaeses I. founded a city Vologesocerta (Balashkert), to
which he attempted to transplant the population to Seleucia
(Plin. vi. 122: cf. Th. Noldeke in Zeilschr. d. deutsch. morgenl.
Gesellschaft, xxviii., too). Another of his foundations was
Vologesias (the Arabian Ullaish), situated near Hira on the
Euphrates, south of Babylon, which did appreciable damage to
the commerce of Seleucia and is often mentioned in inscrip-
tions as the destination of the Palmyrene caravans.

After Vologaeses I. follows a period of great disturbances.
The literary tradition, indeed, deserts us almost entirely, but
the coins and isolated literary references prove that during the
years A.D. 77 to 147, two kings, and sometimes three or more,
were often reigning concurrently (Vologaeses II. 77-79, and
111-147; Pacorus 78-c. 105; Osroes 106-129; Mithradates V.
129-147: also Artabanus III. 80-81; Mithradates IV. and his

HISTORY: ANCIENT]

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219

son Sanatruces II. 115; and Parthamaspates 116-117). Ob-
viously the empire can never have been at peace during these
years, a fact which materially assisted the aggressive campaigns
Wars with of Trajan (113-117). Trajan resuscitated the
Trajan and old project of Crassus and Caesar, by which the
Marcus empire of Alexander as far as India was to be won
"s> for Western civilization. In pursuance of this plan
he reduced Armenia, Mesopotamia and Babylonia to the posi-
tion of imperial provinces. On his death, however, Hadrian
immediately reverted to the Augustan policy and restored the
conquests. Simultaneously there arose in the East the powerful
Indo-Scythian empire of the Kushana, which doubtless limited
still further the Parthian possessions in eastern Iran.

An era of quiet seems to have returned with Vologaeses III.
(147-191), and we hear no more of rival kings. With the Roman
Empire a profound peace had reigned since Hadrian (117),
which was first disturbed by the attack of Marcus Aurelius and
Aelius Verus in 162. This war, which broke out on the question
of Armenia and Osroene, proved of decisive significance for the
future development of the East, for, in its course, Seleucia was
destroyed by the Romans under Avidius Cassius (164). The
downfall of the great Greek city sealed the fate of Hellenism
in the countries east of the Euphrates. Henceforward Greek
culture practically vanishes and gives place to Aramaic; it is
significant that in future the kings of Mesene stamped their
coinage with Aramaic legends. This Aramaic victory was
powerfully aided by the ever-increasing progress of Christianity,
which soon created, as is well known, an Aramaic literature
Christianity. °f which the language was the dialect of Edessa, a city
in which the last king of Osroene, Abgar IX. (170-
214), had been converted to the faith. After that Greek
culture and Greek literature were only accessible to the Orientals
in an Aramaic dress. Vologaeses III. is probably also the
king Valgash, who, according to a native tradition, preserved
in the Dinkart, began a collection of the sacred writings of
Zoroaster— the origin of the Aiiesla which has come down to us.
This would show how the national Iranian element in the
Parthian Empire was continually gathering strength.

The Roman war was closed in 165 by a peace which ceded
north-west Mesopotamia to Rome. Similar conflicts took place
in 195-202 between Vologaeses IV. (191-209) and Septimius
Severus, and again in 216-217 between Artabanus IV. (209-226)
and Caracalla. They failed, however, to affect materially the
position of the two empires.

VIII. The Sassanian Empire. — That the Arsacid Empire
should have endured some 350 years after its foundation by
Ardashiri. Mithradates I. and Phraates II., was a result, not
of internal strength, but of chance working in its
external development. It might equally well have so existed
for centuries more. But under Artabanus IV. the catastrophe
came. In his days there arose in Persis — precisely as Cyrus
had arisen under Astyages the Mede — a great personality.
Ardashir (Artaxerxes) I., son of Papak (Babek), the descendant
of Sasan, was the sovereign of one of the small states into which
Persis had gradually fallen. His father Papak had taken
possession of the district of Istakhr, which had replaced the old
Persepolis, long a mass of ruins. Thence Ardashir I., who
reigned from about A.D. 212, subdued the neighbouring poten-
tates— disposing of his own brothers among the rest. This
proceeding quickly led to war with his suzerain Artabanus IV.
The conflict was protracted through several years, and the
Parthians were worsted in three battles. The last of these
witnessed the fall of Artabanus (A.D. 226), though a Parthian
king, Artavasdes — perhaps a son of Artabanus IV. — who is
only known to us from his own coins, appears to have retained
a portion of the empire for some time longer. The members
of the Arsacid line who fell into the hands of the victor were put
to death; a number of the princes found refuge in Armenia,
where the Arsacid dynasty maintained itself till A.D. 429.
The remainder of the vassal states — -Carmania, Susiana, Mesene
— were ended by Ardashir; and the autonomous desert fortress
of Hatra in Mesopotamia was destroyed by his son Shapur

(Sapor) I., according to the Persian and Arabian traditions,
which, in this point, are deserving of credence. The victorious
Ardashir then took possession of the palace of Ctesiphon and
assumed the title " King of the kings of the Iranians " (/Ja<7iX«i>s
/SaeriXewi' 'Apuivuv).

The new empire founded by Ardashir I. — the Sassanian,
or Neo-Persian Empire — is essentially different from that of
his Arsacid predecessors. It is, rather, a continua- sassaalaa
tion of the Achaemenid traditions which were still Warswita
alive on their native soil. Consequently the national Rome-
impetus — already clearly revealed in the title of the new
sovereign — again becomes strikingly manifest. The Sassanian
Empire, in fact, is once more a national Persian or Iranian
Empire. The religious element is, of course, inseparable
from the national, and Ardashir, like all the dynasts of Persis,
was an ardent devotee of the Zoroastrian doctrine, and closely
connected with the priesthood. In his royal style he assumed
the designation " Mazdayasnian " (MaaSatrvas) , and the fire-
cult was everywhere vigorously disseminated. Simultaneously
the old claims to world dominion made their reappearance.
After the defeat of Artabanus, Ardashir, as heir of the Achae-
menids, formulated his pretensions to the dominion of western
Asia (Dio. Cass. 80, 3; Herodian vi. 2, 4; Zonar. xii. 15; similarly
under Shapur II.: Ammian. Marc. xvii. 5, 5). He attacked
Armenia, though without permanent success (cf. von Gutschmid
in Zeitschr. d. d. morgenl. Ges. xxxi. 47, on the fabulous Armenian
account of these wars), and despatched his armies against
Roman Mesopotamia. They strayed as far as Syria and
Cappadocia. The inner decay of the Roman Empire, and the
widespread tendency of its troops to mutiny and usurpation,
favoured his enterprise. Nevertheless, the armies of Alexander
Severus, supported by the king of Armenia, succeeded in repelling
the Persians, though the Romans sustained severe losses (231-
233). Towards the end of his reign Ardashir resumed the attack;
while his son Shapur I. (241-272) reduced Nisibis and Carrhae
and penetrated into Syria, but was defeated by shapuri
Gordian III. at Resaena (243). Soon afterwards,
however, the Roman Empire seemed to collapse utterly. The
Goths defeated Decius (251) and harried the Balkan Peninsula
and Asia Minor, while insurrections broke out everywhere and
the legions created one Caesar after the other. Then Shapur
resumed the war, subdued Armenia and plundered Antioch.
The emperor Valerian, who marched to encounter him, was
overthrown at Edessa and taken prisoner (260). The Persian
armies advanced into Cappadocia; but here Ballista or Balista
(d. c. 264) beat them back, and Odenathus (Odainath), prince of
Palmyra (<?.».), rose in their rear, defeated Shapur, captured
his harem, and twice forced his way to Ctesiphon (263-265).
Shapur was in no position to repair the defeat, or even to hold
Armenia; so that the Sassanid power failed to pass the bounds
of the Arsacid Empire. Nevertheless Shapur I., in contrast
to his father, assumed the title " King of the kings of the Iranians
and non-Iranians" (/SamXeiis /SatriXeaji' 'Apiav&v /ecu 'Avapiavwv;
shah an shah Iran we Aniran), thus emphasizing his claim to
world dominion. His successors retained the designation,
little as it corresponded to the facts, for the single non-Iranian
land governed by the Sassanids was, as under the Parthians,
the district of the Tigris and Euphrates as far as the Mesopo-
tamian desert; western and northern Mesopotamia remained
Roman.

The Sassanid ruler is the representative of the " Kingly Majesty,"
derived from Ormuzd, which appears in the Avesta as the angel
Kavaem Hvareno, " the royal glory," and, according to
legend, once beamed in the Iranian kings, unattainable to TV*"
all but those of royal blood. A picture, which frequently
recurs in the rock-reliefs of Ardashir I. and Shapur I., represents
the king and the god Ormuzd both on horseback, the latter in the
act of handing to his companion the ring of sovereignty. Thus it
is explicable that all the Sassanids, as many of the Arsacids before
them, include the designation of " god " in their formal style.
From this developed (as already under the Arsacids) that strict
principle of legitimacy which is still vigorous in Firdousi. It
applies, however, to the whole royal house, precisely as in the
Ottoman Empire of to-day. The person of the individual ruler

220

PERSIA

[HISTORY: ANCIENT

Achieve-
ments.

is, on the other hand, a matter of indifference. He can readily be
removed and replaced by another; but no usurper who was not
of the legitimate blood can hope to become the genuine king.
Therefore the native tradition carries the Sassanid line back to the
Achaemenids and, still further, to the kings of the legendary period.
Officially the king is all-powerful, and his will, which is guided
by God and bound up in His law, unfettered. Thus, externally,
he is surrounded by all the splendour of sovereignty; on his head
he wears a great and resplendent crown, with a high circular centre-
piece; he is clothed in gold and jewels; round him is a brilliant
court, composed of his submissive servants. He sits in dazzling
state on his throne in Ctesiphon. All who approach fling them-
selves to the ground, life and death depend on his nod. Among
his people he is accounted the fairest, strongest and wisest man
of the empire; and from him is required the practice of all piety
and virtue, as well as skill in the chase and in arms — especially
the bow. Ardashir I., moreover, and his successors endeavoured
to establish the validity of the royal will by absorbing the vassal
states and instituting a firmer organization. Nevertheless they
failed to attain the complete independence and power of the Achae-
menids. Not strong enough to break up the nobility, with its
great estates, they were forced to utilize its services and still further
to promote its interests; while their dependence on its good- will
and assistance led inevitably to incessant gifts of money, lands
and men. This state of affairs had also prevailed under the later
Achaemenids, and had materially contributed to the disintegration
of the empire and the numerous insurrections of the satraps. But
the older Achaemenids held an entirely different position; and
hardly a single Sassanid enjoyed even that degree of power which
was still retained by the later Achaemenids. It was of fundamental
importance that the Sassanian Empire could not make good its
claim to world dominion; and, in spite of the title of its kings, it
always remained essentially the kingdom of Iran — or rather west
Iran, together with the districts on the Tigris and Euphrates.
This fact, again, is most closely connected with its military and
administrative organization. The external and internal conditions
of the empire are in mutual reaction upon one another. The
empire, which in extent did not exceed that of the Arsacids with
its vassal states, was protected on the east and west by the great
deserts of central Iran and Mesopotamia. For the
defence of these provinces the mounted archers, who
formed the basis of the army, possessed adequate
strength; and though the Scythian nomads from the
east, or the Romans from the west, might occasionally penetrate deep
into the country, they never succeeded in maintaining their position.
But the power of the neo-Persian Empire was not great enough
for further conquests, though its army was capable and animated
by a far stronger national feeling than that of the Parthians. It
still consisted, however, of levies from the retinue of the magnates
led by their territorial lords; and, although these troops would
stream in at the beginning of a war, they could not be kept per-
manently together. For, on the one hand, they were actuated
by the most varied personal interests and antipathies, not all of
which the king could satisfy; on the other hand he could not,
owing to the natural character and organization of his dominions,
maintain and pay a large army for any length of time. Thus the
great hosts soon melted away, and a war, begun successfully,
ended ingloriously, and often disastrously. Under such circum-
stances an elaborate tactical organization employing different
species of arms, or the execution of a comprehensive plan of cam-
paign, was out of the question. The successes of the Sassanids in
the east were gained in the later period of their dominion; and the
Roman armies, in spite of decay in discipline and military spirit,
still remained their tactical and strategical superiors. A great
victory might be won — even an emperor might be captured, like
Valerian — but immediately afterwards successes, such as those
gained against Shapur I. (who was certainly an able general) by
Ballista and Odenathus of Palmyra, or the later victories of Carus,
Julian and others, demonstrated how far the Persians were from
being on an equality with the Romans. That Babylonia perma-
nently remained a Sassanian province was due merely to the
f:ographical conditions and to the political situation of the Roman
mpire, not to the strength of the Persians.

Among the magnates six great houses — seven, if we include the

royal house — were still regarded as the foremost, precisely as

_ under the Achaemenids, and from these were drawn

* the generals, crown officials and governors (cf. Procop.

•iity- Pers j 6 ,3 sqq ) jn tne iast Of these positions we

frequently find princes of the blood, who then bear the royal title
(shah). Some of these houses — whose origin the legends derive from
King Gushtasp (i.e. Vishtaspa), the protector of Zoroaster (Marquart,
Zeitschr. d. d. morgenl. Ges. xlix. 635 sqq.), already existed under
the Arsacids, e.g. the Suren (Surenas, vide supra, p. 798) and Karen
(Carenes, Tac. Ann. xii. 12 sqq.), who had obviously embraced the
cause of the victorious dynasty at the correct moment and so re-
tained their position. The name Pahlavan, moreover, which denoted
the Parthian magnates, passed over into the new empire. Below
these there was an inferior nobility, the dikhans (" village-lords ")
and the "knights" (aswar); who, as among the Parthians, took
the field in heavy scale-armour. To an even greater extent than

under the Arsacids the empire was subdivided into a host of small
provinces, at the head of each being a Marzban (" boundary-lord,"

lord of the marches "). These were again comprised in four
great districts. With each of these local potentates the king could
deal with as scant consideration as he pleased, always provided
that he had the power or understood the art of making himself
feared. But to break through the system or replace it by another
was impossible. In fact he was compelled to proceed with great
caution whenever he wished to elevate a favourite of humbler
origin to an office which custom reserved for the nobility. Thus
it is all the more worthy of recognition that the Sassanian Empire
was a fairly orderly empire, with an excellent legal administration,
and that the later sovereigns did their utmost to repress the
encroachments of the nobility, to protect the commonalty, and,
above all, to carry out a just system of taxation.

Side by side with the nobles ranked the spiritual chiefs, now
a far more powerful body than under the Arsacids. Every larger
district had its upper Magian (Magupat, mobed, i.e.
" Lord of the Magians "). At their head was the Keag>°us
supreme Mobed, resident in Rhagae (Rai), who was re- ' op~
garded as the successor of Zoroaster. In the new empire, *"*"*•
of which the king and people were alike zealous professors of the true
faith, their influence was extraordinarily strong (cf. Agathias ii.
26) — comparable to the influence of the priesthood in later Egypt,
and especially^ in Byzantium and medieval Christendom. As has
already been indicated, it was in their religious attitudes that the
essential difference lay between the Sassanid Empire and the older
Iranian states. But, in details, the fluctuations were so manifold
that it is necessary at this point to enter more fully into the history
of Persian religion (cf. especially H. Gelzer, " Eznik u. d. Entwickel.
des pers. Religions-systems," in the Zeitschr. f. armen. Philol.
i. 149 sqq.).

The Persian religion, as we have seen, spread more and more
widely after the Achaemenian period. In the Indo-Scythian
Empire the Persian gods were zealously worshipped ; in Armenia the
old national religion was almost entirely banished by the Persian
cults (Gelzer, " Zur armen. Gotterlehre," in Ber. d. sacks. Gesch.
d. Wissensch., 1895); in Cappadocia, North Syria and the west of
Asia Minor, the Persian gods were everywhere adored side by
side with the native deities. It was in the third century that the
cult of Mithras, with its mysteries and a theology evolved from
Zoroastrianism, attained the widest diffusion in all Latin-speaking
provinces of the Roman dominion; and it even seemed for a while
as though the Sol invictus Mithras, highly favoured by the Caesars,
would become the official deity-in-chief of the empire. But in all
these cults the Persian gods are perfectly tolerant of other native
or foreign divinities; vigorous as was their propagandism, it was yet
equally far removed from an attack on other creeds. Thus this
Parseeism always bears a syncretic character; and the supreme
god of Zoroastrian theory, Ahuramazda (i.e. Zeus or Jupiter), in
practice yields place to his attendant deities, who work in the world
and are able to lead the believer, who has been initiated and keeps
the commandments of purity, to salvation.

But, meanwhile, in its Iranian home and especially in Persis,
the religion of Zoroaster lived a quiet life, undisturbed by the pro-
ceedings of the outside world. Here the poems of the prophet and
fragments of ancient religious literature survived, understood by
the Magians and rendered accessible to the faithful laity by versions
in the modern dialect (Pahlavi). Here the opposition between the
good spirit of light and the demons of evil — between Ormuzd and
Ahriman — still remained the principal dogma of the creed; while
all other gods and angels, however estimable their aid, were but
subordinate servants of Ormuzd, whose highest manifestation on
earth was not the sun-god Mithras, but the holy fire guarded by his
priests. Here all the prescriptions of purity — partly connected
with national customs, and impossible of execution abroad —
were diligently observed; and even the injunction not to pollute
earth with corpses, but to cast out the dead to vulture and,
dog, was obeyed in its full force. At the same time Ahuramazda
preserved his character as a national god, who bestowed on his
worshippers victory and world dominion. In the sculptures of
the Sassanids, as also in Armenian traditions, he appears on horse-
back as a war-god. Here, again, the theology was further developed,
and an attempt made to annul the old dualism by envisaging both
Ormuzd and Ahriman as emanations of an original principle of
infinite time (Zervan), a doctrine which long enjoyed official validity
under the Sassanids till, in the reign of Chosroes I., " the sect
of Zervanites " was pronounced heretical.1 But, above all, the
ritual and the doctrine of purity were elaborated and expanded,
and there was evolved a complete and detailed system of casuistry,
dealing with all things allowed and forbidden, the forms of pollution
and the expiation for each, &c., which, in its arid and spiritless
monotony vividly recalls the similar prescriptions in the Pentateuch.
The consequences of this development were that orthodoxy and
literal obedience to all priestly injunctions now assumed an impor-
tance far greater than previously ; henceforward, the great command-
ment of Zoroastrianism, as of Judaism, is to combat the heresies

1 It may be observed that this innovation was also known to
the Mithras-cult of the West, where Zervan appears as al&v.

HISTORY: ANCIENT]

PERSIA

221

of the heathen, a movement which had already had an energetic
representative in the prophet himself. Heathenish cults and for-
bidden manners and customs are a pollution to the land and a deep
insult to the true God. Therefore the duty of the believer is to
combat and destroy the unbeliever and the heretic. In short, the
tolerance of the Achaemenids and the indifference of the Arsacids
are now replaced by intolerance and religious persecution.

Such were the views in which Ardashir I. grew up, and in their
energetic prosecution he found a potent instrument for the building
up of his empire. It has previously been mentioned that Volo-
gaeses III. had already begun a collection of the holy writings;
and the task was resumed under Ardashir. At his order the
orthodox doctrines and texts were compiled by the high priest
Jansar; all divergent theories were prohibited and their adherents
proscribed. Thus arose the Avesta, the sacred book of the Parsees.
Above all, the sacred book of laws, the Vendidad, breathes through-
out the spirit of the Sassanian period, in its intolerance, its casuistry
degenerating into absurdity, and its soulless monotony. Sub-
scription to the restored orthodox doctrine was to the Iranian a
matter of course. The schismatics Ardashir imprisoned for a year ;
if, at its expiration, they still refused to listen to reason, and remained
stiff-necked, they were executed. It is even related that, in his
zeal for uniformity of creed, Ardashir wished to extinguish the
holy fires in the great cities of the empire and the Parthian vassal
states, with the exception of that which burned in the residence
of the dynasty. This plan he was unable to execute. In Armenia,
also, Ardashir and Shapur, during the period of their occupation,
sought to introduce the orthodox religion, destroyed the heathen
images — even those of the Iranian gods which were here considered
heathen, — and turned the shrines into fire-altars (Gelzer, Ber.
sacks. Ges. p. 135, 1895). Shapur I., who appears to have had a
broader outlook, added to the religious writings a collection of
scientific treatises on medicine, astronomy, mathematics, philo-
sophy, zoology, &c., partly from Indian and Greek sources.

This religious development was most strongly influenced by the
fact that, meanwhile, a powerful opponent of Zoroastrianism had
arisen with an equally zealous propagandism and an
rh in etlual exclusiyeness and intolerance. More especially
in the countries of the Tigris and Euphrates, now alto-
gether Aramaic, Christianity had everywhere gained a
firm footing.1 But its missionary enterprise stretched over the whole
of Iran, and even farther. The time was come when, in the western
and eastern worlds alike, the religious question was for large masses
of people the most important question in life, and the diffusion
of their own creed and the suppression of all others the highest
and holiest of tasks. The man who thinks thus knows no com-
promise, and so Zoroastrianism and Christianity confronted each
other as mortal enemies. Still the old idea that every religion
contained a portion of the truth, and that it was possible to borrow
something from one and amalgamate it with another, had not yet
lost all its power. From such a conception arose the teaching of
Mani or Manes. For Manichaeism (g.f.) is an attempt to weld the
doctrine of the Gospel and the doctrine of Zoroaster
inlchac- ;nt(J a un;form system, though naturally not without
an admixture of other elements, principally Babylonian
and Gnostic. Mani, perhaps a Persian from Babylonia, is said to
have made his first appearance as a teacher on the coronation
day of Shapur I. At all events he found numerous adherents,
both at court and among the magnates of the empire. The king
even inclined to him, till in a great disputation the Magians
gained the predominance. None the less Mani found means
to diffuse his creed far and wide over the whole empire. Even
the heir to the throne, Hormizd I. (reigned 272-273), was
favourably disposed to him; but Shapur's younger son, Bahram I.
(273-276), yielded to sacerdotal pressure, and Mani was executed.
After that Manichaeism was persecuted and extirpated in Iran.
Yet it maintained itself not merely in the west, where its head
resided at Babylon — propagating thence far into the Roman
Empire — but also in the east, in Khorasan and beyond the
bounds of the Sassanian dominion. There the seat of its pon-
tiff was at Samarkand; thence it penetrated into Central Asia,
where, buried in the desert sands which entomb the cities of
eastern Turkestan, numerous fragments of the works of Mani
and his disciples, in the Persian language (Pahlavi) and Syrian
script, and in an East Iranian dialect, called Sogdian, which was
used by the Manichaeans of Central Asia, have been discovered
(K. Muller, " Handschriftenreste in Estrangelo-schrift aus Turfan,
in Chinesisch-Turkestan," in Abh. d. berl. Akod., 1904); among them
translations of texts of the New Testament (K. Muller, Berichte
der Berl., 1907, p. 260 seq.). In these texts God the Father
is identified with the Zervan of Zarathustrism, the devil with
Ahriman. The further religious development of the Sassanid
Empire will be touched upon later.

1 For the propagation and history of the Christians in the Sassanid
Empire, cf. Labourt, Le Christianisme dans V empire perse sous la
dynastie sassanide (1904); Harnack, Die Mission and Ausbreitung
des Christenthums in den ersten drei Jahrhunderten, 2. Aufl. (1906),
Bd. II. p. 121 seq. ; Chabot, Synodicon orientale (1902) (a collection of
the acts of the Nestorian synods held under the rule of theSassanids).

Like the Arsacids the kings resided in Ctesiphon, where, out of
the vast palace built by Chosroes I., a portion at least of the great
hall is still erect. On the ruins of Seleucia, on the kH~*
opposite bank of the Tigris, Ardashir I. built the city ~*
of Veh-Ardashir ("good is Ardashir"), to which the later *m
kings added new towns, or rather new quarters. In Susiana
Shapur I. built the great city of Gondev-Shapur, which succeeded
the ancient capital of the Persian Empire. At the same time the
mother-country again gained importance; especially the capital
of Persis, Istakhr, which had replaced the former Persepolis (now
the ruins of Hajji-abad). Farther in the south-east, Ardashir I.
built Gur (now Firuzabad), under the name of Ardashir-khurre
(" the glory of Ardashir "). At these places and in Sarwistan,
near Shiraz and elsewhere, lie ruins of the Sassanid palaces, which
in their design go back to the Achaemenid architecture, blending
with it, however, Graeco-Syrian elements and serving in their turn
as models for the structures of the Caliphs (see ARCHITECTURE :
| Sassanian). After its long quiescence under the Arsacids native
art underwent a general renaissance, which, though not aspiring
to the Achaemenian creations, was still of no small importance.
Of the Sassanian rock-sculptures some have already been mentioned ;
besides these, numerous engraved signet-stones have been preserved.
The metal-work, carpets and fabrics of this period enjoyed a high
reputation; they were widely distributed and even influenced
western art.

In the intellectual life and literature of the Sassanid era the
main characteristic is the complete disappearance of Hellenism and
the Greek language. Ardashir I. and Shapur I. still ^^
appended Greek translations to some of their inscrip- Ltte'
tions; but all of later date are drawn up in Pahlavi alone. The
coins invariably bear a Pahlavi legend— on the obverse the king's
head with his name and title ; on the reverse, a fire-altar (generally
with the ascription " fire of Ardashir, Shapur, &c.," i.e. the fire of
the royal palace), and the name of the place of coinage, usually
abbreviated. The real missionaries of culture in the empire were
the Aramaeans (Syrians), who were connected with the West by their
Christianity, and in their translations diffused Greek literature
through the Orient. But there also developed a rather extensive
Pahlavi literature, not limited to religious subjects, but containing
works in belles lettres, modernizations of the old Iranian sagas and
native traditions, e.g. the surviving fabulous history of Ardashir I.,
ethical tales, &c., with translations of foreign literature, principally
Indian, — one instance being the celebrated book of tales Kaltiah
and Dimnah (see SYRIAC LITERATURE), dating from Chosroes I.,
in whose reign chess also was introduced from India.

AUTHORITIES. — Side by side with the accounts of Roman and
Greek authors stands the indigenous tradition which, especially
for the later years of the empire, is generally trustworthy. It
goes back to a native work, the Khudai nama (" book of lords "),
compiled under Chosroes I. and continued to Yazdegerd III. Its
narrations are principally preserved in Tabari, though there com-
bined with numerous Arabian traditions; also in the poetical
adaptation of Firdousi. To these may be added Syrian accounts,
particularly in the martyrologies, which have been excellently
treated by G. Hoffmann, Auszuge aus syrischen Akten persischer
Mdrtyrer (1880) ; also the statements of the Armenian historians.

The fundamental work on Sassanian history is Theodor Noldeke's
Gesch. der Perser u. Araber zur Zeit der Sassaniden, aus der arabischen
Chronik des Tabari (1879, trans, with notes and excursuses chiefly
on the chronology and organization of the empire). On this is
based Noldeke's Aufsdtze zur pers. Gesch, (1887 ; containing a history
of the Sassanian Empire, pp. 86 sqq.). The only other works re-
quiring mention are: G. Rawlinson, The Seventh Great Oriental
Monarchy (1876), and F. Justi's sketch in the Grundriss der iranischen
Philologie, vol. ii. (1904). For the geography and numerous details of
administration: J. Marquart, " Eranshahr" (Abh. d. getting. Ges. d.
Wissensch., 1901). For the numismatology the works of A. D.
Mordtmann are of prime importance, especially his articles in the
Zeitschr. d. d. morgenl. Ges. (1879), xxxiii. 113 sqq. and xxxiv.
I sqq. (1880), where the inscriptions of the individual kings are
also enumerated. Also Noldeke, ibid. xxxi. 147 sqq. (1877). For
facsimiles of coins the principal work is J. de Bartholomaei, Collection
de monnaies sassanides (2nd ed., St Petersburg, 1875). For the
inscriptions: Edward Thomas, " Early Sassanian Inscriptions,"
Journ. R. A. Soc. vol. ii. (1868); West, " Pahlavi Literature " in the
Grundriss d. iran. Philol. vol. ii. For the monuments: Flandin and
Coste, Voyage en Perse (1851); Stolze, Persepolis (1882); Fr. Sarre,
Iran, Felsreliefs a. d. Z. der Achaemeniden und Sassaniden (1908).

In foreign policy the problems under the Sassanid kings2

2 List of kings (after Noldeke, Tabari, p. 435).
Ardashir I., 226^-241. Ardashir II., 379-383.

Shapur I., 241-272. Shapur III., 383-388.

Hormizd I., 272-273. Bahram IV., 388-399.

Bahram I., 273-276. Yazdegerd I., 399-420.

Bahram II., 276-293. Bahram V., Gor. 420-438.

Bahram III., 293. Yazdegerd II., 438-457.

Narseh (Narses), 293-302. Hormizd III., 457-459.

Hormizd II., 302-310. Peroz, 457-484.

Shapur II., 310-379. Balash, 484-488.

222

PERSIA

[HISTORY: ANCIENT

remained as of old, the defence and, when possible, the expansion
of the eastern and western frontiers. In the first two centuries
History °^ the Sassanid Empire we hear practically nothing
of the of its relations with the East. Only occasional
Sassaataa notices show that the inroads of the Oriental nomads
Empire. j^d not ceased, and that the extent of the empire
had by no means exceeded the bounds of the Parthian dominion
— Sacastene (Seistan) and western Afghanistan. Far to the east,
on both sides of the Indus, the Kushana Empire was still in exis-
tence, though it was already hastening to decay, and about
A.D. 320 was displaced from its position in India by the Gupta
dynasty. In the west the old conflict for Osroene and northern
Mesopotamia (now Roman provinces), with the fortresses of
Edessa, Carrhae and Nisibis, still smouldered. Armenia the
Sassanids were all the more eager to regain, since there the
Arsacid dynasty still survived and turned for protection to
Rome, with whom, in consequence, new wars perpetually broke
out. In the reign of Bahram II. (276-293), the emperor Carus,
burning to avenge the disaster of Valerian, penetrated into
Mesopotamia without meeting opposition, and reduced Coche
(near Seleucia) and Ctesiphon; but his sudden death, in
December of 283, precluded further success, and the Roman army
returned home. Bahram, however, was unable to effect any-
thing, as his brother Hormizd was in arms, supported by the
Sacae and other tribes. (Mamertin, Panegyr. Maximin. 7. 10;
Genettt. Maximin. 5, 17.) He chose, consequently, to buy
peace with Diocletian by means of presents. Some years later
his uncle and successor, Narses, after subduing his rival Bahram
III., occupied Armenia and defeated the emperor Galerius
at Callinicum (296). But in the following year he sustained a
severe reverse in Armenia, in which he lost his war-chest and
harem. He then concluded a peace, by the terms of which
Armenia remained under Roman suzerainty, and the steppes
of northern Mesopotamia, with Singara and the hill-country
on the left bank of the Tigris as far as Gordyene, were ceded
to the victor (Ammian. Marc. xxv. 7, 9; Petr. Patr. fr. 13, 14;
Rufus brev. 25). In return Narses regained his household.
This peace, ratified in 297 and completely expelling the Sassanids
from the disputed districts, lasted for forty years.

For the rest, practically nothing is known of the history
of the first six successors of Shapur I. After the death of
Hormizd II. (302-310), the son of Narses, the magnates
imprisoned or put to death his adult sons, one of whom,
Hormisdas, later escaped to the Romans, who used him as a
pretender in their wars. Shapur II., a posthumous child of the
late king, was then raised to the throne, a proof that the great
magnates held the sovereignty in their own hands and attempted
to order matters at their own pleasure. Shapur, however,
when he came to manhood proved himself an independent and
energetic ruler.

Meanwhile the Roman Empire had become Christian, the
sequel of which was that the Syro-Christian population of
Shapur H. Mesopotamia and Babylonia — even more than the
Persecution Hellenic cities in former times — gravitated to the
of the West and looked to Rome for deliverance from the
Christians, jngfjel yoke. On similar grounds Christianity, as
opposed to the Mazdaism enforced officially by the Sassanids,
became predominant in Armenia. Between these two great
creeds the old Armenian religion was unable to hold its own;
as early as A.D. 294 King Tiridates was converted by Gregory
the Illuminator and adopted the Christian faith. For this very
reason the Sassanid Empire was the more constrained to champion
Zoroastrianism. It was under Shapur II. that the compilation
of the Avesta was completed and the state orthodoxy perfected
by the chief mobed, Aturpad. All heresy was proscribed by the

Kayadh I., 488-531. (Bahram VI., Cobin, Bistam 590-

(Djamasp, 496-498). 596.)

Chosroes (Khosrau) I., Anushir- Kavadh II., Sheroe, 628.

van, 531-579. Ardashir III., 628-630.

Hormizd IV., 579-59°- (Shahrbaraz, 630.)

Chosroes II., Parvez, 590-628. (Boran and others, 630-632.)

Yazdegerd III., 632-651.

On most of these kings there are separate articles.

state, defection from the true faith pronounced a capital crime,
and the persecution of the heterodox — particularly the Chris-
tians— began (cf. Sachall, " Die rechtlichen Verhaltnisse der
Christen in Sassanidenreich," in Mitteilungen des Seminars
fiir orientalische Sprachen fiir Berlin, Bd. X., Abt. 2, 1907).
Thus the duel between the two great empires now becomes
simultaneously a duel between the two religions.

In such a position of affairs a fresh war with Rome was inevit-
able.1 It was begun by Shapur in A.D. 337, the year that saw
the death of Constantine the Great. The conflict centred round
the Mesopotamian fortresses; Shapur thrice besieged Nisibis
without success, but reduced several others, as Amida
(359) and Singara (360), and transplanted great masses of
inhabitants into Susiana. The emperor Constantius conducted
the war feebly and was consistently beaten in the field. But,
in spite of all, Shapur found it impossible to penetrate deeper
into the Roman territory. He was hampered by the attack
of nomadic tribes in the east, among whom the Chionites now
begin to be mentioned. Year after year he took the field against
them (353-358), till finally he compelled them to support him
with auxiliaries (Ammian. Marc. 14, 3; 16, 9; 17, 5; 18, 4, 6).
With this war is evidently connected the foundation of the
great town New-Shapur (Nishapur) in Khorasan.

By the resolution of Julian (363) to begin an energetic attack
on the Persian Empire, the conflict, after the lapse of a quarter
of a century, assumed a new phase. Julian pressed forward
to Ctesiphon but succumbed to a wound ; and his successor Jovian
soon found himself in such straits, that he could only extricate
himself and his army by a disgraceful peace at the close of 363,
which ceded the possessions on the Tigris and the great fortress
of Nisibis, and pledged Rome to abandon Armenia and her
Arsacid protege, Arsaces III., to the Persian.

Shapur endeavoured to occupy Armenia and introduce the
Zoroastrian orthodoxy. He captured Arsaces III. by treachery
and compelled him to commit suicide; but the Armenian
magnates proved refractory, placed Arsaces' son Pap on the
throne, and found secret support among the Romans. This
all but led to a new war; but in 374 Valens sacrificed Pap and
had him killed in Tarsus. The subsequent invasions of the
Goths, in battle with whom Valens fell at Adrianople (375),
definitely precluded Roman intervention; and the end of the
Armenian troubles was that (c. 390) Bahram IV. and Theodosius
the Great concluded a treaty which abandoned the extreme
west of Armenia to the Romans and confirmed the remainder in
the Persian possession. Thus peace and friendship could at
last exist with Rome; and in 408 Yazdegerd I. contracted an
alliance with Theodosius II. In Armenia the Persians
immediately removed the last kings of the house of Armenti
Arsaces (430), and thenceforward the main portion
of the country remained a Persian province under the control
of a marzban, though the Armenian nobles still made repeated
attempts at insurrection. The introduction of Zoroastrianism
was abandoned; Christianity was already far too deeply rooted.
But the sequel to the Roman sacrifice of Armenian interests was
that the Armenian Christians now seceded from the orthodoxy
of Rome and Constantinople, and organized themselves into
an independent national church. This church was due, before
all, to the efforts of the Catholicos Sahak (390-439), whose
colleague Mesrob, by his translation of the Bible, laid the
foundations of an Armenian literature (see ARMENIAN CHURCH).

In the interior of the Sassanian Empire the old troubles broke
out anew on the death of Shapur II. (379). At first the magnates
raised his aged brother Ardashir II. to the throne, then in 383
deposed him and enthroned Shapur's son as
Shapur III. In 388, however, he was assassinated, Yazdegerdi.
as was also his brother, Bahram IV., in 399. But the
son of the latter, Yazdegerd I. (399-420), was an energetic and
intelligent sovereign, who held the magnates within bounds
and severely chastised their attempts at encroachment. He
even sought to emancipate himself from the Magian Church,

1 For the succeeding events see also under ROME: Ancient History;
and articles on the Roman emperors and Persian kings.

HISTORY: ANCIENT]

PERSIA

223

put an end to the persecutions, and allowed the Persian Christians
an individual organization. In the Persian tradition he is
consequently known as " the sinner." In the end he was
probably assassinated. So great was the bitterness against
him that the magnates would admit none of his sons to the
throne. One of them, however, Bahrain V., found an auxiliary in
the Arab chief Mondhir, who had founded a principality in Hira,

west of the lower Euphrates; and, as he pledged him-
''self to govern otherwise than his father, he received

general recognition. This pledge he redeemed, and
he is, in consequence, the darling of Persian tradition, which
bestows on him the title of Gor (" the wild ass "), and is eloquent
on his adventures in the chase and in love. This reversal of
policy led to a Christian persecution and a new war with Rome.
Bahrain, however, was worsted; and in the peace of 422 Persia
agreed to allow the Christians free exercise of their religion in
the empire, while the same privilege was accorded to Zoroastrian-
ism by Rome. Under his son, Yazdegerd II. (438-457), who once
more revived the persecutions of the Christians and the Jews,
a short conflict with Rome again ensued (441) : while at the same
time war prevailed in the east against the remnants of the
Kushan Empire and the tribe of Kidarites, also named Huns.

Here a new foe soon arose in the shape of the Ephthalites
(Haitab), also known as the " White Huns," a barbaric tribe
TheEphtha- which shortly after A.D. 450 raided Bactria and ter-
tttesor minated the Kushana dominion (Procop. Pers. i. 3).
White Huns. These Ephthalite attacks harassed and weakened
the Sassanids, exactly as the Tocharians had harassed and
weakened the Arsacids after Phraates II. Peroz (457-484) fell
in battle against them; his treasures and family were captured
and the country devastated far and near. His brother Balash
(484-488), being unable to repel them, was deposed and blinded,
and the crown was bestowed on Kavadh I. (488-531), the son
of Peroz. As the external and internal distress still continued
he was dethroned and imprisoned, but took refuge among the
Ephthalites and was restored in 499 by their assistance — like
Kavadh I so manv Arsacids by the arms of the Dahae and

Sacae. To these struggles obviously must be
attributed mainly the fact that in the whole of this period no
Roman war broke out. But, at the same time, the religious
duel had lost in intensity, since, among the Persian Christians,
the Nestorian doctrine was now dominant. Peroz had already
favoured the diffusion of Nestorianism, and in 483 it was officially
adopted by a synod, after which it remained the Christian
Church of the Persian Empire, its head being the patriarch of
Seleucia — Ctesiphon.

Kavadh proved himself a vigorous ruler. On his return
he restored order in the interior. In 502 he attacked ' the

Romans and captured and destroyed Amida (mod.

The Maida- ~. , , , , ,, , . ..,

kite Sect Diarbekr), but was compelled to ratify a peace
owing to an inroad of the Huns. Toward the close
of his reign (527) he resumed the war, defeating Belisarius at
Callinicum (531), with the zealous support of the wild Arab
Mondhir II. of Hira. On his death his son Chosroes I. concluded
a peace with Justinian (532), pledging the Romans to an annual
subsidy for the maintenance of the Caucasus fortresses. In
his home policy Kavadh is reminiscent of Yazdegerd I. Like
him he had little inclination to the orthodox church, and favoured
Mazdak, the founder of a communistic sect which had made
headway among the people and might be used as a weapon
against the nobles, of whom Mazdak demanded that they should
cut down their luxury and distribute their superfluous wealth.
Another feature of his programme was the community of wives.
The crown-prince, Chosroes, was, on the other hand, wholly
orthodox; and, towards the close of his father's reign, in con-
junction with the chief Magian, he carried through a sacrifice
of the Mazdakites, who were butchered in a great massacre
(528). Chosroes I. (531-579), surnamed Anushirvan (" the

blessed "), then restored the orthodox doctrine in
Anushirvan. ^u^> publishing his decision in a religious edict.

At the same time he produced the official exposition
of the Avesta, an exegetical translation in the popular tongue

(Pahlavi), and declared its contents binding. Defection from
Zoroastrianism was punished with death, and therefore also
the proselytizing of the Christians, though the Syrian martyr-
ologies prove that the kings frequently ignored these proceedings
so long as it was at all possible to do so.

Chosroes I. was one of the most illustrious sovereigns of the
Sassanian Empire. From him dates a new and equitable adjust-
ment of the imperial taxation, which was later adopted by the
Arabs. His reputation as an enlightened ruler stood so high
that when Justinian, in 529, closed the school of Athens, the
last Neoplatonists bent their steps to him in hopes of finding in
him the true philosopher-king. Their disillusionment, indeed,
was speedy and complete, and their gratitude was great, when,
by the conditions of the armistice of 549, he allowed their return.
From 540 onward he conducted a great war against Justinian
(527-565), which, though interrupted by several armistices,
lasted till the fifty years' peace of 562. The net result, indeed,
was merely to restore the status quo; but during the campaign
Chosroes sacked Antioch and transplanted the population to
a new quarter of Ctesiphon (540). He also extended his power
to the Black Sea and the Caucasus; on the other hand, a siege of
Edessa failed (544). A second war broke out in 577, chiefly
on the question of Armenia and the Caucasus territory. In
this Chosroes ravaged Cappadocia in 575; but the campaign in
Mesopotamia was unsuccessful. In the interval between these
two struggles (570) he despatched assistance to the Arabs of
Yemen, who had been assailed and subdued by the Abyssinian
Christians; after which period Yemen remained nominally under
Persian suzerainty till its fate was sealed by the conquests of
Mahomet and Islam.

Meanwhile, about A.D. 560, a new nation had sprung up in
the East, the Turks. Chosroes concluded an alliance with
them against the Ephthalites and so conquered
Bactria south of the Oxus, with its capital Balkh. p^raa!* of
Thus this province, which, since the insurrection the Turks,
of Diodotus in 250 B.C., had undergone entirely Sassaaia
different vicissitudes from the rest of Iran, was
once more united to an Iranian Empire, and the
Sassanid dominions, for the first time, passed the frontiers of
the Arsacids. This, however, was the limit of their expansion.
Neither the territories north of the Oxus, nor eastern Afghanistan
and the Indus provinces, were ever subject to them. That the
alliance with the Turks should soon change to hostility and
mutual attack was inevitable from the nature of the case; in the
second Roman war the Turkish Khan was leagued with Rome.

Chosroes bequeathed this war to his son Hormizd IV. (579-
590), who, in spite of repeated negotiations, failed to re-establish
peace. Hormizd had not the ability to retain the authority
of his father, and he further affronted the Magian priesthood
by declining to proceed against the Christians and by requiring
that, in his empire, both religions should dwell together in
peace. Eventually he succumbed to a conspiracy of his
magnates, at whose head stood the general Bahram Cobin,
who had defeated the Turks, but afterwards was beaten
by the Romans. Hormizd 's son, Chosroes II., was set
up against his father and forced to acquiesce in his execu-
tion. But immediately new risings broke out, in which
Bahram Cobin — though not of the royal line — attempted to
secure the crown, while simultaneously a Prince cllosroesH
Bistam entered the lists. Chosroes fled to the
Romans and the emperor Maurice undertook his restoration at
the head of a great army. The people flocked to his standard;
Bahram Cobin was routed (591) and fled to the Turks, who slew
him, and Chosroes once more ascended the throne of Ctesiphon ;
Bistam held out in Media till 596. Maurice made no attempt
to turn the opportunity to Roman advantage, and in the peace
then concluded he even abandoned Nisibis to the Persians.

Chosroes II. (590-628) is distinguished by the surname of
Parvez (" the conqueror "), though, in point of fact, he was
immeasurably inferior to a powerful sovereign like his grand-
father, or even to a competent general. He lived, however, to
witness unparalleled vicissitudes of fortune. The assassination

224

PERSIA

[TRANSITION PERIOD

of Maurice In 602 impelled him to a war of revenge against
Rome, in the course of which his armies — in 608 and, again, in
615 and 626 — penetrated as far as Chalcedon opposite Constanti-
nople, ravaged Syria, reduced Antioch (611), Damascus (613),
and Jerusalem (614), and carried off the holy cross to Ctesiphon;
in 619 Egypt was occupied. Meanwhile, the Roman Empire
was at the lowest ebb. The great emperor Heraclius, who
assumed the crown in 610, took years to create the nucleus
of a new military power. This done, however, he took the field
in 623, and repaid the Persians with interest. Their armies
were everywhere defeated. In 624 he penetrated into Atropa-
tene (Azerbaijan), and there destroyed the great fire-temple;
in 627 he advanced into the Tigris provinces. Chosroes at-
tempted no resistance, but fled from his residence at Dastagerd
to Ctesiphon. These proceedings, in conjunction with the avarice
and licence of the king, led to revolution. Chosroes was deposed
and slain by his son Kavadh II. (628); but the parricide died
in a few months and absolute chaos resulted. A whole list of
kings and pretenders — among them the General Shahrbaraz
and Boran, a daughter of Chosroes — followed rapidly on one
another; till finally the magnates united and, in 632, elevated
a child to the throne, Yazdegerd III., grandson of Chosroes. In
the interval — presumably during the reign of Queen Boran —
peace was concluded with Heraclius, the old frontier being
apparently restored. The cross had already been given back
to the emperor.

Thus the hundred years' struggle between Rome and Persia,
which had begun in 527 with the attack of the first Kavadh
on Justinian, had run its fruitless course, utterly
Conquest, enfeebling both empires and consuming their powers.
So it was that room was given to a new enemy who
now arose between either state and either religion — the Arabs
and Islam. In the same year that saw the coronation
of Yazdegerd III. — the beginning of 633 — the first Arab
squadrons made their entry into Persian territory. After
several encounters there ensued (637) the battle of Kadisiya
(Qadisiya, Cadesia), fought on one of the Euphrates canals,
where the fate of the Sassanian Empire was decided. A little
previously, in the August of 636, Syria had fallen in a battle
on the Yarmuk (Hieromax), and in 639 the Arabs penetrated
into Egypt. The field of Kadisiya laid Ctesiphon, with all its
treasures, at the mercy of the victor. The king fled to Media,
where his generals attempted to organize the resistance; but
the battle of Nehavend ( ? 641 ) decided matters there. Yazdegerd
sought refuge in one province after the other, till, at last, in
651, he was assassinated in Merv (see CALIPHATE: § A, § i).

Thus ended the empire of the Sassanids, no less precipitately
and ingloriously than that of the Achaemenids. By 650 the
Arabs had occupied every province to Balkh and the Oxus.
Only in the secluded districts of northern Media (Tabaristan),
the " generals " of the house of Karen (Spahpat, Ispehbed)
maintained themselves for a century as vassals of the caliphs —
exactly as Atropates and his dynasty had done before them.

The fall of the empire sealed the fate of its religion. The
Moslems officially tolerated the Zoroastrian creed, though occa-
sional persecutions were not lacking. But little by little it vanished
from Iran, with the exception of a few remnants (chiefly in the
oasis of Yezd), the faithful finding a refuge in India at Bombay.
These Parsees have preserved but a small part of the sacred
writings; but to-day they still number their years by the era
which begins on the i6th of June A.D. 632, with the accession of
Yazdegerd III., the last king of their faith and the last lawful
sovereign of Iran, on whom rested the god-given Royal Glory of
Ormuzd.

AUTHORITIES. — Besides the works on special periods-quoted above,
the following general works should be consulted : Spiegel, Eranische
Altertumskunde (3 vols., 1876 sqq.); W. Geiger and Ernst Kuhn,
Grundriss der iranischen Philologie herausg., vol. ii. (Literature,
History and Civilization, 1896 sqq.); G. Rawlinson, The Five Great
Monarchies, The Sixth Monarchy, The Seventh Monarchy. Further
the mutually supplementary work of Th. Noldeke, Aufsdtze zur
persischen Geschichte (1887, Medes, Persians and Sassanids), and
A. v. Gutschmid, Geschichte Irans von Alexander d. Gr. bis zum
Vntergang der Arsaciden (1888). A valuable work of reference is
F. Justi, Iranisches Namenbuch (1895).

The most important works on the monuments are: Flandin et
Coste, Voyage en Perse (6 vols., 1840 sqq.); Texier, L'Armenie, la
Perse, et la Mesopotamie (2 vols., 1842); Stolze, Persepolis (2 vols.,
1882); Sarre, Iranische Felsreliefs (1908).

For works on the external history of Persia see those quoted
under articles on Persian kings; also ROME; GREECE; EGYPT-
SYRIA ;&c. (ED. M.)

B. — Transition Period: from the Fall of the Sassanid Dynasty
to the Death of Timur (1405).

With the final defeat of the Sassanids under Yazdegerd III.
at the battles of Kadisiya (Kadessia) (637) and Nehavend (641)..
Persia ceased to exist as a single political unit. The
country passed under a succession of alien rulers
who cared nothing for its ancient institutions or
its religion. For about 150 years it was governed, first from
Medina and afterwards from Bagdad, by officers of the Mahom-
medan caliphs whose principal aim it was to destroy the old
nationality by the suppression of its religion. The success
of this policy was, however, only apparent, especially in Iran,
the inhabitants of which adopted Islam only in the most super-
ficial manner, and it was from Persia that the blow fell which
destroyed the Omayyad caliphate and set up the Abbasids in
its place (see CALIPHATE). Even before this event adventurers
and dissatisfied Moslem officers had utilized the slumbering
hostility of the Persian peoples to aid them in attacks on
the caliphs (e.g. Ziyad, son of Abu Sofia n, in the reign of
Moawiya I.), and the policy of eastern expansion brought the
Arab armies perpetually into the Persian provinces.

In the reign of Merwan I. the Persians (who were mostly
Shi'ites) under a Moslem officer named Mokhtar (Mukhtar),
whom they regarded as their mahdi, vainly attempted to assert
their independence in Kufa, but were soon defeated. This
rising was followed by many more (see CALIPHATE: § B) in
which the caliphs were generally successful, and Abdaimalik
(d. 705) considerably strengthened the Moslem power by insti-
tuting a thorough system of Moslem coins and enforcing Arabic
as the official language throughout the empire. In the succeed-
ing reign Persia was further subdued by the great conqueror
Qoteiba (Qotaiba) b. Moslim, the Arabic governor of Khorasan.
Omar II., however, extended to non- Arabic Moslems immunity
from all taxes except thezakat (poor-rate), with the result that a
large number of Persians, who still smarted under their defeat
under Mokhtar, embraced Islam and drifted into the towns to
form a nucleus of sedition under the Shi'ite preachers. In the
reign of Yazid II. (720-724) serious risings took place in Khora-
san, and in spite of the wise administration of his successor
Hisham (d. 743), the disorder continued to spread, fanned by the
Abbasids and the Shi'ite preachers. Ultimately in the reign of
Merwan II .the non- Arabic Moslems found a leader in AbuMoslim ,
a maula (client) of Persian origin and a henchman of Ibrahim
b. Mahommed b. Ali, the Shi'ite imam, who raised a great army,
drove the caliph's general Nasr b. Sayyar into headlong flight,
and finally expelled Merwan. Thus the Abbasids became
masters of Persia and also of the Arab Empire. They had gained
their success largely by the aid of the Persians, who began
thenceforward to recover their lost sense of nationality ; according
to the Spanish author Ibn Hazm the Abbasids were a Persian
dynasty which destroyed the old tribal system of the Arabs
and ruled despotically as Chosroes had done. At the same
time the Khorasanians had fought for the old Alid family, not
for the Abbasids, and with the murder of Abu Moslim discontent
again began to grow among the Shi'ites (q.v.). In the reign of
Harun al-Rashid disturbances broke out in Khorasan which
were temporarily appeased by a visit from Harun himself.
Immediately afterwards Rafi' b. Laith, grandson of the Omayyad
general Nasr b. Sayyar, revolted in Samarkand, and Harun on
his way to attack him died at Tus (809). Harun's sons Amin and
Mamun quarrelled over the succession; Amin became caliph,
but Mamun by the aid of Tahir b. Hosain Dhu '1-Yaminain
(" the man with two right hands ") and others succeeded in
deposing and killing him. Tahir ultimately (820) received the
governorship of Khorasan, where he succeeded in establishing

TRANSITION PERIOD]

PERSIA

225

a practically independent Moslem dynasty (the Tahirids)1 which
ruled until about 873 in nominal obedience to Bagdad. From
825 to about 898 a similar dynasty, the Dulafids2 or Dolafids
reigned nominally as governors under the caliphs till they were
put down by Motadid. In the reign of the caliph Motasim a
serious revolt of Persian Mazdakite sectaries (the Khorrami)
in alliance with Byzantium was with difficulty suppressed, as
also a rising of Tabaristan under an hereditary chief Maziyar
who was secretly supported by the Turkish mercenaries (e.g.,
Afshin) whom the caliph had invited to his court. To another
Turk, Itakh, the caliph Wathiq gave a titular authority over
all the eastern provinces. In the reign of the tenth caliph
Motawakkil the Tahirids fell before Yakub b. Laith al-Saffar,
who with the approbation of the caliph founded a dynasty, the
Saffarid (q.v.), in Seistan.

It is convenient at this point to mention several other minor
dynasties founded by nominal governors in various parts of
Persia and its borderland. From 879 to about 930
tne Sajids ruled in Azerbaijan, while in Tabaristan
an Alid dynasty (the Zaidites) was independent
from 864 to 928, when it fell before the Samanids. Subsequently
descendants of this house ruled in Dailam and Gilan. Through-
out this period the caliphate was falling completely under the
power of the Turkish officers. Mohtadi, the fourteenth Abbasid
caliph, endeavoured vainly to replace them by Persians (the
Abna). His successor Motamid was attacked by the Saffarid
Yakub who however was compelled to flee (see CALIPHATE: § C,
§ 15). Yakub 's brother Amr (reigned 878-900) received the vacant
position, but was taken prisoner by Isma'il b. Ahmad, the
Samanid, and the Saffarids were henceforward a merely nomi-
Samanlds na^ dynasty under the Samanids (900-1229). The
Samanids (q.v.) were the first really important non-
Arabic Persian dynasty since the fall of Yazdegerd III. They
held sway over most of Persia and Transoxiana, and under
their rule scholarship and the arts flourished exceedingly in
spite of numerous civil wars. Ultimately they fell before the
Ghaznevid dynasty of Sabuktagin.

In the reign of Motadid (CALIPHATE: § C, § 16) who, as we have
seen, put down the Dolafids, and also checked the Sajids of
Azerbaijan in their designs on Syria and Egypt, the Kharijites
of Mesopotamia were put down by the aid of the Hamdanites
of Mosul, who were to become an important dynasty (see below).
Subsequently the caliphate, which had temporarily recovered
some of its authority, resumed its downward course, and the
great families of Persia once again asserted themselves. In
the reign of Qahir (d. 934), a new dynasty arose in Persia, that
Bu ids °^ l^e Buyids (Buwayhids). This family was
descended from one Abu Shaja Buya, who claimed
to be of the old Sassanian house and had become a chieftain
in Dailam. He had successively fought for the Samanids
and the Ziyarids,3 a dynasty of Jorjan, and his son Imad
addaula (ed-dowleh, originally Abu '1 ijasan ^H) received from
Mardawij of the latter house the governorship of Karaj; his
second son Rokn addaula (Abu Ali Hasan) subsequently held
Rai and Isfahan, while the third, Moizz addaula (Abu '1 IJosain
Ahmad) secured Kerman, Ahvaz and even Bagdad.

The reign of the caliph Mottaqi (CALIPHATE: § C, §21) was a
period of perpetual strife between the Dailamites, the Turks
and the Hamdanid Nasir addaula of Mosul. In the next reign
Moizz addaula took Bagdad (945) and was recognized by the
caliph Mostakfi as sultan4 and amir al-Omara. It was at this

1 Tahir died 822 or 824; Talha d. 828; Abdallah, 828-844; Tahir
II., 844-862; Mahommed, 862-873.

'Abu Dolaf Qasim b. Idris-'Ijli (825); 'Abdalaziz (842); Dolaf
(873); Ahmad (878); Omar 893-898).

3 The Ziyarid dynasty was founded by Mardawij b. Ziyar (928-
935). His successors were Zahir addaula (ud-daula, ed-dowleh)
Abu Mansur Washmagir (935-967), Bistun (967-976), Shams al
Ma'ali Qabus (976-1012), Falak al Ma'ali Manushahr (1012-1029),
Anushirwan (1029-1042). They were Alyite in religion. They
were of progressively less importance under the Samanids, and were
ultimately expelled by the Ghaznevids.

4 This is denied by S. Lane Poole, who points out that they did
not use the title on their coins.

XXI. 8

time that the three brothers took the titles Imad, Rukn (Rokn),
and Moizz addaula. The authority of the family was absolute
though they paid outward respect to the caliphs. Moizz addaula
repelled an attack of the Hamdanids of Mosul. The Buyids,
and especially Adod addaula (Azud-ed-Dowleh, and similar
forms), ruled Bagdad wisely and improved the city by great
public works such as the great dike, still known as the Bend
Amir on the Kur (Cyrus) near Persepolis. Their sway extended
from the Persian Gulf to the Caspian Sea (CALIPHATE: § C, § 24).
Ultimately, however, the Buyid dynasty grew weaker under
the quarrels of its members and fell an easy prey to the Ghaz-
nevids. In the meantime (999) the Samanids fell before the
Ilek-Khans of Turkestan, to the great advantage of the Ghaznevid
princes.

For these and other minor dynasties such as the Hasanwayhids
of Kurdistan (c. 959-1015) and the Kakwayhids of Kurdistan
(1007-1051), see Stockvis, Manuel d'histoire, i. 113 sqq. (Leiden,

1888).

The centre of force in Persian politics now changes from west
to east. Hitherto the ultimate power, at least nominally, had
resided in the caliphate at Bagdad, and all the dynasties which
have been noticed derived their authority formally from that
source. With the rise of the Ghaznevids and lat
the Seljuks, the Abbasid caliphate ceased to count
as an independent power. As we have seen, the Ghaznevid
armies in a brief space destroyed most of the native dynasties
of Persia. The first of the house was Alptagin, a Turkish slave
of the Samanid Mansur I., who, having quarrelled with his master,
took refuge in Afghanistan and founded a semi-independent
authority. After his death three unimportant governors of
his house held sway, but in 977 the power fell to another former
slave, Sabuktagin, who was recognized by the Samanid Nuh II.
His son and successor Mahmud (q.v.) was attacked by a brother,
Isma'il, and retired from Khorasan (of which he had been
governor). The Samanids then fell under the power of the
Tatar Ilkhans, but Mahmud returned, triumphed over both
the Samanids and the Tatars, and assumed the independent
title of sultan with authority over Khorasan, Transoxiana and
parts of north-west India. Mahmud was a great conqueror,
and wherever he went he replaced the existing religion by
Mahommedanism. He is described as the patron (if a somewhat
ungenerous one) of literature; it was under his auspices that
Firdousi collected the ancient myths of Persia and produced
the great epic Shahnama (Book of the Kings). His descendants
held a nominal rule till 1187, but in 1152 they lost all their
extra-Indian territories to the Ghorids, and during the last
thirty-five years reigned in diminished splendour at Lahore.
Even before this time, however, the supremacy which they
enjoyed under Mahmud in Persia had fallen into the hands of
the Seljuks who, in the reign of Mas'ud I., son
of Mahmud, conquered Khorasan. In 1037 Seljuk
princes were recognized in Merv and Nishapur, and in the ensuing
eighteen years the Seljuks conquered Balkh, Jorjan, Tabaristan,
Khwarizm, Hamadan, Rai, Isfahan, and finally Bagdad (1055).
The Abbasid caliphs, who still enjoyed a precarious and shadowy
authority at the pleasure of Turkish viziers, gladly surrendered
themselves to the protection of the Mahommedan Seljuks, who
paid them all outward respect.

Thus for the first time since the Arab conquest of the Sassanian
realm Persia was ruled by a single authority, which extended
its conquests westward into Asia Minor, where it checked the
rulers of Byzantium, and eastward to India and Central Asia.
The history of this period is treated at length in the articles
CALIPHATE: § C, §§ 26 sqq.; and SELJUKS. A bare outline
only is required here.

The first three Seljuk rulers were Toghrul Beg, Alp Arslan
and Malik Shah. On the death of the last the empire was
distracted by civil war between his sons Barkiyaroq, Mahommed
and Sinjar, with the result that, although the Seljuks of the
direct line maintained nominal supremacy till the death of
Sinjar (1157), other branches of the family established themselves
in various parts of the empire — Syria, Rum (Asia Minor),

226

PERSIA

[TRANSITION PERIOD

Kerman, and Irak with Kurdistan. Sinjar himself lost all his
dominions except Khorasan in wars with the Karakitai. The
sultans of Kerman were rarely independent in the full sense,
but they enjoyed comparative peace and prosperity till the
death of Toghrul Shah (1170), after which their power fell
before the Ghuzz tribes; Kerman was finally captured in 1195
by the Khwarizm shahs. Meanwhile an independent dynasty
was formed about 1 136 in Azerbaijan by the governors (atabegs)
appointed by the Seljuks; this dynasty was overthrown by the
Khwarizm shahs in 1225. Similar dynasties existed in Laristan
and Fars.

The empire of the Seljuks was essentially military. Their
authority over their own officers was so precarious that they
preferred to entrust the command to Turkish slaves. These
officers, however, were far from loyal to their lords. In every
part of the empire they gradually superseded the Seljuk princes,
and the minor dynasties above mentioned all owed their existence
to the ambition of the Turkish regents or atabegs. The last
important dynasty in Persia prior to the Mongol invasion was
that of the Salgharids in Fars, founded by the descendants of
a Turkish general Salaghar, who had formerly been a Turkoman
leader and ultimately became chamberlain to Toghrul Beg.
The first ruler was Sonkor b. Modud, who made himself inde-
pendent in Fars in 1148. The fourth, Sa'd, became tributary
to the Khwarizm shahs in 1195, and the fifth acknowledged
allegiance to the Mongol Ogotai and received the title Kutbegh
Khan. His successors were vassals of the Mongols, and the last,
the Princess 'Abish (d. 1287), was the wife of Hulagu's son
Mangu Timur.

Before passing on to the Mongol conquerors of Persia it is
necessary briefly to notice the shahs of Khwarizm, who have
„. t frequently been mentioned as overthrowing the minor
' dynasties which arose with the decay of the
Seljuks. These rulers were descended from Anushtajin, a
Turkish slave of Ghazni, who became cupbearer to the Seljuk
Malik Shah, and afterwards governor of Khwarizm (Khiva)
in 1077. In 1138 the third of the line, Atsiz, revolted but was
defeated and expelled by Sinjar. Shortly afterwards he returned,
firmly established his power, and extended the Khwarizm
Empire as far as Jand on the Sihun. The brief reigns of Il-Arslan
and Sultan Shah Mahmud were succeeded by that of Tukush
(1172-1199) and Ala ed-din Mahommed1 (1199-1220). The
former of these subdued Khorasan, Rai and Isfahan, while the
latter brought practically all Persia under his sway, conquered
Bokhara, Samarkand and Otrar, capital of the Karakitai, and
had even made himself master of Ghazni when his career was
stopped by the hordes of the Mongol Jenghiz Khan. In 1231
the last of his house, Jelal ud-din (Jalaluddin) Mangbarti, or
Mango-berti, was banished, and thus the empire of the Khwarizm
shahs, which for a brief period had included practically all the
lands conquered by the Seljuks, passed away.

Thus from the fall of the Samanidsto the invasion of the Mongols
five or at most six important dynasties held sway over Persia,
while some forty small dynasties enjoyed a measure of local
autonomy. During the whole of this period the Abbasid caliphs
had been nominally reigning throughout the Mahommedan world
with their capital at Bagdad. But with hardly any exceptions
they had been the merest puppets, now in the hands of Turkish
ministers, now under the protection of practically independent
dynasts. The real rulers of Persia during the years 874-1231 were,
as we have seen, the Samanids, the Buyids, the Ghaznevids, the
Seljuks, the Salgharids and the Khwarizm shahs. We now come
to a new period in Persian history, when the numerous petty
dynasties which succeeded the Seljuks were all swallowed up in
the great Mongol invasion.

In the later years of the i2th century the] Mongols began
their westward march and, after the conquest of the ancient
kingdom of the Kajakitai, reached the borders of
the territory of the Khwarizm shahs, which was at
once overwhelmed. Jenghiz Khan died in 127 2, and the Mongol

1 It was this prince who destroyed the Ghorid dynasty, which
claimed descent from the legendary Persian monarch Zohak.
Except for a brief period of submission to the Ghaznevids (1009-
1099) they ruled at Ghor until 1215, when they were conquered
after a fierce struggle.

Mongols

Empire stretching from the Caspian to the Yellow Sea was
divided up among his sons. Persia itself fell partly in the
domain of Jagatai and partly in that of the Golden Horde.
The actual governor of Persia was Tului or Tule, whose son
Hulagu or Hulaku is the first who can be rightly regarded as
the sovereign of Persia. His accession occurred in 1256, and
henceforward Persia becomes after 600 years of spasmodic
government a national unit. Hulagu at once proceeded to
destroy a number of nascent dynasties which endeavoured to
establish themselves on the ruins of the Khwarizm Empire;
about 1255 he destroyed the dynasty of the Assassins2 by the
capture of their stronghold of Alamut (Eagle's Nest), and finally
in 1258 captured Bagdad. The thirty-eighth and last Abbasid
caliph, Mostasim, was brutally murdered, and thus the Mahom-
medan caliphate ceased to exist even as an emasculated pontifi-
cate. The Persian Empire under Hulagu and his descendants
extended from the dominions of Jagatai on the north to that
of the Egyptian dynasts on the south, and from the Byzantine
Empire on the west to the confines of China. Its rulers paid a
nominal homage to the Khakhan (Great Khan) in China,
and officially recognized this dependence in their title of Ilkhan,
i.e. provincial or dependent khan. From 1258 to 1335 the
Ilkhans were not seriously challenged. Hulagu fixed his capital
at Maragha (Meragha) in Azerbaijan, where he erected an observa-
tory for Nasir ud-din Tusi, who at his request prepared the
astronomical tables known as the Zidj-i-Ilkhani. He died in
1265 and was succeeded by his son Abagha or Abaka, who
married the daughter of Michael Palaeologus, the Byzantine
ruler. Abagha was a peaceful ruler and endeavoured by wise
administration to give order and prosperity to a country torn
asunder by a long period of intestine war and the Mongol
invasion. He succeeded in repelling two attacks by other
Mongolian princes of the house of Jenghiz Khan; otherwise
his reign was uneventful. His brother Nikudar (originally
Nicolas) Ahmad Khan succeeded him in 1281. This prince was
converted to Islam, an event of great moment both to the
internal peace and to the external relations of Persia. His
persecution of the Christians led them into alliance with the
Mongols, who detested Islam; the combined forces were too
strong for Nikudar, who was murdered in 1284. The external
results were of more importance. The Ilkhans, who had failed
in their attempt to wrest Syria from the Mameluke rulers of
Egypt, had subsequently endeavoured to effect their object by
inducing the European Powers to make a new crusade. The
conversion of Nikudar put an end to this policy and Egypt was
for some time free from Persian attack (see EGYPT: History).
The Mongol leaders put on the throne a son of Abagha, by name
Arghun. His reign was troubled. His first minister Shams
ud-din was suspected of having poisoned Abagha, and was soon
put to death. His successor, the amir Bogha, conspired against
Arghun and was executed. Under the third minister (1289-
1291), a Jewish doctor named Sa'd addaula (ed-Dowleh), religious
troubles arose owing to his persecution of the Mahommedans
and his favouring the Christians. The financial administration
of Sa'd was prudent and successful, if somewhat severe, and the
revenue benefited considerably under his care. But he com-
mitted the tactical error of appointing a disproportionate
number of Jews and Christians as revenue officials, and thus
made many enemies among the Mongol nobles, who had him
assassinated in 1291 when Arghun was lying fatally ill. It is
possible that it was Sa'd's diplomacy which led Pope Nicholas IV.
to send a mission to Arghun with a view to a new crusade.
The reign of Arghun was also disturbed by a rebellion of a
grandson of Hulagu, Baidu Khan. Arghun died soon after
the murder of Sa'd, and was succeeded by his brother Kaikhatu,
or Gaykhatu, who was taken prisoner by Baidu Khan and
killed (1295). Baidu's reign was cut short in the same year
by Arghun's son Ghazan Mahmud, whose reign (1295-1304)
was a period of prosperity in war and administration. Ghazan

* The dynasty of the Assassins or Isma'ilites was founded in
1090 and extended its rule over much of western Persia and Syria
(for the rulers see Stockvis, op. cit. i. 131, and article ASSASSIN).

1405-1736]

PERSIA

227

was a man of great ability. He established a permanent staff
to deal with legal, financial and military affairs, put on a firm
basis the monetary system and the system of weights and
measures, and perfected the mounted postal service. Ghazan
fought with success against Egypt (which country had already
from 1293 to December 1294 been ruled by a Mongol usurper
Kitboga), and even held Damascus for a few months. In 1303,
however, his troops were defeated at Merj al-Saffar, and Mongol
claims on Syria were definitely abandoned. It was even
suggested that the titular Abbasid caliphs (who retained an
empty title in Cairo under Mameluke protection) should be
reinstated at Bagdad, but this proposal was not carried into
effect. Ghazan is historically important, however, mainly as
the first Mongol ruler who definitely adopted Islam with a
large number of his subjects. He died in 1304, traditionally
of anger at the Syrian fiasco, and was succeeded by his brother
Uljaitu (Oeljeitu). The chief events of his reign were a success-
ful war against Tatar invaders and the substitution of the new
city of Sultania as capital for Tabriz, which had been Ghazan's
headquarters. Uljaitu was a Shi'ite and even stamped his
coins with the names of the twelve Shi'ite imams. He died
in 1316, and was succeeded by Abu Sa'id.his son. The prince,
under whom a definite peace was made with Malik al-Nasir,
the Mameluke ruler of Egypt, had great trouble with powerful
viziers and generals which he accentuated by his passion for
Bagdad-Khatun, wife of the amir Hosain and daughter of the
amir Chupan. This lady he eventually married, with the result
that Chupan headed a revolt of his tribe, the Selduz. Abu Sa'id
died of fever in 1335, and with him the first Mongol or Ilkhan
dynasty of Persia practically came to an end. The real power
was divided between Chupan and Hosain the Jelair (or Jalair),
or the Ilkhanian, "and their sons, known respectively as the
Little Hasan (Hasan Kuchuk) and the great Hasan (Hasan
Buzurg). Two puppet kings, Arpa Khan, a descendant of
Hulagu's brother Arikbuhga, and Musa Khan, a descendant of
Baidu, nominally reigned for a few months each. Then Hasan
Kuchuk set up one Sati-beg, Abu Sa'id's daughter, and wife
successively of Chupan, Arfa Khan and one Suleiman, the last
of whom was khan from 1339 to 1343; in the same time Hasan
Buzurg set up successively Mahommed, Tugha-Timur and Jahan-
Timur. A sixth nonentity, Nushirwan, was a Chupani nominee
in 1344, after which time Hasan Buzurg definitely installed
himself as the first khan of the Jelairid or Ilkhanian-Jelairid
dynasty.

Practically from the reign of Abu Sa'id Persia was divided
under five minor dynasties, (i) the Jelairids, (2) the Mozaffarids,
^"Mniaor ($) tne Sarbadarids (Serbedarians), (4) the Beni
Dynasties. Kurt, and (5) the Jubanians, all of which ultimately

f . .11 i . ,. r. . ... . * u , . A — _,; ,^« ~c 'T".° — . . ~

*~^

fell before the armies of Timur.

i. The Jelairid rulers were Hasan Buzurg (1336, strictly 1344-
1356), Owais (1356-1374), Hosain (1374-1382), Sultan Ahmad
(1382-1410), Shah Walad (1410-1411). Their capital was Bagdad,
and their dominion was increased under Hasan. Owais added
Azerbaijan, Tabriz, and even Mosul and Diarbekr. Hosain fought
with the Mozaffarids of Shiraz and the Black Sheep Turkomans
(Kara Kuyunli) of Armenia, with the latter of whom he ultimately
entered into alliance. On his death Azerbaijan and Irak fell to
his brother, Sultan Ahmad, while another brother Bayezid ruled
for a few months in part of Kurdistan. It was about this time
that Timur (q.v.) began his great career of conquest, under which
the power of the various Persian dynasties collapsed. By 1393 he
had conquered northern Persia and Armenia, Bagdad, Mesopo-
tamia, Diarbekr and Van, and Ahmad fled to Egypt, where he was
received by Barkuk (Barquq) the Mameluke sultan. Barkuk,
who had already excited the enmity of Timur by slaying one of his
envoys, espoused Ahmad's cause, and restored him to Bagdad after
Timur's return to his normal capital Samarkand. Timur retaliated
and until his death Ahmad ruled only from time to time. In 1406
Ahmad was finally restored, but almost immediately entered upon
a quarrel with Kara Yusuf, leader of the Black Sheep Turkomans
(Kara Kuyunli), who defeated and killed him in 1410. His nephew
Shah Walad reigned for a few months only and the throne was
occupied by his widow Tandu, formerly wife of Barkuk, who ruled
over Basra, Wasit and Shuster till 1416, paying allegiance to Shah
Rukh, the second Timurid ruler. Walad's sons Mahmud, Owais and
Mahommed, and Hosain, grandson of Sultan Ahmad, successively
occupied the throne. The last of these was killed by the Kara

Kuyunli, who had established a dynasty in western Persia after
Kara Yusuf's victory in 1410.

2. The Mozaffarids, who ruled roughly from 1313 to 1399 in
Pars, Kerman and Kurdistan, were descended from the Amir
Mozaffar, or Muzaffar, who held a post as governor under the
Ilkhan ruler. His son Mobariz ud-din Mahommed, who followed
him in 1313, beaame governor in Pars under Abu Sa'id, in Ker-
man in 1340, and subsequently made himself independent at
Pars and Shiraz (1353) and in Isfahan (1356). In 1357 he was
deposed and blinded, and though restored was exiled again and died
in 1364. His descendants, except for Jelal ed-din (Jalaluddin)
Shah Shuja', the patron of the poet Hafiz, were unimportant, and
the dynasty was wiped out by Timur about 1392.

3. The Sarbadarids (so called from their motto Sar-ba-dar, " Head
to the Gibbet "), descendants of Abd al-Razzak, who rebelled in
Khorasan about 1337, enjoyed some measure of independence
under twelve rulers till they also were destroyed by Timur (c. 1380).

4. The Beni Kurt (or Kart), who had governed in Khorasan from
1245, became independent in the early I4th century; they were
abolished by Timur (c. 1383).

5. The Jubanians had some power in Azerbaijan from 1337 to
1355, when they were dethroned by the Kipchaks of the house of
Jenghiz Khan.

The authority of Timur, which, as we have seen, was dominant
throughout Persia from at least as early as 1395 till his death
in 1405, was never unchallenged. He passed from one victory
to another, but the conquered districts were never really settled
under his administration. Fresh risings of the defeated
dynasties followed each new enterprise, and he had also to deal
with the Mongol hordes whose territory marched with northern
Persia. His descendants were for a brief period the overlords
of Persia, but after Shah Rukh (reigned 1409-1446) and Ala
addaula (1447), the so-called Timurid dynasty ceased to have
any authority over Persia. There were Timurid governors
of Fars under Shah Rukh, Pir Mahommed (1405-1409), Iskendar
(1409-1414), Ibrahim (1415-1434) and Abdallah (1434); in
other parts of Persia many of the Timurid family held governor-
ships of greater or less importance.

AUTHORITIES. — The works relating to Persia will be found under
articles on the maindynasties (CALIPH ATE; SELJUKS; MONGOLS), and
the great rulers (jENGHiz KHAN; MAHMUD OF GHAZNI; TIMUR).
For general information and chronology see S. Lane Poole,
Mohammedan Dynasties (London, 1894); Stockvis, Manuel d'his-
toire, vol. i. (Leiden, 1888); Sir H. Howorth, History of the Mongols
(1876-1888). JQ. M. M7)

C. — From the Death of Timur to the Fall of the Safawid Dynasty,
1405-1736.

Timur died in 1405, when in the seventieth year of his age
and about to invade China. Besides exercising sovereignty
over Transoxiana and those vast regions more or j-f,e j-imu-
less absorbed in Asiatic Russia of the igth century, rides ana
inclusive of the Caucasus, Astrakhan and the Turkomans,
lower Volga, and overrunning Mesopotamia, Syria, l405'1499-
Asia Minor, Afghanistan and India, he had at this time left
his indelible mark upon the chief cities and provinces of
Persia. Khorasan and Mazandaran had submitted to him
in 1381, Azerbaijan had shortly after followed their example,
and Isfahan was seized in 1387. From Isfahan he passed on
to Shiraz, and thence returned in triumph to his own capital
of Samarkand. Five years later he subdued Mazandaran, and
later still he was again at Shiraz, having effected the subjugation
of Luristan and other provinces in the west. It may be said
that from north to south, or from Astarabad to Hormuz, the
whole country had been brought within his dominion.

The third son of Timur, Miran Shah, had ruled over part of
Persia in his father's lifetime; but he was said to be insane, and
his incapacity for government had caused the loss of Bagdad
and revolt in other provinces. His claim to succession had been
put aside by Timur in favour of Pir Mahommed, the son of a
deceased son, but Khalil Shah, a son of the discarded prince, won
the day. His waste of time and treasure upon a fascinating
mistress named Shadu '1-Mulk, the " delight of the kingdom,"
soon brought about his deposition, and in 1408 he gave way to
Shah Rukh, who, with the exception of Miran Shah, was the
only surviving son of Timur. In fact the uncle and nephew
changed places — the one quitting his government of Khorasan

228

PERSIA

[1405-1736

to take possession of the Central-Asian throne, the other con-
senting to become governor of the vacated Persian province
and abandon the cares of the empire at Samarkand. In 1409
Khalil Shah died; and the story goes that Shadu '1-Mulk stabbed
herself and was buried with her royal lover at.Rai, one of the
towns which his grandfather had partly destroyed.

Shah Rukh, the fourth son of Timur, reigned for thirty-eight
years, and appears to have been a brave, generous, and enlight-
ened monarch. He removed his capital from Samarkand to
Herat, of which place he rebuilt the citadel, restoring and im-
proving the town. Merv also profited from his attention to its
material interests. Sir John Malcolm speaks of the splendour
of his court and of his encouragement of science and learning.
He sent an embassy to China; and an English version of the
travels to India of one of his emissaries, Abd ur-Razzak, is to
be found in R. H. Major's India in the Fifteenth Century (London,
Hakluyt Society, 1857). As regards his Persian possessions,
he had some trouble in the north-west, where the Turkomans of
Asia Minor, known as the Kara Kuyun,1 or " Black Sheep," led
by Kara Yusuf2 and his sons Iskandar and Jahan Shah, had
advanced upon Tabriz, the capital of Azerbaijan. On the death
of the Shah Rukh in 1446 he was succeeded by his son Ulugh
Bey, whose scientific tastes are demonstrated in the astro-
nomical tables bearing his name, quoted by European writers
when determining the latitude of places in Persia. He was,
moreover, himself a poet and patron of literature, and built
a college as well as an observatory at Samarkand. There is
no evidence to show that he did much to consolidate his grand-
father's conquests south of the Caspian. Ulugh Bey was put
to death by his son Abd ul-Latif, who, six months later, was
slain by his own soldiers. Babar — not the illustrious founder
of the Mughal dynasty in India, but an elder member of the
same house — next obtained possession of the sovereign power,
and established himself in the government of Khorasan and the
neighbouring countries. He died after a short rule, from
habitual intemperance. After him Abu Sa'id, grandson of
Miran Shah, and once governor of Pars, became a candidate for
empire, and allied himself with the Uzbeg Tatars, seized Bokhara,
entered Khorasan, and waged war upon the Turkoman tribe
aforesaid, which, since the invasion of Azerbaijan, had, under
Jahan Shah, overrun Irak, Pars and Kerman, and pillaged
Herat. But he was eventually taken prisoner by Uzun Hasan,
and killed in 1468.

It is difficult to assign dates to a few events recorded in Persian
history for the eighteen years following the death .'of Abd ul-
Latif; and, were it not for chance European missions, the
same difficulty would be felt in dealing with the period after the
death of Abu Sa'id up to the accession of Isma'il Sufi in 1499.
Sultan Ahmad, eldest son of Abu Sa'id, reigned in Bokhara;
his brother, Omar Sheikh, in Ferghana; but the son of the
latter, the great Babar, was driven by the Uzbegs to Kabul
and India. More to the purpose is it that Sultan I.Iosain Mirza,
great-grandson of Omar Sheikh, son of Timur, reigned
i*1 Herat from 1487 to 1506. He was a patron of
learned men, among others of the historians Mirk-
hond and Khwadamir, and the poets Jami and Hatifi. But
at no time could his control have extended over central and
western Persia. The nearest approach to a sovereignty in those
parts on the death of Abu Sa'id is that of Uzun IJasan, the
leader of the Ak Kuyun, or " White Sheep " Turkomans, and
conqueror of the " Black Sheep," whose chief, Jahan Shah, he
defeated and slew. Between the two tribes there had long been
Viun Hasan a Deadly feud. Both were composed of settlers in Asia
'Minor, the " Black Sheep " having consolidated
their power at Van, the " White " at Diarbekr.

Sir John Malcolm states that at the death of Abu Sa'id,
Sultan Hosain Mirza " made himself master of the empire,"

1 They were commonly called Kara Kuyun-lu and the " White
Sheep " Turkomans Ak Kuyun-lu, the affix " lu " signifying
possession, i.e. possession of a standard bearing the image of a
black or white sheep.

1 According to Ersktne, this chief killed Miran Shah, whose
dwelling-place was Tabriz.

and, a little later, that " Uzun Hasan, after he had made himself
master of Persia, turned his arms in the direction of Turkey ";
but the reader is left to infer for himself what the real " empire "
of Hosain Mirza, and what the limit of the " Persia " of Uzun
Hasan. The second could not well be included in the first,
because the Turkomans were in possession of the greater part
of the Persian plateau, while the " sultan " was in Herat, to
which Khorasan belonged. It may be assumed that an empire
like that acquired by Timur could not long be maintained by
his descendants in its integrity.

The Turkish adjective uzun, Ojjj' " long," applied to Hasan,
the Turkoman monarch of Persia (called also by the Arabs
Hasanu 't-Tawil), is precisely the qualifying Persian word j'ji
used in the compound designation of Artaxerxes Longimanus;
and Malcolm quotes the statement of a Venetian envoy in
evidence that Uzun Hasan was "a tall thin man, of a very open
and engaging countenance." This reference, and a further
notice in Markham's history, supply the clue to a store of
valuable information made available by the publications of the
Hakluyt Society. The narratives of Caterino Zeno, Barbara
and Contarini, envoys from Venice to the court of Uzun Hasan,
are in this respect especially interesting. Zeno was sent in
1471 to incite this warlike ruler against the Ottoman sultan,
and succeeded in his mission. That the result was disastrous
to the shah is not surprising, but the war seems to hold a
comparatively unimportant place in the annals of Turkey.

Uzun Hasan had married Despina (Gr. Aeywoiva.) , daughter
of the emperor of Trebizond, Calo Johannes of the house of the
Comneni; and Zeno's wife was niece to this Christian princess.
The relationship naturally strengthened the envoy's position
at the court, and he was permitted to visit the. queen in the name
of the republic which he represented. Barbara and Contarini
met at Isfahan in 1474, and there paid their respects to the
shah together. Kum and Tauris or Tabriz (then the capital)
were also visited by the Italian envoys following in the royal
suite; and the incidental notice of these cities, added to Con-
tarini's formal statement that " the extensive country of Ussun-
cassan [sic] is bounded by the Ottoman Empire and by Cara-
mania," and that Siras (Shiraz) is comprehended in it, proves
that at least Azerbaijan, Irak, and the main part of the provinces
to the south, inclusive of Pars, were within the dominions of
the reigning monarch.

There is good reason to suppose that Jahan Shah, the Black
Sheep Turkoman, before his defeat by Uzun Hasan, had set up
the standard of royalty; and Zeno, at the outset of his travels,
calls him " king of Persia "3 in 1450. Chardin alludes to him
in the same sense; but Hasan the Long is a far more prominent
figure, and has hardly received justice at the hands of the
historian. Indeed, his identity seems to have been lost in the
various modes of spelling his name adopted by the older
chroniclers, who call him indiscriminately4 Alymbeius, Asem-
beius, Asembec, Assimbeo, or Ussan Cassano. He is said to
have earned the character of a wise and valiant monarch, to have
reigned eleven years, to have lived to the age of seventy, and,
on his death in 1477 or (according to Krusinski and Zeno) 1478,
to have been succeeded on the throne of Persia by his son Ya'qub.
This prince, who had slain an elder brother, died by poison
(1485), after a reign of seven years. The dose was offered to
him by his wife, who had been unfaithful to him and sought to
set her paramour on his throne.

Writers differ as to the succession to Ya'qub. Zeno's account
is that a son named Allamur (called also, Alamut, Alvante,
El-wand and Alwung Bey) was the next king, who, Aaani,
besides Persia, possessed Diarbekr and part of
greater Armenia near the Euphrates. On the other hand,
Krusinski states that, Ya'qub dying childless, his relative
Julaver, one of the grandees of the kingdom, seized the throne,
and held possession of it for three years. Baisingar, it is added,
succeeded him in 1488 and reigned till 1490, when a young noble-
man named Rustan (Rustam?) obtained the sovereign power
and exercised it for seven years. This account is confirmed by

* See also Ramusio's preface. * Knolles, Purchas. Zeno.

1405-1736]

PERSIA

229

Angiolello, a traveller who followed his countrymen Barbaro
and Contarini to Persia; and from the two authorities combined
may be gathered the further narration of the murder of Rustam
and usurpation of the throne by a certain Ahmad, whose death,
under torture, six months afterwards, made way for Alamut,
the young son of Hasan. These discrepancies can be reconciled
on reference to yet another record bound up with the narratives
of the four Italians aforesaid, and of much the same period. In
the Travels of a Merchant in Persia the story of Ya'qub's death
is supplemented by the statement that " the great lords, hearing
of their king's decease, had quarrels among themselves, so that
for five or six years all Persia was in a state of civil war, first
one and then another of the nobles becoming sultans. At last
a youth named Alamut, aged fourteen years, was raised to the
throne, which he held till the succession of Sheikh Isma'il." Who
this young man was is not specified; but other writers call
Alamut and his brother Murad the sons of Ya'qub, as though
the relationship were unquestionable.

Now little is known, save incidentally, of Julaver or Rustam;
but Baisingar is the name of a nephew of Omar Sheikh, king
of Ferghana and contemporary of Uzun Hasan. There was
no doubt much anarchy and confusion in the interval between the
death of Ya'qub and the restoration, for two years, of the
dynasty of the White Sheep. But the tender age of Alamut
would, even in civilized countries, have necessitated a regency;
and it may be assumed that he was the next legitimate and
more generally recognized sovereign. Markham, in designating
this prince the last of his house, states that he was dethroned
by the renowned founder of the Safawi dynasty. This event
brings us to one of the most interesting periods of Persian history,
any account of which must be defective without a prefatory
sketch of Isma'il Sufi.

The Sufi or Safawid (Safawi) Dynasty (1490-1736). — Sheikh
Saifu 'd-Din Izhak1 — lineally descended from Musa, the seventh
imam — was a resident at Ardebil (Ardabil) south-
Sa/fti'd-D/n.west °f tne Caspian, some time during the i4th
century. It is said that his reputation for sanctity
attracted the attention of Timur, who sought him out in his
abode, and was so charmed by the visit that he released, at the
holy man's request, a number of captives of Turkish origin, or
Georgians, taken in the wars with Bayezid. The act ensured to
the Sheikh the constant devotion and gratitude of these men —
a feeling which was loyally maintained by their descendants
for the members of his family in successive generations.

His son Sadru'd-Din and grandson Kwaja 'Ah' (who visited
Mecca and died at Jerusalem) retained the high reputation of
their pious predecessor. Junaid, a grandson of the last, married
a sister of Uzun Hasan, and by her had a son named Sheikh
Haidar, who married his cousin Martha, daughter
of Uzun Hasan and Queen Despina. Three sons
were the issue of this marriage, Sultan "Ali, Ibrahim
Mirza, and the youngest, Isma'il, the date of whose birth is
put down as 1480 for reasons which will appear hereafter.
So great was the influence of Sheikh Haidar, and so earnestly
did he carry out the principles of conduct which had character-
ized his family for five generations, that his name has become,
as it were, inseparable from the dynasty of his son Isma'il; and
the term " Haidari " (leonine) is applied by many persons to
indicate generally the Safawids of Persia. The outcome of his
teaching was a division of Mahommedanism vitally momentous
to the world of Islam. The Persian mind was peculiarly adapted
to receive the form of religion prepared for it by the philosophers
of Ardebil. The doctrines presented were dreamy and mystic;
they rejected the infallibility of human wisdom, and threw
suspicion on the order and arrangement of human orthodoxy.
There was free scope given for the indulgence of that political
imagination which revels in revolution and chafes at prescriptive
bondage. As Malcolm remarks, " the very essence of Sufi-ism
is poetry."

1 According to Langlfis, the annotator of Chardin, his real designa-
tion was Abu '1-Fath Izhak, the Sheikh Saifu '1-Hakk wu 'd-Din or
" pure one of truth and religion."

Sheikh
Haidar.

Those authorities who maintain that Ya'qub Shah left no
son to succeed him consider valid the claim to the vacant throne
of Sheikh Haidar Sufi. Purchas says that Ya'qub himself,
" jealous of the multitude of Aidar's disciples and the greatness
of his fame, caused him to be secretly murthered "; but Krusinski
attributes the act to Rustam a few years later. Zeno, the anony-
mous merchant and Angiolello affirm that the devotee was
defeated and killed in battle — the first making his conqueror
to be Alamut, the second a general of Alamut's, and the third
an officer sent by Rustam named Suleiman Bey. Malcolm,
following the Zubdatu 'l-tawarikh, relates that Sheikh Haidar
was vanquished and slain by the governor of Shirvan. The
subsequent statement that his son, Sultan 'Ali, was seized, in
company with two younger brothers, by Ya'qub, " one of the
descendants of their grandfather Uzun Hasan, who, jealous of
the numerous disciples that resorted to Ardebil, confined them
to the hill fort of Istakhr in Fars," seems to indicate a second
interpretation of the passage just extracted from Purchas,
and that there is confusion of persons and incident somewhere.
One of the sons here alluded to was Isma'il, whom Malcolm
makes to have been only seven years of age when he fled to
Gilan in 1492. Zeno states that he was then thirteen, which is
much more probable,2 and the several data available for reference
are in favour of this supposition.

The life of the young Sufi from this period to his assumption
of royalty in 1499 was full of stirring adventure; and his career
as Isma'il I. was a brilliant one. According to .
Zeno, who seems to have carefully recorded the
events of the time, he left his temporary home on an island of
Lake Van before he was eighteen, and, passing into Karabakh,3
between the Aras and Kur, turned in a south-easterly direction
into Gilan. Here he was enabled, through the assistance of a
friend of his father, to raise a small force with which to take
possession of Baku on the Caspian, and thence to march upon
Shemakha in Shirvan, a town abandoned to him without a
struggle. Hearing, however, that Alamut was advancing to
meet him, he was compelled to seek new levies from among the
Jengian Christians and others. At the head of 16,000 men, he
thoroughly routed his opponents, and, having cleared the way
before him, marched straight upon Tabriz, which at once sur-
rendered. He was soon after proclaimed shah of Persia (1499),
under the designation which marked the family school of
thought.

Alamut had taken refuge at Diarbekr; but his brother Murad,
at the head of an army strengthened by Turkish auxiliaries,
was still in the field with the object of contesting the paternal
crown. Isma'il lost no time in moving against him, and won
a new victory on the plains of Tabriz. Murad fled with a small
remnant of his soldiers to Diarbekr, the rallying-point of the
White Sheep Turkomans. Zeno states that in the following
year Isma'il entered upon a new campaign in Kurdistan and
Asia Minor, but that he returned to Tabriz without accomplishing
his object, having been harassed by the tactics of Ala ud-Daula,
a beylerbey, or governor in Armenia and parts of Syria. Another
writer says that he marched against Murad Khan in Irak-i-
Ajami and Shiraz. This last account is extremely probable,
and would show that the young Turkoman had wished to make
one grand effort to save Isfahan and Shiraz (with Kazvin and
the neighbouring country), these being, after the capital Tabriz,
the most important cities of Uzun Hasan's Persia. His men,
however, apparently dismayed at the growing prestige of the
enemy, did not support him, and he was defeated and probably
slain. There is similar evidence of the death of Alamut, who,
it is alleged, was treacherously handed over to be killed by the
shah's own hands.

'Isma'il returned again to Tabriz (1501) "and caused great
rejoicings to be made on account of his victory." In 1503
he had added to his conquests Bagdad, Mosul and Jezira on
the Tigris. The next year he was called to the province of

2 So thinks the editor and annotator of the Italian Travels in
Persia, Charles Grey.

3 Possibly Kara-dagh, as being the more direct road.

230

PERSIA

[1405-1736

War with
Sellm.

Gilan to chastise a refractory ruler. Having accomplished his
end, he came back to his capital and remained there in
comparative quiet till 1507.* Malcolm's dates are
somewhat at variance with the above, for he infers
that Bagdad was subdued in that particular year;
but the facts remain. All writers seem to agree that in 1508
the king's attention was drawn to an invasion of Khorasan by
Shaibani, or Shahi Beg, the Uzbeg, a descendant of Jenghiz and
the most formidable opponent of Babar, from whom he had,
seven years before, wrested the city of Samarkand, and whom
he had driven from Turkestan to Kabul. Since these exploits
he had obtained great successes in Tashkent, Ferghana, Hissar,
Kunduz, and Khwarizm (Kharezm), and, at the time referred to,
had left Samarkand intent upon mischief south and west of the
Oxus, had passed the Murghab, and had reached Sarakhs (Ser-
rakhs). Isma'il encamped on this occasion at Isfahan, and there
concentrated the bulk of his army— strengthening his northern
(and probably north-eastern) frontier with large bodies of cavalry,
but maintaining an attitude of simple watchfulness. In 1510,
when Shaibani had invaded Khorasan the second time, and had
ravaged the Persian province of Kerman, Shah Isma'il asked
for redress, referring to the land encroached on as " hereditary ";
and Shaibani replied that he did not understand on what was
founded the claim " to inherit." Eventually the Persian troops
were put in movement, and the Uzbegs, having been divided
into small detachments scattered over the country, fell back
and retreated to Herat. Their leader repaired to Merv, but
Isma'il quickly followed him and enticed him out to battle
by taunt and reproach. Shaibani was defeated and fled, but
was overtaken in his flight, and put to the sword, together with
numerous relatives and companions.

The next remarkable event in Isma'il's reign is his war with
Sultan Selim I. Its origin may be traced to the Ottoman
emperor's hatred and persecution of all heretical
Moslems in his dominions, and the shah's anger at
the fanaticism which had urged him to the slaughter
of 40,000 Turks suspected to have thrown off the orthodox
Sunnite doctrines. The sultan's army advanced into Azer-
baijan and western Persia through Tokat and Erzingan. Isma'il
had at this time the greater number of his soldiers employed
in his newly-conquered province of Khorasan and was driven
to raise new levies in Kurdistan to obtain a sufficient force to
resist the invasion. It is asserted by some that his frontier then
extended westward to Sivas, a city situated in a large high plain
watered by the Kizil Irmak, and that hence to Khoi, oo m. west
of Tabriz, he followed the approved and often successful tactics
of ravaging and retreating, so as to deprive his advancing
enemy of supplies. There is good evidence to show that the
Turkish janissaries were within an ace of open revolt, and that
but for extraordinary firmness in dealing with them they would
have abandoned their leader in his intended march upon Tabriz.
In fine, at or near Khoi, the frontier-town of Azerbaijan, the
battle (1514) was fought between the two rival monarchs, ending
in the defeat of the Persians and the triumphant entry of Selim
into their capital.

There are stirring accounts of that action and of the gallant
deeds performed by Selim and Isma'il, both personally engaged
in it, as well as by their generals.2 Others maintain that Isma'il
was not present at all.3 It is tolerably certain that the Turks
won the day by better organization, superiority of numbers,
and more especially the use of artillery. On the side of the
Persians the force consisted of little more than cavalry.

1 Angiolello.

2 Knolles, Malcolm, Creasy, Markham, &c.

* Zeno. Angiolello says that " the Sophi monarch had left for
Tauris [Tabriz] in order to assemble more troops." Krusinski infers
much to the same effect, for he notes that " Selim came in person
and took Tauris from Ismail, but at the noise of his approach was
obliged to retreat with precipitation." The battle must thus have
been fought and the victory gained when the shah was himself absent.
Yet Markham quotes a journal which thus records his feats of
prowess: " It was in vain that the brave Shah, with a blow of his
sabre, severed a chain with which the Turkish guns were fastened
together to resist the shock of the Persian cavalry."

Selim remained at Tabriz no more than eight days. Levying
a contribution at that city of a large number of its skilled artisans
whom be sent off to Constantinople, he marched thence towards
Karabagh with intent to fix his winter quarters in those parts
and newly invade Persia in the spring, but the insubordination
of his troops rendered necessary his speedy return to Turkey.
His expedition, if not very glorious, had not been unproductive
of visible fruits. Besides humbling the power of an arrogant
enemy, he had conquered and annexed to his dominions the
provinces of Diarbekr and Kurdistan.4

From 1514 to 1524, although the hostile feeling between
the two countries was very strong, there was no serious nor open
warfare. Selim's attention was diverted from Persia to Egypt;
Isma'il took advantage of the sultan's death in 1519 to overrun
and subdue unfortunate Georgia, as Jahan Shah of the " Black
Sheep" had done before him; but Suleiman, who succeeded
Selim, was too strong to admit of retaliatory invasion being
carried out with impunity at the cost of Turkey.

In 1524 Isma'il died6 at Ardebil when on a pilgrimage to the
tomb of his father. " The Persians dwell with rapture on hio
character," writes Sir John Malcolm, for they deem
him " not only the founder of a great dynasty, but
the person to whom that faith in which they glory
owes its establishment as a national religion." And he quotes
a note handed down by Purchas from a contemporary European
traveller which reports of him thus: " His subjects deemed him a
saint, and made use of his name in their prayers. Many disdained
to wear armour when they fought under Isma'il; and so enthu-
siastic were his soldiers in their new faith that they used to bare
their breasts to their enemies and court death, exclaiming
' Shiah! Shiah! ' to mark the holy cause for which they fought."

Shah Tahmasp,6 the eldest of the four sons of Isma'il, succeeded
to the throne on the death of his father.7 The principal occur-
rences in his reign, placed as nearly as possible in
chronological order, were a renewal of war with
the Uzbegs, who had again invaded Khorasan, and •
the overthrow of their army (1527); the recovery of Bagdad
from a Kurdish usurper (1528); the settlement of an internal
feud between Kizil-bash tribes (Shamlu and Tukulu), contending
for the custody of the royal person, by the slaughter of the more
unruly of the disputants (1529); the rescue of Khorasan from a
fresh irruption, and of Herat from a besieging army of Uzbegs
(1530); a new invasion of the Ottomans, from which Persia was
saved rather by the severity of her climate than by the prowess
of her warriors (1533); the wresting of Bagdad from Persia by
the sultan Suleiman (i 534) ; the king's youngest brother's rebellion

4 It was about this time that Persia again entered into direct
relations with one of the states of western Europe. In 1510 and
1514 Alphonso d'Albuquerque, the governor of Portuguese India,
sent envoys to Isma'il, seeking an alliance. In 1515, after occupying
Hormuz, he despatched a third embassy under Fernao Gomes de
Lemos. His object was to utilize the Shi'ite armies in conjunction
with the Portuguese fleet for an attack upon the Sunnite powers —
Egypt and Turkey — which wert then at war with Portugal in the
East. See, for further details and authorities, K. G. Jayne, Vasco
da Gama and his Successors, pp. 108-110 and App. A. (London,
1910). — ED.

6 Malcolm says 1523, Krusinski 1525; Angiolello heard of his
death at Cairo in August 1524. Krusinski adds that he was forty-
five years of age.

6 Angiolello calls him " Shiacthemes." As an instance of the
absurd transliterating current in France as in England the word
" Ach-tacon " may be mentioned. It is explained in Chardin's
text to mean " jes h6pitaux a Tauris: c'est-a-dire lieux oH Von fail
profusion de vivres." Chardin's editor remarks, " La dermere
partie de ce mot est mecpnnaissable, et je ne puis deviner quel mot
Persan signifiant profusion a pu donner naissance a la corruption
qu'on voit ici." In other words, the first syllable " ach " (An^lice
ash) was understood in its common acceptance for " food ' or
" victuals "; but " tacon " was naturally a puzzler. The solution of
the whole difficulty is, however, to be found in the Turco-Persian

Ail*. >•- A khastah khanah, pronounced by Turks nasta hona, or
more vulgarly asta khon and even to a French ear ash-tacon, a
hospital, literally a sick-house. This word is undoubtedly current
at Tabriz and throughout northern Persia.

7 The other brothers were Ilkhas, Bahram and Sam Mirza, each
having had his particular appanage assigned him.

1405-1736]

PERSIA

231

and the actual seizure of Herat, necessitating the recovery of
that city and a march to Kandahar (1536 ); the temporary loss
of Kandahar in the following year (1537), when the governor
ceded it to Prince Kamran, son of Babar; the hospitable reception
accorded to the Indian emperor Humayun (1543); the rebellion
of the shah's brother next in age, Ilkhas, who, by his alliance
with the sultan, brought on a war with Turkey (1548);' and
finally a fresh expedition to Georgia, followed by a revengeful
incursion which resulted in the enforced bondage of thousands
of the inhabitants (1552).

Bayezid, a son of the Turkish emperor, rebelled, and his
army was beaten in 1559 by the imperial troops at Konia
in Asia Minor. He fled to Persia and took refuge
^h Shah Tahmasp, who pledged himself to give
him a permanent asylum. Suleiman's demand,
however, for extradition or execution was too peremptory for
refusal, and the prince was delivered up to the messengers sent
to take him. Whatever the motive, the act itself was highly
appreciated by Suleiman, and became the means of cementing a
recently concluded peace between the two monarchs. Perhaps
the domestic affliction of the emperor and the anarchy which
in his later years had spread in his dominions had, however,
more to do with the maintenance of tranquillity than any mere
personal feeling. At this time not only was there religious
fanaticism at work to stir up the mutual hatred ever existing
between Sunni and Shi'ah, but the intrigue of European courts
was probably directed towards the maintenance of an hostility
which deterred the sultan from aggressive operations north and
west of Constantinople. ' 'Tis only the Persian stands between
us and ruin " is the reported saying of Busbecq, ambassador
at Suleiman's court on the part of Ferdinand of Austria; " the
Turk would fain be upon us, but he keeps him back."

In 1561 Anthony Jenkinson arrived in Persia with a letter
from Queen Elizabeth to the shah. He was to treat with his
majesty of " Trafique and Commerce for our English Mar-
chants,"2 but his reception was not encouraging, and led to
no result of importance.

Tahmasp died in 1576, after a reign of about fifty-two
years. He must have been some sixty-six years of age, having
come to the throne at fourteen. Writers describe
n'm ^ a ro^ust man, of middle stature, wide-lipped,
and of tawny complexion. He was not wanting
in soldierly qualities; but his virtues were rather negative than
decided. The deceased shah had a numerous progeny, and on
his death his fifth son, Haidar Mirza, proclaimed himself king,
supported in his pretensions by the Kizil-bash tribe of Ustujulu.
Another tribe, the Afshar, insisted on the succession of the
fourth son, Isma'il. Had it not been that there were two
candidates in the field, the contention would have resembled
that which arose shortly after Tahmasp's accession. Finally
Isma'il, profiting from his brother's weak character and the
intrigues set on foot against him, obtained his object, and was
brought from a prison to receive the crown.

The reign of Isma'il II. lasted less than two years. He was
found dead in the house of a confectioner in Kazvin, having
left the world either drunk, drugged or poisoned.
No steps were taken to verify the circumstances, for
the event itself was a cause of general relief and joy. He was
succeeded by his eldest brother, Mahommed Mirza, otherwise
Mahommed called Mahommed Khudabanda, whose claim to
Kbuda- sovereignty had been originally put aside on the
**"*»• ground of physical infirmity. He had the good
sense to trust his state affairs almost wholly to an able
minister; but he was cowardly enough to 'deliver up that
minister into the hands of his enemies. His kingdom was
distracted by intestine divisions and rebellion, and the foe

1 Creasy says that " Suliman led his armies against the Persians
in several campaigns (1533, 1534, 1535, 1548, 1553, 1554), during
which the Turks often suffered severely through the difficult nature
of the countries traversed, as well as through the bravery and
activity of the enemy." All the years given were in the reign of
Tahmasp I.

1 Purchas.

Isma'il II.

appeared also from without. On the east his youngest son.
'Abbas, held possession of Khorasan; on the west the sultan's
troops again entered Azerbaijan and took Tabriz. His
eldest son, Hamza Mirza, upheld his fortunes to the utmost
of his power, reduced the rebel chieftains, and forced the Turks
to make peace and retire; but he was stabbed to death by
an assassin. On the news of his death reaching Khorasan,
Murshid Kuli Khan, leader of the Ustujulu Kizil-bash, who had
made gdod in fight his claims to the guardianship of 'Abbas,
at once conducted the young prince from that province to
Kazvin, and occupied the royal city. The object was evident,
and in accordance with the popular feeling. 'Abbas, who had
been proclaimed king by the nobles at Nishapur some two or
three years before this occurrence, may be said to have now
undertaken in earnest the cares of sovereignty. His ill-starred
father, at no time more than a nominal ruler, was at Shiraz,
apparently deserted by soldiers and people. Malcolm infers
that he died a natural death, but when3 or where is not stated.

Shah 'Abbas the Great commenced his long and glorious
reign (1586) by retracing his step? towards Khorasan, which
had been reinvaded by the Uzbef s almost imme-
diately after his departure thence with the Kizil-bash
chief. They had besieged and taken Herat, killed the
governor, plundered the town, and laid waste the surrounding
country. 'Abbas advanced to Meshed, but owing to internal
troubles he was compelled to return to Kazvin without going
farther east. In his absence 'Abd-ul-Munim Khan, the Uzbeg
commander, attacked the sacred city, obtained possession of it
while the shah lay helplessly ill at Teheran, and allowed his savage
soldiers full licence to kill and plunder. The whole kingdom
was perplexed, and "Abbas had much work to restore confidence
and tranquillity. But circumstances rendered impossible his
immediate renewal of the Khorasan warfare. He was summoned
to Shiraz to put down rebellion in Fars; and before he could
drive out the Uzbegs, he had to secure himself against Turkish
inroads threatening from the west. He had been engaged in a
war with Murad III. in Georgia. Peace was concluded between
the two sovereigns in 1590; but the terms were unfavourable
to Persia, who lost thereby Tabriz and one or more of the Caspian
ports. A stipulation was included in the treaty to the effect
that Persians were not to curse any longer the first three caliphs,
— a sort of privilege previously enjoyed by Shi'ites as part and
parcel of their religious faith.

In 1597 'Abbas renewed operations against the Uzbegs, and
succeeded in recovering from them Herat and Khorasan. East-
ward he extended his dominions to Balkh, and in the south his
generals made the conquest of Bahrain (Bahrein), on the Arabian
side of the Persian Gulf, and the territory and islands of the
Persian seaboard, inclusive of the mountainous province of
Lar. He strengthened his position in Khorasan by planting
colonies of Kurdish horsemen on the frontier, or along what is
called the " atak " or skirt of the Turkoman mountains north of
Persia. In 1601 the war with the Ottoman Empire, which had
been partially renewed prior to the death of Sultan Murad in
tSQS; with little success on the Turkish side, was now entered
upon by 'Abbas with more vigour. Taking advantage of the
weakness of his ancient enemy in the days of the poor volup-
tuary Mahommed III., he began rapidly to recover the provinces
which Persia had lost in preceding reigns, and continued to
reap his advantages in succeeding campaigns under Ahmed I.,
until under Othman II. a peace was signed restoring to Persia
the boundaries which she had obtained under the first Isma'il.
On the other side Kandahar, which Tahmasp's lieutenant had
yielded to the Great Mogul, was recovered from that potentate
in 1609.

At the age of seventy, after a reign of forty-two years, 'Abbas
died at his favourite palace of Farahabad, on the coast of
Mazandaran, on the night of the 27th of January 1628. Perhaps
the most distinguished of all Persian kings, his fame was not
merely local but world-wide. At his court were ambassadors
from England, Russia, Spain, Portugal, Holland and India.
3 Krusinski says in 1585.

232

PERSIA

[1405-1736

To his Christian subjects he was a kind and tolerant ruler.
The establishment of internal tranquillity, the expulsion of
interlopers and marauders like Turks and Uzbegs, the intro-
duction of salutary laws and the promotion of public works ot
utility — these alone would render remarkable his two-score
years of enlightened government. With a fine face, " of which
the most remarkable features were a high nose and a keen and
piercing eye,"1 he is said to have been below the middle height,
robust, active, a sportsman, and capable of much endurance.
It is, however, to be regretted that this monarch's memory is
tarnished by more than one dark deed. The murder of his
eldest son, Sufi Mirza, and the cruel treatment of the two
younger brothers, were stains which could not be obliterated by
an after-repentance. All that can be now said or done in the
matter is to repeat the testimony of historians that his grief for
the loss of Sufi Mirza was profound, and that, on his death-
bed, he nominated that prince's son (his own grandson) his
successor.

Sam Mirza was seventeen years of age when the nobles, in

fulfilment of the charge c >mmitted to them, proclaimed him

, king under the title of Shah Sufi. He reigned

Shah Sufi, _ .... j.

fourteen years, and his reign was a succession of
barbarities, which can only be attributed to an evil disposition
acted upon by an education void of all civilizing influences. When
left to his own devices he became a drunkard and a murderer,
and is accused of the death of his mother, sister and favourite
queen. Among many other sufferers Imam Kuli Khan, con-
queror of Lar and Hormuz, the son of one of 'Abbas's most
famous generals, founder of a college at Shiraz, and otherwise
a public benefactor, fell a victim to his savage cruelty. During
his reign the Uzbegs were driven back from Khorasan, and a
rebellion was suppressed in Gilan ; but Kandahar was again
handed over to the Moguls of Delhi, and Bagdad retaken from
Persia by Sultan Murad — both serious national losses. Taver-
nier, without charging the shah with injustice to Christians,
mentions the circumstance that " the first and only European
ever publicly executed in Persia was in his reign." He was
a watchmaker named Rodolph Stadler, who had slain a Persian
on suspicion of intrigue with his 'wife. Offered his life if he
became a Moslem, he resolutely declined the proposal, and was
decapitated. His tomb is to be recognized at Isfahan by the
words " Cy git Rodolphe " on a long wide slab. Shah Sufi died
(1641) at Kashan and was buried at Kum.

His son, "Abbas II., succeeded him. Beyond regaining
Kandahar, an operation which he is said to have directed in
'Abbas u Person when barely sixteen, there is not much to
mark his life to the outer world. As to foreign
relations, he received embassies from Europe and a deputation
from the French East India Company; he sought to conciliate
the Uzbegs by treating their refugee chiefs with unusual honour
and sumptuous hospitality; he kept on good terms with Turkey;
he forgave the hostility of a Georgian prince when brought to
him a captive; and he was tolerant to all religions — always
regarding Christians with especial favour. But he was a drunk-
ard and a debauchee, and chroniclers are divided in opinion
as to whether he died from the effects of drink or licentious
living. That he changed the system of blinding his relatives
from passing a hot metal over the open eye to an extraction
of the whole pupil is indicative of gross brutality. "Abbas II.
died (1668) at the age of thirty-eight, after a reign of twenty-
seven years, and was buried at Kum in the same mosque as his
father.

'Abbas was succeeded by his son, Shah Sufi II., crowned a

second time under the name of Shah Suleiman. Though weak,

Suleiman dissolute and cruel, Suleiman is not without his

panegyrists. Chardin, whose testimony is all the

more valuable from the fact that he was contemporary with

him, relates many stories characteristic of his temper and habits.

He kept up a court at Isfahan which surprised and delighted

his foreign visitors, among whom were ambassadors from

European states; and one learned writer, Kaempfer, credits

1 Malcolm.

Hosain.

him with wisdom and good policy. During his reign Khorasan
was invaded by the ever-encroaching Uzbegs, the Kipchak
Tatars plundered the shores of the Caspian, and the island of
Kishm was taken by the Dutch; but the kingdom suffered
otherwise no material loss. He died in 1694, in the forty-ninth
year of his age and twenty-sixth of his reign.

About a year before his death, he is described by Sanson,2 a
missionary from the French king Louis XIV., as tall, strong and
active, " a fine prince — a little too effeminate for a monarch,"
with " a Roman nose very well proportioned to other parts,"
very large blue eyes, and " a midling mouth, a beard painted
black, shav'd round, and well turn'd, even to his ears." The
same writer greatly praises him for his kindness to Christian
missionaries.

Krusinski's memoir is full of particulars regarding Shah
Hosain, the successor of Suleiman. He had an elder and a
younger brother, sons of the same mother, but the
eldest had been put to death by his father's orders,
and the youngest secreted by maternal precaution lest a similar
fate should overtake him. There was, however, a second
candidate for power in the person of a half-brother, "Abbas.
The latter prince was the worthier of the throne, but the other
better suited the policy of the eunuchs and those noblemen who
had the right of election. Indeed Suleiman himself is reported
to have told the grandees around him, in his last days, that
" if they were for a martial king that would always keep his
foot in the stirrup they ought to choose Mirza "Abbas, but that
if they wished for a peaceable reign and a pacific king they
ought to fix their eyes upon Hosain." But he himself made no
definite choice.

Hosain was selected, as might have been anticipated. On
his accession (1694) he displayed his attachment to religious
observances by prohibiting the use of wine — causing all wine-
vessels to be brought out of the royal cellars and destroyed, and
forbidding the Armenians to sell any more of their stock in
Isfahan. The shah's grandmother, by feigning herself sick and
dependent upon wine only for cure, obtained reversal of the
edict. For the following account of Shah Hosain and his
successors to the accession of Nadir Shah, Sir Clements
Markham's account has been mainly utilized.

The new king soon fell under the influence of mullahs, and was led
so far to forget his own origin as to persecute the Sufis. Though
good-hearted he was weak and licentious; and once out of the
hands of the fanatical party he became ensnared by women and
entangled in harem intrigues. For twenty years a profound peace
prevailed throughout the empire, but it was the precursor of a
terrible storm destined to destroy the Safawid dynasty and scatter
calamity broadcast over Persia. In the mountainous districts of
Kandahar and Kabul the hardy tribes of Afghans had for centuries
led a wild and almost independent life. They were divided into
two great branches — the Ghilzais of .Ghazni and Kabul and the
Saduzais of Kandahar and Herat, 'in 1702 a newly-appointed
governor, one Shah Nawaz, called Gurji Khan from having been
" wali " or ruler of Georgia, arrived at Kandahar with a tolerably
jarge force. He was a clever and energetic man, and had been
instructed to take severe measures with the Afghans, some of whom
were susf>ected of intriguing to restore the city to the Delhi emperor.
At this time Kandahar had been for sixty years uninterruptedly in
the shah's possession. The governor appears to have given great
offence by the harshness of his proceedings, and a Gnilzai chief
named Mir Wa'iz, who had complained of his tyranny, was sent a
prisoner to Isfahan. This person had much ability and no little
cunning. He was permitted to go on a pilgrimage to Mecca, and
on his return in 1708 he so gained upon the confidence of the
Persian court that he was allowed to go back to his country. At
Kandahar he planned a conspiracy against the government, slew
Gurji Khan and his retinue, seized the city, defeated two Persian
armies sent against him, and died a natural death in 1715. His
brother, Mir 'Abdallah, succeeded him in the government of the
Afghans ; but after a few months, Mahmud, a son of Mir Wa'iz, a very
young man, murdered his uncle and assumed the title of a sovereign
prince.

In the meanwhile the Saduzai tribe revolted at Herat, and declared
itself independent in 1717; the Kurds overran the country round
Hamadan; the Uzbegs desolated Khorasan; and the Arabs of Muscat
seized the island of Bahrein and threatened Bander Abbasi. Thus
surrounded by dangers on all sides the wretched shah was bewildered.
He made one vain attempt to regain his possessions in the Persian

Present State of Persia (London, 1695).

1405-1736]

PERSIA

233

Gulf; but the Portuguese fleet which had promised to transport his
troops to Bahrein was defeated by the imam of Muscat and forced
to retreat to Goa.

The court of Isfahan had no sooner received tidings of this
disaster than Mahmud, with a large army of Afghans, invaded
.. Persia in the year 1721, seized Kerman, and in the

following year advanced to within four days' march of
the city of Isfahan. The shah offered him a sum of
money to return to Kandahar, but the Afghan answered by advanc-
ing to a place called Gulnabad, within 9 m. of the capital. The
ill-disciplined Persian army, hastily collected, advanced to attack
the rebels. Its centre was led by Sheikh 'AH Khan, covered by
twenty-four field-pieces. The wali of Arabia commanded the
right, and the 'itimadu' d-daulah, or prime minister, the left wing.
The whole force amounted to 50,000 men, while the Afghans could
not count half that number.

On the 8th of March 1722 the richly dressed hosts of Persia
appeared before the little band of Afghans, who were scorched and
disfigured by their long marches. The wali of Arabia commenced
the battle by attacking the left wing of the Afghans with great
fury, routing it, and plundering their camp. The prime minister
immediately afterwards attacked the enemy's right wing, but was
routed, and the Afghans, taking advantage of the confusion, captured
the Persian guns and turned them on the Persian centre, who fled
in confusion without striking a blow. The wali of Arabia escaped
into Isfahan, and Mahmud the Afghan gained a complete victory.
Fifteen thousand Persians remained dead on the field. A panic
now seized on the surrounding inhabitants, and thousands of country
people fled into the city. Isfahan was then one of the most magni-
ficent cities in Asia, containing more than 600,000 inhabitants.
Mahmud seized on the Armenian suburb of Julfa, and invested the
doomed city; but Tahmasp, S0n of the shah, had previously escaped
into the mountains of Mazandaran. Famine soon began to press
hard upon the besieged, and in September Shah Hosain offered to
capitulate. Having been conducted to the Afghan camp, he fixed
... ., the royal plume of feathers on the young rebel's turban
a muas wjtjj j^s Qwn ^and; and 4000 Afghans were ordered to
'occupy the palace and gates of the city.1 Mahmud
entered Isfahan in triumph, with the captive shah on his left hand,
and, seating himself on the throne in the royal palace, he was saluted
as sovereign of Persia by the unfortunate fjosain. When Tahmasp,
the fugitive prince, received tidings of the abdication of his father,
he at once assumed the title of shah at Kazvin.

Turkey and Russia were not slow to take advantage of the calami-
ties of Persia. The Turks seized on Tiflis, Tabriz and Hamadan,
while Peter the Great, whose aid had been sought by the friendless
Fahmasp, fitted out a fleet on the Caspian.2 The Russians occupied
Shirvan, and the province of Gilan south-west of the Caspian;3 and
Peter made a treaty with Tahmasp II. in July 1722, by which he
agreed to drive the Afghans out of Persia on condition that Darband
(Derbend), Baku, Gilan, Mazandaran and Astarabad were ceded
to Russia in perpetuity. These were all the richest and most
important northern provinces of Persia.

Meanwhile the invader, in 1723, invited 300 of the principal Persian
nobility to a banquet and massacred them. To prevent their
children rising up in vengeance they were all murdered also. Then
he proceeded to slaughter vast numbers of the citizens of Isfahan,
until the place was nearly depopulated. Not content with this,
in February 1725 he assembled all the captives of the royal family,
except the shah, in the courtyard of the palace, and caused them
all to be murdered, commencing the massacre with his own hand.
The wretched Hosain was himself wounded in endeavouring vainly
to save his infant son, only five years of age. All the males of the
royal family, except Hosain himself, Tahmasp, and two children,
are said to have perished. At length the inhuman miscreant
Mahmud died, at the early age of twenty-seven, on the 22nd of
April 1725. With scarcely any neck, he had round shoulders, a
broad face with a flat nose, a thin beard, and squinting eyes, which
were generally downcast.

Mahmud was succeeded by his first cousin, Ashraf, the son of
Mir 'Abdallah. He was a brave but cruel Afghan. He gave the
dethroned shah a handsome allowance, and strove, by a mild policy,
to acquire popularity. In 1727, after a short war, he signed
a treaty with the Turks, acknowledging the sultan as chief of
the Moslems. But the fortunate star of Tahmasp II. was now be-
binning to rise, and the days of Afghan usurpation were numbered.
He had collected a small army in Mazandaran, and was supported by
Fath 'Ali Khan, the powerful chief of the Kajar tribe. In 1727

1 We have an account of the Afghan invasion and sack of Isfahan
from an eye-witness, Father Krusmski, procurator of the Jesuits at
that place, whose interesting work was translated into English in the
last century.

2 In 1721 Sultan Hosain sent an embassy to the Russians, seeking
aid against the Afghans. In May 1722 a flotilla descended the Volga
commanded by Tsar Peter and on the igth of July the Russian
flag first waved over the Caspian. Gilan was occupied by 6000 men
under General Matushkin.

3 The Russians remained in Gilan until 1734, when they were
obliged to evacuate it, owing to the unhealthiness of the climate.

the fugitive shah was joined by Nadir Kuli, a robber chief, who
murdered Fath 'AH, and, having easily appeased the shah, received
the command of the royal army. In 1729 Ashraf became _ ..
alarmed, and led an Afghan army into Khorasan, where , p"
he was defeated by Nadir at Damghan, and forced to otAI*baas-
retreat. The Persian general followed close in his rear and again
defeated him outside Isfahan in November of the same year.
The Afghans fled through the town; and Ashraf, murdering the poor
old shah Hpsain on his way, hurried with the wreck of his army
towards Shiraz. On the loth of November the victorious Nadir
entered Isfahan, and was soon followed by the young shah Tahmasp
II., who burst into tears when he beheld the ruined palace of
his ancestors. His mother, who had escaped the numerous mas-
sacres by disguising herself as a slave and performing the most
degrading offices, now came forth and threw herself into his arms.
Nadir did not give his enemies time to recover from their defeat.
He followed them up, and again utterly routed them in January
1730. Ashraf tried to escape to Kandahar almost alone, but was
murdered by a party of Baluch robbers; and thus, by the genius of
Nadir, his native land was delivered from the terrible Afghan
invaders.

The ambition of Nadir, however, was far greater than his [loyalty.
On pretext of incapacity, he dethroned Tahmasp II. in 1732, and
sent him a prisoner into Khorasan, where he was
murdered some years afterwards by Nadir's son while
the conqueror was absent on his Indian expedition.
For a short time the wily usurper placed Tahmasp's son on the
throne, a little child, with the title of 'Abbas III., while he con-
tented himself with the office of regent. Poor little 'Abbas died at
a very convenient time, in the year 1736, and Nadir then thiew off
the mask. He was proclaimed shah of Persia by a vast assemblage
on the plain of Moghan.

By the fall of the Safawid dynasty Persia lost her race of
national monarchs, considered not only in respect of origin and
birthplace but in essence and in spirit. Isma'il, Tahmasp and
'Abbas, whatever their faults and failings, were Persian and
peculiar to Persians. Regarded in a sober English spirit, the
reign of the great 'Abbas is rendered mythical by crime. But
something liberal in the philosophy of their progenitors threw
an attractiveness over the earlier Safawid kings which was
wanting in those who came after them. The fact is that, two
centuries after Shah Isma'il 's accession to the throne, the Safawid
race of kings was effete; and it became necessary to make room
for a more vigorous if not a more lasting rule. Nadir was the
strong man for the hour and occasion. He had been designated
a "robber chief"; but his antecedents, like those of many
others who have filled the position, have redeeming points of
melodramatic interest.

A map attached to Krusinski's volumes illustrates the extent
of Persian territory in 1728, or one year before Ashraf was finally
defeated by Nadir, and some eight years prior to
the date on which Nadir was himself proclaimed king.
It shows, during the reign of the Safawids, Tiflis,
Erivan, Khoi and Bagdad to have been within the limits of
Persia on the west, and in like manner Balkh and Kandahar
to have been included within the eastern border. There is,
however, also shown, as a result of the Afghan intrusion and
the impotency of the later Safawid kings, a long broad strip of
country to the west, including Tabriz and Hamadan, marked
" conquests of the Turks," and the whole west shore of the Caspian
from Astrakan to Mazandaran marked " conquests of the czar
of Muscovy "; Makran, written Mecran, is designated " a warlike
independent nation." If further allowance be made for the
district held by the Afghan invaders as part of their own country,
it will be seen how greatly the extent of Persia proper was
reduced, and what a work Nadir had before him to restore the
kingdom to its former proportions.

But the former proportions had been partly reverted to, and
would doubtless have been in some respects exceeded, both in
Afghanistan and the Ottoman dominions and on the shores of
the Caspian, by the action of this indefatigable general, had not
Tahmasp II. been led into a premature treaty with the Turks.
Nadir's anger and indignation had been great at this weak
proceeding; indeed, he had made it the ostensible cause of the
shah's deposition. He had addressed letters to all the military
chiefs of the country, calling upon them for support; he had sent
an envoy to Constantinople insisting upon the sultan's restora-
tion of the Persian provinces still in his possession — that is,

a

234

PERSIA

[1736-1884

Georgia and part of Azerbaijan — and he had threatened Bagdad
with assault. As regent, he had failed twice in taking the city
,of the caliphs, but on the second occasion he had defeated and
killed its gallant defender, Topal'Othman, and he had succeeded
in regaining Tiflis, Kars and Erivan.1

Russia and Turkey, naturally hostile to one another, had
taken occasion of the weakness of Persia to forget their mutual
quarrels and unite to plunder the tottering kingdom of the
Safawid kings. A partition treaty had been signed between
these two powers in 1723, by which the czar was to take Astara-
bad, Mazandaran, Gilan, part of Shirvan and Daghistan, while
the acquisitions of the Porte were to be traced out by a line drawn
from the junction of the Aras and Kur rivers, and passing along
by Ardebil, Tabriz and Hamadan, and thence to Kermanshah.
Tahmasp was to retain the rest of his paternal kingdom on con-
dition of his recognizing the treaty. The ingenious diplomacy
of Russia in this transaction was manifested in the fact that she
had already acquired the greater part of the territory allotted
to her, while Turkey had to obtain her share by further con-
quest. But the combination to despoil a feeble neighbour was
outwitted by the energy of a military commander of a remark-
able type.

D. — From the Accession of Nadir Shah, in 1736, to 1884.

Nadir, it has been said, was proclaimed shah in the plains
of Moghan in 1736. Mirza Mahdi relates how this event was

brought about by his address to the assembled
Coronation n°bles and officers on the morning of the " Nau-ruz,"

or Persian New- Year's Day, the response to that
appeal being the offer of the crown. The conditions were that
the crown should be hereditary in his family, that the claim of
the Safawids was to be held for ever extinct, and that measures
should be taken to bring the Shi'ites to accept uniformity of
worship with the Sunnites. The mulla bashi (or high priest)
objecting to the last, Nadir ordered him to be strangled, a com-
mand which was carried out on the spot. On the day following,
the agreement having been ratified between sovereign and people,
he was proclaimed emperor of Persia. At Kazvin the ceremony
of inauguration took place. The edict expressing the royal
will on the religious question is dated in June, but the date of
coronation is uncertain. From Kazvin Nadir moved to Isfahan,
where he organized an expedition against Kandahar, then in
the possession of a brother of Mahmud, the conqueror of Shah
Hosain. But before setting out for Afghanistan he took
measures to secure the internal quiet of Persia, attacking and
seizing in his stronghold the chief of the marauding Bakhtiaris,
whom he put to death, retaining many of his men for service
as soldiers. With an army of 80,000 men he marched through
Khorasan and Seistan to Kandahar, which city he blockaded
ineffectually for a year; but it finally capitulated on the loss of
the citadel. Balkh fell to Riza Kuli, the king's son, who,
moreover, crossed the Oxus and defeated the Uzbegs in battle.
Besides tracing out the lines of Nadirabad, a town since merged
in modern Kandahar, Nadir had taken advantage of the time
available and of opportunities presented to enlist a large number
of men from the Abdali and Ghilzai tribes. It is said that as
many as 16,000 were at his disposal. His rejection of the
Shi'ite tenets as a state religion seems to have propitiated the
Sunnite Afghans.

Nadir had sent an ambassador into Hindustan requesting
the Mogul emperor to order the surrender of certain unruly
lovaslea of Afghans who had taken refuge within Indian terri-
iniiia. tory, but no satisfactory reply was given, and

obstacles were thrown in the way of the return of the

embassy. The Persian monarch, not sorry perhaps to find a

plausible pretext for encroachment in a quarter so full of promise

• to booty-seeking soldiers, pursued some of the fugitives through

Ghazni to Kabul, which city was then under the immediate

control of Nasr Khan, governor of eastern Afghanistan, for

Mahommed Shah of Delhi. This functionary, alarmed at the

near approach of the Persians, fled to Peshawar. Kabul had

1 Malcolm.

long been considered not only an integral part but also one of
the main gates of the Indian Empire; notwithstanding a stout
resistance on the part of its commandant, Shir or Shirzah Khan,
the place was stormed and carried (1738) by Nadir, who moved
on eastward. Mirza Mahdi relates that from the Kabul plain
he addressed a new remonstrance to the Delhi court, but that
his envoy was arrested and killed, and his escort compelled to
return by the governor of Jalalabad. The same authority
notes the occupation of the latter place by Persian troops and
the march thither from Gandamak. It was probably through
the Khaibar (Khyber) Pass that he passed into the Peshawar
plain, for it was there that he first defeated the Imperial forces.

The invasion of India had now fairly commenced, and its
successful progress and consummation were mere questions
of time. The prestige of this Eastern Napoleon was immense.
It had not only reached but had been very keenly felt at Delhi
before the conquering army had arrived. There was no actual
religious war; all sectarian distinction had been disavowed; the
contest was between vigorous Mahommedans and effete Mahom-
medans. Nadir's way had been prepared by circumstances,
and as he progressed from day to day his army increased.
There must have been larger accessions by voluntary recruits
than losses by death or desertion. The victory on the plain of
Karnal, whether accomplished by sheer fighting or the interven-
tion of treachery, was the natural outcome of the previous
situation, and the submission of the emperor followed as a
matter of course.

Delhi must have experienced a sense of relief at the departure
of its conqueror, whose residence there had been rendered
painfully memorable by carnage and riot. The marriage of
his son to the granddaughter of Aurangzeb and the formal
restoration of the crown to the dethroned emperor were doubt-
less politic, but the descendant of Babar could not easily forget
how humiliating a chapter in history would remain to be written
against him. The return march of Nadir to Persia is not
recorded with precision. On the sth of May 1739 he left the
gardens of Shalamar, and proceeded by way of Lahore and
Peshawar through the passes to Kabul. Thence he seems to
have returned to Kandahar, and in May 1740 — just one year
after his departure from Delhi — he was in Herat displaying the
imperial throne and other costly trophies to the gaze of the
admiring inhabitants. Sind was certainly included in the
cession to him by Mahommed Shah of " all the territories
westward of the river Attok, " but only that portion of it,
such as Thattah (Tatta), situated on the right bank of the
Indus.

From Herat he moved upon Balkh and Bokhara, and received
the submission of Abu'1-Faiz Khan, the Uzbeg ruler, whom he
restored to his throne on condition that the Oxus
should be the acknowledged boundary between the
two empires. The khan of Khwarizm, who had made
repeated depredations in Persian territory, was taken prisoner
and executed. Nadir then visited the strong fortress of Kelat,
to which he was greatly attached as the scene of his boyish
exploits, and Meshed, which he constituted the capital of his
empire. He had extended his boundary on the east to the
Indus, and to the Oxus on the north.

On the south he was restricted by the Arabian Ocean and
Persian Gulf; but the west remained open to his further
progress. He had in the first place to revenge the
death of his brother Ibrahim Khan, slain by the ,$£™p
Lesghians; and a campaign against the Turks might
follow in due course. The first movement was unsuccessful,
and indirectly attended with disastrous consequences. Nadir,
when hastening to the support of some Afghan levies who were
doing good service, was fired at and wounded by a stray assailant;
suspecting his son, Riza Kuli, of complicity, he commanded the
unfortunate prince to be seized and deprived of sight. From
that time the heroism of the monarch appeared to die out. He
became morose, tyrannical and suspicious. An easy victory
over the Turks gave him but little additional glory; and he
readily concluded a peace with the sultan which brought but

1736-1884]

PERSIA

235

.... .

insignificant gain to Persia.1 Another battle won from the
Ottoman troops near Diarbekr by Nasr Ullah Mirza, the young
prince who had married a princess of Delhi, left matters much
the same as before.

The last years of Nadir's life were full of internal trouble.
On the part of the sovereign, murders and executions; on that
of his subjects, revolt and conspiracy. Such a state of things
could not last, and certain proscribed persons plotted the
destruction of the half-demented tyrant. He was despatched
by Salah Bey, captain of his guards (1747). He was some sixty
years of age, and had reigned eleven years. About the time of
setting out on his Indian expedition he was described as a most
comely man, upwards of 6 ft., tall, well-proportioned, of robust
make and constitution; inclined to be fat, but prevented by the
fatigue he underwent; with fine, large black eyes and eyebrows;
of sanguine complexion, made more manly by the influence of
sun and weather; a loud, strong voice; a moderate wine-drinker;
fond of simple diet, such as pilaos and plain dishes, but often
neglectful of meals altogether, and satisfied, if occasion required,
with parched peas and water, always to be procured.2

During the reign of Nadir an attempt was made to establish
a British Caspian trade with Persia. The names of Jonas
Hanway and John Elton were honourably connected with this
undertaking; and the former has left most valuable records of
the time and country.

From Nadir Shah to the Kajar Dynasty. — After the death of
Nadir Shah something like anarchy prevailed for thirteen years
in the greater part of Persia as it existed under
Shah 'Abbas. No sooner had the crime become
known than Ahmad Khan, chief of the Abdali
Afghans, took possession of Kandahar and a certain amount
of treasure. By the action of Ahmad Abdali, Afghanistan was
at once lost to the Persian crown, for this leader was strong
enough to found an independent kingdom. The chief of the
Bakhtiaris, Rashid, also with treasure, fled to the mountains,
and the conspirators invited 'Ali, a nephew of the deceased
monarch, to ascend the vacant throne. The Bakhtiari encour-
aged his brother, 'Ali Mardan, to compete for the succession
to Nadir. The prince was welcomed by his subjects; he told
them that the murder of his uncle was due to his own instigation,
and, in order to conciliate them, remitted the revenues of the
current year and all extraordinary taxes for the two years
following.

Taking the title of 'Adil Shah, or the " just " king, he
commenced his reign by putting to death the two princes Riza
Kuli and Nasr Ullah, as well as all relatives whom he considered
his competitors, with the exception of Shah Rukh, son of Riza
Kuli, whom he spared in case a lineal descendant of Nadir
should at any time be required. But he had not removed all
dangerous members of the royal house, nor had he gauged the
temper of the times OP people. 'Adil Shah was soon dethroned
by his own brother, Ibrahim, and he in his turn was defeated
by the adherents of Shah Rukh, who made their leader king.

This young prince had a better and more legitimate title
than that of the grandson of Nadir, for he was also grandson,
on t^ie mot^er's s'de, of the Safawid Shah Husain.
'Amiable, generous and liberal-minded, and of pre-
possessing exterior, he proved to be a popular prince. But
he was neither of an age nor character to rule over a people led
by turbulent and disaffected chiefs, ever divided by the con-
flicting interests of personal ambition. Sa'id Mahommed, son
of Mirza Daud, a chief mullah at Meshed, whose mother was
the reputed daughter of Suleiman, declared himself king, and
imprisoned and blinded Shah Rukh. Yusuf 'Ali, the general
commanding the royal troops, defeated and slew Suleiman, and
replaced his master on the throne, reserving to himself the
protectorship or regency. A new combination of chiefs, of
which Ji'afir the Kurd and Mir 'Alam the Arabian are the

1 Creasy says the war broke out in 1743, but was terminated
in 1746 by a treaty which made little change in the old arrange-
ments fixed under Murad IV.

2 Eraser's History of Nadir Shah (1742).

Shah Ruth

'

principal names handed down, brought about the death of
Yusuf 'Ali and the second imprisonment of Shah Rukh. These
events were followed by a quarrel terminating in the supremacy
of the Arab. At this juncture Ahmad Shah Abdali reappeared
in Persian Khorasan from Herat; he attacked and took posses-
sion of Meshed, slew Mir 'Alam, and, pledging the local chiefs
to support the blinded prince in retaining the kingdom of his
grandfather, returned to Afghanistan. But thenceforward this
unfortunate young man was a mere shadow of royalty, and
his purely local power and prestige had no further influence
whatever on Persia as a country.

The land was partitioned among several distinguished persons,
who had of old been biding their opportunities, or were born of
the occasion. Foremost among these was Mahom-
med Hasan Khan, hereditary chief of those Kajars
who were established in the south-east corner of
the Caspian. His father, Path 'Ali Khan, after sheltering Shah
Tahmasp II. at his home in Astarabad, and long acting as
one of his most loyal supporters, had been put to death by
Nadir, who had appointed a successor to his chief dom from the
" Yukari " or " upper " Kajars, instead of from his own, the
" Ashagha," or "lower."3 Mahommed, with his brother, had
fled to the Turkomans, by whose aid he had attempted the
recovery of Astarabad, but had not succeeded in regaining a
permanent footing there until Nadir had been removed. On the
murder of the tyrant he had raised the standard of independence,
successfully resisted Ahmad Shah and his Afghans, who sought
to check his progress in the interests of Shah Rukh, and even-
tually brought under his own sway the valuable provinces of
Gilan, Mazandaran and Astarabad4 — quite a little kingdom in
itself. In the large important province of Azerbaijan, Azad
Khan, one of Nadir's generals, had established a separate
government; and 'Ali Mardan, brother of the Bakhtiari chief,
took forcible possession of Isfahan, empowering Shah Rukh's
governor, Abu'1-Fath Khan, to act for the new master instead
of the old.

Had 'Ali Mardan declared himself an independent ruler he
would have been by far the most important of the three persons
named. But such usurpation at the old Safawid capital would
have been too flagrant an act for general assent; so he put
forward Isma'il, a nephew of Shah Husain, as the representative
of sovereignty, and himself as one of his two ministers — the
other being Karim Khan, a chief of the Zend Kurds. Shah
Israa'il, it need scarcely be said, possessed no real authority;
but the ministers were strong men in their way, and the Zend
especially had many high and excellent qualities. After a time
'Ali Mardan was assassinated, and Karim Khan became the
sole living power at Isfahan. The story of the period is thus told
by R. G. Watson:—

" The three rivals, Karim, Azad and Muhammad Hasan, pro-
ceeded to settle, by means of the sword, the question as to which
of them was to be the sole master of Persia. A three-
sided war then ensued, in the course of which each of
the combatants in turn seemed at one time sure to be „ .
the final conqueror. Karim, Vhen he had arranged
matters at Ispahan, marched to the borders of Mazandaran,
where the governor of that province was ready to meet him.
After a closely contested battle victory remained with Muhammad
Hasan; who, however, was unable to follow up the foe, as he
had to return in order to encounter Azad. That leader had in-
vaded Gilan, but, on the news reaching him of the victory which
the governor of Mazandaran had gained, he thought it prudent
to retrace his steps to Sultaniyah. Karim reunited his shattered
forces at Tehran, and retired to Ispahan to prepare for a second
campaign. When he again took the field it was not to measure
himself once more with the Kajar chief, but to put down the pre-
tensions of Azad. The wary Afghan, however, shut himself up in
Kazvin, a position from which he was enabled to inflict much in-
jury on the army of Karim, while his own troops remained unharmed,
behind the walls of the town. Karim retired a second time to

3 There were three branches of the Kajar tribe, i.e. the Suldus,
Tungkut and Jalaiyar. The last, according to Watson, became
settled in Iran and Turan, and seem at first to have given their
name to all the tribe.

4 Watson. Malcolm says that Gilan was under one of its own
chiefs, Hidaiyat Khan.

236

PERSIA

[1736-1884

Ispahan, and in the following spring advanced again to meet Azad.
A pitched battle took place between them, in which the army of
Karim was defeated. He retreated to the capita], closely pressed
by the foe. Thence he continued his way to Shiraz, but Azad was
still upon his traces. He then threw himself upon the mercy of
the Arabs of the •Garmsir or hot country, near the Persian Gulf, to
whom the name of the Afghans was hateful, and who rose in a body
to turn upon Azad. Karim, by their aid, once more repaired his
losses and advanced on Ispahan, while Muhammad Hasan with
fifty thousand men was coming from the opposite direction, ready
to encounter either the Afghan or the Zend. The Afghan did not
await his coming, but retired to his government of Tabriz.

" The Zend issued from Ispahan, and was a second time defeated
in a pitched battle by the Kajar. Karim took refuge behind the
walls of Shiraz, and all the efforts of the enemy to dislodge him
were ineffectual. Muhammad Hasan Khan in the following year
turned his attention to Adarbaijan. Azad was no longer in a posi-
tion to oppose him in the field, and he in turn became master of
every place of importance in the province, while Azad had to seek
assistance in vain — first from the pasha of Baghdad, and then from
his former enemy, the tsar of Georgia. Next year the conquering
Kajar returned to Shiraz to make an end of the only rival who now
stood in his way. On his side were 80,000 men, commanded by a
general who had twice defeated the Zend chief on an equal field.
Karim was still obliged to take shelter in Shiraz, and to employ
artifice in order to supply the place of the force in which he was
deficient. Nor were his efforts in this respect unattended with
success: seduced by his gold, many of the troops of the Kajar
began to desert their banners. In the meantime the neighbour-
hood of Shiraz was laid waste, so as to destroy the source from
which Muhammad Hasan drew his provisions; by degrees his army
vanished, and he had finally to retreat with rapidity to Ispahan
with the few men that remained to him. Finding his position
there to be untenable, he retreated still farther to the country
of his own tribe, while his rival advanced to Ispahan, where he
received the submission of nearly all the chief cities of Persia. The
ablest of Karim's officers, Shaikh 'Ali, was sent in pursuit of the
Kajar chief. The fidelity of the commander to whom that chief-
tain had confided the care of the pass leading into Mazandaran,
was corrupted; and, as no further retreat was open to him, he found
himself under the necessity of fighting. The combat which ensued
resulted in his complete defeat, although he presented to his followers
an example of the most determined valour. While attempting to
effect his escape he was recognized by the chief of the other branch
of the Kajar tribe, who had deserted his cause, and who had a
blood-feud with him, in pursuance of which he now put him to
death.

" For nineteen years after this event Karim Khan ruled with the

title of wakil, or regent, over the whole of Persia, excepting the

- ift. province of Khurasan. He made Shiraz the seat of

his government, and by means of his brothers put

down every attempt which was ma'de to subvert his authority.

The rule of the great Zend chief was just and mild, and he is on the

whole, considering his education and the circumstances under

which he was placed, one of the most faultless characters to be met

with in Persian history."

Karim Khan died at his capital in 1779 in the twentieth year
of his reign, and, it is said, in the eightieth of his age. He built
the great bazaar of Shiraz, had a tomb constructed over the
remains of Hafiz, and repaired the " turbat " at the grave of
Sa'di, outside the walls. He encouraged commerce and agricul-
ture, gave much attention to the shores of the Persian Gulf,
and carefully studied the welfare of the Armenian community
settled in his dominions. In his time the British factory was
removed from Bander Abbasi to Bushire.

On Karim's death a new period of anarchy supervened. His
brother, Zaki, a cruel and vindictive chief who, when governor
of Isfahan, had revolted against Karim, assumed
the government. At the same time he proclaimed
Abu '1-Fath Khan, second son of the deceased monarch, and his
brother Mahommed 'Ali, joint-successors to the throne. The
seizure of the citadel at Shiraz by the adherents of the former,
among whom were the more influential of the Zends, may have
induced him to adopt this measure as one of prudent conciliation.
But the garrison held out, and, to avoid a protracted siege, he
had recourse to treachery. The suspicious nobles were solemnly
adjured to trust themselves to his keeping, under promise of
forgiveness. They believed his professions, tendered their
submission, and were cruelly butchered. Zaki did not long
enjoy the fruits of his perfidious dealing. The death of Karim
Khan had raised two formidable adversaries to mar his peace.

Aga Mahommed, son of Mahommed Hasan, the Kajar chief
of Astarabad, a prisoner at large in Shiraz, was in the environs

of that city awaiting intelligence of the old king's decease, and,
hearing it, instantly escaped to Mazandaran, there to gather his
tribesmen together and compete for the crown of Persia. Taken
prisoner by Nadir and barbarously mutilated by 'Adil Shah, he
had afterwards found means to rejoin his people, but had
surrendered himself to Karim Khan when his father was killed
in battle. On the other hand, Sadik, brother to Zaki, who had
won considerable and deserved repute by the capture of Basra
from the Turkish governor, abandoned his hold of the conquered
town on hearing of the death of Karim, and appeared with his
army before Shiraz. To provide against the intended action
of the first, Zaki detached his nephew, 'Ali Murad, at the head
of his best troops to proceed with all speed to the north; and, as
to the second, the seizure of such families of Sadik's followers
as were then within the walls of the town, and other violent
measures, struck such dismay into the hearts of the besieging
soldiers that they dispersed and abandoned their leader to his
fate. From Kerman, however, where he found an asylum, the
latter addressed an urgent appeal for assistance to 'Ali Murad.
This chief, encamped at Teheran when the communication
reached him, submitted the matter to his men, who decided
against Zaki, but put forward their own captain as the only
master they would acknowledge. 'Ah' Murad, leaving the pur-
suit of Aga Mahcmmed, then returned to Isfahan, where he was
received with satisfaction, on the declaration that his one
object was to restore to his lawful inheritance the eldest son of
Karim Khan, whom Zaki had set aside in favour of a younger
brother. The sequel is full of dramatic interest. Zaki, enraged
at his nephew's desertion, marched out of Shiraz towards
Isfahan. On his way he came to the town of Yezdikhast, where
he demanded a sum of money from the inhabitants, claiming
it as part of secreted revenue; the demand was refused, and
eighteen of the head men were thrown down the precipice beneath
his window; a " saiyid," or holy man, was the next victim, and
his wife and daughter were to be given over to the soldiery, when
a suddenly-formed conspiracy took effect, and Zaki's own life
was taken in retribution for his guilt (1779).

When intelligence of these events reached Kerman, Sadik
Khan hastened to Shiraz, proclaimed himself king in place
of Abu "1-Fath Khan, whom he declared incompe-

. . . r jl '**'' mUFaQ.

tent to reign, and put out the eyes of the young
prince. He despatched his son Ji'afir to assume the govern-
ment of Isfahan, and watch the movements of 'Ali Murad,
who appears to have been then absent from that city; and he
gave a younger son, 'Ali Naki, command of an army in the field.
The campaign ended in the capture of Shiraz and assumption
of sovereignty by 'Ali Murad, who caused Sadik Khan to be
put to death.

From this period up to the accession of Aga Mahommed Khan
the summarized history of Markham will supply the principal
facts required.

'Ali Murad reigned over Persia until 1785, and carried on a
successful war with Aga Mahommed in Mazandaran, defeating
him in several engagements, and occupying Teheran and Sari. He
died on his way from the former place to Isfahan, and was suc-
ceeded by Ji'afir, son of Sadik,1 who reigned at Shiraz, assisted in
the government by an able but unprincipled " kalantar," or head
magistrate, named Hajji Ibrahim. This ruler was poisoned by the
agency of conspirators, one of whom, Saiyid Murad, succeeded to
the throne. Hajji Ibrahim, however, contriving to maintain the
loyalty of the citizens towards the Zend reigning family, the usurper
was killed, and Lutf 'Ali Khan, son of Ji'afir, proclaimed LutfAIi
king. He had hastened to Shiraz on hearing of his Kbaa.
father's death and received a warm welcome from the
inhabitants. Hajji Ibrahim became his chief adviser, and a new
minister was found for him in Mirza Hosain Shirazi. At the time
of his accession Lutf 'AH Khan was only in his twentieth year,
very handsome, tall, graceful, and an excellent horseman. While
differing widely in character, he was a worthy successor of Karim
Khan, the great founder of the Zend dynasty. Lutf 'AK Khan had
not been many months on the throne when Aga Mahommed ad-
vanced to attack him, and invested the city of Shiraz, but retreated
soon afterwards to Teheran, which he had made the capital of his
dominions. The young king then enjoyed a short period of peace.

1 A five days' usurpation of Bakir Khan, governor of Isfahan, is
not taken into account.

1736-1884]

PERSIA

237

Afterwards, in 1790, he collected his forces and marched against
the Kajars, in the direction of Isfahan. But Hajji Ibrahim had
been intriguing against his sovereign, to whose family he owed
everything, not only with his officers and soldiers but also with
Aga Mahommed, the chief of the Kajars, and arch-enemy of the
Zends. Lutf 'AH Khan was suddenly deserted by the whole of his
army, except seventy faithful followers; and when he retreated to
Shiraz he found the gates closed against him by Hajji Ibrahim,
who held the city for the Kajar chief. Thence falling back upon
Bushire, he found that the sheikh of that town had also betrayed
him. Surrounded by treason on every side, he boldly attacked
and routed the chief of Bushire and blockaded Shiraz. His un-
conquerable valour gained him many followers, and he defeated an
army sent against him by the Kajars in 1792.

Aga Mahommed then advanced in person against his rival.
He encamped with an army of 30,000 men on the plain of Mardasht,
near Shiraz. Lutf "All Khan, in the dead of night, suddenly attacked
the camp of his enemy with only a few hundred followers. The
Kajars were completely routed and thrown into confusion; but
Aga Mahommed, with extraordinary presence of mind, remained
in his tent, and at the first appearance of dawn his " muezzin,"
or public crier, was ordered to call the faithful to morning prayer
as usual. Astonished at this, the few Zend cavaliers, thinking
that the wholy army of Kajars had returned, fled with precipitation
leaving the field in possession of Aga Mahommed. The successful
Kajar then entered Shiraz, and promoted the traitor Hajji Ibrahim
to be his vizier. Lutf 'Ali Khan took refuge with the hospitable
chief of Tabbas in the heart of Khorasan, where he succeeded in
collecting a few followers; but advancing into Pars, he was again
defeated, and forced to take refuge at Kandahar.

In 1794, however, the undaunted prince once more crossed the
Persian frontier, determined to make a last effort, and either regain
Capture of his throne or die in tne attempt. He occupied the
Kerman. "1Y °* Kerman, then a flourishing commercial town,
half-way between the Persian Gulf and the province
of Khorasan. Aga Mahommed besieged it with a large army
in 1795, and, after a stout resistance, the gates were opened
through treachery. For three hours the gallant young warrior
fought in the streets with determined valour, but in vain. When
he saw that all hope was gone he, with only three followers, fought
his way through the Kajar host and escaped to Bam-Narmashir,
the most eastern district of the province of Kerman on the borders
of Seistan.

Furious at the escape of his rival, the savage conqueror ordered
a general massacre; 20,000 women and children were sold into
slavery, and 70,000 eyes of the inhabitants of Kerman were brought
to Aga Mahommed on a platter.

Lutf 'Ali Khan took refuge in the town of Bam ; but the governor
of Narmashir, anxious to propitiate the conqueror, basely surrounded
him as he was mounting his faithful horse Kuran to seek a more
secure asylum. The young prince fought bravely; but, being
badly wounded and overpowered by numbers, he was secured and
sent to the camp of the Kajar chief. The spot where he was seized
at Bam, when mounting his horse, was marked by a pyramid,
formed, by order of his revengeful enemy, of the skulls of the most
faithful of his adherents. The most hideous indignities and atrocities
were committed upon his person by the cruel Kajar, and finally
he was sent to Teheran and murdered, when only in his twenty-
sixth year. Every member of his family and every friend was
ordered to be massacred by Aga Mahommed; and the successful
miscreant thus founded the dynasty of the Kajars at the price of
all the best and noblest blood of Iran.

The Zend is said to be a branch of the Lak tribe, dating from
the time of the Kaianian kings, and claims to have been charged
with the care of the Zend-Avesta by Zoroaster himself.1 The
tree attached to Markham's chapter on the dynasty contains
the names of eight members of the family only, i.e. four brothers,
one of whom had a son, grandson and great-grandson, and one
a son. Four of the eight were murdered, one was blinded,
and one cruelly mutilated. In one case a brother murdered a
brother, in another an uncle blinded his nephew.

Kajar Dynasty. — Aga Mahommed was undoubtedly one of
the most cruel and vindictive despots that ever disgraced a
throne. But he was not without care for the honour of his
empire in the eyes of Europe and the outer world, and his early
career in Mazandaran gave him a deeply-rooted mistrust of
Russia, with the officers of which power he was in constant
contact. The following story, told by Forster,2 and varied by
a later writer, is characteristic. A party of Russians having
obtained permission to build a " counting-house " at Ashraf,

1 Markham. Morier says of Karim Khan's family, " it was a
low branch of an obscure tribe in Kurdistan."

2 Journey from Bengal to England (1798), ii. 201 ; see also Markham,
pp. 341, 342.

in the bay of that name, erected instead a fort with eighteen
guns. Aga Mahommed, learning the particulars, visited the

Aga
Mahommed.

spot, expressed great pleasure at the work done,

invited the officers to dine with him, imprisoned

them, and only spared their lives when they had

removed the whole of the cannon and razed the fort to the

ground. This occurrence must have taken place about 1782.

Forster was travelling homeward by the southern shores of
the Caspian in January 1784, and from him we gather many
interesting details of the locality and period. He calls Aga
Mahommed chief of Mazandaran, as also of Astarabad and
" some districts situate in Khurasan," and describes his tribe
the Kajar, to be, like the Indian Rajput, usually devoted to the
profession of arms. Whatever hold his father may have had
on Gilan, it is certain that this province was not then in the
son's possession, for his brother, Ji'afir Kuli, governor of Balfrush
(Balfroosh), had made a recent incursion into it and driven
Hidaiyat Khan, its ruler, from Resht to Enzeli, and Aga Mahom-
med was himself meditating another attack on the same quarter.
The latter's palace was at Sari, then a small and partly fortified
town, thickly inhabited, and with a plentifully-supplied market.
As " the most powerful chief in Persia " since the death of
Karim Khan, the Russians were seeking to put their yoke upon
him.

As Aga Mahommed's power increased, his dislike and jealousy
of the Muscovite assumed a more practical shape. His victory
over Lutf 'Ali was immediately followed by an campaign
expedition into Georgia. After the death of Nadir against
the wali of that country had looked around him Georgia.
for the safest means of shaking off the yoke of Persia; and
in course of time an opportunity had offered of a promising
kind. In 1783, when the strength of the Persian monarchy was
concentrated upon Isfahan and Shiraz, the Georgian tsar
Heraclius entered into an agreement with the empress Catherine
by which all connexion with the shah was disavowed,
and a quasi-vassalage to Russia substituted — the said empire
extending her aegis of protection over her new ally. Aga
Mahommed now demanded that Heraclius should return
to his position of tributary and vassal to Persia, and, as his
demand was rejected, prepared for war. Dividing an army of
60,000 men into three corps, he sent one of these jnto Daghestan,
another was to attack Erivan, and with the third he himself
laid siege to Shusha in the province of Karabakh. The stubborn
resistance offered at the last-named place caused him to leave
there a small investing force only, and to move on with the
remainder of his soldiers to join the corps d'armte at Erivan.
Here, again, the difficulties presented caused him to repeat the
same process and to effect a junction with his first corps at
Ganja, the modern Elisavetpol. At this place he encountered
the Georgian army under Heraclius, defeated it, and marched
upon Tiflis, which he pillaged, massacring and enslaving 3 the
inhabitants. Then he returned triumphant to Teheran, where
(or at Ardebil on the way) he was publicly crowned shah of
Persia. Erivan surrendered, but Shusha continued to hold
out. These proceedings caused Russia to enter the field.
Derbent was taken possession of by Imhov, Baku and Shumakhy
were occupied and Gilan was threatened. The death of the
empress, however, caused the issue of an order to retire, and
Derbent and Baku remained the only trophies of the campaign.

In the meantime Aga Mahommed's attention had been called
away to the east. Khorasan could hardly be called an integral
part of the shah's kingdom so long as it was under operations
even the nominal rule of the blind grandson of in
Nadir. But the eastern division of the province Korasan.
and its outlying parts were actually in j the hands of
the Afghans, and Meshed was not Persian in 1796 in the sense
that Delhi was British at the outbreak of the Indian Mutiny.
Shah Rukh held his position, such as it was, rather under Ahmad

3 Lady Sheil says (1849) ; " I saw a few of these unhappy captives
who all had to embrace Mahommedanism, and many of whom
had risen to the highest stations, just as the Circassian slaves in
Constantinople."

PERSIA

[1736-1884

Shah and his successors in Afghanistan than under any other
sovereign power. Aga Mahommed determined to restore the
whole province to Persia, and, after a brief residence in Teheran
on his return from the Georgian expedition, he set out for
Meshed. It is important to note that on the occasion of his
coronation he had girded on the sabre consecrated at the tomb
of the founder of the Safawid — thus openly pledging himself
to support the Shi'ite faith.

But there had been continual dissatisfaction in the capital
of Khorasan, and constant inroads upon it from without, which
the royal puppet was unable to prevent. His popularity was
real, but never seemed to have effect outside the limited sphere
of personal sympathy and regard. Owing to the frequent
revolutions in the holy city the generals of Timur Shah, king of
the Afghans, had made three expeditions on Shah Rukh's behalf.
Meshed had been taken and retaken as though he were not a
resident in it, much less its dejure king. Moreover, his two sons
Nadir Mirza and Wali Ni'amat had long been fighting, and the
former was in 1796 the actual ruler of the place. Three years
before Timur had died, and his third son, Zaman Shah, by the
intrigues of an influential sirdar, Paiyanda Khan, and been
proclaimed his successor at Kabul.

Aga Mahommed 's entry into Meshed was effected without a
struggle on the part of those in possession. The Kajar shah
walked on foot to the tomb of Imam Riza, before which he knelt
and kissed the ground in token of devotion, and was recognized
as a Shi'ite of Shi'ites. Shah Rukh submissively followed in his
train. Then began the last act of the local tragedy. The
blind king's gradual revelation, under horrible torture, of the
place of concealment of his several jewels and treasures, and his
deportation and death (of the injuries thus received, at Damghan,
en route to Mazandaran), must be classed among the darkest
records of Oriental history.

From Meshed Aga Mahommed sent an envoy to Zaman Shah,
asking for the cession of Balkh, and explaining his invasion of
Khorasan; but the Afghan monarch was too perplexed with the
troubles in his own country and his own insecure position to
do more than send an unmeaning reply. It is not shown what
was the understood boundary between the two countries at
this particular period; but Watson states that on the shah's
departure he had received the submission of the whole of
Khorasan, and left in Meshed a garrison of 12,000 men.

Aga Mahommed had now fairly established his capital at
Teheran. On his return thither in September 1796 he dismissed
Death and h*8 troops for the winter, directing their reassembly
Character in the following spring. The re-invasion by Russia
of Aga of the provinces and districts he had recently
'MB/Iomnlerf- wrested from her west of the Caspian had made
great progress, but the circumstance does not seem to have
changed his plans for the army. Although, when the spring
arrived and the shah led his forces to the Aras, the Russians
had, it is true, retreated, yet territory had been regained by
them as far south as the Talysh. Aga Mahommed had now
arrived at the close of his career. He was enabled, with some
difficulty, to get his troops across the river, and take possession
of Shusha, which had given them so much trouble a year or
two before. There, in camp, he was murdered (1797) by his
own personal attendants — men who were under sentence of
death, but allowed to be at large. He was then fifty-seven years
of age, and had ruled over part of Persia for more than eighteen
years — over the kingdom generally for about three years, and
from his coronation for about one year only.

The brutal treatment he had experienced in boyhood under
the orders of ' Adil Shah, and the opprobrious name of " eunuch "
with which he was taunted by his enemies, no doubt contributed
to embitter his nature. His contempt of luxury, his avoidance
of hyperbole and dislike of excessive ceremony, his protection
to commerce and consideration for his soldiers, the reluctance
with which he assumed the crown almost at the close of his
reign — all these would have been praiseworthy in another man ;
but on his death the memory of his atrocious tyranny alone
survived. Those who have seen his portrait once will recognize

Path All
Shah.

Rebellions.

the face wherever presented. "Beardless and shrivelled,"
writes Sir John Malcolm, " it resembled that of an aged and
wrinkled woman, and the expression of his countenance, at no
time pleasant, was horrible when clouded, as it very often was,
with indignation. He was sensible of this, and could not bear
that any one should look at him."

Aga Mahommed had made up his mind that he should be
succeeded by his nephew Path 'Ali Shah, son of his full brother,
Hosain Kuli Khan, governor of Pars. There was
a short interval of confusion after the murder. The
remains of the sovereign were exposed to insult, the
army was disturbed, the recently captured fort on the left bank
of the Aras was abandoned; but the wisdom and resolution
of the minister, Hajji Ibrahim, and of Mirza Mahommed Khan
Kajar secured order and acceptance of the duly appointed
heir. The first, proclaiming his own allegiance, put himself at
the head of a large body of troops and marched towards the
capital. The second closed the gates of Teheran to all comers
until Path "AH Shah came himself from Shiraz. Though instantly
proclaimed on arrival, the new monarch was not crowned until
the spring of the following year (1798).

The so-called rebellions which followed were many, but not
of any magnitude. Such as belong to local history are three
in number, i.e. that of Sadik Khan Shakaki, the
general whose possession of the crown jewels enabled
him, after the defeat of his army at Kazvin, to secure
his personal safety and obtain a government; of Hosain Kuli
Khan, the shah's brother, which was compromised by the
mother's intervention; and of Mahommed, son of Zaki Khan,
Zend, who was defeated on more than one occasion in battle,
and fled into Turkish territory. Later, Sadik Khan, having
again incurred the royal displeasure, was seized, confined and
mercilessly bricked up in his dungeon to die of starvation.

Another adversary presented himself in the person of Nadir
Mirza, son of Shah Rukh, who, when Aga Mahommed appeared
before Meshed, had taken refuge with the Afghans. Path 'Ali
sent to warn him of the consequences, but 'without the desired
effect. Finally, he advanced into Khorasan with an army
which appears to have met with no opposition save at Nishapur
and Turbet, both of which places were taken, and when it reached
Meshed, Nadir Mirza tendered his submission, which was
accepted. Peace having been further cemented by an alliance
between a Kajar general and the prince's daughter, the shah
returned to Teheran.

Now that the narrative of Persian kings has been brought up to
the period of the consolidation of the Kajar dynasty and commence-
ment of the igth century, there remains but to summarize the
principal events in the reigns of Path 'Ali Shah and his immediate
successors, Mahommed Shah and Nasru 'd-Din Shah.

Path 'Ali Shah came to the throne at about thirty-two years
of age, and died at sixty-eight, after a reign of thirty-six years.
Persia's great aim was to recover in the north-west, as in the north-
east of her empire, the geographical limits obtained for her by the
Safawid kings; and this was no easy matter when she had to con-
tend with a strong European power whose territorial limits touched
her own. Path 'AH Shah undertook, at the outset of
his 'reign, a contest with Russia on the western side of
the Caspian, which became constant and harassing
warfare. Georgia was, clearly, not to revert to a Mahom-
medan suzerain. In 1800 its tsar, George, son and successor
of Heraclius, notwithstanding his former professions of allegiance
to the shah, renounced his crown in favour of the Russian emperor.
His brother Alexander indignantly repudiated the act and resisted
its fulfilment, but he was defeated by General Lazerov on the banks
of the Lora. Persia then re-entered the field. Among the more
notable occurrences which followed were a three days' battle,
fought near Echmiadzin, between the crown prince, 'Abbas Mirza,
and General Zizianov, in which the Persians suffered much from the
enemy's artillery, but would not admit they were defeated; un-
successful attempts on the part of the Russian commander to get
possession of Erivan; and a surprise, in camp, of the shah's forces,
which caused them to disperse, and necessitated the king's own
presence with reinforcements. On the latter occasion the shah is
credited with gallantly swimming his horse across the Aras, and
setting an example of energy and valour. In the following year
'Abbas Mirza advanced upon Shishah, the chief of which place
and of the Karabagh had declared for Russia; much fighting en-
sued, and Erivan was formally taken possession of in the name of

1736-1884]

PERSIA

239

the shah. The Russians, moreover, made a futile attempt on Gilan
by landing troops at Enzeli, which returned to Baku, where Zizianov
fell a victim to the treachery of the Persian governor. Somewhat
later Ibrahim Khalil of Shusha, repenting of his Russophilism,
determined to deliver up the Muscovite garrison at that place, but
his plans were betrayed, and he and his relatives put to death.
Reprisals and engagements followed with varied success; and the
crown prince of Persia, after a demonstration in Shirvan, returned
to Tabriz. He had practically made no progress; yet Russia, in
securing possession of Derbent, Baku, Shirvan, Sheki, Gania, the
Talysh and Mugan, was probably indebted to gold as well as to
the force of arms. At the same time Persia would not listen to
the overtures of peace made to her by the governor-general who
had succeeded Zizianov.

Relations had now commenced with England and British India.

A certain Mahdi 'AH Khan had landed at Bushire, entrusted by

the governor of Bombay with a letter to the shah, and

he was followed shortly by an English envoy from the

,gj, governor-general, Captain Malcolm of the Madras

rfB * armv- He had not only to talk about the Afghans
*• but about the French, and the trade of the Persian
Gulf. The results were a political and commercial treaty,
and a return mission to India from Path "AH Shah. To him
France next sent her message. In 1801 an Armenian merchant
from Bagdad had appeared as the bearer of credentials from
Napoleon, but his mission was mistrusted and came to nothing.
Some five years afterwards Jaubert, after detention and imprison-
ment on the road, arrived at Teheran and went back to Europe
with a duly accredited Persian ambassador, who concluded a treaty
with the French emperor at Finkenstein. On the return of the
Persian diplomatist, a mission of many officers under General
Gardane to instruct and drill the local army was sent from France
to Persia. Hence arose the counter-mission of Sir Harford Jones
from the British government, which, on arrival at Bombay in
April 1808, found that it had been anticipated by a previously
sent mission from the governor-general of India, under Malcolm
again, then holding the rank of brigadier-general.

The home mission, however, proceeded to Bushire, and Malcolm's
return thence to India enabled Sir Harford to move on and reach
the capital in February 1809. A few days before his entry General
Gardane had been dismissed, as the peace of Tilsit debarred
France from aiding the shah against Russia. Sir Harford concluded
a treaty with Persia the month after his arrival at the capital ; but
the government of India were not content to leave matters in his
hands: notwithstanding the anomaly of;a double mission, Malcolm
was in 1810 again despatched as their own particular envoy. He
brought with him Captains Lindsay and Christie to assist the Persians
in the war, and presented the shah with some serviceable field-
pieces; but there was little occasion for the exercise of his diplomatic
ability save in his non-official intercourse with the people, and here
he availed himself of it to the great advantage of himself and his
country.1 He was welcomed by the shah in camp at Ujani, and
took leave a month afterwards to return via Bagdad and Basra
to India. The next year Sir Harford Jones was relieved as envoy
by Sir Gore Ouseley.

Meanwhile hostilities had been resumed with Russia, and in
1812 the British envoy used his good offices for the restoration of
peace, but the endeavour failed. To add to the Persian
difficulty, in July of this year a treaty was concluded
*Tuss aa between England and Russia, and this circumstance
caused the envoy to direct that British officers should
take no further part in Russo-Persian military operations. Christie
and Lindsay, however, resolved to remain at their own risk, and
advanced with the Persian army to the Aras. On the 3 1st of
October the force was surprised by an attack of the enemy, and
retreated; the next night they were again attacked and routed at
Aslanduz. Christie fell bravely fighting at the head of his brigade ;
Lindsay saved two of his nine guns; but neither of the two English-
men was responsible for the disaster. Lenkoran was taken by
Persia, but retaken by Russia during the next three months; and
on the 1 3th of October 1813, through Sir Gore Ouseley's interven-
tion, the Treaty of Gulistan put an end to the war. Persia formally
ceded Georgia and the seven provinces before named, with Karabakh.

On the death of the emperor Alexander in December 1825 Prince
Menshikov was sent to Teheran to settle a dispute which had arisen
between the two governments regarding the prescribed frontier.
But, as the claim of Persia to a particular district then occupied
by Russia could not be admitted, the special envoy was given
his conge, and war was recommenced. The chief of Talysh struck
the first blow, and drove the enemy from Lenkoran. The Persians
then carried all before them; and the hereditary chiefs of Shirvan,
Sheki and Baku returned from exile to co-operate with the shah's
general in the south. In the course of three weeks the only

1 The " wakilu "1-mulk," governor of Kerman, told Colonel
Goldsmid, when his guest in 1866, that " his father had been Sir
John Malcolm's Mihmandar. There never was such a man as
Malcolm Sahib.' Not only was he generous on the part of his
government, but with his own money also." — (Telegraph and, Travel,
P- 585.)

advanced post held by the governor-general of the Caucasus was
the obstinate little fortress of Shusha. But before long all was
again changed. Hearing that a Russian force of some 9000 men
was concentrated at Tiflis, Mahommed Mirza, son of the crown
prince, advanced to meet them on the banks of the Zezam. He
was defeated; and his father was routed more seriously still at
Ganja. The shah made great efforts to renew the war; but divisions
took place in his son's camp, not conducive to successful operations,
and new proposals of peace were made. But Russia demanded
Erivan and Nakhichevan as well as the cost of the war; and in
1827 the campaign was reopened. Briefly, after successive gains
and losses, not only Erivan was taken from Persia but Tabriz also,
and finally, through the intervention of Sir John Macdonald, the
English envoy, a new treaty was concluded at Turkmanchai, laying
down the boundary between Russia and Persia. Among the hard
conditions for the latter country were the cession in perpetuity of
the khanates of Erivan and Nakhichevan, the inability to have
an armed vessel in the Caspian, and the payment of a war indemnity
of some £3,000,000.

After Russia, the neighbouring state next in importance to the
well-being of Persia was Turkey, with whom she was united on the
west by a common line of frontier. Selim had not „. .,.
scrupled, in 1804 and 1805, to allow the Russians to _ .
make free use of the south-eastern coasts of the Black '
Sea, to facilitate operations against the shah's troops; and there
had been a passage of arms between the king's eldest son, Mahommed
'AH Mirza, and Suleiman Pasha, son-in-law of the governor-general
of Bagdad, which is locally credited as a battle won by the former.
But there was no open rupture between the two sovereigns until
1821, when the frontier disputes and complaints of Persian travellers,
merchants and pilgrims culminated in a declaration of war. This
made 'Abbas Mirza at once seize upon the fortified places of Toprak
Kal'ah and Ak Sarai within the limits of the Ottoman Empire, and,
overcoming the insufficient force sent against him, he was further
enabled to extend his inroads to Mush, Bitlis, and other known
localities. The Turkish government retaliated by a counter-
invasion of the Persian frontier on the south. At that time the
Pasha of Bagdad was in command of the troops. He was defeated
by Mahommed 'AH Mirza, then prince-governor of Kermanshah,
who drove his adversary back towards his capital and advanced to
its immediate environs. Being attacked with cholera, however,
the Persian commander recrossed the frontier, but only to succumb
to the disease in the pass of Kirind. In the sequel a kind of
desultory warfare appears to have been prosecuted on the Persian
side of Kurdistan, and the shah himself came down with an army to
Hamadan. Cholera broke out in the royal camp and caused the
troops to disperse.

In the north the progress of 'Abbas Mirza was stopped at Bayazid
by a like deadly visitation; and a suspension of hostilities was
agreed upon for the winter season. At the expiration of four months
the sirdar of Erivan took possession of a Turkish military station
on the road to Erzerum, and the crown prince marched upon that
city at the head of 30,000 men. The Ottoman army which met
him is said to have numbered some 52,000; but victory was
on the side of their opponents. Whether the result was owing to
the defection of 15,000 Kurds or not the evidence adduced is in-
sufficient to decide. In the English records of the period it is stated
that the defeat of the Turks was complete.

Profiting from this victory, 'Abbas Mirza repeated an offer of
peace before made without avail to the pasha of Erzerum; and, in
order to conciliate him more effectually, he retired within the old
limits of the dominions of the shah, his father. But more troubles
arose at Bagdad, and other reasons intervened to protract negotia-
tions for a year and a half. At length, in July 1823, the Treaty of
Erzerum closed the war between Turkey and Persia. It provided
especially against a recurrence of the proved causes of war, such
as extorting taxes from Persian travellers or pilgrims, disrespect
to the ladies of the royal harem and other ladies of rank proceeding
to Mecca or Karbala (Kerbela), irregular levies of custom-duties,
non-punishment of Kurdish depredators transgressing the boundary,
and the like.

With respect to the eastern boundaries of his kingdom, Path
'AH Shah was fortunate in having to deal with a less dangerous
neighbour than the Muscovite of persistent policy and
the Turk of precarious friendship. The Afghan, though
equal to the Persian in physical force and prowess, was
his inferior in worldly knowledge and experience. Moreover, the
family divisions among the ruling houses of Afghanistan grew
from day to day more destructive to that patriotism and sense of
nationality which Ahmad Shah had held out to his countrymen as
the sole specifics for becoming a strong people.

The revolt of Nadir Mirza had, as before explained, drawn the
shah's attention to Khorasan in the early part of his reign; but,
although quiet had for the moment been restored at Meshed by
the presence of the royal camp, fresh grounds of complaint were
urged against the rash but powerless prince, and recourse was had
to extreme measures. Charged with the murder of a holy saiyid,
his hands were cut off and his tongue was plucked out, as part of
the horrible punishment inflicted on him. It does not appear that
Nadir Mirza's cause was ever seriously espoused by the Afghans,

240

PERSIA

[1736-1884

nor that Path 'All Shah's claim to Meshed, as belonging to the
Persian crown, was actively resisted. But the large Province of
Khorasan, of which Meshed was the capital, had never been other
than a nominal dependency of the crown since the death of _ Nadir;
and in the autumn of 1830 the shah, under Russian advice, as-
sembled a large force to bring into subjection all turbulent and
refractory chiefs on the east of his kingdom. Yezd and Kerman
were the first points of attack; Khorasan was afterwards entered
by Samnan, or the main road from Teheran. The expedition, led
by 'Abbas Mirza, involved some hard fighting and much loss of
life; several forts and places were captured, among them Kuchan
and Serrakhs; and it may be concluded that the objects contem-
plated were more or less attained. An English officer, Colonel
Shee, commanded what was called the " British detachment "
which accompanied the prince. Thus far as regards Yezd, Kerman
and Khorasan. It was otherwise with Herat.

Hajii Firuzu'd-Din, son of Timur Shah, reigned undisturbed in
that city from 1800 to 1816. Since Path 'Ali Shah's accession he
and his brother Mahmud had been, as it were, under Persian pro-
tection. Persia claimed the principality of Herat as part of the
empire of Nadir, but her pretensions had been satisfied by payments
of tribute or evasive replies. Now, however, that she marched her
army against the place, Firuzu 'd-Din called in the aid of his brother
Mahmud Shah of Kabul, who sent to him the famous vizier, Path
Khan Barakzai. The latter, intriguing on his own account, got
possession of the town and citadel; he then sallied forth, engaged
the Persian forces, and forced them to retire into their own country.
In 1824, on a solicitation from Mustafa Khan, who had got temporary
hold of Herat, more troops were despatched thither, but, by the
use of money or bribes, their departure was purchased. Some
eight or nine years afterwards 'Abbas Mirza, when at the head of
his army in Meshed, invited Yar Mahommed Khan of Herat to
discuss a settlement of differences between the two governments.
The meeting was unproductive of good. Again the Persian troops
advanced to Herat itself under the command of Mahommed Mirza,
son of Abbas; but the news of his father's death caused the com-
mander to break up his camp and return to Meshed.

Sir Gore Ouseley returned to England in 1814, in which year
Mr Ellis, assisted by Mr Morier — whose " Hajji Baba " is the un-
failing proof of his ability and deep knowledge of Persian character
— negotiated on the part of Great Britain the Treaty of Teheran.
England was to provide troops or a subsidy in the event of unpro-
voked invasion, while Persia was to attack the Afghans should
they invade India. Captain Willock succeeded Morier as charge
d'affaires in 1815, and since that period Great Britain has always
been represented at the Persian court. It was in Path 'Ali Shah's
reign that Henry Martyn was in Persia, and completed his able
translation of the New Testament into the language of that country.
Little more remains to be here narrated of the days of Path 'Ali
Shah. Among the remarkable occurrences may be noted the murder
at Teheran in 1828 of M. Grebayadov, the Russian envoy, whose
conduct in forcibly retaining two women of Erivan provoked the
interference of the mullas and people. To repair the evil con-
sequences of this act a conciliatory embassy, consisting of a young
son of the crown prince and some high officers of the state, was
despatched to St Petersburg. Shortly afterwards the alliance
with Russia was strengthened, and that with England slackened
in proportion.

Path 'Ali Shah had a numerous family. Agreeably to the Persian
custom, asserted by his predecessors, of nominating the heir-apparent
from the sons of the sovereign without restriction to seniority, he
had passed over the eldest, Mahommed 'Ali, in favour of a junior,
'Abbas; but, as the nominee died in the lifetime of his father, the
old king had proclaimed Mahommed Mirza, the son of 'Abbas, and
his own grandson, to be his successor. Why a younger son had
been originally selected, to the prejudice of his elder brother, is
differently stated by different writers. The true reason was probably
the superior rank of his mother.

Mahommed Shah was twenty-eight years old when he came to
the throne in 1834. He died at the age of forty-two, after a reign
Mah d °^ ab°ut thirteen and a half years. His accession was
Shah no^ Publicly notified for some months after his grand-

father's death, for it was necessary to clear the way of
all competitors, and there were two on this occasion — one 'Ali
Mirza, governor of Teheran, who actually assumed a royal title,
and one Hasan 'AH Mirza, governor of Shiraz. Owing to the steps
taken by the British envoy, Sir John Campbell, assisted by Colonel
Bethune, at the head of a considerable force, supplied with artillery,
the opposition of the first was neutralized, and Mahommed Shah,
entering Teheran on the 2nd of January, was proclaimed king on
the 3ist of the same month. It cost more time and trouble to
bring the second to book. Hasan 'AH, " farman-farma," or com-
mander-in-chief , and his brother and abettor, had an army at their
disposal in Pars. Sir Henry Lindsay Bethune marched his soldiers
to Isfahan to be ready to meet them. An engagement which took
place near Kumishah, on the road between Isfahan and Shiraz,
having been successful, the English commander pushed on to the
latter town, where the two rebel princes were seized and imprisoned.
Forwarded under escort to Teheran, they were, according to Watson,
ordered to be sent on thence as state prisoners to Ardebil, but the

farman-farma died on the way, and his brother was blinded before
incarceration. Markham, however, states that both 'Ali Mirza
and Hasan 'Ali were allowed to retire with a small pension, and that
no atrocities stained the beginning of the reign of Mahommed Shah.
It is presumed that the fate of the prime minister or " kaim-makam,"
who was strangled in prison, was no more than an ordinary execution
of the law. This event, and the prevalence of plague and cholera
at Teheran, marked somewhat gloomily the new monarch's first
year.

The selection of a premier was one of the first weighty questions
for solution. A member of the royal family, the " asafu "d-daula,"
governor of Khorasan, left his government to urge his candidature
For the post. The king's choice, however, fell on Hajji Mirza
Aghasi, a native of Erivan, who in former years, as tutor to the
sons of 'Abbas Mirza, had gained a certain reputation for learning
and a smattering of the occult sciences, but whose qualifications
for statesmanship were craftiness and suspicion. As might have
been anticipated, the hajji fell into the hands of Russia, represented
by Count Simonich, who urged him to a fresh expedition into
Khorasan and the siege of Herat. There was no doubt
a plausible pretext for both proposals. The chiefs, Expedition
reduced to temporary submission by 'Abbas Mirza, had "£ f*
again revolted; and Shah Kamran, supported by his
vizier, Yar Mahommed, had broken those engagements and pledges
on the strength of which Path 'Ali Shah had withdrawn his troops.
In addition to these causes of offence he had appropriated the
province of Seistan, over which Persia had long professed to hold
the rights of suzerainty. But the king's ambition was to go farther
than retaliation or chastisement. He refused to acknowledge any
right to separate government whatever on the part of the Afghans,
and Kandahar and Ghazni were to be recovered, as belonging to
the empire of the Safawid dynasty. The advice of the British
envoy was dissuasive in this respect, and therefore distasteful.

Sir John Campbell, in less than a year after the sovereign's
installation, went home, and was succeeded as British envoy by
Henry Ellis. The change in personnel signified also a transfer of
superintendence of the Persian legation, which passed from the
government in India to the authorities in England. The expedi-
tion was to commence with a campaign against the Turcomans —
Herat being its later destination. Such counter-proposals as Ellis
had suggested for consideration had been politely put aside, and
the case was now more than ever complicated by the action of the
Barakzai chiefs of Kandahar, who had sent a mission to Teheran to
offer assistance against their Saduzai rival at Herat. Fresh provo-
cation had, moreover, been given to the shah's government by the
rash and incapable Kamran.

About the close of the summer the force moved from Teheran.
The royal camp was near Astarabad in November 1836. Food was
scarce : barley sold for ten times the usual price, and wheat was not
procurable for any money. The troops were dissatisfied, and, being
kept without pay and on short rations, took to plundering. There
had been operations on the banks of the Gurgan, and the Turcomans
had been driven from one of their strongholds; but little or no pro-
gress had been made in the subjection of these marauders, and the
Heratis had sent word that all they could do was to pay tribute,
and, if that were insufficient, the shah had better march to Herat.
A military council was held at Shahrud, when it was decided to
return to the capital and set out again in the spring. Accordingly
the troops dispersed, and the sovereign's presence at Teheran was
taken advantage of by the British minister to renew his attempts
in the cause of peace. Although on the present occasion Simonich
ostensibly aided the British charge d'affaires M'Neill, who had
succeeded Ellis in 1836, no argument was of any avail to divert
the monarch from his purpose. He again set out in the summer,
and, invading the Herat territory in November 1837, began the
siege on the 23rd of that month.

Not until September in the following year did the Persian army
withdraw from before the walls of the city; and then the move-
ment only took place on the action of the British govern- „. ,
ment. M'Neill, who had joined the Persian camp on HI
the 6th of April, left it again on the 7th of June. He
had done all in his power to effect a reasonable agreement between
the contending parties; but both in this respect and in the matter of
a commercial treaty with England, then under negotiation, his
efforts had been met with evasion and latent hostility. The
Russian envoy, who had appeared among the tents of the besieging
army almost simultaneously with his English colleague, no sooner
found himself alone in his diplomacy than he resumed his aggressive
counsels, and little more than a fortnight had elapsed since M'Neill's
departure when a vigorous assault, planned, it is asserted, by
Simonich himself, was made upon Herat. The Persians attacked
at five points, at one of which they would in all likelihood have been
successful had not the Afghans been aided by Eldred Pottinger, a
young Englishman, who with the science of an artillery officer
combined a courage and determination which inevitably influenced
his subordinates. Still the garrison was disheartened; but Colonel
Stoddart's arrival on the nth of August to threaten the shah with
British intervention put a stop to further action. Colonel Stoddart's
refusal to allow any but British mediators, to decide the pending
dispute won the day; and that officer was able to report that on

1736-1884]

PERSIA

241

the gth of September Mahommed Shah had " mounted his horse "
and gone from before the walls of the beleaguered city.

The siege of Herat, which lasted for nearly ten months, was the
great event in the reign of Mahommed Shah. The British expedition
in support of Shah Shuj'a, which may be called its natural conse-
quence, involves a question foreign to the present narrative.

The remainder of the king's reign was marked by new difficulties
with the British government; the rebellion of Aga Khan Mahlati
otherwise known as the chief of the Assassins; a new rupture with
Turkey; the banishment of the asafu'd-daula, governor of Khorasan,
followed by the insurrection and defeat of his son; and the rise of
Babiism (q.v.). The first of these only calls for any detailed account.

In the demands of the British Government was included the
cession by Persia of places such as Farah and Sabzewar, which had
niffi it been taken during the war from the Afghans, as well

ith as reparation for the violence offered to the courier of

. . the British legation. M'Neill gave a certain time for
decision, at the end of which, no satisfactory reply
having reached him, he broke off diplomatic relations, ordered the
British officers lent to the shah to proceed towards Bagdad en route
to India, and retired to Erzerum with the members of his mission.
On the Persian side, charges were made against M'Neill, and a
special envoy was sent to England to support them. An endeavour
was at the same time made to interest the cabinets of Europe in
influencing the British government on behalf of Persia. The
envoy managed to obtain an interview with the minister of foreign
affairs in London, who, in July 1839, supplied him with a statement,
fuller than before, of all English demands upon his country. Con-
siderable delay ensued, but the outcome of the whole proceedings
was not only acceptance but fulfilment of all the engagements
contracted. In the meantime the island of Kharak had been taken
possession of by an expedition from India.

On the nth of October 1841 a new mission arrived at Teheran
from London, under John (afterwards Sir John) M'Neill, to renew
diplomatic relations. It was most cordially received by the shah,
and as one of its immediate results, Kharak was evacuated by the
British-Indian troops.

There had been a long diplomatic correspondence in Europe on
the proceedings of Count Simonich and other Russian officers at
Herat. Among the papers is a very important letter from Count
Nesselrode to Count Pozzo di Borgo in which Russia declares herself
to be the first to counsel the shah to acquiesce in the demand made
upon him, because she found " justice on the side of England " and
" wrong on the side of Persia." She withdrew her agent from
Kandahar and would " not have with the Afghans any relations
but those of commerce, and in no wise any political interests."

Aga Khan's rebellion was fostered by the defection to his cause
of a large portion of the force sent against him ; but he yielded at
last to the local authorities of Kerman and fled the province and
country. He afterwards resided many years at Bombay, where,
while maintaining among natives a quasi-spiritual character, he was
better known among Europeans for his doings on the turf.

The quarrel with Turkey was generally about frontier relations.
Eventually the matter was referred to an Anglo-Russian commission,
of which Colonel Williams (afterwards Sir Fenwick Williams of Kars)
was president. A massacre of Persians at Kerbela might have
seriously complicated the dispute, but, after a first burst of indigna-
tion and call for vengeance, an expression of the regret of the
Ottoman government was accepted as a sufficient apology for the
occurrence.

The rebellion of the asafu 'd-daula, maternal uncle of the shah,
was punished by exile, while his son, after giving trouble to his
opponents, and once gaining a victory over them, took shelter with
the Turcomans.

Before closing the reign of Mahommed Shah note should be taken
of a prohibition to import African slaves into Persia, and a com-
mercial treaty with England — recorded by Watson as gratifying
achievements of the period by British diplomatists. The French
missions in which occur the names of MM. de Lavalette and de
Sartiges were notable in their way, but somewhat barren of results.

In the autumn of 1848 the shah was seized with the malady,
or combination of maladies, which caused his death. Gout and
erysipelas had, it is said,1 ruined his constitution, and he died at
his palace in Shimran on the 4th of September. He was buried at
Kum, where is situated the shrine of Fatima, daughter of Imam
Riza, by the side of his grandfather, Path 'Ali, and other kings
of Persia. In person he is described as short and fat, with an
aquiline nose and agreeable countenance.2

On the occasion of his father's death, Nasru 'd-Din Mirza, who

had been proclaimed wall 'ahd, or heir apparent, some years before,

was absent at Tabriz, the headquarters of his province of

Azerbaijan. Colonel Farrant, then charg6 d affaires on

the part of the British government, in the absence of

Colonel Sheil, who had succeeded Sir John M'Neill, had,

in anticipation of the shah's decease and consequent trouble, sent

a messenger to summon him instantly to Teheran. The British

officer, moreover, associated himself with Prince Dolgoruki, the

representative of Russia, to secure the young prince's accession.

1 Watson.

2 Markham.

The queen-mother, as president of the council, showed much
judgment and capacity in conciliating adverse parties. But the
six or seven weeks which passed between the death of the one king
and the coronation of the other proved a disturbed interval, and full
of stirring incident. The old minister, Hajji Mirza Aghasi, shut
| himself up in the royal palace with 1200 followers, and had to take
refuge in the sanctuary of Shah 'Abdul-'Azim near Teheran. On
the other hand Mirza Aga Khan, a partisan of the asafu 'd-daula,
and himself an ex-minister of war, whom the hajji had caused to be
banished, was welcomed back to the capital. At Isafahan, Shiraz
and Kerman serious riots took place, which were with difficulty
suppressed. While revolution prevailed in the city, robbery was
rife in the province of Yezd ; and from Kazvin the son of 'Ali Mirza
otherwise called the " zillu's-sultan," the prince-governor of Teheran,
who disputed the succession of Mahommed Shah, came forth to
contest the crown with his cousin, the heir-apparent. The last-
named incident soon came to an inglorious termination for its hero.
But a more serious revolt was in full force at Meshed when, on the
2oth of October 1848, the young shah entered his capital and was
crowned at midnight king of Persia.

The chief events in the long reign of Nasru 'd-Din, fall under
four heads: (l) the insurrection in Khorasan, (2) the insurrection
of the Babis, (3) the fall of the amiru 'n-nizam, and (4) the war with
England.

It has been stated that the asafu 'd-daula was a competitor
with Hajji Mirza Aghasi for the post of premier in the cabinet of
Mahommed Shah, that he was afterwards, in the same
reign, exiled for rising in rebellion, and that his son, '
the salar, took shelter with the Turcomans. Some tri.or, aa
four months prior to the Mahommed Shah's decease
the latter chief had reappeared in arms against his authority; he
had gained possession of Meshed itself, driving the prince-governor,
Hamza Mirza, into the citadel; and so firm was his attitude that
Yar Mahommed of Herat, who had come to help the government
officials, had retired after a fruitless co-operation, drawing away
the prince-governor also. The salar now defied Murad Mirza,
Nasru 'd-Din's uncle, who was besieging the city. In April 1850,
after a siege of more than eighteen months, fortune turned against
the bold insurgent, and negotiations were opened for the surrender
of the town and citadel. Treachery may have had to do with the
result, for when the shah's troops entered the holy city the salar
sought refuge in the mosque of Imam Riza, and was forcibly expelled.
He and his brother were seized and put to death, the instrument
used being, according to Watson, " the bowstring of Eastern story."
The conqueror of Meshed, Murad Mirza, became afterwards himself
the prince-governor of Khorasan.

In the article on BABIISM, the facts as to the life of the Bab, Mirza
Ali Mahommed of Shiraz, and the progress of the Babiist movement,
are separately noticed. The Bab himself was executed 0-1,,
in 1850, but only after serious trouble over the new Ba""s«°-
religious propaganda; and his followers kept up the revolutionary
propaganda.

In the summer of 1852 the shah was attacked, while riding in
the vicinity of Teheran, by four Babis, one of whom fired a pistol
and slightly wounded him. The man "was killed, and two others
were captured by the royal attendants; the fourth jumped down
a well. The existence of a conspiracy was then discovered in
which some forty persons were implicated; and ten of the con-
spirators were put to death — some under cruel torture.

Mirza Taki, the amiru 'n-nizam (vulgarly amir nizam), or com-
mander-in-chief, was a good specimen of the self-made man of
Persia. He was the son of a cook of Bahram Mirza, Mahommed
Shah's brother, and he had filled high and important _, „
offices of state and amassed much wealth when he was Vjv °' ..
made by the young shah Nasru 'd-Din, on his accession,
both his brother-in-law and his prime-minister. The choice was an
admirable one; he was honest, hard-working, and liberal according
to his lights; and the services of a loyal and capable adviser were
secured for the new regime. Unfortunately, he did not boast the
confidence of the queen- mother; and this circumstance greatly
strengthened the hands of those enemies whom an honest minister
must ever raise around him in a corrupt Oriental state. For a
time the shah closed his eyes to the accusations and insinuations
against him ; but at last he fell under the evil influence of designing
counsellors, and acts which should have redounded to the minister's
credit became the charges on which he lost his office and his life.
He was credited with an intention to grasp in his own hands the
royal power; his influence over the army was cited as a cause of
danger; and on the night of the I3th of November 1851 he \yas
summoned to the palace and informed that he was no longer premier.
Mirza Aga Khan, the " 'itimadu "d-daulah," was named to succeed
him, and had been accordingly raised to the dignity of " sadr'azim."
As the hostile faction pressed the necessity of the ex-minister's
removal from the capital; he was offered the choice of the govern-
ment of Fars, Isfahan or Kum. He declined all; but, through
the mediation of Colonel Sheil, he was afterwards offered and accepted
Kashan. Forty days after his departure an order for his execution
was signed, but he anticipated his fate by committing suicide.

When England was engaged in the Crimean War of 1854-55 ner
alliance with a Mahommedan power in no way added to her

242

PERSIA

[1884-1901

popularity or strengthened her position in Persia. The Sunnite
Turk was almost a greater enemy to his neighbour the Shi'ite than
the formidable Muscovite, who had curtailed him of
Rupture SQ iarge a section of his territory west of the Caspian.
"'"* . Since Sir John M'Neill's arrival in Teheran in 1841,
England. forrnai]y to repair the breach with Mahommed Shah,
there had been little differences, demands and explanations, and these
symptoms had culminated in 1856, the year of the peace with
Russia. As to Afghanistan, the vizier Yar Mahommed had in
1842, when the British troops were perishing in the passes, or
otherwise in the midst of dangers, caused Kamran to be suffocated
in his prison. Since that event he had himself reigned supreme in
Herat, and, dying in 1851, was succeeded by his son Sa'id Mahommed.
This chief soon entered upon a series of intrigues in the Persian
interests, and, among other acts offensive to Great Britain, suffered
one 'Abbas Kuli, who had, under guise of friendship, betrayed the
cause of the salar at Meshed, to occupy the citadel of Herat, and
again place a detachment of the shah's troops in Ghurian. Colonel
Sheil remonstrated, and obtained a new engagement of non-
interference with Herat from the Persian government, as well as
the recall of 'Abbas Kuli. In September 1855 Mahommed Yusuf
Saduzai seized upon Herat, putting Sa'id Mahommed to death
with some of his followers who were supposed accomplices in the
murder of his uncle Kamran. About this time Kohan Dil Khan,
one of the chiefs of Kandahar, died, and Dost Mahommed of Kabul
annexed the city to his territory. Some relations of the deceased
chief made their escape to Teheran, and the shah, listening to their
complaint, directed the prince-governor of Meshed to march across
to the eastern frontier and occupy Herat, declaring that an invasion
of Persia was imminent. Negotiations were useless, and on the 1st
of November 1856 war against Persia was declared.

In less than three weeks after its issue by proclamation of the
governor-general of India, the Sind division of the field force left
Karachi. On the l$th of January following the Bombay govern-
ment orders notified the formation of a second division under
Lieut. -General Sir James Outram. Before the general arrived
the island of Kharak and port of Bushire had both been occupied,
and the fort of Rishir had been attacked and carried. After
the general's arrival the march upon Borazjan and the engage-
ment at Khushab — two places on the road to Shiraz — and the
operations at Muhamrah and the Karun River decided the cam-
paign in favour of England. On the 5th of April, at Muhamrah,
Sir James Outram received the news that the treaty of peace had
been signed in Paris, where Lord Cowley and Farrukh Khan had
conducted the negotiations. The stipulations regarding Herat were
much as before ; but there were to be apologies made to the mission
for past insolence and rudeness, and the slave trade was to be sup-
pressed in the Persian Gulf. With the exception of a small force
retained at Bushire under General John Jacob for the three months
assigned for execution of the ratifications and giving effect to certain
stipulations of the treaty with regard to Afghanistan, the British
troops returned to India, where their presence was greatly needed,
owing to the outbreak of the Mutiny.

The question of constructing a telegraph in Persia as a link in
the overland line to connect England with India was broached in
Teheran by Colonel Patrick Stewart and Captain
Anglo- Champain, officers of engineers, in 1862, and an agree-
h/ / on *'le subjcct concluded by Edward Eastwick,

graph Line. wjlen cnarge d'affaires, at the close of that year. Three
years later a more formal convention, including a second wire, was
signed by the British envoy Charles Alison and the Persian foreign
minister; meantime the work had been actively carried on, and
communication opened on the one side between Bushire and Karachi
and the Makran coast by cable, and on the other between Bushire
and Bagdad via Teheran. The untrustworthy character of the
line through Asiatic Turkey caused a subsequent change of direction;
and an alternative line — the Indo-European — from London to
Teheran, through Russia and along the eastern shores of the Black
Sea, was constructed, and has worked well since 1872, in conjunction
with the Persian land telegraph system and the Bushire-Karachi
line.

The Seistan mission, under Major-General (afterwards Sir Fred-
eric) Goldsmid, left England in August 1870, and reached Teheran
on the 3rd of October. Thence it proceeded to Isfahan, from which
city it moved to Baluchistan, instead of seeking its original destina-
tion. Difficulties had arisen both in arranging the preliminaries
to arbitration and owing to the disordered state of Afghanistan, and
it was therefore deemed advisable to commence operations by
settling a frontier dispute between Persia and the Kalat state.
Unfortunately, the obstructions thrown in the way of this settle-
ment by the Persian commissioner, the untoward appearance at
Bampur of an unexpected body of Kalatis, and the absence of
definite instructions marred the fulfilment of the programme
sketched out; but a line of boundary was proposed, which was
afterwards accepted by the litigants. In the following year the
same mission, accompanied by the same Persian commissioner,
proceeded to Seistan, where it remained for more than five weeks,
prosecuting its inquiries, until joined by another mission from
India, under Major-General (afterwards Sir Richard) Pollock,
accompanying the Afghan commissioner. Complications then

ensued by the determined refusal of the two native officials to meet
in conference; and the arbitrator had no course available but to
take advantage of the notes already obtained on the spot, and
return with them to Teheran, there to deliver his decision. This
was done on the I9th of August 1872. The contending parties
appealed to the British secretary of state for foreign affairs, as
provided by previous understanding; but the decision held good,
and was eventually accepted on both sides.

Nasru 'd-Din Shah, unlike his predecessors, visited Europe —
in 1873 and in 1879. On the first occasion only he extended his
journey to England, and was then attended by his " sadr "azim,"
or prime minister, Mirza Husain Khan, an able and enlightened
adviser, and a Grand Cross of the Star of India. His second visit
was to Russia, Germany, France and Austria, but he did not cross
the Channel. (F. J. G. ; X.)

E. — Persia from 1884 to igoi.

In 1865 the shah had mooted the idea of a Persian naval
flotilla in the Persian Gulf, to consist of two or three steamers
manned by Arabs and commanded by English naval fheCaatroi
officers; but the idea was discountenanced by the Ofthn
British government, to whom it was known that the Persian
project really concealed aggressive designs upon Qult-
the independence of the islands and pearl fisheries of Bah-
rein (Curzon, Persia, ii. 294). Fifteen or sixteen years later
it was repeatedly pointed out to the authorities that the revenues
from the customs of the Persian Gulf would be much increased
if control were exercised at all the ports, particularly the small
ones where smuggling was being carried on on a large scale,
and in 1883 the shah decided upon the acquisition of four or
five steamers, one to be purchased yearly, and instructed the
late 'Ali Kuli Khan, Mukhber ad-daulah, minister of telegraphs,
to obtain designs and estimates from British and German firms.
The tender of a well-known German firm at Bremerhaven was
finally accepted, and one of the minister's sons then residing in
Berlin made the necessary contracts for the first steamer. Sir
Ronald Thomson, the British representative in Persia, having
at the same time induced the shah to consider the advantages
to Persia of opening the Karun River and connecting it with
Teheran by a carriageable road, a small river steamer for con-
trolling the shipping on the Karun was ordered as well, and the
construction of the road was decided upon. Two steamers, the
" Susa " and the " Persepolis," were completed in January 1885
at a cost of £32,000, and despatched with German officers and
crew to the Persian Gulf. When the steamers were ready to
do the work they had been intended for, the farmer, or farmers,
of the Gulf customs raised difficulties and objected to pay the
cost of maintaining the " Persepolis "; the governor of Muham-
rah would not allow any interference with what he considered
his hereditary rights of the shipping monopoly on the Karun,
and the objects for which the steamers had been brought were
not attained. The " Persepolis " remained idle at Bushire,
and the " Susa " was tied up in the Failieh creek, near Muham-
rah. The scheme of opening the Karun and of constructing a
carriageable road from Ahvaz to Teheran was also abandoned.

Frequent interruptions occurred on the telegraph line between
Teheran and Meshed in 1885, at the time of the " Panjdeh incident,"
when the Russians were advancing towards Afghanistan and Sir
Peter Lumsden was on the Afghan frontier; and Sir Ronald Thomson
concluded an agreement with the Persian government for the line
to be kept in working order by an English inspector, the Indian
government paying a share not exceeding 20,000 rupees per annum
of the cost of maintenance, and an English signaller being stationed
at Meshed. Shortly afterwards Sir Ronald Thomson left Persia
(he died on the I5th of November 1888), and Arthur (afterwards Sir
Arthur) Nicolson was appointed charge d'affaires. During the
latter's tenure of office an agreement was concluded between the
Persian and British governments regarding the British telegraph
settlement at Jask, and the telegraph conventions of 1868 and 1872
relative to telegraphic communication between Europe and India
through Persia, in force until the 1st of January 1895, were pro-
longed until the 3ist of January 1905 by two conventions dated
the 3rd of July 1887. Since then these conventions have been
prolonged to 1925.

Ayub Khan, son of Shir 'Ali (Shere Ali) of Afghanistan, who had
taken refuge in Persia in October 1881, and was kept interned in
Teheran under an agreement, concluded on the I7th of April 1884,
between Great Britain and Persia, with a pension of £8000 per annum
from the British government escaped on the I4th of August 1887.
After a futile attempt to enter Afghan territory and raise a revolt

1884-1901]

PERSIA

243

Shah's

Visit to
Europe,
1889.

against the Amir Abdur Rahman, he gave himself up to the British
consul-general at Meshed in the beginning of November, and was
sent under escort to the Turkish frontier and thence via Bagdad to
India. Yahya Khan, Mushir-ad-daulah, the Persian minister for
foreign affairs (died 1892), who was supposed to have connived at
Ayub Khan's escape in order to please his Russian friends, was
dismissed from office.

In December 1887 Sir Henry Drummond Wolff was appointed
minister to Persia. The appointment greatly pleased the Persian
court, and the shah lent a willing ear to his advocacy for the
development of trade and commerce, construction of roads, abolition
of various restrictions hampering Persian merchants, &c. The
shah soon afterwards (May 26, 1888) issued a proclamation assuring
freedom of life and property to all his subjects, and (Oct. 30)
declared the Karun river open to international navigation up to
Ahvaz. At about the same time he appointed Amin-es-Sultan,
who had been prime-minister since 1884, Grand Vizier (Sadr 'azim).
In the same year (June 25) the first railway in Persia, a small line
of 5J miles from Teheran to Shah-abdul-Azim, was opened under
the auspices of a Belgian company. A few months later (Jan. 30,
1889) Baron Julius de Reuter — in consideration of giving up the
rights which he held by his concession obtained in 1873 — became
the owner of a concession for the formation of a Persian State
Bank, with exclusive rights of issuing bank-notes and working the
mines of iron, copper, lead, mercury, coal, petroleum, manganese,
borax, and asbestos in Persia. Russia now insisted upon what she
considered a corresponding advantage; and Prince Dolgoruki, the
Russian minister, obtaineJin February 1889 a document from the
shah which gave to Russia the refusal of any railway concession
in Persia for a period of five years. The Persian State Bank was
established by British royal charter, dated the 2nd of September

1889, and started business in Persia (Oct. 23) as the " Imperial Bank
of Persia." The railway agreement with Russia was changed in
November 1890 into one interdicting all railways whatsoever in
Persia.

In April 1889 the shah set out upon his third voyage to Europe.
After a visit to the principal courts, including a stay of a month
in England, where he was accompanied by Sir Henry
Drummond Wolff, he returned to his capital (Oct. 20).
Sir Henry returned to Persia soon afterwards, and in
March of the following year the Persian government
granted another important concession, that of a tobacco
monopoly, to British capitalists. In the autumn bad health obliged
the British minister to leave Persia. It was during his stay in England
that the shah, for two or three days without his grand vizier, who was
mourning for the death of his brother, listened to bad advice and
granted a concession for the monopoly of lotteries in Persia to a
Persian subject. The latter ceded the concession to a British
syndicate for £40,000. Very soon afterwards the shah was made
aware of the evil results of this monopoly, and withdrew the con-
cession, but the syndicate did not get the money paid for it returned.
This unfortunate affair had the effect of greatly discrediting Persia
on the London Stock Exchange for a long time. The concession
for the tobacco monopoly was taken up by the Imperial Tobacco
Corporation (1891). The corporation encountered opposition
fostered by the clergy, and after a serious riot at Teheran (Jan. 4,
1892) the Persian government withdrew the concession and agreed
to pay an indemnity of £500,000 (April 5, 1892). In order to pay
this amount Persia contracted the 6% loan of £500,000 through
the Imperial Bank of Persia, which was redeemed in 1900 out of
the proceeds of the Russian 5 % loan of that year. (For details
of the tobacco concession and an account of the events which led to
its withdrawal, see E. Lorini, La Persia economica, Rome, 1900,
pp. 164—169; and Dr Feuvrier, Trois ans a la cour de Perse, Paris,

1890, en. v., the latter ascribing the failure of the tobacco monopoly
to Russian intrigue.)

In November 1889 Malcolm Khan, Nizam-ul-Mulk, who had
been Persian representative to the court of Great Britain since
October 1872, was recalled, and Mirza Mahommed 'AH Khan, consul-
general at Tiflis, was appointed in his stead, arriving in London
the following March. In 1890 the scheme of a carriageable road
from Teheran to Ahvaz was taken up again; the Imperial Bank of
Persia obtained a concession, and work of construction was begun
in the same year, and continued until 1893. In this year, too, the
mining rights of the Imperial Bank of Persia were ceded to the
Persian Bank Mining Rights Corporation, and a number of engineers
were sent out to Persia. The total absence of easy means of com-
munication, the high rates of transport, and the scarcity of fuel
and water in the mineral districts made profitable operations
impossible, and the corporation liquidated in 1894, after having
expended a large sum of money.

Great excitement was caused in the summer of 1891 by the report

that an English girl, Kate Greenfield, had been forcibly carried

away from her mother's house at Tabriz by a Kurd.

*,a<e The British authorities demanded the girl's restitu-

* tion from the Persian government. The Kurd, a

Turkish subject, refused to give up the girl, and took

her to Saujbulagh. The Turkish authorities protected him, and

serious complications were imminent; but finally an interview

between the girl and the British agent was arranged, and the matter

I was promptly settled by her declaring that she had left her mother's
house of her own accord, and was the wife of the Kurd. It also
became known that she was the daughter of a British-protected
Hungarian named Griinfeld, who had died some years since, and
an American lady of Tabriz.

Sir Frank Lascelles, who had been appointed minister to Persia
in July, arrived at Teheran in the late autumn of 1891. In the
following year Persia had a visitation of cholera. In Teheran and
surrounding villages the number of fatal cases exceeded 28,000, or
about 8% of the population. In 1893 the epidemic appeared
again, but in a milder form. In June 1893 Persia ceded to Russia
the small but very fertile and strategically important district of
Firuza and the adjacent lands between Baba Durmaz and Lutfabad
on the northern frontier of Khorasan, and received in exchange
the important village of Hissar and a strip of desert ground near
Abbasabad on the frontier of Azerbaijan, which had become Russian
territory in 1828, according to the Treaty of Turkmanchai.

Sir Frank Lascelles left Persia in the early part of 1894, and
was succeeded by Sir Mortimer Durand, who was appointed in
July and arrived in Teheran in November. In the
following year the shah, by a firman dated the I2th of
May gave the exclusive right of exploring ancient sites ^
in Persia to the French government, with the stipula- ° .

tion that one-half of the discovered antiquities, except-
ing those of gold and silver and precious stones, should belong to
the French government, which also had the preferential right
of acquiring by purchase the other half and any of the other anti-
quities which the Persian government might wish to dispose of.
In 1897 M. J. de Morgan, who had been on a scientific mission in
Persia some years before and later in Egypt, was appointed chief
of a mission to Persia, and began work at Susa in December.

On the 1st of May 1896 Nasur 'd-Din Shah was assassinated while
paying his devotions at the holy shrine of Shah-abdul-Azim. Five
days later he would have entered the fiftieth (lunar)
year of his reign, and great preparations for duly cele- *ssa * "
brating the jubilee had been made throughout the
country. The assassin was a small tradesman of
Kerrnan named Mirza Reza, who had resided a short time in Con-
stantinople and there acquired revolutionary and anarchist ideas
from Kemalu 'd-Din, the so-called Afghan sheikh, who, after being
very kindly treated by the shah, preached revolution and
anarchy at Teheran, fled to Europe, visited London, and finally
took up his residence in Constantinople. Kemalu 'd-Din was
a native of Hamadan and a Persian subject, and as the assassin
repeatedly stated that he was the sheikh's emissary and had
acted by his orders, the Persian government demanded the ex-
tradition of Kemal from the Porte; but during the protracted
negotiations which followed he died. Mirza Reza was hanged
on the 1 2th of August 1896. There were few troubles in the
country when the news of the shah's death became known.
Serious rioting arose only in Shiraz and Fars, where some persons
lost their lives and a number of caravans were looted. European
firms who had lost goods during these troubles were afterwards
indemnified by the Persian government. The new shah, Muzaffar-
ud-Din (born March 25, 1853), then governor-general of Azerbaijan,
residing at Tabriz, was enthroned there on the day of his father's
death, and proceeded a few days later, accompanied by the British
and Russian consuls, to Teheran, where he arrived on the 8th of
June.

An excessive copper coinage during the past three or four years
had caused much distress among the poorer classes since the
beginning of the year, and the small trade was almost
paralysed. Immediately after his accession the shah
decreed that the coining of copper money should
cease and the excess of the copper coinage be withdrawn from
circulation. In order to reduce the price of meat, the meat tax,
which had existed since ancient times was abolished. The Imperial
Bank of Persia, which had already advanced a large sum. of money,
and thereby greatly facilitated the shah's early departure from
Tabriz and enabled the grand vizier at Teheran to carry on the
government, started buying up the copper coinage at all its branches
and agencies. The nominal value of the copper money was 20
shahis equal to I kran, but in some places the copper money cir-
culated at the rate of 80 shahis to the kran, less than its intrinsic
value; at other places the rates varied between 70 and 25 shahis,
and the average circulating value in all Persia was over 40. If
government had been able to buy up the excess at 40 and reissue it
gradually after a time at its nominal value when the people required
it, the loss would have been small. But although the transport of
copper money from place to place had been strictly prohibited,
dishonest officials found means to traffic in copper money on their
own account, and by buying it where it was cheap and forwarding it
to cities where it was dear, the bank bought it at high rates, thus
rendering the arrangement for a speedy withdrawal of the excess
at small cost to government futile. It was only in 1899 that the
distress caused by the excessive copper coinage ceased, and then
only at very great loss to government. The well-intentioned
abolition of the tax on meat also had not the desired result, for by
a system of " cornering " the price of meat rose to more than it
was before.

244

PERSIA

[1902-1909

In the autumn of 1896 the grand vizier (Amin-es-Sultan) en-
countered much hostility from some members of the shah's
entourage and various high personages. Amin-ad-
daulah was appointed chief administrator (vizier) of
I896gi898 Azerbaijan and sent to Tabriz. Shortly afterwards
' the grand vizier found it impossible to carry on his
work, resigned, and retired to Kum (Nov. 24), and the shah formed
a cabinet composed for the greater part of the leading members
of the opposition to the grand vizier. After three months of the
new regime affairs of state fell into arrears, and the most important
department, that of the interior, was completely disorganized.
The shah accordingly recalled Amin-ad-daulah from_ Tabriz (Feb.
1897), and appointed him minister president (rai's-i-vuzara) and
minister of the interior. In June Amin-ad-daulah was made
prime minister (vizir "azirn) and given more extended powers,
and in August raised to the dignity of grand vizier (sadr 'azim).
Nasru '1-Mulk was appointed minister of finance (Feb. 1898), and
made an attempt to introduce a simple system of accounts, establish
a budget, reorganize the revenue department, made a new assess-
ment of the land-tax, &c. ; but resistance on the part of the officials
rendered it abortive.

In the latter part of 1897 E. Graves, the inspector of the English
telegraph line from Jask eastwards, was brutally murdered by
Baluchis, and the agents of the Persian government sent to seize
the murderers were resisted by the tribes. A considerable district
breaking out into open revolt, troops under the command of the
governor-general of Kerman were despatched into Baluchistan. The
port of Fannoch was taken in March 1898, and order was restored.
One of the murderers was hanged at Jask (May 31).

Various attempts to obtain a foreign loan had been made during
the previous year, but with the sole result of discrediting the
Persian government in Europe. In the beginning of
Abortive jg^g tjje snaji's medical advisers strongly recommended
uh'z cu.re °f mineral waters in Germany or France, and
as his departure from Persia without paying the arrears
7^g to the army and to thousands of functionaries, or

providing a sufficient sum for carrying on the govern-
ment during his absence, would have created grave discontent,
serious negotiations for a loan were entered upon. It was estimated
that £1,000,000 would be required to pay all debts, including the
balance of the 1892 loan, and leave a surplus sufficient for carrying
on the government until the shah's return.. London capitalists
offered to float a loan for £i ,250,000 at 5 % and on the guarantee
of the customs of Fars and the Persian Gulf ports, and to give
£1,025,000, or 82% to the Persian government. They stipulated
for a kind of control over the custom-houses by placing their own
agents as cashiers in them. This stipulation was agreed to in prin-
ciple by the grand vizier, Amin ad-daulah, who in March, in order
to meet some pressing demands on the treasury borrowed £50,000
on the customs receipts of Kermanshah and Bushire, and agreed
to the lenders, the Imperial Bank of Persia's agents, being placed
as cashiers in the custom-houses of both cities. He encountered,
however, much opposition from the other ministers. Further
negotiations ensued, and the shah's visit to Europe was abandoned.
The assistance of the British government not being forthcoming,
the grand vizier's position became more and more difficult, and
on the 5th of June he had to resign. Muhsin Khan, Mushir-ad-
daulah, minister for foreign affairs, then became president of the
cabinet, and continued the negotiations, but could not bring hem
to a successful issue. Moreover, the Persian government, finding
that the previous estimate of the money required for paying its
debts was about 50% below the mark, now asked for double the
amount offered by the London capitalists, _without, however,
proportionately increasing the guarantee. This disorganized all
previous arrangements, and the negotiations for a London loan came
to an end for a time at the end of July, leaving in the minds of the
Persians the unfortunate impression that the British government
had done nothing to aid them.

On the 9th of July the former grand vizier, Amin-es-Sultan, was
recalled from Kum, where he had resided since November 1896,
arrived at Teheran three days later, and was reinstated as grand
vizier on the loth of August. His immense popularity, his friendly
relations with the clergy, and some temporary advances from the
banks, tided over difficulties for some time. The reform of
the customs department was now (Sept. 1898) taken up seriously,
and the three Belgian custom-house officials who had been engaged
by Amin-ad-daulah in the beginning of the year were instructed
to collect information and devise a scheme for the reorganization
of the department and the abolition of the farm system. In March
1899 the custom-houses of the provinces of Azerbaijan and Kerman-
shah were given over to the Belgians. The results of this step
were so satisfactory that government was induced to abolish the
farm system and set up the new regime in the other provinces in
March 1900, and a number of other Belgian custom-houses officials
were engaged.

In September, when renewed negotiations for a loan from London
were_ not appearing to progress favourably, and the long-thought-
of visit to Europe was considered to be absolutely necessary in
the following year, the shah issued a firman authorizing the Russian
Banque des Prgts de Perse to float a loan. Shortly after this it was

said that the London capitalists were willing to lend £1,250,000
without insisting upon the objectionable control clause; but the
proposal came too late, and on the 3Oth of January „
1900, the Russian government had permitted the issue "'
of a loan for 22i million roubles (£2,400,000) at 5%,
guaranteed by all the customs receipts of Persia, ex-
cepting those for Fars and the Persian Gulf ports. Only in the
event of any default of paying instalments and interests was the
bank 'co be given control of the custom-houses. Persia received
85 % of the nominal capital, and the Russian government guar-
anteed the bondholders. Money was immediately remitted to
Teheran, and nearly all the arrears were paid, while the balance
of the 1892 London 6% loan was paid off by direct remittance
to London.

Sir Mortimer Durand left Teheran in the early spring, and pro-
ceeded to Europe on leave. On the 1 2th of April the shah, accom-
panied by the grand vizier and a numerous suite,
started on his voyage to Europe. The affairs of State Sbab's
during his absence were entrusted to a council of Visits to
ministers, under the presidency of his second son, Europe,
Malik Mansur Mirza, Shua-es-Sultaneh, who had made 1900, 1902.
a long stay on the Continent the year before.

After a residence of a month at Contrexeville, the shah proceeded
(July 14) to St Petersburg, and thence to Paris (July 29), intending
to go to London on the 8th of August. But on account of the
mourning in which several courts were thrown through the death
of the king of Italy (July 29) and the duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha
(July 30), the visits to England, Germany and Italy were abandoned.
On the 2nd of August an anarchist made an attempt upon the shah's
life in Paris.

F. — Riisso- British Rivalry (1902- 1907) and the Persian
Revolution (1906-1909}.

In 1902 Muzaffar-ud-Dln Shah revisited the principal European
capitals, and was received by King Edward VII. at Portsmouth
in August. A mission headed by Viscount Downe was after-
wards despatched to Persia, to invest the shah with the order of
the Garter, a ceremony which took place in Teheran on the 2nd
of February 1903. A week later, a new commercial treaty was
concluded between Great Britain and Persia, which instituted
various reforms in the customs service, secured to both countries
the " most-favoured-nation " treatment, and substituted specific
import and export duties for the charge of 5% ad valorem
provided for in the treaty of 1857. These provisions to some
extent counterbalanced the losses inflicted on British trade by
the Russo-Persian commercial treaty signed in 1902, which had
seriously damaged the Indian tea trade, and had led to a rapid
extension of Russian influence. Between 1899 and 1903 the
Russian Bank had lent Persia £4,000,000, of which fully half
was paid to the shah for his personal requirements. Russian
concessionnaires were given the right to build roads from Tabriz
to Teheran (1902) and from Tabriz to Kazvin (1903); and the
Russian Bank opened new branches in Seistan — an example
followed in 1903 by the Bank of Persia. It was, however, in
the Persian Gulf that the rivalry between Great Britain and
Russia threatened to become dangerous. Great Britain had
almost a monopoly of maritime commerce in the Gulf, and was
alone responsible for buoying, lighting and policing its waters.
Trie British claim to political supremacy in this region had thus
a solid economic basis; it had been emphasized by the British
action at Kuwet (q.v.) in 1899, and by the declaration made in
the House of Lords by Lord Lansdowne, as secretary of state
for foreign affairs, to the effect that Great Britain would resist
by all means in its power the attempt of any other nation to
establish itself in force on the shores of the Gulf. On the i6th
of November 1903, Lord Curzon, the viceroy of India, sailed
from Karachi for the Persian Gulf. His ship, the " Hardinge,"
was escorted by four cruisers, and the voyage was regarded as a
political demonstration, to be interpreted in connexion with
Lord Lansdowne's declaration. At Bushire, on the ist of
December, the Persian governor of Fars, Ala ad-daula, com-
mitted a breach of diplomatic etiquette which induced Lord
Curzon to sail away without landing. This incident was con-
sidered by some British observers to have been brought about
by Russian intrigue, and the fact that Ala ad-daula was dis-
missed in 1904, after the Japanese had achieved several initial
successes in the Russo-Japanese war, was held to confirm this
opinion. But Russian financial and commercial influence in

1902-1909]

PERSIA

245

Persia continued to increase; in December 1904 a special mission
under Mirza Riza Khan was received in audience by the tsar;
and in May 1905 Muzaffar-ud-Dm Shah himself left Persia to
visit the courts of Vienna and St Petersburg.

The Seistan Mission of 1902-190$. — A dispute as to the frontier
between Afghanistan and Seistan arose in 1902. The boundary
delimited by the Seistan mission of 1870-1872, and known as
the " Goldsmid line," was drawn along the course of the river
Helmund. Between 1872 and 1902 the Helmund took a more
westerly direction; no boundary marks had been erected, and a
wide strip of territory remained in dispute. The Persians claimed
that the boundary was the old bed of the river, the Afghans that
it was the new bed; and in accordance with the treaty of 1857
both parties asked the British government to arbitrate. In
January 1903, Colonel Arthur Henry MacMahon, who had
previously delimited the frontier between Afghanistan and
British India, was despatched from Quetta. The Persian
officials were at first hostile, but their opposition, which was
attributed to Russian influence at Teheran, was eventually
overcome, and Colonel MacMahon (who was knighted in 1906)
delivered his final award, sustaining the Persian contention, in
February 1905.

British Commercial Missions. — Owing to the success of the
Maclean mission, which visited and reported upon the markets
and trade-routes of north-western Persia in 1903, under the
direction of the Board of Trade, a similar mission was sent to
southern Persia in 1904, under the auspices of the Upper India
Chamber of Commerce, the Bengal Chamber and the Indian Tea
Cess Company. The report of this mission (by Gleadowe-
Newcomen) was published in 1906. After showing that civilized
government was practically non-existent in the regions visited,
it suggested as the chief remedy the conclusion of a Russo-
British convention, and the division of Persia into " spheres of
influence."

Russo- British Convention of 1907. — The political situation
created by the Russo-Japanese War and by an internal crisis
in Persia itself rendered possible such an agreement between the
two rival powers, and a Russo-British convention was signed
on the 3ist of August 1907. Its chief provisions, in regard to
Persia, are as follows: (i) north of a line drawn from Kasr-i-
Shirin, Isfahan, Yezd and Kakh to the junction of the Russian,
Persian and Afghan frontiers Great Britain undertook to seek
no political or commercial concession, and to refrain from
opposing the acquisition of any such concession by Russia or
Russian subjects; (2) Russia gave to Great Britain a like under-
taking in respect of the territory south of a line extending from
the Afghan frontier to Gazik, Birjend, Kerman and Bander
Abbasi; (3) the territory between the lines above-mentioned
was to be regarded as a neutral zone in which either country
might obtain concessions; (4) all existing concessions in any
part of Persia were to be respected; (5) should Persia fail to meet
its liabilities in respect of loans contracted, before the signature
of the convention, with the Persian Banque d'Escompte and de
Frets, or with the Imperial Bank of Persia, Great Britain and
Russia reserved the right to assume control over the Persian
revenues payable within their respective spheres of influence.
With this convention was published a letter from the British
secretary of state for foreign affairs (Sir E. Grey), stating (i)
that the Persian Gulf lay outside the scope of the convention,
(2) that Russia admitted the special interests of Great Britain
in the Gulf, and (3) that these interests were to be maintained
by Great Britain as before.

The Persian Constitution. — The misgovernment and disorder
which were revealed to Europe by the Gleadowe-Newcomen
report, and by such sporadic outbreaks as the massacre of the
Babis in Yezd (1903), had caused widespread discontent in
Persia. In 1905, partly owing to the example shown by the
revolutionary parties in Russia, this discontent took the form of
a demand for representative institutions. On the 5th of August
1906, Muzaffar-ud-Dm Shah issued a rescript in which he under-
took to form a national council (Majlis) representing the whole
people (see above, Constitution). The Majlis was duly elected,

and was opened by the shah in person on the 7th of October
1906. In January 1907 the shah died, and was succeeded by
his eldest son, Mahommed 'Ah' Mirza, who on the nth of
February published a message to his people, pledging himself
to adhere to the new constitution.

The Revolution. — On the i2th of November the shah visited
the Majlis, and repeated his pledge, but during December a
riot in Teheran developed into a political crisis, in which the
shah's troops were employed against the civil population. The
Majlis issued a manifesto to the powers, declaring that the shah
intended to overthrow the constitution, and demanding inter-
vention. The Russian and British ministers in Teheran urged
Mahommed 'Ali to maintain the constitution, and he sent a
message to the Majlis, promising compliance with its demands
and agreeing to place the whole army under the control of the
ministry of war. These concessions allayed the prevailing
unrest for a time, but the Royalist and Nationalist parties
continued secretly to intrigue against one another, and in
February 1908, while the shah was driving in Teheran, two
bombs were exploded under his motor-car. Two persons were
killed, but the shah was unhurt, and the Majlis formally con-
gratulated him on his escape. A prolonged ministerial crisis,
in April and May, was attributed by the Nationalists to the
influence of reactionary courtiers, and by the Royalists to the
influence of the Anjumans, or political clubs, which were alleged
to control the Nationalist majority in the Majlis. Early in
June the Majlis urged the shah to dismiss the courtiers under
suspicion. Mahommed 'Ali consented, but withdrew from
Teheran; and on his departure the royal bodyguard of so-called
" Cossacks " — Persian soldiers officered by Russians in the
shah's service — at once came into conflict with the Nation-
alists. The house of parliament was bombarded, and when the
Majlis appointed commissioners to discuss terms, the shah
issued a manifesto dissolving the Majlis, and entrusted the
restoration of order in Teheran to military administrators. He
also proposed to substitute for the elected Majlis a council of
forty members, nominated by himself; but under pressure from
Great Britain and Russia he promised to abandon this scheme
and to order another general election. Meanwhile, civil war
had broken out in the provinces; Kurdish raiders had sacked
many villages near Tabriz; Persian brigands had attacked the
Russian frontier-guards on the borders of Transcaucasia, and
the indemnity demanded by the tsar's government was not paid
until several Persian villages had been burned by Russian
troops. This incident, combined with the employment of the
so-called Cossacks, evoked a protest from the Nationalists, who
asserted that Russia was aiding the Royalists; the accusation
was true only in so far as it referred to the conduct of certain
Russian officials who acted without the consent of the Russian
government. Early in 1909, indeed, a Russian force of 2600
men was sent to watch events near Tabriz, and if necessary to
intervene in favour of the Nationalists who held the town, and
had for some months been besieged by the shah's troops. The
presence of the Russians ultimately induced the Royalists to
abandon the siege. In January of the same year the revolution
spread to Isfahan, where the Bakhtiari chiefs made common
cause with the Nationalists, deposed the Royalist governor and
marched on the capital. In May and June the shah issued
proclamations declaring his fidelity to the constitution, and
promising an amnesty to all political offenders; but he was
powerless to stay the advance of the combined Bakhtiari and
Nationalist troops, who entered Teheran on the i3th of July.
After severe street fighting the Cossacks deserted to the rebels,
and the shah took refuge in the Russian legation (July 15).
This was interpreted as an act of abdication; on the same
day the national council met, and chose Mahommed 'Ali's son,
Sultan Ahmad Mirza, aged thirteen, as his successor. Asad
ul-Mulk, head of the Kajar tribe, was appointed regent. On the
9th of September 1909, the ex-shah departed for his place of
exile in the Crimea, escorted by Russian Cossacks and Indian
sowars. On the isth of November a newly elected Majlis was
formally opened by the shah.

246

PERSIA

[LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — I. General: Lord Curzon of Kedleston, Persia
and the Persian Question (London, 1892), contains an account of
European literature relating to Persia (A.D. 900-1901) and numerous
bibliographical notes. See also Lady [M. L.J Shiel, Life and Manners
in Persia (London, 1856); Sir A. H. Layard, Early Adventures in
Persia (London, 1887); S. G. W. Benjamin, Persia and the Persians
(3rd ed., London, 1891); C. E. Yate, Khurasan and Sistan (Edin-
burgh, 1900); H. S. Landor, Across Coveted Lands (London, 1902);
J de Morgan, Mission scientifique (vols. i.-v., 1897-1904); N.
Malcolm, Five Years in a Persian Town (Yezd) (London, 1905);
A. V. W. Jackson, Persia, Past and Present (London, 1906) ; E. C.
Williams, Across Persia (London, 1907). The works of James
Morier (q.v.), especially his Adventures of Hajji Baba of Ispahan,
throw much light on Persian society in the early years of the
igth century.

2. History: Sir J. Malcolm, History of Persia (2nd ed., London,
1829); R. G. Watson, A History of Persia from the Beginning of
the Nineteenth Century (London, 1873) ; Sir C. R. Markham, A General
Sketch of the History of Persia (London, 1874), and Curzon, as quoted
above, are the standard authorities on modern Persian history.
The Travels of Pedro Teixeira (London, 1902) and other publications
of the Hakluyt Society relating to Persia are also of great historical
value. For more recent events see the reports of the Gleadowe-
Newcomen and MacMahon missions: E. G. Browne, The Persian
Revolution of /poj-op (London, loio); A. Hamilton, Problems of the
Middle East (London, 1909) ; V. Chirol, The Middle Eastern Question
(London, 1904) ; E. <C. Williams, Across Persia (London, 1907).
The commercial convention of 1903 is given in Treaty series,
No. 10 (London, 1903), the Russo-British convention in Treaty
series, No. 34 (London, 1907). Other official publications of his-
torical importance are the annual British F. O. reports, and the
U.S. Consular Reports.

LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

I. Persian (Iranian) Languages. — Under the name of Persian
is included the whole of that great family of languages occupying
a field nearly coincident with the modern Iran, of which true
Persian is simply the western division. It is therefore common
and more correct to speak of the Iranian family. The original
native name of the race which spoke these tongues was Aryan.
King Darius is called on an inscription " a Persian, son of a
Persian, an Aryan of Aryan race "; and the followers of the
Zoroastrian religion in their earliest records never give themselves
any other title but Alryaw danghavo, that is to say, " Aryan
races." The province of the Iranian language is bounded on
the west by the Semitic, on the north and north-east by the
Ural-altaic or Turanian, and on the south-east by the kindred
language of India.

The Iranian languages form one of the great branches of the
Indo-European stem, first recognized as such by Sir William

Jones and Friedrich Schlegel. The Indo-European
. or Indo-Germanic languages are divided by Brug-

mann into (i) Aryan, with sub-branches (a) Indian,
(6) Iranian; (2) Armenian; (3) Greek; (4) Albanian; (5) Italic;
(6) Celtic; (7) Germanic, with sub-branches (a) Gothic, (6)
Scandinavian, (c) West Germanic; and (8) Balto-Slavonic.
(See INDO-EUROPEAN.) The Aryan family (called by Professor
Sievers the " Asiatic base-language ") is subdivided into (i)
Iranian (Eranian, or Erano-Aryan) languages, (2) Pisacha, or
non-Sanskritic Indo- Aryan languages, (3) Indo- Aryan, or Sans-
kritic Indo-Aryan languages (for the last two see INDO-ARYAN) ;
Iranian being also grouped into Persian and non-Persian.

The common characteristics of all Iranian languages, which
distinguish them especially from Sanskrit, are as follows: —

1. Changes of the original i into the spirant h. Thus —

Sanskrit. Zend. Old Persian. New Persian.

sindhu (Indus) hindu hindu hind

sarva (all) haurva haruva har

sama (whole) hama hama ham

santi (sunt) henti hantiy hend.

2. Change of the original aspirates gh, ah, bh ( = \, 9, <t>) into the
corresponding medials —

Sanskrit. Zend. Old Persian. New Persian.

bhumi (earth) bumi bum! bum

dhita (SerAs) data data dad

gharma (heat) garema garma garm.

3. k, t, p before a consonant are changed into the spirants kh,
th,f—

Sanskrit. Zend. Old Persian. New Persian.

prathama (first) fratema fratama fradum (Parsi)

kratu (insight) khratu .... khirad.

4. The development of soft sibilants —

Sanskrit. Zend. Old Persian. New Persian.

Asuro Medhas1 Ahuro Mazdao Auramazda Ormuzd
bahu (arm) bazu .... bazu

hima (hiems) zima zim.

Our knowledge of the Iranian languages in older periods is too
fragmentary to allow of pur giving a complete account of this family
and of its special historical development. It will be sufficient here
to distinguish the main types of the older and the more recent
periods. From antiquity we have sufficient knowledge of two
dialects, the first belonging to eastern Iran, the second to western.

I. Zend or Old Bactrian. — Neither of these two titles is well
chosen. The name Old Bactrian suggests that the language was
limited to the small district of Bactna, or at least that
it was spoken 'there — which is, at the most, only an
hypothesis. Zend, again (originally azaintish), is not the name of
a language, as Anquetil Duperron supposed, but means " inter-
pretation " or " explanation," and is specially applied to the
medieval Pahlavi translation of the Avesia. Our " Zend-Avesta "
does not mean the Avesta in the Zend language, but is an incorrect
transcription of the original expression " Avistak va zand," i.e.
" the holy text (Avesta) together with the translation." But,
since we still lack sure data to fix the home of this language with
any certainty, the convenient name of Zend has become generally
established in Europe, and may be provisionally retained. But the
home of the Zend language was certainly in eastern Iran; all
attempts to seek it farther west — e.g. in Media * — must be regarded
as failures.

Zend is the language of the so-called Avesta,3 the holy book of
the Persians, containing the oldest documents of the religion of
Zoroaster. Besides this important monument, which is about
twice as large as the Iliad and Odyssey put together, we only possess
very scanty relics of the Zend language in medieval glosses and
scattered quotations in Pahlavi books. These remains, however,
suffice to give a complete insight into the structure of the language.
Not only amongst Iranian languages, but amongst all the languages
of the Indo-European group, Zend takes one of the very highest
places in importance for the comparative philologist. In age it
almost rivals Sanskrit; in primitiveness it surpasses that language
in many points; it is inferior only in respect of its less extensive
literature, and because it has not been made the subject of system-
atic grammatical treatment. The age of Zend must be examined
in connexion with the age of the Avesta. In its present form the
Avesta is not the work of a single author or of any one age, but
embraces collections produced during a long period. The view
Wbich became current through Anquetil Duperron, that the Avesta
is throughout the work of Zoroaster (in Zend, Zarathushtra) , the
founder of th& religion, has long been abandoned as untenable.
But the opposite view, that not a single word in the book can lay
claim to the authorship of Zoroaster, also appears on closer study
too sweeping. In the Avesta two stages of the language are plainly
distinguishable. The older is represented in but a small part of
the whole work, the so-called Gathas or songs. These songs form
the true kernel of the book Yasna;4 they must have been in exist-
ence long before all the other parts of the Avesta, throughout the
whole of which allusions to them occur. These gathas are what
they claim to be, and what they are honoured in the whole Avesta
as being — the actual productions of the prophet himself or of his
time. They bear in themselves irrefutable proof s of their authen-
ticity, bringing us face to face not with the Zoroaster of the legends
but with a real person, announcing a new doctrine and way of
salvation, no supernatural Being assured of victory, but a mere
man, struggling with human conflicts of every sort, in the midst of
a society of fellow-believers yet in its earliest infancy. It is almost
impossible that a much later period could have produced such
unpretentious and almost depreciatory representations of the deeds
and personality of the prophet. If, then, the gathas reach back
to the time of Zoroaster, and he himself, according to the most
probable estimate, lived as early as the 141(1 century B.C., the oldest
component parts of the Avesta are hardly inferior in age to the
oldest Vedic hymns. The gathas are still extremely rough in style
and expression ; the language is richer in forms than the more recent
Zend; and the vocabulary shows important differences. The pre-
dominance of the long vowels is a marked characteristic, the
constant appearance of a long final vowel contrasting with the
preference tor a final short in the later speech.

1 Name of the supreme god of the Persians.

1 Cf. I. Darmesteter, £tudes iraniennes, i. 10 (Paris, 1883).

3 This, and not Zend-Avesta, is the correct title for the original
text of the Persian Bible. The origin of the word is doubtful,
and we cannot point to it before the time of the Sassanians. Perhaps
it means " announcement," " revelation."

* The Avesia is divided into three parts: (i) Yasna, with an
appendix, Visparad, a collection of prayers and forms for divine
service; (2) Vendidad, containing directions for purification and
the penal code of the ancient Persians; (3) Khordah-Avesta, or the
Small Avesta, containing the Yasht, the contents of which are for the
most part mythological, with shorter prayers for private devotion.

LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE]

PERSIA

247

Sanskrit. Gatha . Later Zend.

abhi (near) aibl aiwi

Iha (work) Izha Izha.

The clearest evidence of the extreme age of the language of the
gathas is its striking resemblance to the oldest Sanskrit, the language
of the Vedic poems. The gatha language (much more than the
later Zend) and the language of the Vedas have a close resemblance,
exceeding that of any two Romanic languages; they seem hardly
more than two dialects of one tongue. Whole strophes of the
gathas can be turned into good old Sanskrit by the application of
certain phonetic laws; for example —

" mat yao padaish ya frasruta Izhayao
pairijasai mazda ustanazasto
at vao asha aredrahyaca nemangha
at vao vangehush manangho hunaretata,"
becomes in Sanskrit —

" mana vah padaih ya pracruta ihayah
parigachai medha uttanahastah
at va rtena radhrasyaca namasa
at vo vasor manasah sunrtaya." *

The language of the other parts of the Avesta is more modern,
but not all of one date, so that we can follow the gradual decline
of Zend in the Avesta itself. The later the date of a text, the
simpler is the grammar, the more lax the use of the cases. We
have no chronological points by which to fix the date when Zend
ceased to be a living language; no part of the Avesta can well be
put later than the 5th or 4th century B.C. Before Alexander's
time it is said to have been already written out on dressed cowhides
and preserved in the state archives at Persepolis.

The followers of Zoroaster soon ceased to understand Zend. For
this reason all that time had spared of the Avesla was translated
into Middle Persian or PAHLAVI (q.v.) under the Sassanians. This
translation, though still regarded as canonical by the Parsees, shows
a very imperfect knowledge of the original language. Its value
for modern philology has been the subject of much needless contro-
versy amongst European scholars. It is only a secondary means
towards the comprehension of the ancient text, and must be used
with discrimination. A logical system of comparative exegesis,
aided by constant reference to Sanskrit, its nearest ally, and to the
other Iranian dialects, is the best means of recovering the lost
sense of the Zend texts.

The phonetic system of Zend consists of simple signs which
express the different shades of sound in the language with great
precision. In the vowel-system a notable feature is the presence
of the short vowels e and o, which are not found in Sanskrit and
Old Persian; thus the Sanskrit santi, Old Persian hantiy, becomes
henti in Zend. The use of the vowels is complicated by a tendency
to combinations of vowels and to epenthesis, i.e. the transposition
of weak vowels into the next syllable; e.g. Sanskrit bharati, Zend
baraiti (he carries) ; Old Persian margu, Zend mourva (Merv) ;
Sanskrit rinakfi, Zend irinakhti. Triphthongs are not uncommon,
e.g. Sanskrit a<pebhyas (dative plural of aqua, a horse) is in Zend
aspaeibyo ; Sanskrit krnoti (he does), Zend kerenaoiti. Zend has
also a great tendency to insert irrational vowels, especially near
liquids; owing to this the words seem rather inflated; e.g. savya
(on the left) becomes in Zend havaya ; bhrajati (it glitters), Zend
barazaiti; gna (ywfi), Zend genii. In the consonantal system we
are struck by the abundance of sibilants (s and sh, in three forms
of modification, z and zh) and nasals (five in number), and by the
complete absence of /. A characteristic phonetic change is that of
rt into sh; e.g. Zend asha for Sanskrit rla, Old Persian aria, (in
Artaxerxes) ; fravashi for Pahlavl fravardin, New Persian ferver
(the spirits of the dead). The verb displays a like abundance of
primary forms with Sanskrit, but the conjugation by periphrasis
is only slightly developed. The noun has the same eight cases
as in Sanskrit. In the gathas there is a special ablative, limited, as
in Sanskrit, to the " a " stems, whilst in later Zend the ablative is
extended to all the stems indifferently.

We do not know in what character Zend was written before the
time of Alexander. From the Sassanian period we find an alpha-
betic and very legible character in use, derived from Sassanian
Pahlavi, and closely resembling the younger Pahlavi found in books.
The oldest known manuscripts are of the I4th century A.D.2

Although the existence of the Zend language was known to the
Oxford scholar Thomas Hyde, the Frenchman Anquetil Duperron,
who went to the East Indies in 1755 to visit the Parsee priests, was
the first to draw the attention of the learned world to the subject.
Scientific study of Zend texts began with E. Burnouf, and has

1 " With verses of my making, which are now heard, and with
prayerful hands, I come before thee, Mazda, and with the sincere
humility of the upright man and with the believer's song of praise."

2 Grammars by F. Spiegel (Leipzig, 1867) and A. V. W. Jackson
(Stuttgart, 1892); Dictionary by F. Justi (Leipzig, 1864); editions
of the Avesta by N. L. Westergaard (Copenhagen, 1852) and C. F.
Geldner (Stuttgart, 1886^-1895; also in English); translation into
German by Spiegel (Leipzig, 1852), and into English by Darmesteter
(Oxford, 1880) in Max M tiller's Sacred Books of the East.

since then made rapid strides, especially since the Vedas have
opened to us a knowledge of the oldest Sanskrit.

2. Old Persian. — This is the language of the ancient Persians
properly so-called,3 in all probability the mother-tongue of Middle
Persian of the Pahlavi texts, and of New Persian. We QUPerslsa
know Old Persian from the rock-inscriptions of the
Achaemenians, now fully deciphered. Most of them, and these
the longest, date from the time of Darius, but we have speci-
mens as late as Artaxerxes Ochus. In the latest inscriptions the
language is already much degraded; but on the whole it is almost
as antique as Zend, with which it has many points in common.
For instance, if we take a sentence from an inscription of Darius
as —

" Auramazda hya imam bumim ada hya avam asmanam ada hya
martiyam ada hya siyatim ada martiyahya hya Darayavaum
khshayathiyam akunaush aivam paruvnam khshayathiyam,"

it would be in Zend —

" Ahuro mazdao yo imam bumim ada{ yo aom asmanem ada£ yo
mashim ada£ yo shaitim adut mashyahe yo darayatvohum khshaetem
akerenaot oyum pourunam khshaetem."4

The phonetic system in Old Persian is much simpler than in
Zend; we reckon twenty-four letters in all. The short vowels e,
o are wanting; in their place the old " a " sound still appears as
in Sanskrit, e.g. Zend bagem, Old Persian bagam, Sanskrit bhagam;
Old Persian hamarana, Zend hamerena, Sanskrit samarana. As
regards consonants, it is noticeable that the older z (soft s) still
preserved in Zend passes into d — a rule that still holds in New
Persian ; compare —

Sanskrit. Zend. Old Persian. New Persian.

hasta (hand) zasta dasta dast

jrayas (sea) zrayo daraya darya

aham (I) azem adam . . .

Also Old Persian has no special /. Final consonants are almost
entirely wanting. In this respect Old Persian goes much farther
than the kindred idioms, e.g. Old Persian abara, Sanskrit abharat,
Zend abarat, t<t>tpt: nominative baga, root-form baga-s, Sanskrit
bhagas. The differences in declension between Old Persian and
Zend are unimportant.

Old Persian inscriptions are written in the cuneiform character
of the simplest form, known as the " first class." Most of the
inscriptions have besides two translations into the more compli-
cated kinds of cuneiform character of two other languages of the
Persian Empire. One of these is the Assyrian; the real nature of
the second is still a mystery. The interpretation of the Persian
cuneiform, the character and dialect of which were equally
unknown, was begun by G. F. Grotefend, who was followed by
E. Burnouf, Sir Henry Rawlinson and J. Oppert. The ancient
Persian inscriptions have been collected in a Latin translation
with grammar and glossaries by F. Spiegel (Leipzig, 1862; new and
enlarged ed., 1881). The other ancient tongues and dialects of
this family are known only by name; we read of peculiar idioms
in Sogdiana, Zabulistan, Herat, &c. It is doubtful whether the
languages of the Scythians, the Lycians and the Lydians, of which
hardly anything remains, were Iranian or not.

After the fall of the Achaemenians there is a period of five
centuries, from which no document of the Persian language has
come down to us.

Under the Arsacids Persian nationality rapidly declined; all that
remains to us from that period — namely, the inscriptions on coina
— is in the Greek tongue. Only towards the end of the Parthian
dynasty and after the rise of the Sassanians, under whom the national
traditions were again cultivated in Persia, do we recover the lost
traces of the Persian language in the Pahlavi inscriptions and
literature.

3. Middle Persian. — The singular phenomena presented by
Pahlavi writing have been discussed in a separate article (see
PAHLAVI). The languages which it disguises rather middle
than expresses — Middle Persian, as we may call it — Persian.
presents many changes as compared with the Old Persian

of the Achaemenians. The abundant grammatical forms of the
ancient language are much reduced in number; the case-ending
is lost ; the noun has only two inflexions, the singular and the plural ;
the cases are expressed by prepositions— e.g. ruban (the soul), nom.
and ace. sing., plur. rubanan; dat. val or avo ruban, abl. min or az
ruban. Even distinctive forms for gender are entirely abandoned,
e.g. the pronoun avo signifies " he," " she," " it." In the verb
compound forms predominate. In this respect Middle Persian
is almost exactly similar to New Persian.

3 And perhaps of the Medes. Although we have no record of
the Median language we cannot regard it as differing to any great
extent from the Persian. The Medes and Persians were two
closely-connected races. There is nothing to justify us in looking
for the true Median language either in the cuneiform writings of
the second class or in Zend.

4 " Ormuzd, who created this earth and that heaven, who created
man and man's dwelling-place, who made Darius king, the one and
only king of many."

248

PERSIA

[LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

4. New Persian. — The last step in the development of the
language is New Persian, represented in its oldest form by Firdousi.
... In grammatical forms it is still poorer than Middle

'*". Persian; except English, no Indo-European language

has so few inflexions, but this is made up for by the
subtle development of the syntax. The structure of New Persian
has hardly altered at all since the Shdhndma; but the original
purism of Firdousi, who made every effort to keep the language
free from Semitic admixture, could not long be maintained. Arabic
literature and speech exercised so powerful an influence on New
Persian, especially on the written language, that it could not
withstand the admission of an immense number of Semitic words.
There is no Arabic word which would be refused acceptance in
good Persian. But, nevertheless, New Persian has remained a
language of genuine Iranian stock.

Among the changes of the sound system in New Persian, as
contrasted with earlier periods, especially with Old Persian, the
first that claims mention is the change of the tenues k, t,p, c, into
g, d, b, z. Thus we have —

Old Persian or Zend. Pahlam. New Persian.

mahrka (death) mark marg

Thraetaona Fritun Feridun

ap (water) ap ab

hvato (self) khot khod

raucah (day) roj ruz

haca . aj az.

A series of consonants often disappear in the spirant ; thus —
Old Persian or Zend. Pahlam. New Persian.

kaufa (mountain) kof koh

gathu (place), Z. gatu gas gah

cathware (four) .... cihar

bandaka (slave) bandak bandah

spada (army) .... sipah

dadami (I give) .... diham.

Old d and dh frequently become y —
Old Persian or_Zend. Pahlam. New Persian.

madhu (wine) mai

baodho (consciousness) bod boi

padha (foot) .... pai

kadha (when) .... icai.

Old y often appears as j/: Zend yama (glass), New Persian jam;
yavan (a youth), New Persian javan. Two consonants are not
allowed to stand together at the beginning of a word ; hence vowels
are frequently inserted or prefixed, e.g. New Persian sitadan or
istadan (to stand), root sta; biradar (brother), Zend and Pahlavl
bratar.1

Amongst modern languages and dialects other than Persian which
must be also assigned to the Iranian family may be
mentioned : —

1. Kurdish, a language nearly akin to New Persian,
with which it has important characteristics in common. It is
chiefly distinguished from it by a marked tendency to shorten
words at all costs, e.g. Kurd, bera (brother) = New Persian biradar;
Kurd, dim (I give) = New Persian diham; Kurd, spl (white) = New
Persian siped.

2. Baluch, the language of Baluchistan, also very closely akin
to New Persian, but especially distinguished from it in that all
the old spirants are changed into explosives, e.g. Baluch vab (sleep)
= Zend hvafna; Baluch kap (slime) = Zend kafa, New Persian kaf;
Baluch hapt (seven) = New Persian haft.

3. Ossetic, true Iranian, in spite of its resemblance in sound to
the Georgian.2

4. Pushtu (less accurately Afghan), which has certainly been
increasingly influenced by the neighbouring Indian languages in
inflexion, syntax and vocabulary, but is still at bottom a pure
Iranian language, not merely intermediate between Iranian and
Indian.

The position of Armenian remains doubtful. Some scholars
attribute it to the Iranian family; others prefer to regard it as a
separate and independent member of the Indo-European group.
Many words that at first sight seem to prove its Iranian origin are
only adopted from the Persian.' (K. G.)

II. Modern Persian Literature. — Persian historians are greatly
at variance about the origin of their national poetry. Most of
them go back to the sth Christian century and ascribe to one
of the Sassanian kings, Bahrain V. (420-439), the invention of

1 Grammars of New Persian, by M. Lumsden (Calcutta, 1810)
A. B. Chodzko (Paris, 1852; new ed., 1883), D. Forbes (1869),
J. A. Vullers (Giessen, 1870), A. Wahrmund (Giessen, 1875), C.
Salemann and V. Zhukovski (Leipzig, 1889); J. T. Platts
fat. i. 1984). For the New Persian dialects see Fr. Muller, in the
Sitzungsber. der wien. Akad., vols. Ixxvii., Ixxviii.

1 Cf . Hiibschmann, in Kuhn's Zeitschrift, xxiv. 396.

'Cf. P. de Lagarde, Armenische Studien (Gottingen, 1877)-
H. Hiibschmann, Armenische Studien (Leipzig, 1883).

metre and rhyme; others mention as author of the first Persian
poem a certain Abulhaf§ of Soghd, near Samarkand. In point
of fact, there is no doubt that the later Sassanian rulers fostered
the literary spirit of their nation (see PAHLAVI). Pahlavl books,
however, fall outside of the present subject, which k the literature
of the idiom which shaped itself out of the older Persian speech
by slight modifications and a steadily increasing mixture of
Arabic words and phrases in the 9th and loth centuries of our
era, and which in all essential respects has remained the same
for the last thousand years. The death of Harun al-Rashid in
the beginning of the Qth century, which marks the commence-
ment of the decline of the caliphate, was at the same time the
starting-point of movements for national independence and a
national literature in the Iranian dominion, and the common
cradle of the two was in the province of Khorasan, between the
Oxus and the Jaxartes. In Merv, a Khorasanian town, a certain
'Abbas composed in 809 A.D. (193 A.H ), according to the oldest
biographical writer of Persia, Mahommed 'Aufi, the Earliest
first real poem hi modern Persian, in honour of the Modern
Abbasid prince Mamun, Harun al-Rashld's son, who Peniaa
had himself a strong predilection for Persia, his Poet>
mother's native country, and was, moreover, thoroughly imbued
with the freethinking spirit of his age. Soon after this, in 820
(205 A.H.), Tahir, who aided Mamun to wrest the caliphate from
his brother Amin, succeeded in establishing the first semi-
independent Persian dynasty in Khorasan, which was overthrown
in 872 (259 A.H.) by the Saffarids.

The development of Persian poetry under these first native
dynasties was slow. Arabic language and literature had gained
too firm a footing to be supplanted at once by a new literary
idiom still in its infancy; nevertheless the few poets who arose
under the fahirids and Saffarids show already the germs of the
characteristic tendency of all later Persian literature, which
aims at amalgamating the enforced spirit of Islamism with their
own Aryan feelings, and reconciling the strict deism of the
Mahommedan religion with their inborn loftier and more or less
pantheistic ideas; and we can easily trace in the few fragmentary
verses of men like Hanzala, Hakim Firuz and Abu Salik those
principal forms of poetry now used in common by forms of
all Mahommedan nations — the forms of the qa$ida Eastern
(the encomiastic, elegiac or satirical poem), the Pottry-
ghazol or ode (a love-ditty, wine-song or religious hymn), the
rubd't or quatrain (our epigram, for which the Persians invented
a new metre in addition to those adopted from the Arabs), and
the mathnawi or double-rhymed poem (the legitimate form for
epic and didactic poetry). The first who wrote such a mathnawi
was Abu Shukur of Balkh, the oldest literary representative of
the third dynasty of Khorasan, the Samanids, who had been able
in the course of time to dethrone the Saffarids, and to secure the
government of Persia, nominally still under the supremacy of
the caliphs in Bagdad, but in fact with full sovereignty. The
undisputed reign of this family dates from the accession of Amir
Nasr II. ^913-942; 301-331 A.H.), who, more than any of his
predecessors, patronized arts and sciences in his dominions.
The most accomplished minstrels of his time were minstrels
Mahommed Faraladl (or Faralawl); Abu '!-' Abbas oftotb
of Bokhara, a writer of very tender verses; Abu Century.
'1-Muzaffar Nasr of Nlshapur; Abu 'Abdallah Mahommed of
Junaid, equally renowned for his Arabic and Persian poetry;
Ma'nawl of Bokhara, full of original thoughts and spiritual
subtleties; Khusrawa.nl, from whom even Firdousi condescended
to borrow quotations; Abu '1-Hasan Shahid of Balkh, the first
who made a dlwan or alphabetical collection of his lyrics; and
RudagI (or Rudakl), the first classic genius of Persia, who im-
pressed upon every form of lyric and didactic poetry its peculiar
stamp and individual character (see RUDAGI). His graceful and
captivating style was imitated by Hakim Khabbaz of Nlshapur,
a great baker, poet and quack; Abu Shu'aib Salih of Herat, who
left a spirited little song in honour of a young Christian maiden ;
RaunaqI of Bokhara; Abu'1-Fath of Bust, who was also a good
Arabic poet; the amir Abu '1-Hasan 'AH Alagatchl, who handled
the pen as skilfully as the sword; 'Umara of Merv, a famous

LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE]

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249

- h -

Dakiki.

astronomer; and Kisa'I, a native of the same town, a man of
stern and ascetic manners, who sang in melodious rhythm the
praise of 'All and the twelve imams. All these poets flourished
under the patronage of the Samanid princes, who also fostered
the growing desire of their nation for historical and antiquarian
researches, for exegetical and medical studies. Man§ur I., the
grandson of Rudagi's patron, ordered (963; 352 A.H.) his vizier
to translate the famous universal history of Tabari
(838-923 A.D.) from Arabic into Persian; and this
Ta'rikh-i-Tabari, the oldest prose work in modern
Persian, is not merely remarkable from a philological point of
view, it is also the classic model of an easy and simple style
(French trans, by L. Dubeux and H. Zotenberg, 1867-1874).
The same prince employed the most learned among the ulema
of Transoxiana for a translation of Tabarl's second great
work, the Tafsir, or commentary on the Koran, and accepted
the dedication of the first Persian book on medicine, a pharma-
copoeia by the physician Abu Man§ur Muwaffaq b. 'All of
Herat (edited by Seligmann, Vienna, 1859), which forms a kind
of connecting link between Greek and Indian medicine. It was
soon after further developed by the great Avicenna (d. 1037;
428 A.H.), himself a Persian by birth and author of pretty wine-
songs, moral maxims, psychological tracts, and a manual
of philosophic science, the Ddnishndma-i-Ald'l, in his native
tongue.

A still greater impulse was given, both to the patriotic feelings
and the national poetry of the Persians, by Man§ur's son and suc-
cessor, Prince Nuh II., who ascended the throne in 976 (365
A.H.). Full of enthusiasm for the glorious past of the old
Iranian kingdom, he charged his court poet Daklki (Daqiqi),
who openly professed in his ghazals the Zoroastrian
creed, to turn the Khodd'indma, or " Book of Kings,"
into Persian verse. Shortly after commencing this work Dakiki
was murdered in the prime of life; his death was soon followed
by the fall of the Samanid dynasty itself. But Daklkl's great
enterprise was not abandoned; a stronger hand, a higher genius,
was to continue and to complete it, and this genius was found
. in Firdousi (940-1020; 328-411 A.H.), with whom we
enter the golden age of the national epopee in Persia
(see FIRDOUSI). In ion, after thirty-five years of unremitting
labour, he accomplished his gigantic task, and wrote the last dis-
tichs of the immortal Shahndma, that " glorious monument of
Eastern genius and learning," as Sir W. Jones calls it, " which, if
ever it should be generally understood in its original language,
will contest the merit of invention with Homer itself." The Shdh-
imitatioas otndma, from the very moment of its appearance,
the"Shib- exercised such an irresistible fascination upon all
aims." minds that there was soon a keen competition
among the younger poets as to who should produce the
most successful imitation of that classic model; and this competi-
tion has gone on under different forms through all the following
centuries, even to the most recent times. First of all, the old
popular traditions, so far as they had not yet been exhausted
by Firdousi, were ransacked for new epic themes, and a regular
cycle of national epopees gathered round the Book of Kings,
drawn almost exclusively from the archives of the princes of
Sejistan, the family of Firdousl's greatest hero, Rustam. The
first and most ambitious of these competitors seems to have
been Asadi's own son, "All b. Ahmad al-Asadi, the author of
the oldest Persian glossary, who completed in 1066 (458 A.H.),
in upwards of 9000 distichs, the Garshdspndma, or marvellous
story of the warlike feats and love adventures of Garshasp,
one of Rustam's ancestors. The heroic deeds of Rustam's
grandfather were celebrated in the Sdmndma, which almost
equals the Shahndma in length; those of Rustam's two sons, in
the Jahdgairndmaand the Fardmurzndma; those of his daughter,
an amazon, in the Brunhild style of the German Nibelunge, in
the Bdnu Gushdspndma; those of his grandson in the Barsundma;
those of his great-grandson in the Shahriydrndma (ascribed
to Mukhtari and dedicated to Mas'ud Shah, who is probably
identical with Mas'ud b. Ibrahim, Sultan Mahmud's great-
grandson, 1099-1114; 492-508 A.H.) ; and the wonderful exploits

of a son of Isfandiyar, another hero of the Shahndma, in the
Bahmanndma.

When these old Iranian sources were almost exhausted, the
difficulty was met in various ingenious ways. Where some
slight historical records of the heroic age were still obtainable
poetical imagination seized upon them at once; where no tradi-
tions at all were forthcoming fiction pure and simple asserted its
right; and thus the national epopee gave way to the epic story,
and — substituting prose for verse — to the novel and the fairy
tale. Models of the former class are the various Iskandarndmas,
or " Books of Alexander the Great," the oldest and most original
of which is that of Nizami of Ganja, the modern Elizavetpol
(completed about 1202; 599 A.H.); the latter begins with the
KUdb-i-Samak 'lydr, a novel in three volumes (about 1189;
585 A.H.), and reaches its climax in the Bustdn-i-Khaydl,
or " Garden of Imagination," a prose romance of fifteen
large volumes, by Mahommed Taki Khayal, written between
1742 and 1756 (1155 and 1169 A.H.). Some writers, both
in prose and verse, turned from the exhausted fields of the
national glory of Persia, and chose their subjects from the
chivalrous times of their own Bedouin conquerors, or even
from the Jewish legends of the Koran. Of this description are
the Anbiydndma, or history of the pre-Mahommedan prophets,
by HasanI Shabistari 'Ayani (before the 8th century of the
Hegira); Ibn Husam's Khdwarndma (1427; 830 A.H.), of the
deeds of "All; Badhil's Ifamla-i-IJaidari, which was completed
by Najaf (1723; 1135 A.H.), or the life of Mahommed and the
first four caliphs; Kazim's Farahndma-i-Fdtima, the book of
joy of Fatima, Mahomet's daughter (1737; 1150 A.H.) — all four
in the epic metre of the Shahndma; and the prose stories of Ifdtim
?\i't, the famous model of liberality and generosity in pre-
Islamitic times; of Amir Ifamzah, the uncle of Mahomet; and of
the Mu'jizdt-i-Musa'wi, or the miraculous deeds of Moses, by
Mu'in-almiskln (died about 1501; 907 A.H.).

Quite a different turn was taken by the ambition of another
class of imitators of Firdousi, especially during the last four
centuries of the Hegira, who tried to create a new
heroic epopee by celebrating in rhythm and rhyme
stirring events of recent date. The gigantic figure of TImur
inspired Hatifi (d. 1521; 927 A.H.) with his Timurndma; the
stormy epoch of the first Safawid rulers, who succeeded at last
in reuniting for some time the various provinces of the old
Persian realm into one great monarchy, furnished Kasimi (died
after 1560; 967 A.H.)1 with the materials of his Shahndma, a
poetical history of Shah Isma'il and Shah Tahmasp. Another
Shahndma, celebrating Shah 'Abbas the Great, was written by
Kamall of Sabzevar; and even the cruelties of Nadir Shah were
duly chronicled in a pompous epic style in 'Ishratl's Shdhndma-i-
Nddiri (1749; 1162 A.H.). But all these poems are surpassed
in length by the 33,000 distichs of the Shdhinshdhndma by the
poet-laureate of Path "All Shah of Persia (1797-1834), and the
40,000 distichs of the Georgendma, a poetical history of India
from its discovery by the Portuguese to the conquest of Poona
by the English in 1817. In India this kind of epic versifica-
tion has flourished since the beginning of Humayun's reign
(: 53°~1 5 56); e.g. the %afarndma-i-Shdhjahdni byKudsl (d. 1646;
1056 A.H.); the Shdhinshdhndma by Talib Kalim (d. 1651;
1061 A.H.), another panegyrist of Shah Jahan; Atashl's 'Adil-
ndma, in honour of Shah Mahommed 'Adil of Bljapur, who
ascended the throne in 1629 (1039 A.H.) or 1627; the Tawdrlkh-
i-^uli fcutbshdh, a metrical history of the Ku^b shahs of
Golconda; and many more, down to the Fathndma-i-Tipu
Sultan by Ghulam ijasan (1784; 1198 A.H.).

But the national epopee was not the only bequest the great
Firdousi left to his nation. This rich genius gave also the first
impulse to romantic, didactic and mystic poetry; and even his
own age produced powerful co-operators in these three most
conspicuous departments of Persian literature.
Romantic fiction, which achieved its highest triumph p^i"".
in Ni?aml of Ganja's (1141-1203; 535-599 A.H.)
brilliant pictures of the struggles and passions in the human heart

1 After 1572 (979 A.H.) according to H. E. in Grundriss, ii. 237.

250

PERSIA

[LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

(see NIZAMI), sent forth its first tender shoots in the numerous
love stories of the Shahnama, the most fascinating of which is that
of Zal and Rudabeh, and developed almost into full bloom in
Firdousf s second great mathnawl Yusuf u Zalikhd, which the
aged poet wrote after his flight from Ghazni, and dedicated to the
reigning caliph of Bagdad, al Qadir billah. It represents the
oldest poetical treatment of the Biblical story of Joseph, which
has proved so attractive to the epic poets of Persia, among others
to 'Am'ak of Bokhara (d. 1 149), who was the first after Firdousi to
write a Yusuf u Zalikha to Jam! (d. 1492) ; Maujl Kasim Khan,
Humayun's amir (d. 1571), Nazim of Herat (d. 1670),
and Shaukat, the governor of Shlraz under Path "All Shah.
Perhaps prior in date to Firdousl's Yusuf was his patron 'Unsuri's
romance, Wamib u Adhrd, a popular Iranian legend of great
antiquity, which had been first written in verse under the Tahirid
dynasty. This favourite story was treated again by Faslhl
Jurjani (sth century of the Hegira), and by many modern poets —
as Damlrl, who died under the Safawi shah Mahommed (1577-
1586; 985-994 A.H.), Nairn, the historiographer of the Zand
dynasty, and Hosain of Shlraz under Path 'All Shah, the last
two flourishing towards the beginning of the present century.
Another love story of similar antiquity formed the basis of
Fakr-uddm As'ad Jorjani's Wis u Rdmin, which was composed
in Isfahan about 1048 (440 A.H.) — a poem remarkable not only
for its high artistic value but also for its resemblance to Gottfried
von Strassburg's Tristan und Isolt.

The last-named Persian poet was apparently one of the earliest
eulogists of the Seljuks, and it was under this Turkish dynasty
Encomiasts that lyrical romanticism rose to the highest pitch.
and What Firdousi and the court-poets of Sultan Mahmud

Satirists. jjacj commenced, what Abu '1-Faraj Runl of Lahore
and Mas'ud b. Sa'd b. Salman (under Sultan Ibrahim, 1059-
1099) had successfully continued, reached its perfection in the
famous group of panegyrists who gathered in the first half of the
6th century of the Hegira round the throne of Sultan Sinjar,
and partly also round that of his great antagonist, Atsiz, shah of
Khwarizm. This group included Adlb Sabir, who was drowned
by order of the prince in the Oxus about 1145 (540 A.H.), and his
pupil Jauhari, the goldsmith of Bokhara; Amir Mu'izzl, the king
of poets at Sinjar's court, killed by a stray arrow in 1147 (542 A. H.),
Rashid Watwat (the Swallow) who died in 1182 (578 A.H.),
and left, besides his kasldas, a valuable treatise on poetry
(Hodaik-essihr) and a metrical translation of the sentences of
"AH, 'Abd-alwasi' Jabali, who sang at first, like his contem-
porary Hasan Ghaznawl (d. 1169; 565 A.H.), the praise of the
Ghaznevid shah Bahram, but afterwards bestowed his eulogies
upon Sinjar, the conqueror of Ghazni ; and Auhad-uddm Anwari,
the most celebrated kasida-writer of the whole Persian literature.
Anwari (died between 1189 and 1191; 585 and 587 A.H.), who
in early life had pursued scientific studies in the madrasa of Tus,
and who ranked among the foremost astronomers of his time,
owes his renown as much to the inexhaustible store of poetical
similes and epitheta ornantia which he showered upon Sinjar
and other royal and princely personages, as to his cutting sar-
casms, which he was careful to direct, not against individuals,
but against whole classes of society and the cruel wrong worked
by an inexorable fate — thus disregarding the example of
Firdousi, whose attack upon Sultan Mahmud for having cheated
him out of the reward for his epopee is the oldest and most
finished specimen of personal satire. This legitimate branch of
high art, however, soon degenerated either into the lower forms
of parody and travesty — for which, for instance, a whole
group of Transoxanian writers, SuzanI of Samarkand (d. 1174;
569 A.H.) and his contemporaries, Abu 'AH Shatranjl of the same
town, Lami' of Bokhara, and others gained a certain literary
reputation — or into mere comic pieces and jocular poems like
the " Pleasantries " (Hazliyyat) and the humorous stories of the
;' Mouse and Cat " and the " Stone-cutter " (Sangtarash) by
'Ubaid ZakanI (d. 1370; 772 A.H.). Anwari's greatest rival
was Khakanl (d. 1199; 595 A.H.), the son of a carpenter in
Shlrvan, and panegyrist of the shahs of Shlrvan, usually called
the Pindar of the East. To European taste only the shorter

epigrams and the double-rhymed poem TuhfatuTird^ain, in
which Khakani describes his journey to Mecca and back, give
full satisfaction. Among his numerous contemporaries and
followers may be noticed Mujlr-uddln BailakanI (d. 1198;
594 A.H.); Zahir Faryabi (d. 1202; 598 A.H.) and Athlr
Akhslkatl (d. 1211; 608 A.H.) — all three panegyrists of the
atabegs of Azerbaijan, and especially of Sultan Kizil Arslan —
Kamal-uddln IsfahanI, tortured to death by the Moguls in 1237
(635 A.H.), who sang, like his father Jamal-uddin, the praise of
the governors of Isfahan, and gained the epithet of the " creator
of fine thoughts " (Khallak-ulma'anl) ; and Saif-uddln Isfarangi
(d. 1267; 666 A.H.), a favourite of the shahs of Khwarizm.

Fruitful as the 6th and 7th centuries of the Hegira were in
panegyrics, they attained an equally high standard in didactic
and mystic poetry. The origin of both can again Didactic ana
be traced to Firdousi and his time. In the ethical Mystic
reflections, wise maxims and moral exhortations Poet'y-
scattered throughout the Shahnama the didactic element is
plainly visible, and equally plain in it are the traces of that
mystical tendency which was soon to pervade almost all the
literary productions of Persian genius. But the most character-
istic passage of the epopee is the mysterious disappearance of
Shah Kaikhosrau, who suddenly, when at the height of earthly
fame and splendour, renounces the world in utter disgust, and,
carried away by his fervent longing for an abode of everlasting
tranquillity, vanishes for ever from the midst of his companions.
The first Persian who employed poetry exclusively for the
illustration of Suflc doctrines was Firdousl's con- SBf[ p
temporary, the renowned sheikh Abu Sa'Id b. Abu
1-Khair of Mahna in Khorasan (968-1049; 357-440 A.H.), the
founder of that specific form of the ruba'I which gives the most
concise expression to religious and philosophic aphorisms
— a form which was further developed by the great free-
thinker 'OMAR B. KHAYYAM (q.v.), and Afdal-uddln Klash
(d. 1307; 707 A.H.). The year of Abu Sa'ld's death is most
likely that of the first great didactic mathnawl, the Rushan.
a'indma, or " Book of Enlightenment," by NASIR KHOSRAU
(q.v.), a poem full of sound moral and ethical maxims with
slightly mystical tendencies. About twenty-five years later the
first theoretical handbook of Sufism in Persian was composed by
'All b. 'Uthman al-Jullabl al-Hujwm in the Kashf-ulmahjub, or,
" Revelation of Hidden Things," which treats of the various
schools of Sufis, their teachings and observances. A great saint
of the same period, Sheikh 'Abdallah Ansari of Herat (1006-
1089; 396-481 A.H.), assisted in spreading the pantheistic move-
ment by his Mundjdt or " Invocations to God," by several prose
tracts, and by an important collection of biographies of eminent
Sufis, based on an older Arabic compilation, and serving in its
turn as groundwork for Jaml's excellent Nafahdt-aluns (completed
in 1478; 883 A.H.). He thus paved the way for the publication
of one of the earliest textbooks of the whole sect, the fladifcat-
ulhakikat, or "Garden of Truth" (1130; 525 A.H.), by Hakim
Sana'I of Ghazni, to whom all the later Suflc poets refer as their
unrivalled master in spiritual knowledge. As the most uncom-
promising Sufis appear the greatest pantheistic writer of all ages,
Jelal ud-dln Ruml (1207-1273; 604-672 A.H.; see RUMI), and
his scarcely less renowned predecessor Farid ud-dln 'Attar, who
was slain by the Moguls at the age of 114 lunar years in 1230
(627 A.H.). This prolific writer, having performed the pilgrim-
age to Mecca, devoted himself to a stern ascetic life, and to the
composition of Suflc works, partly in prose, as in his valuable
" Biography of Eminent Mystic Divines," but mostly in the form
of mathnawls (upwards of twenty in number), among which the
Pandnama, or " Book of Counsels," and the Manlik-uttair, or
the "Speeches of Birds," occupy the first rank. In the latter,
an allegorical poem, interspersed w,ith moral tales and pious
contemplations, the final absorption of the Sufi in the deity is
most ingeniously illustrated.

In strong contrast to these advanced Sufis stands the greatest
moral teacher of Persia, Sheikh Sa'dl of Shlraz (died about no
lunar years old in 1292; 691 A.H.; see SA'DI), whose two
best known works are the Bustan, or " Fruit-garden," and

PERSIA

251

Sa'di.

the Gulistan, or " Rose-garden." However, both have found
comparatively few imitations — the former in the Dasturndma,
or " Book of Exemplars," of Nizari of Kohistan
(d. 1320; 720 A.H.), in the Dah Bab, or
" Ten Letters," of KatibI (d. 1434; 838 A.H.), and in the
Gulzar, or " Rose-bower," of Hairati (murdered 1554;
961 A.H.); the latter in Mu'In-uddln Juwaini's Nigdristdn, or
"Picture-gallery" (1335; 735 A.H.) and Jami's Bahdristdn, or
"Spring-garden" (1487; 892 A.H.); whereas an innumerable
host of purely Suflc compositions followed in the wake of
Sana'I's, 'Attar's and Jelal ud-dln Rumi's mathnawis. It will
suffice to name a few of the most conspicuous. The
Lama'a{> or " Sparks," of 'Iraki (d. between 1287 and
1309; 686 and 709 A.H.),' the Zdd-ulmusdfirin, or
" Store of the Wayfarers," by Husaini (d. 1318; 718 A.H.), the
Gulshan-i-Raz, or " Rose-bed of Mystery," by Mahmud Shabis-
tarl (d. 1320; 720 A.H.), the Jam-i-Jam, or ' Cup of Jamshid,"
by AuhadI (d. 1338; 738 A.H.), the Anls-id 'Arifin, or "Friend
of the Mystics," by Kasim (Qasim)-i-Anwar (d. 1434; 837 A.H.),
and others; 'Assarts Mihr u Mushtarl, or " Sun and Jupiter "
(J376; 778 A.H.), 'Arifl's Gui u Chaugdn, or "The Ball and the
Bat " (1438; 842 A.H.), tfusn u Dil, or " Beauty and Heart,"
by Fattahl of Nlshapur(d. 1448; 852 A.H.), Sham' u Parwdna, or
" The Candle and the Moth," by Ahli of Shlraz (1489; 894 A.H.),
Shah u Gada, or " King and Dervish," by Hilali (put to death
IS32! 939 A.H.), Baha-ud-dm 'Amili's (d. 1621; 1030 A.H.)
Nan u Halwd, or " Bread and Sweets," Shir u Shakar, or " Milk.
and Sugar," and many more.

During all these periods of literary activity, lyric poetry, pure
and simple, had by no means been neglected; almost all the
L ric Poetry renowned poets since the time of Rudagi had sung in
' endless strains the pleasures of love and wine, the
beauties of nature, and the almighty power of the Creator; but
it was left to the incomparable genius of Hafiz (d. 1389; 791 A.H.;
see IjAFii) to give to the world the most perfect models of lyric
composition; and the lines he had laid down were more or less
strictly followed by all the ghazal-writers of the Qth
writers" an<^ Iot'1 centuries °f the Hegira — by Salman of Sawa
(d. about 1377; 779 A.H.), who excelled besides in
kaslda and mathnawi; Kamal Khujandl (d. 1400; 803 A.H.),
jjafiz's friend, and protege of Sultan Hosain (1374-1382 A.D.);
Mahommed Shlrln MaghribI (d. at Tabriz in 1406; 809 A.H.), an
intimate friend of Kamal; Ni'mat-ullah Wall (d. 1431; 834 A.H.),
the founder of a special religious order; Kasim-i-Anwar (see
above); Amir Shahl (d. 1453; 857 A.H.), of the princely family
of the Sarbadars of Sabzewar; Banna'I (d. 1512; 918 A.H.),
who also wrote a romantic poem, Bahrdm u Bihruz; Baba
FighanI of Shlraz (d. 1519; 925 A.H.), usually called the " Little
Hafiz "; Nargisi (d. 1531; 938 A.H.); Lisanl (d. 1534; 941 A.H.),
who himself was imitated by Damiri of Isfahan, Muhtasham
Kashl and WahshI Bafiki (all three died in the last decade of the
loth century of the Hegira); Ahli of Shlraz (d. 1535; 942 A.H.),
author of the Sihr-i-tfaldl, or "Lawful Witchcraft," which, like
Katibl's (d. 1434; 838 A.H.) Majma'-ulbahrain, of the "Con-
fluence of the Two Seas," can be read in two different metres;
Nau'I (d. 1610; 1019 A.H.), who wrote the charming romance of
a Hindu princess who burned herself in Akbar's reign with her
deceased husband on the funeral pile, called Suz u Guddz, or
" Burning and Melting," &c. Among the immediate predeces-
sors of Hafiz in the 8th century of the Hegira, in which also Ibn
Yamin, the great kit'a-writer,1 flourished, the highest fame was
gained by the two poets of Delhi, Amir Hasan and Amir Khosrau.
The latter, who died in 1325 (725 A.H.), two years before his
friend Hasan, occupies the foremost place among all the Persian
poets of India by the richness of his imagination, his graphic
style, and the historical interest attached to his writings. Five
extensive dlwans testify to his versatility in all branches of lyric
poetry, and nine large mathnawis to his mastership in the epic
line. Four of the latter are poetical accounts of the reigns of

1 A kit'a or mukatta'a is a poem containing moral reflections, and
differs from the Ifasida and ghazal only by the absence of a ma^la'
or initial distich.

the emperors of Delhi, 'Ala-uddin Khilji (1296-1316), his pre-
decessor Feroz Shah and his successor Kutb-uddln Mubarek
Shah — the Miftah-ulfuttth, or " Key of Victories," the Kiran-
ussa'dain, or " The Conjunction of the Two Lucky Planets,"
the Nuh Sipihr, or " Nine Spheres," and the love-story of
Khidrkhdn u Duwalrdni. His other five mathnawis formed the
first attempt ever made to imitate Nizami's famous Khamsah,
or five romantic epopees, and this attempt turned out so well that
henceforth almost all epic poets wrote quintuples of a similar
description. Khwaju Kirmani (d. 1352; 753 A.H.) was the next
aspirant to Nizami's fame, with five mathnawis, among which
Humdi u Humdyun is the most popular, but he had to yield the
palm to 'Abd-urrahman Jam! (1414-1492; 817-898 A.H.), the
last classic poet of Persia, in whose genius were
summed up all the best qualities of his great prede-
cessors. Many poets followed in Jami's footsteps,
first of all his nephew Ha,tifl (see above), and either wrote whole
khamsahs or imitated at least one or other of Nizami's epopees;
thus we have a Laild u Majnun, for instance, by Maktabi (1490),
Hilali (see above), and Ruh-ulamln (d. 1637). But their
efforts could not stop the growing corruption of taste, and it was
only at the court of the Mogul emperors, particularly of the
great Akbar (1556-1605), who revived Sultan Mahmud's " round
table," that Persian literature still enjoyed some kind of " Indian
summer " in poets like Ghazall of Mashhad or Meshed
(d. 1572); 'Urfl of Shlraz (d. 1591), who wrote spirited kasidas,
and, like his contemporaries WahshI and Kauthari, a mathnawi,
Farhdd u Shlrln; and Faidi (d. 1595), the author of the romantic
poem, Nal u Daman, who also imparted new life into the ruba'I.
In Persia proper only Zulall, whose clever romance of " Sultan
Mahmud and his favourite Ayaz " (1592) is widely read in the
East, Sa'ib (d. 1677), who is commonly called the creator of a
new style in lyric poetry, and, among the most modern, Hatif
of Isfahan, the singer of sweet and tasteful odes (died about
1785), deserve a passing notice.

But we cannot conclude our brief survey of the national
literature of Persia without calling attention to the rise of the
drama, which has only sprung up in the beginning of The Drama
the nineteenth century. Like the Greek drama and
the mysteries of the European middle ages, it is the offspring of a
purely religious ceremony, which for centuries has been performed
annually during the first ten days of the month Muharram — the
recital of mournful lamentations in memory of the tragic fate
of the house of the caliph 'All, the hero of the Shi'itic Persians.
Most of these passion-plays deal with the slaughter of 'All's son
Uosain and his family in the battle of Kerbela. But lately this
narrow range of dramatic subjects has been considerably widened,
Biblical stories and even Christian legends have been brought
upon the Persian stage; and there is a fair prospect of a further
development of this most interesting and important movement.
(See further DRAMA: Persian.)

In the various departments of general Persian literature not
touched upon in the foregoing pages the same wonderful activity
has prevailed as in the realm of poetry and fiction, Historical
since the first books on history and medicine appeared works.
under the Samanids (see above). The most important
section is that of historical works, which, although deficient in
sound criticism and often spoiled by a highly artificial style,
supply us with most valuable materials for our own research.
Quite unique in this respect are the numerous histories of India,
from the first invasion of Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni to the English
conquest, and even to the first decades of the present century,
most of which have been described and partly translated in the
eight volumes of Sir H. M. Elliot's History of India (1867-1878).
Persian writers have given us, besides, an immense variety of
universal histories of the world, with many curious and note-
worthy data (see, among others, Mirkhond's and Khwandamlr's
works under MIRKHOND); histories of Mahomet and the first
caliphs, partly translated from Arabic originals, which have been
lost; detailed accounts of all the Persian dynasties, from the
Ghaznevids to the still reigning Kajars, of Jenghiz Khan and
the Moguls (in Juwaini's and Wassaf's elaborate Ta'rikhs), and

252

PERSIGNY— PERSIS

of Timur and his successors (see an account of the Zafarnama
under PETIS DE LA CROIX) ; histories of sects and creeds, especially
the famous Dabistan, or " School of Manners " (translated by
Shea and Troyer, Paris 1843); and many local chronicles of Iran
and Turan. Next in importance to history rank geography,
cosmography, and travels (for instance, the Nuzhat-ul^ulub, by
Hamdallah Mustaufi, who died in 1349, and the translations oi
Istakhri's and Kazvlnl's Arabic works), and the various tadhkiras
or biographies of Sufis and poets, with selections in prose and
verse, from the oldest of 'AufI (about 1220) to the last and largest
of all, the Makhzan-ulghara'ib, or " Treasure of Marvellous
Matters" (completed 1803), which contains bngraphies and
specimens of more than 3000 poets. We pass over the well-
stocked sections of philosophy, ethics and politics, of theology,
law and Suflsm, of mathematics and astronomy, of medicine
(the oldest thesaurus of which is the " Treasure of the shah of
Khwarizam," 1 1 10), of Arabic, Persian and Turkish grammar and
lexicography, and only cast a parting glance at the rich collection
of old Indian folk-lore and fables preserved in the Persian version
of Kalttah u Dimnah (see RUDAGI), of the Sindbad-
niima> the futlnama, or " Tales of a Parrot," and
others, and at the translations of standard works
of Sanskrit literature, the epopees of the Ramayana and
Mahabharata, the Bhagaiiad-Gitd, the Yoga-Vasishtha, and
numerous Purdnas and Upanishads, for which we are mostly
indebted to the emperor Akbar's indefatigable zeal.

AUTHORITIES. — The standard modern discussions of Persian
literature are those of E. G. Browne, Literary History of Persia
(1902, seq.), and Hermann Eth6, in vol. ii. of Geiger and Kuhn's
Grundriss der iranischen Philologie (Strassburg, 1906); also
the latter's Hofische und romantische Poesie der Perser (1887), and
Mystische, didaktische und lyrische Poesie und das spdtere Schriftthum
der Perser (1888). See also P. Horn, Geschichte der persischen
Litteratur (1901). Concise sketches of Persian poetry are contained
in Sir G. Ouseley's Biographical Notices of Persian Poets (1846);
in G. L. Fliigel's article in Ersch and Gruber's Allgemeine Ency-
klopddie' (1842); in N. Eland's papers in the Journ. of the Roy.
As. Soc., vii. 345 seq. and ix. 122 seq.; and in C. A. C. Barbier
de Meynard's Poesie en Perse (Paris, 1877). Real mines of informa-
tion are the catalogues of A. Sprenger (Calcutta, 1854); W. H.
Morley (London, 1854); Fliigel (3 vols., Vienna, 1865); and C. Rieu
(3 vols., London, 1879-^-1883). For the first five centuries of the
Hegira compare Ethels editions and metrical translations of
" Rudagi's Vorlaufer und Zeitgenossen," in Morgenldndische
Forschungen (Leipzig, 1875); of Kisa'i's songs, Firdousl's lyrics,
and Abu Sa'id b. Abu '1-Khair's ruba'Is, in Sitzungsberichte der
bayr. Akademie (1872, p. 275 seq. ; 1873, p. 622 seq. ; 1874, p. 133 seq. ;
1875, p. 145 seq.; and 1878, p. 38 seq.); of Avicenna's Persian
poems, in GoUinger Nachrichten (1875, p. 555 seq.) ; and of Asadi and
his munazarat, in " Persische Tenzonen, ' Verhandlungen des $ten
Orientalisten- Congresses (Berlin, 1882, pt. ii., first half, p. 48 seq.);
H. Zotenberg's Chronique de Tabari (Paris, 1867-1874); Jurjani's
Wis u Ramin, ed. in the Bibl. Indica (1864) (trans, into German
by C. H. Graf in Zeitschrift der morgenldndischen Gesellschaft, xxiii.
375 seq.) ; and A. de B. Kasimirski's Specimen du diwari de Menout-
chehri (Versailles, 1876). On Khakani, see N. de Khanykoff's
" Meinoire," in Journal asiatique, 6th series, vol. iy. p. 137 seq.
and vol. v. p. 296 seq., and C. Salemann's edition of his ruba'is, with
Russian trans. (Petersburg, 1875); on Farid uddln 'Attar, S. de
Sacy's edition of the Pandnama (Paris, 1819), and Garcin de Tassy's
Mantib-uttair (Paris, 1857); on the Gulshan-i-raz, E. H. Whinfield's
edition (London, 1880); and on Amir Khosrau's mathnawis, the
abstracts given in Elliot's History of India, Hi. 524 seq. German
translations of Ibn Yamin were published by O. Schlechta-Wssehrd,
Bruchstucke (Vienna, 1852); of Jami's minor poems, by V. von
Rosenzweig (Vienna, 1840); by F. Ruckert, in Zeitschrift fur die
Kunde des Morgenlandes, vols. v. and vi., and Zeitschrift der a. morgenl.
Gesellsch., vols. ii., iv., v., vi., xxiv., xxv. and xxix. ; and by M. Wick-
erhauser (Leipzig, 1855, and Vienna, 1858); German translation of
Yusufu Zalikha, by Rosenzweig (Vienna, 1824), English by R. T. H.

(~^f\fftt-\-t (1 nnr\nw+ • QQ * \ . 1 ." ~. . . , , , 1 . i ~., ...}., i "... -~f T ~ 11 X -. 1 f _ i__ — „

by A

1807)

Stud. (Leipzig, 1870, p. 197 seq.). On the Persian drama, compare
J. A. de Gobineau's Religions et philosophies dans I'Asie centrale

I

Paris, 1866); A. Chodzko s Theatre person (new ed., Paris, 1878);
and Eth6, " Persische Passionspiele," in Morgenldnd. Stud., p. 174 seq.

(H. £.)

PERSIGNY, JEAN GILBERT VICTOR FIALIN, DUCDE (1808-
1872), French statesman, was born at Saint-German Lespinasse
(Loire) on the nth of January 1808, the son of a receiver
of taxes. He was educated at Limoges, and entered the cavalry

school at Saumur in 1826, becoming marechal des logis m the
4th Hussars two years later. The share taken by his regiment
in supporting the revolution of 1830 was regarded as insub-
ordination, and next year Fialin was dismissed from the army.
He became a journalist, and in 1833 became a strong Bonapartist,
assuming the title of comte de Persigny, said to be dormant
in his family. He planned the attempt on Strassburg in 1836
and that on Boulogne hi 1840. At Boulogne he was arrested and
condemned to twenty years' imprisonment in a fortress, shortly
afterwards commuted into mild detention at Versailles, where
he wrote a book to prove that the Pyramids were built to prevent
the Nile from silting up. This was published in 1845 under the
title, De la Destination et de VutUite permanente des Pyramides.
At the revolution of 1848 he was arrested by the provisional
government, and on his release took a prominent part in securing
the election of Louis Napoleon to the presidency. With Morny
and the marshal Saint Arnaud he plotted the restoration of the
empire, and was a devoted servant of Napoleon III. He
succeeded Morny as minister of the interior in January 1852,
and later in the year became senator. He resigned office in
1854, being appointed next year to the London embassy, which
he occupied with a short interval (1858-1859) until 1860, when he
resumed the portfolio of the interior. But the growing influence
of his rival Rouher provoked his resignation in 1863, when he
received the title of duke. A more dangerous enemy than
Rouher was the empress Eugenie, whose marriage he had opposed
and whose presence in the council chamber he deprecated in a
memorandum which fell into the empress's hands. He sought
in vain to see Napoleon before he started to take over the
command in 1870, and the breach was further widened when
master and servant were in exile. Persigny returned to France
in 1871, and died at Nice on the nth of January 1872.

See Memoires du due de Persigny (2nd ed., 1896), edited by H.
de Laire d'Espagny, his former secretary; an eulogistic life, Le Due
de Persigny (1865), by Delaroa; and Emile Ollivier's Empire liberal
(I895.&C.).

PERSIMMON, the name given to the fruits of Diospyros
virginiana in the United States. The tree which bears them
belongs to the order Ebenaceae, is usually from 30 to 50 ft. in
height, and has oval entire leaves, and unisexual flowers on short
stalks. In the male flowers, which are numerous, the stamens
are sixteen in number and arranged in pairs; the female flowers
are solitary, with traces of stamens, and a smooth ovary with
one ovule in each of the eight cells — the ovary is surmounted by
four styles, which are hairy at the base. The fruit-stalk is
very short, bearing a subglobose fruit an inch or rather more in
diameter, of an orange-yellow colour, and with a sweetish astrin-
gent pulp. It is surrounded at the base by the persistent calyx-
lobes, which increase in size as the fruit ripens. The astringency
renders the fruit somewhat unpalatable, but after it has been
subjected to the action of frost, or has become partially rotted
or " bletted " like a medlar, its flavour is improved. The fruit
is eaten in great quantities in the southern states of America,
and is also fermented with hops, corn-meal or wheat-bran into
a sort of beer or made into brandy. The wood is heavy, strong
and very close-grained and used in turnery. The tree is very
common in the South Atlantic and Gulf states, and attains its
largest size in the basin of the Mississippi. It was brought to
England before 1629 and is cultivated, but rarely if ever ripens
ts fruit. It is easily raised from seed and can also be propagated
Tom stolons, which are often produced in great quantity.
The Chinese and Japanese cultivate another species, the
Diospyros Kaki,oi which there exist numerous ill-defined varieties.
The fruits are larger than those of the American kind, variable
"n shape, but have similar properties. An astringent fluid,
cnown as shibu, rich in tannin, is expressed from the green
fruit and used in various industries. The tree is hardy in the
south of England and in the Channel Islands.

PERSIS (mod. Pars, q.v.), the south-western part of Iran
^Persia), named from the inhabitants, the Iranian people of the
Parsa (Fars) ; their name was pronounced by the lonians Persai,
with change from a to e, and this form has become dominant

PERSIS

253

in Greek and in the modern European languages. The natural
features of Persis are described very exactly by Nearchus, the
admiral of Alexander the Great (preserved by Arrian Indie.
40 and Strabo xv. 727). The country is divided into three
parts, of very different character and climate: the coast is sandy
and very hot, without much vegetation except date palms; it
has no good harbours, and the climate is very unwholesome;
the population is scanty. About 50 m. from the coast rise the
chains of the mountains, through which some steep passes lead
into the interior valleys (called KotXi) Eepffis, Strabo xv.
729), which lie about 5000 ft. above the sea. Here the climate
is temperate, the country watered by many rivers and lakes,
the soil fertile, the vegetation rich, the cattle numerous. These
regions, which were thickly populated, form the real Persis of
history. " This land Persis," says Darius, in an inscription
at Persepolis, " which Ahuramazda has given to me, which is
beautiful and rich in horses and men, according to the will of
Ahuramazda and myself it trembles before no enemy." The
third part is the north, which belongs to the central plateau, still
much higher, and therefore rough and very cold in the winter.
Towards the north-west it borders on the Median district of
Paraetacene (about Isfahan); towards the north and north-east
it soon passes into the great desert, of which only the oasis
of Yezd (Isatichai in Ptolem. vi. 4, 2) is inhabitable. In the
east, Persis proper is separated by a desert (Laristan) from
the fertile province of Carmania (Kerman), a mountainous
region inhabited by a Persian tribe. To Carmania belonged
also the coast, with the islands and harbours of Hormuz and
Bander Abbasi. In the west Persis borders on the mountains
and plains of Elam or Susiana. For the ancient topography
cf. Tomaschek, " Beitrage zur historischen Topographic von
Persien," in Sitzungsber. der Wiener Akademie, phil. Cl. cii.
cviii. cxxi.

The Persians are not mentioned in history before the time of
Cyrus; the attempt to identify them with the Parsua, a district
in the Zagros chains south of Lake Urmia, often mentioned by
the Assyrians, is not tenable. The Parsua are perhaps the non-
Arian tribe Hdpoxot in northern Media, Strabo xi. 508. Herodotus
i. 125, gives a list of Persian tribes: the Pasargadae (at Murghab),
Maraphii, Maspii, Panthialaei (in western Carmania), Derusiaei,
Germanii (i.e. the Carmanians) are husbandmen, the Dahae
(i.e. the " enemies," a general name of the rapacious nomads,
used also for the Turanian tribes), Mardi, Dropici, Sagartii
(called by Darius Asagarla, in the central desert; cf. Herod,
vii. 85) are nomads. The kings of the Pasargadae, from the
clan of the Achaemenidae, had become kings of the Elamitic
district Anshan (probably in 596, cf. CYRUS). When, in 553,
Cyrus, king of Anshan, rebelled against Astyages, the Maraphians
and Maspians joined with the Pasargadae; after his victory over
Astyages all the Persian tribes acknowledged him, and he took
the title of " king of Persia." But from then only the inhabitants
of Persis proper were considered as the rulers of the empire,
and remained therefore in the organization of Darius free from
taxes (Herod, iii. 97). But Carmania, with the Sagartians, the
Utians (called by Darius Yautiya), and other tribes, formed a
satrapy and paid tribute (Herod, iii. 93); the later authors
therefore always distinguished between Carmania and Persis.
Names of other Persian tribes, partly of very doubtful authority,
are given by Strabo xv. 727,' and Ptolem. vi. 4 and 8.

The Persians of Cyrus (see PERSIA: Ancient History) were
a vigorous race of husbandmen, living in a healthy climate,
accustomed to hardship, brave and upright; many stories in
Herodotus (especially ix. 122) point the contrast between their
simple life and the effeminate nations of the civilized countries
of Asia. They were firmly attached to the pure creed of
Zoroaster (cf. Herod, i. 131 sqq. and the inscriptions of Darius).

When Darius had killed the usurper Smerdis and gained the
crown, a new usurper, Vahyazdata, who likewise pretended to

1 To the Pateiskhoreis belongs the lance-bearer of Darius,
" Gobryas (Gaubaruva) the Patishuvari," mentioned iii his tomb-
inscription; they occur also in an inscription of Esarhaddon as
Patush-ara, eastwards of Media, in Choarene at the Caspian gates ;
the Kyrtii are the Kurds.

be Smerdis, the son of Cyrus, rose in Yautiya, but was defeated
in two battles by Darius's generals and put to death (Behistun
inscription) . Cyrus had built his capital with his palace and tomb,
in Pasargadae (q.v.) . Darius founded a new city about 30 m.
farther south on the left bank of the Pulwar, near its confluence
with the Kur, with a large terrace, on which his magnificent
palace and that of his son Xerxes were built. As Pasargadae was
named after the tribe in whose district it lay, so the new capital
is by the Persians and Greeks simply called "the Persians";
later authors call it Persepolis (q.v.), " the Persian city."
Another Persian palace lay in Taoke, near the coast (Strabo
xv. 728; Arrian Ind. 39; Dionys. Perieg. 1069); Gabae, which
Strabo mentions besides, is Isfahan in Paraetacene and belonged
already to Media.

Both in Persepolis and Pasargadae large masses of gold and
silver from the tribute of the subject nations were treasured,
as in Susa and Ecbatana. But Persis lies too far off from the
centre of the Asiatic world to be the seat of government. Like
Arabia and similar countries, it could exercise a great momentary
influence in history and produce a sudden change throughout
the world; but afterwards it would sink into local insignificance.
So the Persian kings fixed their residence at Susa, which is always
considered as the capital of the empire (therefore Aeschylus
wrongly considers it as a Persian town and places the tomb of
Darius here). After the reign of Xerxes, Persis and Persepolis
became utterly neglected, in spite of occasional visits, and even
the palaces of Persepolis remained in part unfinished. But the
national feeling of the Persians remained strong. When Alexander
had won the victory of Arbela, and occupied Babylon and Susa,
he met (in the spring of 330) with strong resistance in Persia,
where the satrap Ariobarzanes tried to stop his progress at the
" Persian gates," the pass leading up to Persepolis. Here
he set fire to the cedar roof of the palace of Xerxes as a symbol
that the Greek war of revenge against the Persians had come
to an end. Our best information tells us that he soon had the
fire extinguished (Plut. Alex. 38); the story of Thais is a pure
fiction, and we may well believe that he repented the damage
he had done (Arrian vi. 30, i).

Alexander had planned to amalgamate the former rulers
of the world with his Macedonians; but his death was followed
by a Macedonian reaction. Peucestas, the new satrap of
Persis, followed the example of Alexander, and thus gained a
strong hold on his subjects (Diod. xix. 48) ; nor did Seleucus, to
whom the dominion of the east ultimately passed (from 311
onwards), disdain the aid of the Persians; he is the only one
among the Diadochi who retained his Persian wife, Apame,
daughter of Spitamenes. At the same time Seleucus and his
son Antiochus I. Soter tried to introduce Hellenism into Persis.
Of Greek towns which they founded here we know Alexandria
in Carmania (Plin. vi. 107; Ptol. vi. 8, 14; Ammian. Marc. 23,
6, 49), Laodicea in the east of Persis (Plin. 6, 115), Stasis, " a
Persian town on a great rock, which Antiochus, the son of
Seleucus, possessed " (Steph. .Eyz. s.v.), Antiochia in Persis,
founded apparently by Seleucus I. and peopled by Antiochus I.
with immigrants called together from all Greece, as we learn
from a psephisma passed by " boule and demos " of this town
in 206 in honour of Magnesia on the Maeander (Kern, Inschriften
von Magnesia am Maeander, No. 6i = Dittenberger, Orientis gr.
inscr. 233, where they are mentioned together with a great
many Seleucid towns in Susiana and Babylonia, and compare
Kern, No. i8 = Dittenberger, No. 231). An insurrection of the
Persians against Seleucus (II.) is mentioned in two stratagems
of Polyaenus (vii. 39. 40). When in 221 Molon, the satrap of
Media, rebelled against Antiochus III., his brother Alexander,
satrap of Persis, joined him, but they were defeated and killed
by the king. Persis remained a part of the Seleucid empire
down to Antiochus IV. Epiphanes, who at the end of his reign
restored once more the authority of the empire in Babylonia,
Susiana and Persis; perhaps a battle, in which the satrap
Numenius of Mesene (southern Babylonia) defeated the Persians
on the shore of Carmania on sea and land (Plin. vi. 15 2), belongs
to this time. But after the death of Antiochus IV. (164) the

254

PERSIUS

Seleucid Empire began to dissolve. While the central pro-
vinces, Media and northern Babylonia, were conquered by
the Parthians, Mesene, Elymais and Persis made themselves
independent.

Persis never became a part of the empire of the Arsacids,
although her kings recognized their supremacy when they were
strong (Strabo xv. 728, 736). From the periplus of the Ery-
thraean Sea 33-37 we learn that their authority extended over
the shores of Carmania and the opposite coasts of Arabia. A
Persian king, Artaxerxes, who was murdered by his brother
Gosithros at the age of 93 years, is mentioned in a fragment
of Isidore of Charax (Lucian, Macrobii, 15). Other names occur
on their coins, the oldest of which are imitations of Seleucid
coins, and were perhaps struck by local dynasts under their
supremacy; most of the others show the king's head with the
Persian tiara, and on the reverse a fire-altar with the adoring
king before it, a standard (perhaps the famous banner of the
smith Kavi, which b2came the standard of Iran under the
Sassanids), and occasionally the figure of Ahuramazda; they
were first explained by A. D. Mordtmann in Zeitschrift fur
Numismalik, iii., iv. and vii.; cf. Grundriss der iranischen Phttol.
ii. 486 seq. The legends are in Aramaic characters and Persian
(Pahlavi) language; among them occur Artaxerxes, Darius (from
a dynast of this name the town Darabjird, " town of Darius,"
in eastern Persia seems to derive its name), Narses, Tiridates,
Manocihr and others; the name Vahuburz seems to be identical
with Oborzos, mentioned by Polyaenus vii. 40, who put down
a rebellion of 3000 settlers (KIXTOUOI) in Persis. From the
traditions about Ardashir I. we know that at his time there
were different petty kingdoms and usurpers in Persis; the
principal dynasty is by Tabari called Bazrangi. The coins
demonstrate that Hellenism had become quite extinct in Persis,
while the old historical and mythical traditions and the Zoroas-
trian religion were supreme. There can be no doubt that at this
time the true form of Zoroastrianism and the sacred writings
were preserved only in Persis, whereas everywhere else (in
Parthia, in the Indo-Scythian kingdoms of the east and in the
great propagandist movement in Armenia, Syria and Asia
Minor, where it developed into Mithraism) it degenerated and
was mixed with other cults and ideas. So the revival of
Zoroastrianism came from Persis. When Ardashir I. attempted
to restore the old empire of Cyrus and Darius, and in 212 A.D.
rose against the Parthian king, Artabanus, his aim was religious
as well as political. The new Sassanid Empire which he founded
enforced the restored religion of Zoroaster (Zarathustra) on the
whole of Iran.

The new capital of Persis was Istakhr on the Pulwar, about
9 m. above Persepolis, now Hajjiabad, where even the pre-
decessors of Ardashir I. are said to have resided. It was a great
city under the Sassanids, of which some ruins are extant. But
it shared the fate of its predecessor; when the empire was founded
the Sassanids could no longer remain in Persis but transferred
their headquarters to Ctesiphon. (En. M.)

PERSIUS, in full AULUS PERSIUS FLACCUS (A.D. 34-62),
Roman poet and satirist. According to the Life contained in
the MSS., Persius was a native of Volaterrae, of good stock on
both parents' side. When six years old he lost his father, and
his step-father died in a few years. At the age of twelve Persius
came to Rome, where he was taught by Remmius Palaemon and
the rhetor Verginius Flavus. Four years later began a close
intimacy with the Stoic Cornutus. In this philosopher's pupil
Lucan, Persius found a generous admirer of all he wrote. Still
in early youth he became the friend of the lyric poet Caesius
Bassus, whilst with Thrasea Paetus (whose wife Arria was a
relative) he had a close friendship of ten years' duration and
shared some travels. Seneca he met later, and was not attracted
by his genius. In his boyhood Persius wrote a tragedy dealing
with an episode of Roman history, and a work, the title of which
is rendered uncertain by corruption in our MSS. Pithou's
generally accepted reading makes the subject that of travel;
the excursions with Thrasea however must have taken place after
boyhood. The perusal of Lucilius revealed to Persius his

vocation, and he set to work upon a book of satires. But he
wrote seldom and slowly; a premature death (uitio slomachi)
prevented the completion of his task. He is described as
possessed of a gentle disposition, girlish modesty and personal
beauty, and living a life of exemplary devotion towards his
mother Fulvia Sisenna, his sister and his aunt. To his mother
and sister he left a considerable fortune. Cornutus suppressed
all his work except the book of satires in which he made some
slight alterations and then handed it over to Bassus for editing.
It proved an immediate success.

The scholia add a few details — on what authority is, as generally
with such sources, very doubtful. The Life itself, though not free
from the suspicion of interpolation and undoubtedly corrupt and
disordered in places, is probably trustworthy. The MSS. say it
came from the commentary of Valerius Probus, no doubt a learned
edition of Persius like those of Virgil and Horace by this same famous
" grammarian " of Berytus, the poet's contemporary. The only
case in which it seems to conflict with the Satires themselves is
in its statement as to the death of Persius's father. The declaiming
of a suasoria in his presence (Sat. 3. 4 sqq.) implies a more mature
age than that of six in the performer. But pater might here mean
" step-father," or Persius may have forgotten his own auto-
biography, may be simply reproducing one of his models. The
mere fact that the Life and the Satires agree so closely does not
of course prove the authenticity of the former. One of the points
of harmony is, however, too subtle for us to believe that a forger
evolved it from the works of Persius. It requires indeed a thoughtful
reading of the Life before we realize how distinct is the impression
it gives of a " bookish " youth, who has never strayed far, at least
in spirit, from the domestic hearth and his women-folk. And of
course this is notoriously the picture drawn by the Satires. So much
better does Persius know his books than the world that he draws
the names of his characters from Horace. A keen observer of what
occurs within his narrow horizon, he cannot but discern the seamy
side of life (cf. e.g. such hints as Sat. iii. no); he shows, however,
none of Juvenal's undue stress on unsavoury detail or Horace's
easy-going acceptance of human weaknesses. The sensitive, home-
bred nature of Persius shows itself perhaps also in his frequent
references to ridicule, whether of great men by street gamins or of
the cultured by Philistines.

The chief interest of Persius's work lies in its relation to Roman
satire, in its interpretation of Roman Stoicism, and in its use of
the Roman tongue. The influence of Horace on Persius can,
in spite of the silence of the Life, hardly have been less than
that of Lucilius. Not only characters, as noted above, but
whole phrases, thoughts and situations come direct from him.
The resemblance only emphasizes the difference between the
caricaturist of Stoicism and its preacher. Persius strikes the
highest note that Roman satire reached; in earnestness and
moral purpose rising far superior to the political rancour or
good natured persiflage of his predecessors and the rhetorical
indignation of Juvenal, he seems a forerunner of the great
Christian Apologists. From him we learn a lesson Seneca never
taught, how that wonderful philosophy could work on minds
that still preserved the depth and purity of the old Roman
gravitas. When the Life speaks of Seneca's genius as not
attracting Persius, it presumably refers to Seneca the philosopher.
Some of the parallel passages in the works of the two are very
close, and hardly admit of explanation by assuming the use of
a common source. With Seneca, Persius censures the style
of the day, and imitates it. Indeed in some of its worst failings,
straining of expression, excess of detail, exaggeration, he outbids
Seneca, whilst the obscurity, which makes his little book of not
seven hundred lines so difficult to read and is in no way due to
great depth of thought, compares very ill with the terse clear-
ness of the Epistolae morales. A curious contrast to this ten-
dency is presented by his free use of " popular " words. As of
Plato, so of Persius we hear that he emulated Sophron; the
authority is a late one (Lydus, De mag. i. 41), but we can at
least recognize in the scene that opens Sal. 3. kinship with such
work as Theocritus' Adoniazusae and the Mimes of Herodas.

Persius's satires are composed in hexameters, except for the
scazons of the short prologue above referred to, in which he half
ironically asserts that he writes to earn his bread, not because he
is inspired. The first satire censures the literary tastes of the day
as a reflection of the decadence of the national morals. The theme
of Seneca's U4th letter is similar. The description of the recilator
and the literary twaddlers after dinner is vividly natural, but an
interesting passage which cites specimens of smooth versification

PERSON— PERSONALITY

255

and the languishing style is greatly spoiled by the difficulty of
appreciating the points involved and indeed of distributing the
dialogue (a not uncommon crux in Persius). The remaining
satires handle in order (2) the question as to what we may justly
ask of the gods (cf. Plato's second Alcibiades), (3) the importance
of having a definite aim in life, (4) the necessity of self-knowledge
for public men (cf. Plato's first Alcibiades), (5) the Stoic doctrine
of liberty (introduced by generous allusions to Cornutus' teaching),
and (6) the proper use of money. The Life tells us that the Satires
were not left complete; some lines were taken (presumably by
Cornutus or Bassus) from the end of the work so that it might be
quasi finitus. This perhaps means that a sentence in which Persius
had left a line imperfect, or a paragraph which he had not com-
pleted, had to be omitted. The same authority says that Cornutus
definitely blacked out an offensive allusion to the emperor's literary
taste, and that we owe to him the reading of the MSS. in Sat. i. 121,
— " auriculas asini quis non [for Mida rex] habet ! " Traces of
lack of revision are, however, still visible; cf. e.g. v. 176 (sudden
transition from ambition to superstition) and vi. 37 (where criticism
of Greek declares has nothing to do with the context). The parallels
to passages of Horace and Seneca are recorded in the commentaries:
in view of what the Life says about Lucan, the verbal resemblance
of Sat. iii. 3 to Phars. x. 163 is interesting. Examples of bold
language or metaphor: i. 25, rupto iecore exierit caprificus, 60,
linguae quantum sitiat canis; iii. 42, inlus palleat, 81, silentia rodunt;
v. 92, ueteres auiae de pulmone reuello. Passages like iii. 87, 100 sqq.
show elaboration carried beyond the rules of good taste. " Popular
words: baro, cedo, ebullire, gluto, lallare, mamma, muttire, obba,
palpo, stloppus. Fine lines, &c., in i. 116 sqq., ii. 6 sqq., 61 sqq.,
73 sqq., iii. 39 sqq.

AUTHORITIES. — The MSS. of Persius fall into two groups, the one
represented by two of the best of them, the other by that of Pithoeus,
so important for the text of Juvenal. Since the publication of
J. Sieger's de Persii cod. pith, recte aestimando (Berlin, 1890) the
tendency has been to prefer the tradition cf the latter.

The important editions are: (i) with explanatory notes: Casaubon
(Paris, 1605, enlarged edition by Diibner, Leipzig, 1833) ;O. Jahn
(with the scholia and valuable prolegomena, Leipzig, 1843) ; Coning-
ton (with translation ; 3rd ed., Oxford, 1893) ; B. L. Gildersleeve (New
York, 1875); G. Nemethy (Buda-Pesth, 1903); (2) with critical
notes: Jahn-BOcheler (3rd ed., Berlin, 1893); S. G. Owen (with
Juvenal, Oxford, 1902). Translations into English by Dryden
(1693) ; Conington (loc. cit.) and Hemphill (Dublin, 1901). Criticism,
&c., in Martha, Les Moralistes sous I'empire remain (sth ed., Paris,
1886); Nisard, Poetes latins de la decadence (Paris, 1834); Htrzel,
Der Dialog (Leipzig, 1895); Saintsbury, History of Criticism, i. 248;
Henderson, Life and Principate of the Emperor Nero (London,
1903); and the histories of Roman literature (especially Schanz,
§§ 382 sqq.). A Bibliography of Persius, by M.'H. Morgan (Cam-
bridge, U.S.A., 1893). (W. C. Su.)

PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE. This expression is
used in English law to classify crimes involving some form of
assault or personal violence or physical injury, i.e. offences
affecting the life, liberty or safety of an individual: but it is
also extended to certain offences against morality which cannot
technically be described as assaults. The bulk of the offences
thus classified, so far as their definition or punishment depends
upon statute law, are included in the Offences Against the
Person Act 1861 (24 & 25 Viet. c. 100), and in the Criminal
Law Amendment Acts of 1880 and 1885, and the Prevention of
Cruelty to Children Act 1904. The classification in these statutes
is not scientific: e.g. bigamy is within the act of 1861 (s. 57),
and certain offences involving assault, e.g. robbery, are to be
found in other statutes. The particular offences dealt with
by the acts above named are discussed under their appropriate
titles, e.g. abortion, assault, bigamy, homicide, rape, &c. In
the Indian penal code most of the offences above referred to
fall under the head " offences against the human body " (ch.
xvi.). In his Digest of the Criminal Law Sir James Stephen
includes most of these offences under the title " offences against
the person, the conjugal and parental rights, and the reputation
of individuals," a classification also to be found in the English
draft code of 1880 and adopted in the Queensland code of 1890.
In working out this classification offences not involving assault
are relegated to another and perhaps more appropriate title,
" offences against morality."

PERSONALITY (from Lat. persona, originally an actor's
mask, from personare,1 to sound through), a term applied in

1 So Gabius Bassus in Cell. Noct. Alt. v. 7, I. Since, however,
it is difficult to explain persona from personare (Skeat suggests
by analogy from icpbauncov the Greek equivalent!), Walde, in

philosophy and also in common speech to the identity or indi-
viduality which makes a being (person) what he is, or marks
him off for all that he is not. The term " person," which is
technically used not only in philosophy but also in law, is applied
in theology (Gr. irpocrowrov) to the three hypostases of the
Trinity. It was first introduced by Tertullian, who implied
by it a single individual; the Father, the Son and the Holy Ghost
were three personae though of one and the same substance
(uniias subsiantiae) . The nature of this unity in difference
exercised the minds of the early Christian theologians, and was
the subject of many councils and official pronouncements, accord-
ing as emphasis was laid on the unity or on the separateness of
the persons. There was perpetual schism between the Unitarians
and Trinitarians (see for example SABEILIUS). The natural
sense of the word " person " is undoubtedly individuality;
hence those who found a difficulty in the philosophic conception
of the three-in-one naturally tended to lay emphasis on the
distinctions between the members of the Trinity (see HERESY;
MONARCHIANISM; LOGOS, &c.). A further theological question
arises in connexion with the doctrine of immortality (q.v.), and
it is argued that immortality is meaningless unless the soul of
the dead man is self-conscious throughout.

In philosophy the term has an important ethical significance.
The Greek moralists, attaching little importance to individual
citizens as such, found the highest moral perfection in the sub-
ordination of the individual to the state. Man, as iro\iTii<6v £&ov,
is good only when he is a good iroXmjs. Subsequent ethical
systems on the contrary have laid stress on the moral worth
of personality, finding the summum bonum in the highest
realization of the self. This view is specially characteristic
of the Neo-hegelian school (e.g. T. H. Green), but it belongs
also in various degrees to all intuitional and idealistic systems.
Utilitarian universalistic hedonism and evolutionist ethics so
far resemble the Greek theory that they tend to minimize the
importance of personality, by introducing ulterior reasons
(e.g. the perfection of the social organism, of humanity) as the
ultimate sanctions of moral principles, whereas the intuitionistsi
by making the criterion abstract and absolute limit goodness
to personal obedience to the a priori moral law.

Still more important problems are connected with the
psychological significance of personality. What is the origin
and character of the consciousness of the self? The conscious-
ness of the identity of another person is comparatively simple;
but one's own individuality consists partly in being aware of that
individuality; a man cannot use the word " I " unless he is
conscious of the unity of his " self," and yet there is involved in
the word " I " something more than this consciousness. In
what does the unity of the " self " consist prior to its being
recognized in consciousness; how does the consciousness arise?
The answer to this problem is to be found — in so far as it can
be found — in the subject-object relation, in the distinction
between the external world and the subjective processes of
knowing and willing which that relation involves. I will
something, and afterwards perceive a corresponding change
within the unity of my external world. Hence, we may sup-
pose, arises the consciousness of a permanent self and not-self.

It should be observed that self-consciousness varies according
to the intellectual development, and the term " personality "
is usually connected only with the self-consciousness of an
advanced type, not, for example, with that of an animal. Even
among human beings there is considerable difference. The
most elementary form of human self-consciousness includes in
the self not only the soul but also the body, while to the developed
self-consciousness the physical self is part of the external or
objective world. Finally it is necessary to refer to the Kantian
distinction of the pure and the empirical ego, the latter (" the
Me known ") being an object of thought to the former (" the
I knowing ").

From the use of the term " person " as distinguishing the

Lateinisches elymologisches Worterbuch (1906), suggests a derivation
from Greek fww), a zone. In Roman law persona was one who
had civil rights. For the ecclesiastical persona ecclesiae, see PARSON.

256

PERSONAL PROPERTY— PERSONATION

self from the not-self arises the phrase " personal equation "
for those peculiar characteristics or idiosyncrasies which have
to be taken into account in estimating the value of an individual
judgment or observation. This phrase, which is commonly
used in any connexion, was first applied to the errors detected
in the astronomical observations of a Greenwich observer named
Kinnebrook in 1795. The recognized fact that the greater or
less inaccuracy is habitual to individual observers has been
investigated, e.g. by Bessel (Abhandlungen, iii. 300) and by
Wundt (Physiol. Psychol.), and machines have been devised
which make allowance for the error caused by the personal
equation (see MICROMETER).

For the psychological problem, see PSYCHOLOGY. For the
problems connected with sub-conscious action, &c., see SUBLIMINAL
SELF; TRANCE; HYPNOTISM; TELEPATHY.

PERSONAL PROPERTY, one branch of the main division
of the English law of property, the other being " real property."
The division of property into real and personal represents in
a great measure the division into immovable and movable
incidentally recognized in Roman law and generally adopted
since. " Things personal," according to Blackstone, " are
goods, money, and all other movables which may attend the
owner's person wherever he thinks proper to go " (Comm. ii. 16).
This identification of things personal with movables, though
logical in theory, does not, as will be seen, perfectly express
the English law, owing to the somewhat anomalous position
of chattels real. In England real property is supposed to be
superior in dignity to personal property, which was originally of
little importance from a legal point of view. This view is the
result of feudal ideas, and had no place in the Roman system, in
which immovables and movables were dealt with as far as pos-
sible in the same manner, and descended according to the same
rules. The main differences between real and personal property
which still exist in England are these, (i) In real property there
can be nothing more than limited ownership; there can be no
estate properly so called in personal property, and it may be held
in complete ownership. There is nothing corresponding to an
estate-tail in personal property; words which in real property
would create an estate-tail will give an absolute interest in
personalty. A life-interest may, however, be given in personalty,
except in articles quae ipso usu consumuntur. Limitations
of personal property, equally with those of real property, fall
within the rule against perpetuities. (2) Personal property is
not subject to various incidents of real property, such as rent,
dower or escheat. (3) On the death of the owner intestate
real property descends to the heir; personal property is divided
according to the Statute of Distributions. (4) Real property as a
general rule must be transferred by deed; personal property does
not need so solemn a mode of transfer. (5) Contracts relating
to real property must be in writing by the Statute of Frauds, 29
Car. II. c. 3, s. 4; contracts relating to personal property need
only be in writing when it is expressly so provided by statute,
as, for instance, in the cases falling under s. 17 of the Statute of
Frauds. (6) A will of lands need not be proved, but a will of
personalty or of personal and real property together must be
proved in order to give a title to those claiming under it. (7)
Devises of real estate fall as a rule within the Mortmain Acts
(see CHARITY AND CHARITIES; CORPORATION); bequests of
personal property, other than chattels real, are not within
the act. (8) Mortgages of real property need not generally be
registered; mortgages of personal property for the most part
require registration under the Bills of Sale Acts (see PLEDGE,
and BILL OF SALE).

Personal estate is divided in English law into chattels real and
chattels personal; the latter are again divided into chases in
possession and chases in action (see CHATTEL; CHOSE).

Interest in personal property may be either absolute or qualified.
The latter case is illustrated by animals ferae naturae, in which
property is only coextensive with detention. Personal property
may be acquired by occupancy (including the accessio, commixtio,
and confusio of Roman law), by invention, as patent and copy-
right, or by transfer, either by the act of the law (as in bankruptcy,

judgment and intestacy), or by the act of the party (as in gift,
contract and will).

There are several cases in which, by statute or otherwise,
property is taken out of the class of real or personal to which
it seems naturally to belong. By the operation of the equitable
doctrine of conversion money directed to be employed in the
purchase of land, or land directed to be turned into money, is
in general regarded as that species of property into which it is
directed to be converted. An example of property prima facie
real which is treited as personal is an estate pur autre vie, which,
since 14 Geo. II. c. 20, s. 9, 1740-1741 (now replaced by the
Wills Act 1837, s. 6) is distributable as personal property in the
absence of a special occupant. Examples of property prima facie
personal which is treated as real are fixtures, heirlooms, such
as deeds and family portraits, and shares in some of the older
companies, as the New River Company, which are real estate
by statute. In ordinary cases shares in companies are per-
sonal property, unless the shareholders have individually some
interest in the land as land.

The terms heritable and movable of Scots law to a great extent
correspond with the real and personal of English law. The main
points of difference are these, (i) Leases are heritable as to the
succession to the lessee, unless the destination expressly exclude
heirs, but are movable as to the fisk. (2) Money due on mortgages
and securities on land is personalty in England. At common law
in Scotland debts secured on heritable property are themselves
heritable. But by the Titles to Land Consolidation (Scotland)
Act 1868, s. 117, heritable securities are movable as far as regards
the succession of the creditor, unless executors are expressly ex-
cluded. They still, however, remain heritable quoad fiscum, as
between husband and wife, in computing legitim, and as far as
regards the succession of the debtor. (3) Up to 1868 the heir of
heritage succeeded to certain movable goods called heirship
movables, which bore a strong likeness to the heirlooms of English
law. This right of the heir was abolished by the act of 1868, s. 160.
(4) Annuities, as having traclum futuri temporis, are heritable, and
an obligation to pay them falls upon the heir of the deceased (Watson,
Law Diet. s.y. " Annuities ").

The law in the United States agrees in most respects with that
of England. Heirlooms are unknown, one reason being, no doubt,
that the importance of title-deeds is much less than it is in England,
owing to the operation of the Registration Acts. Long terms in
some states have annexed to them the properties of freehold estates.
In some states estates pur autre vie descend like real property; in
others an estate pur autrt vie is deemed a freehold only during the
life of the grantee; after his death it becomes a chattel real. In
yet other states the heir has a scintilla of interest as special occupant
(Kent, Comm. iv. 27). In some states railway rolling-stock is
considered as purely personal, in others it has been held to be a
fixture, and so to partake of the nature of real property. Shares
in some of the early American corporations were, like New River
shares in England, made real estate by statute, as in the case of
the Cape Sable Company in Maryland (Schouler, Law of Personal
Property, i.). In Louisiana animals employed in husbandry are,
and slaves were, regarded as immovables. Pews in churches are
generally real property, but in some states they are made personal
property by statute. The assignment of choses in action is generally
permitted, and is in most states regulated by statute. (J. W.)

PERSONATION, in English law, a form of fraud consisting
in a false representation by one person (by words or conduct)
that he is another person living or dead. It is not an offence
by the common law unless the representation is made on oath
under circumstances constituting the offence of perjury, or
unless the representation if not made on oath is made under
circumstances amounting to a common law cheat. Personation
has been made an offence by statute in the following cases: (i)
where it amounts to a false pretence by words or conduct, and
is done with intent to defraud, and property is by such false
pretence obtained, 24 & 25 Viet. c. 96 ss. 88-90 (see FALSE
PRETENCES); (2) in the case of false and deceitful personation
of any person or of the heir, executor, administrator, wife, widow,
next of kin or relative of any person with intent fraudulently
to obtain any land, estate, chattel, money, valuable security or
property (37 & 38 Viet. c. 36 s. i); (3) in the case of personation
of votes at elections (see CORRUPT PRACTICES).

The first of these offences is a misdemeanour only; the second
is a felony punishable by penal servitude for life. The second
offence was created in 1874 in consequence of the Tichborne
case, in which under the law as it then stood it had been necessary

PERSPECTIVE

257

to prosecute the claimant for perjury. Besides the enactments
above referred to there are also a number of provisions for dealing
with the personation of sailors, soldiers, pensioners and owners
of stock in the public funds or shares in joint-stock companies,
and of persons who falsely acknowledge in the name of another
recognizances, deeds or instruments, before a court or person
authorized to take the acknowledgment.

PERSPECTIVE (Lat. perspicere, to see through), in mathematics
the name given to the art of representing solid objects by a plane
drawing which affects the eye as does the object itself. In the
article PROJECTION it is shown that if all points in a figure be
projected from a fixed centre to a plane, each point on the
projection will be the projection of all points on the projecting
ray. A complete representation by a single projection is there-
fore possible only when there is but one point to be projected
on each ray. This is the case by projecting from one plane to
another, but it is also the case if we project the visible parts of
objects in nature; for every ray of light meeting the eye starts
from that point in which the ray, if we follow its course from the
eye backward, meets for the first time any object. Thus, if we
project from a fixed centre the visible part of objects to a plane
or other surface, then the outlines of the projection would give
the same impression to the eye as the outlines of the things
projected, provided that one eye only be used and that this be
at the centre of projection. If at the same time the light emanat-
ing from the different points in the picture could be made to
be of the same kind — that is, of the same colour and intensity
and of the same kind of polarization — as that coming from the
objects themselves, then the projection would give sensibly
the same impression as the objects themselves. The art of
obtaining this result constitutes a chief part of the technique of
a painter, who includes the rules which guide him under the
name of perspective, distinguishing between linear and aerial
perspective — the former relating to the projection, to the
drawing of the outlines, the latter to the colouring and the
shading off of the colours in order to give the appearance of
distance. Here we deal only with the former, which is in fact a
branch of geometry consisting in the applications of the rules
of projection.

§ I. Our problem is the following: There is given a figure in
space, the plane of a picture, and a point as centre of projection; it is
required to project the figure from the point to the plane.

From what has been stated about projection (q.v.) in general it
follows at once that the projection of a point is a point, that of a
line a line. Further, the projection of a point at infinity in a line
is in general a finite point. Hence parallel lines are projected into
a pencil of lines meeting at some finite point. This point is called
the vanishing point of the direction to which it belongs. To find
it, we project the point at infinity in one of the parallel lines; that
is, we draw through the eye a line in the given direction. This
cuts the picture plane in the point required.

Similarly all points at infinity in a plane are projected to a line
(see PROJECTION : § 6) which is called the vanishing line of the plane
and which is common to all parallel planes.

All lines parallel to a plane have their vanishing points in a line,
viz. in the vanishing line of the plane.

All lines parallel to the picture plane have their vanishing points
at infinity in the picture plane; hence parallel lines which are

parallel to the picture plane
appear in the projection as
parallel lines in their true
direction.

The projection of a line is
determined by the projection of
two points in it, these being
very often its vanishing point
and its trace on the picture
plane. The projection of a
point is determined by the
projection of two lines through
it.

These are the general rules
which we now apply. We
suppose the picture plane to
be vertical.

§ 2. Let (fig. i) S be the
centre of projection, where
the eye is situated, and which

in perspective is called the point of sight, ABKL the picture
plane, ABMN a horizontal plane on which we suppose the objects

XXI. 9

to rest of which a perspective drawing is to be made. The lowest
plane which contains points that are to appear in the picture is
generally selected for this purpose, and is therefore called the
ground plane, or sometimes the geometrical plane. It cuts the
picture plane in a horizontal line AB called the ground line or base
line or fundamental line of the picture. A horizontal line SV,
drawn through the eye S perpendicular to the picture, cuts the
latter at a point V called the centre of the picture or the centre of
vision. The distance SV of the eye from the picture is often
called the distance simply, and the height ST of the_eye above the
ground the height of the eye.

The vanishing line of the ground plane, and hence of every
horizontal plane, is got by drawing the projecting rays from S to
the points at infinity in the plane — in other words, by drawing all
horizontal rays through S. These lie in a horizontal plane wnich
cuts the picture plane in a horizontal line DD' through the centre
of vision V. This line is called the horizon in the picture. It
contains the vanishing points of all horizontal lines, the centre of
vision V being the vanishing point of all lines parallel to SV, that
is perpendicular to the picture plane. To find the vanishing point
of any other line we draw through S the ray projecting the point at
infinity in the line; that is, we draw through S a ray parallel to the
line, and determine the point where this ray cuts the picture plane.
If the line is given by its plan on the ground plane, and its elevation
on the picture plane, then its vanishing point can at once be deter-
mined; it is the vertical trace of a line parallel to it through the
eye (cf. GEOMETRY: § Descriptive, § 6).

§ 3. To have construction in a single plane, we suppose the
picture plane turned down into the ground plane; but before this
is done the ground plane is
pulled forward till, say, the
line MN takes the place of
AB, and then the picture
plane is turned down. By
this we keep the plan of the
figure and the picture itself
separate. In this new posi-
tion the plane of the picture
will be that of the paper
(fig. 2). On it are marked
the base line AB, the centre
of vision V, and the horizon
DD', and also the limits
ABKL of the actual picture.
These, however, need not
necessarily be marked. In
the plan the picture plane
must be supposed to pass
through AiBi, and to be
perpendicular to the ground
plane. If we further sup-
pose that the horizontal
plane through the eye which
cuts the picture plane in the horizon DD' be turned down about
the horizon, then the centre of sight will come to the point S, where
VS equals the distance of the eye.

To find the vanishing point of any line in a horizontal plane,
we have to draw through S a line in the given direction and see
where it cuts the horizon. For instance to find the vanishing points
of the two horizontal directions which make angles of 45° with the
horizon, we draw through S lines SD and SD' making each an angle
of 45° with the line DD . These points can also be found by making
VD and VD' each equal to the distance SV. The two points D, D'
are therefore called the distance points.

§ 4. Let it now be required to find the perspective P of a point
P! (figs, i and 2) in the groundjplane. We draw through PI two
lines of which the projection can easily be found. The most con-
venient lines are the perpendicular to the base line, and a line
making an angle of 45 with the picture plane. These lines in the
ground plane are PiQi and PjRi. The first cuts the picture at Q; or
at Q, and has the vanishing point V; hence QV is its perspective.
The other cuts the picture in RI, or rather in R, and has the vanish-
ing point D; its perspective is RD. These two lines meet at P,
which is the point required. It [will be noticed that the line
QR = QiRi = QiPi gives the distance of the point P behind the
picture plane. Hence if we know the point Q where a perpendicular
from a point to the picture plane cuts the latter, and also the
distance of the point behind the picture plane, we can find its
perspective. We join Q to V, set off QR to the right equal to the
distance of the point behind the picture plane, and join R to the
distance point to the left ; where RD cuts QV is the point P required.
Or we set off QR' to the left equal to the distance and join R' to
the distance point D' to the right.

If the distance of the point from the picture should be very great,
the point R might fall at too great a distance from Q to be on the
drawing. ' In this case we might set off QW equal to the nth part
of the distance and join it to a point E, so that VE equals the nth
part of VD. Thus if QW = iQR and VE = $VD, then WE will
again pass through P. It is thus possible to find for every point in
the ground plane, or in fact in any horizontal plane, the perspective;

258

PERSPECTIVE

for the construction will not be altered if the ground plane be
replaced by any other horizontal plane. We can in fact now find
the perspective of every point as soon as we know the foot of the per-
pendicular drawn from it to the picture plane, that is, if we know its
elevation on the picture plane, and its distance behind it. For this
reason it is often convenient to draw in slight outlines the elevation
of the figure on the picture plane.

Instead of drawing the elevation of the figure we may also proceed
as follows. Suppose (fig. 3) Ai to be the projection of the plan
of a point A. Then the point A lies vertically above Ai because
vertical lines appear in the perspective as vertical lines (§i). If
then the line VAi cuts the figure plane at Q, and we erect at Q a
perpendicular in the picture plane to its base and set off on it QA2
equal to the real height of the point A above the ground plane,

FIG. 3.

then the point A2 is the elevation of A and hence the line A2V
will pass through the point A. The latter thus is determined by
the intersection of the vertical line through At and the line ASV.

This process differs from the one mentioned before in this that
the construction for finding the point is not made in the horizontal
plane in which it lies, but that its plan is constructed in the ground
plane. But this has a great advantage. The perspective of a
horizontal plane from the picture to the line at infinity occupies
in the picture the space between the line where the plane cuts the
picture and the horizon, and this space is the greater the farther the
plane is from the eye, that is, the farther its trace on the picture
plane lies from the horizon. The horizontal plane through the eye
is projected into a line, the horizon; hence no construction can be
performed in it. The ground plane on the other hand is the lowest
horizontal plane used. Hence it offers most space for constructions,
which consequently will allow of greater accuracy.

§ 5. The process is the same if we know the co-ordinates of the
point, viz. we take in the base line a point O as origin, and we take
the base line, the line OV, and the perpendicular OZ as axes of
co-ordinates. If we then know the co-ordinates x, y, z measured in
these directions, we make OQ = *, set off on QV a distance QA such
that its real length QR=y, make QA2 = z, and we find A as before.
This process might be simplified by setting off to begin with along
OQ and OZ scales in their true dimensions and along OV a scale
obtained by projecting the scale on OQ from D to the line OV.

§ 6. The methods explained give the perspective of any point
in space. If lines have to be found, we may determine the perspec-
tive of two points in them and join these, and this is in many cases the
most convenient process. Often, however, it will be advantageous
to determine the projection of a line directly by finding its vanishing
point. This is especially to be recommended when a number of
parallel lines have to be drawn.

The perspective of any curve is in general a curve. The projec-
tion of a conic is a conic, or in special cases a line. The perspec-
tive of a circle may be any conic, not necessarily an ellipse.
Similarly the perspective of the shadow of a circle on a plane is

some conic.

§ 7. A few words must be said about the determination of shadows
in perspective. The theory of their construction is very simple.
We have given, say, a figure and a point L as source of light. We
join the point L to any point of which we want to find the shadow
and produce this line till it cuts the surface on which the shadow
falls. These constructions must in many cases first be performed
in plan and elevation, and then the point in the shadow has to be
found in perspective. The constructions are different according as
we take as the source of light a finite point (say, the flame of a lamp),
or the sun, which we may suppose to be at an infinite distance.

If, for instance, in fig. 3, A is a source of light, EHGF a vertical
wall, and C a point whose shadow has to be determined, then the
shadow must lie on the line joining A to C. To see where this ray
meets the floor we draw through the source of light and the point
C a vertical plane. This will cut the floor in a line which contains
the feet Ai, Ci of the perpendiculars drawn from the points A, C to
the floor, or the plans of these points. At C', where the line AiQ
cuts AC, will be the shadow of C on the floor. If the wall EHGF
prevents the shadow from falling on the floor, we determine the
intersection K of the line AiC, with the base EF of the wall and
draw a vertical through it, this gives the intersection of the wall
with the vertical plane through A and C. Where it cuts AC is the
shadow C* of C on the wall.

If the shadow of a screen CDDiCi has to be found we find the
shadow D' of D which falls on the floor; then DiD' is the shadow
of DiD and D'C' is the shadow on the floor of the line DC. The
shadow of DiD, however, is intercepted by the wall at L. Here
then the wall takes up the shadow, which must extend to D" as the
shadow of a line on a plane is a line. Thus the shadow of the screen
is found in the shaded part in the figure.

§ 8. If the shadows are due to the sun, we have to find first the
perspective of the sun, that is, the vanishing point of its rays. This
will always be a point in the picture plane; but we have to distin-
guish between the cases where the sun is in the front of the picture,
and so behind the spectator, or behind the picture plane, and so in
front of the spectator. In the second case only does the vanishing
point of the rays of the sun actually represent the sun itself. It
will be a point above the horizon. In the other case the vanishing
point of the rays will lie below the horizon. It is the point where
a ray of the sun through the centre of sight S cuts the picture plane,
or it will be the shadow of the eye on the picture. In either case
the ray of the sun through any point is the line joining the perspec-
tive of that point to the vanishing point of the sun's rays. But
in the one case the shadow falls away from the vanishing point,
in the other it falls towards it. The direction of the sun's rays
may be given by the plan and elevation of one ray.

For the construction of the shadow of points it is convenient
first to draw a perpendicular from the point to the ground and to
find its shadow on the ground. But the shadows of verticals from
a point at infinity will be parallel ; hence they have in perspective
a vanishing point LI in the horizon. To find this point, we draw
that vertical plane through the eye which contains a ray of the
sun. This cuts the horizon in the required point LI and the picture
plane in a vertical line which contains the vanishing point of the
sun's rays themselves. Let then (fig. 4) L be the vanishing point

FIG. 4.

of the sun's rays, LI be that of their projection in a horizontal
plane, and let it be required to find the shadow of the vertical
column AH. We draw ALX and EL; they meet at E', which is
the shadow of E. Similarly we find the shadows of F, G, H. Then
E'F'G'H' will be the shadow of the quadrilateral EFGH. For
the shadow of the column itself we join E' to A, &c., but only mark
the outlines; F'B, the shadow of BF, does not appear as such in the
figure.

If the shadow E has to be found when falling on any other surface
we use the vertical plane through E, determine its intersection
with the surface, and find the point where this intersection is cut
by the line EL. This will be the required shadow of E.

§ 9. If the picture is not to be drawn on a vertical but on another
plane — say, the ceiling of a room — the rules given have to be slightly
modified. The general principles will remain true. But if the
picture is to be on a curved surface the constructions become
somewhat more complicated. In the most general case conceivable
it would be necessary to have a representation in plan and eleva-
tion of the figure required and of the surface on which the projection
has to be made. A number of points might also be found by
calculation, using co-ordinate geometry. But into this we do not
enter. As an example we take the case of a panorama, where the
surface is a vertical cylinder of revolution, the eye being in the
axis. The ray projecting a point A cuts the cylinder in two points
on opposite sides of the eye, hence geometrically speaking every
point has two projections; of these only the one lying on the half
ray from the eye to the point can be used in the picture. But the
other has sometimes to be used in constructions, as the projection
of a line has to pass through both. Parallel lines have two vanish-
ing points which are found by drawing a line of the given direction
through the eye; it cuts the cylinder in the vanishing points required.
This operation may be performed by drawing on the ground the
plan of the ray through the foot of the axis, and through the point
where it cuts the cylinder a vertical, on which the point required
must lie. Its height above is easily found by making a drawing of
a vertical section on a reduced scale.

Parallel planes have in the same manner a vanishing curve.
This will be for horizontal planes a horizontal circle of the height
of the eye above the ground. For vertical planes it will be a pair
of generators of the cylinder. For other planes the vanishing
curves will be ellipses having their centre at the eye.

The projections of vertical lines will be vertical lines on the

PERSPIRATION— PERTH

259

cylinder. Of all other lines they will be ellipses with the centre
at the eye. If the cylinder be developed into a plane, then these
ellipses will be changed into curves of sines. Parallel lines are
thus represented by curves of sines which have two points in
common. There is no difficulty in making all the constructions on
a small scale on the drawing board and then transferring them to
the cylinder.

§ 10. A variety of instruments have been proposed to facilitate
perspective drawings. If the problem is to make a drawing from
nature then a camera pbscura or, better, Wollaston's camera lucida
may be used. Other instruments are made for the construction of
perspective drawings. It will often happen that the vanishing
point of some direction which would be very useful in the construc-
tion falls at a great distance off the paper, and various methods
have been proposed of drawing lines through such a point. For
some of these see Stanley's Descriptive Treatise on Mathematical
Drawing Instruments. (O. H.)

PERSPIRATION (Lat. per, through, and spirare, to breathe),
the excretion of sweat from the sweat-glands of the skin.
Sweat is a clear colourless neutral or slightly alkaline fluid
containing 2% of solids. Under pathological conditions, sugar
urea and other substances are found. The secretion of sweat
is constantly going on, the activity of the sweat-glands being
under control of the central nervous system. The only func-
tion of sweat is the regulation of the heat discharge from
the body. The chief morbid conditions of the sweat-glands are
excessive sweating (Hyperidrosis) and foetid sweating (Bromi-
drosis). Excessive sweating is a symptom observed in various
diseases, such as tuberculosis and rheumatic fever, but it may
exist apart from such conditions, and either be general, affecting
the whole body, or confined to a part, such as the axillae, head,
hands, feet, or, as in some rare instances, the one half of the body.
Excessive perspiration may often be prevented by the cold bath,
and by tonics, such as iron, quinine, strychnia, &c. Locally,
the use of astringent lotions of vinegar or a weak solution of
lead will also be of service. Foetid sweating most frequently
affects the feet, specially in those who have much fatigue,
and is apparently due to rapid decomposition in the perspiration
which has saturated the stockings; these should be frequently
changed and the feet washed several times a day, dried carefully,
and dusted with some antiseptic powder.

PERTAB (or PARTAB) SINGH, SIR, maharaja of Idar
(1844- ), native Indian soldier and statesman, belonging to
the Rahtor Rajputs of the Jodha class, was born in 1844, being
the son of Maharaja Takht Singh, ruler of Marwar (or Jodhpur).
In 1878 and again in 1879 he was chief minister of Jodhpur.
In the following year he accompanied the British mission to
Afghanistan, and on his return he carried out many judicious
reforms and administered Jodhpur with remarkable success. He
visited England to take part in the celebration of the 1887
Jubilee of Queen Victoria's reign. He served on the staffs of
Sir William Lockhart and General Elles in the Tirah and Momand
expeditions in 1897-98, was slightly wounded, was mentioned
in despatches, and promoted to the rank of full colonel. He
won the reputation of being one of the keenest sportsmen
and the best riders that even Rajputana has produced.
When it was decided to send a force from India to China in
1900 to relieve the foreign embassies besieged in Peking, Sir
Pertab Singh at once offered the services of the Jodhpur Lancers,
and himself accompanied them. His father rendered good
services to the British government in the Mutiny, and Pertab
Singh always cherished the memory of the protection given to
Jodhpur by the East India Company in 1818. His services to
the empire in India were universally recognized. From Queen
Victoria he received the honour of knighthood and the Bath
and the Star of India; from King Edward VII. the distinction
of "aide-de-camp"; and the university of Cambridge gave
him the degree of LL.D. From his own state of Jodhpur he
obtained the title of Maharaja-Dhiraj. In 1901 he succeeded
to the rulership of the state of Idar.

PERTH, EARLS AND DUKES OF. The Scottish title of
earl of Perth was bestowed upon James, 4th Lord Drummond
(d. 1611) in 1605. His ancestor Sir John Drummond (d. 1519)
had been created Lord Drummond in 1488. The ist earl's great-
nephew, James, 4th earl and ist duke of Perth (1648-1716),

was a son of James, the 3rd earl (c. 1615-1675). When John
Maitland, duke of Lauderdale, was virtually the dictator of
Scotland, Perth was among his opponents, and after Lauderdale's
retirement in 1680 he was one of the committee of seven which
managed Scottish affairs. He was made justice-general and extra-
ordinary lord of session in 1682, and was lord chancellor of
Scotland from 1684 to 1688. As a convert to Roman Catholi-
cism after the death of Charles II., he stood high in the favour of
James II. Perth, who is credited with the introduction of the
thumbscrew,was very unpopular with the Scottish people, and dur-
ing the Revolution of 1688 he was imprisoned at Stirling. Released
from captivity in 1693 he joined James II. at St Germains, and
was made duke of Perth, a titular dignity only after the exiled
king's death in 1701. His son James (c. 1675-1720) was with
James II. in Ireland, and led the cavalry at the battle of Sheriff-
muir. He was attainted in 1715, but claimed the dukedom of
Perth after his father's death. His son James (1713-1746),
regarded by friends and dependants as the 3rd duke of Perth,
fought for the Young Pretender at Prestonpans and Culloden.
His brother and heir, John, the 4th duke (c. 1716-1747),
also joined Charles Edward, and fought at Falkirk and Culloden.
The titular dukedom became extinct when the sixth holder,
Edward, another son of the ist duke, died in 1760.

The earldom was then claimed by Edward s cousin, James
Lundin (1707-1781), agrandson of the ist titular duke of Melfort,
who was a brother of the ist duke of Perth and took the name
of Drummond. His son James (1744-1800) secured the Drum-
mond estates in 1783, and was created a British peer as Lord
Perth and Baron Drummond in 1797. On his death without
sons in July 1800 his barony became extinct, but the claim to
the earldom of Perth was inherited by his kinsman, the 4th
titular duke of Melfort, and his descendants (see below). The
Drummond estates, however, passed to the baron's daughter
Clementina (d. 1865), afterwards the wife of Peter Robert,
20th Lord Willoughby de Eresby, and thence to her descendant
the earl of Ancaster.

The ist duke's brother, John (c. 1650-1715), earl of Melfort,
rose to favour under Charles II. about the same time as his
brother; like him, too, he became a Roman Catholic in 1686.
In 1684 he was made secretary of state for Scotland; in 1686 he
was created earl of Melfort by James II., and during his reign
he took a leading part in Scottish affairs. After the Revolution
of 1688 his great influence with James II. and with Mary of
Modena drew upon him the hatred both of the French and of
the Irish. He was with James II. at St Germains, but lost
his former ascendancy, and died in Paris on the 25th of January
1715. In 1694 he was made duke of Melfort, and all his titles
were held under the singular condition that they should descend
to the children of his second wife, Euphemia (d. 1743), daughter
of Sir Thomas Wallace, in preference to his children by his first
wife, Sophia Lundin, who were Protestants. In 1701 Melfort
was recognized as a French peer, the due de Melfort, by
Louis XIV. In 1695 he had been attainted, but his titles were
claimed by John (1682-1754), his eldest son by his second wife,
who shared in the rising of 1715. In 1800 John's grandson,
James Louis, 4th titular duke of Melfort, claimed the earldom of
Perth. This claim was unsuccessful, but in 1853 George
(1807-1902), nominally 6th duke of Melfort, obtained a reversal
of the various attainders, and his own recognition as earl of
Perth and Melfort. The succeeding earl was his kinsman,
William Huntly Drummond, Viscount Strathallan (1871- ).

See Sir R. Douglas, The Peerage of Scotland; and Histories of Noble
British Families, vol. ii., edited by H. Drummond (1846).

PERTH, the capital of Western Australia, situated on the
Swan River, 12 m. by rail from the sea at Fremantle, and about
1700 m. W.N.W. of Melbourne. It is the seat of both Anglican
and Roman Catholic bishops, and has two cathedrals. The
fashionable street is St George's Terrace; in it are situated the
public library, the government boys' school, the stock exchange,
the town-hall, the government offices and the parliament build-
ings. Between it and the broad reach of the river known as
Perth Water lie the governor's residence and domain. The

260

PERTH

town-hall, built entirely by convict labour, stands on an emi-
nence in the very heart of the city ; opposite to it are the govern-
ment offices, housed in a four-storeyed structure in the style of
the French Renaissance. The mint, opened in 1899, is a massive
freestone building. There are a public library, built as a
memorial of Queen Victoria's Jubilee in 1887, a Scots college,
two good theatres, a mechanics' institute, a museum, and a
fine Wesleyan church-house, known as Queen's Hall. The
Perth Park, containing about 1200 acres, is connected by tram
with the city, and in it is a well-equipped observatory. There
are several smaller parks and squares in the city, while the
esplanade gardens are a feature of the place, being thrown out
like a pier into Perth Water. There is a good cricket ground,
and three race-courses are in easy reach. South Perth, on the
other side of the river, is connected by bridges and steam ferry;
and adjoining the city on the north-west are the suburban
municipalities of Leederville and Subiaco. Outlying suburbs
are Belmont, Victoria Park, Burswood, Claremont, Cottesloe,
Peppermint Grove and Bayswater. The city is lighted by
electricity, and has a good service of electric trams. Perth
has an agreeable climate, the mean temperature is 64-9° F.,
and the average rainfall 33 in. Perth was founded in 1829,
received its municipal charter in 1856, and was created a city
in 1880. Between 1891 and 1901 the growth of the city was
remarkedly rapid; in 1891 the population was only 8447, but
in 1901 it had grown to 27,471 in the city proper, and to 36,199
including the suburbs.

PERTH, a city, and royal, municipal and police burgh, and
county town of Perthshire, Scotland, 32 m. N. by W. of Edin-
burgh direct, and 47^ m. by the North British railway, via the
Forth Bridge and Kinross Junction. Pop. (1901). 33, 566.
It is situated on the right bank of the Tay, between the meadows
of the North Inch (98 acres) and those of the South Inch (72
acres), both laid out as public parks. The river is crossed by
St John's Bridge of nine arches, completed in 1772 from the
designs of John Smeaton and widened a century later; by Victoria
Bridge, a modern structure connecting South Street with Dundee
Road; and farther south (at the end of Tay Street) by a footway
alongside of the viaduct belonging to the Caledonian railway.
Of earlier bridges one, which crossed at High Street, was swept
away by the flood of 1621, and another, constructed by General
Wade in 1723-1733, was apparently the predecessor of Smeaton's
bridge. On the left bank of the river lie the suburb of Bridgend
and Kinnoull Hill (729 ft.). To the south are the wood-clad
heights of Moncrieffe Hill (725 ft.), Magdalenes Hill (596 ft.),
Kirkton Hill (540 ft.) and Craigie Wood (407) ft. In the river
are Friarton or Moncrieffe Island and the Stanners.

Notwithstanding the importance of Perth in former times,
almost the sole relic of the past is the church of St John the
Baptist, a large Decorated cruciform building surmounted by a
massive square central tower 155 ft. high. The original edifice
is believed to have been erected in the time of Columba, but the
transept and nave of the existing structure date from the early
part of the I3th century, the choir from the isth. The church
was restored in 1891, and is now divided into the East, Middle
and West churches. The silver-gilt communion cup used in the
Middle Church is said to have been presented by Queen Mary. In
May 1559 John Knox preached in St John's his famous sermon
in denunciation of idolatry. The Dominican or Blackfriars'
monastery, founded by Alexander II. in 1231, occupied a site
near the west end of St John's Bridge; in what is now King
Street stood the Carthusian monastery, founded by James I.
in 1425; the Franciscan or Greyfriars' monastery, founded in
1460 by Laurance, first Lord Oliphant, stood on the present
Greyfriars' cemetery; the Carmelite or Whitefriars' monastery,
founded in 1260, stood west of the town. The tombstone of
James I. and his queen, who were buried in the Charterhouse,
was afterwards removed to St John's East Church. During the
period between the beginning of the I2th century and the
assassination of James I. in 1437, many of the Scottish parlia-
ments were held in Perth. The building in which they met
stood off High Street and was only cleared away in 1818, its

site being occupied by the Freemasons' Hall. The earl of
Cowrie's palace, built in 1520, stood in spacious grounds near
the river and was removed in 1805 to provide room for the
county buildings. The castle of Perth stood on the north of High
Street, not far from St John's. It was probably built about
860 and demolished about 1400. The Spey or Spy tower, the
most important fortress on the city wall, guarded the south gate
close to the river, but it was taken down early in the igth century.
The market cross, erected in High Street in 1669 to replace
the older cross which Cromwell destroyed, was removed in
1765 as an obstruction. The huge fortress, 466 ft. square, which
Cromwell erected in 1651 on the South Inch, close to the river
and the Greyfriars' burying-ground, was demolished in 1663.
The house of Catherine Glover, the " Fair Maid of Perth," still
stands in Curfew Row. James VI. 's Hospital, founded in 1569,
occupies the site of the Carthusian monastery, the original
structure having been pulled down by Cromwell's orders. The
pensioners now live out and the hospital has been converted
into artisans' dwellings. Among modern public buildings the
principal are St Ninian's Episcopal Cathedral, in the Early
Middle Pointed style, an important example (completed 1890)
of the work of William Butterfield (1814-1900); the municipal
buildings (1881); the city-hall; the Marshall Memorial Hall
(1823), housing the public library and the museum of the
Perth Literary and Antiquarian Society; the Perthshire natural
history museum; the Sandeman public library (1898), founded by
a bequest of Professor Sandeman of Owens College, Manchester.
The general prison for Scotland, south of the South Inch, was
originally erected in 1812 as a dep&t for French prisoners, but was
remodelled as a convict prison in 1840 and afterwards enlarged.
North-west of the city are the military barracks built in 1793-
1794. Besides the regular elementary schools there are the
Perth Academy (1807) with which was subsequently amalgamated
the Burgh Grammar School, an institution supposed to date
from the I2th century; Sharp's institute (1860); the Stewart's
free school, an industrial school for girls, and the Fechney
industrial school. The charitable institutions comprise the
royal infirmary, in the Italian style, considerably enlarged
since its foundation in 1836; the Murray royal lunatic asylum
in Bridgend; the Hillside House in Kinnoull and the small-pox
hospital.

From the south the city is entered by the North British
railway and the Caledonian railway (which also runs west
to St Fillans, east to Dundee and north-west to Aberdeen);
and from the north by the Highland railway, the three
systems utilizing a general station in the south-west of
the town. During the season there is communication with
Dundee and other river ports by steamer. The navigation
of the stream is considerably obstructed by sandbanks, but
vessels of 200 tons can unload at the quays, which, with the
town and Friarton harbours, lie below the South Inch. The
greatest tidal rise is 13 ft. The chief imports are Baltic timber,
coal, salt and manure; and the exports, manufactured goods,
grain, potatoes and slates. Perth has long been famous for its
dyeing and bleaching, the bleach-fields being mostly situated
outside of the city, in convenient proximity to the Tay and
Almond. The other leading industries include manufactures
of gauge-glasses, ink, muslins, India shawls, jute goods, woollens
and winceys, floorcloth, and boots and shoes. There are iron
foundries, breweries, distilleries, rope and sail works, coach-
building yards, steam joinery works, and brick and tile works.
The salmon fisheries of the Tay yield a substantial revenue.
Perth is under the jurisdiction of a town council, with a lord
provost and bailies, and returns one member to parliament.

History. — During the time that it was occupied by the
Romans, a period estimated at 320 years, the city was called
Victoria; but shortly after their withdrawal it seems to have
borne the Celtic appellation of Aber-tha (" at the mouth of the
Tay "). The transition to the latinized form Bertha and later
to Perth (the Gaelic name being Peart) appears obvious. On
the conversion of the original Pictish inhabitants and the
dedication of the first church to St John the Baptist, the town

PERTH AMBOY— PERTHES, J. G. J.

261

was designated St Johnstoun, and it continued to be known
indifferently by this name and that of Perth down to the iyth
century. Roman remains have often been found in excavations
carried out within the existing boundaries, which suggests
that the Roman settlement was at least twenty feet below the
present surface. The obscurity of the early annals of the
town is explained by the circumstance that Edward I. caused
the records to be removed. Perth is stated to have been a
burgh in 1106 and was made a royal burgh by William the Lion
in 1210. During the Scottish wars of the Independence its
fortifications were strengthened by Edward I. (1298). Robert
Bruce several times ineffectually attempted to seize it, but in
1311 he succeeded in scaling the walls during a night attack.
This was the fourth and most brilliant of the seven sieges which
the city has sustained. Taken by Edward III. in 1335, it was
recaptured in 1339. In 1396 the combat between the Clan
Chattan and the Clan Quhele, described in Scott's Fair Maid
of Perth, took place on the North Inch in presence of Robert III.
and his queen, Annabella Drummond. The Blackfriars' monas-
tery was the scene of the murder of James I. by Walter, earl
of Atholl, in 1437. In consequence Perth lost its status as
capital, in which it had succeeded to Scone, and the Parliament
Courts were transferred to Edinburgh in 1482. Cowrie Palace
was the scene of the mysterious " Cowrie " conspiracy against
James VI. in 1600. The town was taken by Montrose in
1644, by Cromwell in 1651, and was occupied by Viscount
Dundee in 1689. In 1715 the Old Pretender was proclaimed
king at the Mercat Cross (Sept. 16), and the chevalier
himself appeared in the city in the following January, only
to leave it precipitately on the approach of the earl of Argyll.
Prince Charles Edward spent a few days in Perth from the
3rd of September 1745. In both rebellions the magistrates
took the side of the Crown and were supported by the
townsfolk generally, the Jacobites drawing their strength mainly
from the county noblemen and gentry with their retainers.
Since then the city has devoted itself to the pursuits of
trade and commerce. Perth was visited by plague in 1512,
1585-1587, 1608 and 1645; by cholera in 1832; and the
floods of 1210, 1621, 1740, 1773 and 1814 were exceptionally
severe.

AUTHORITIES. — Maidment, The Chronicle of Perth from 1210 to
1668 (1831); Penney, Traditions of Perth (1836) ; Lawson, The Book
of Perth (1847); Peacock, Perth, its Annals and Archives (1849);
Samuel Cowen, The Ancient Capital of Scotland (1904).

PERTH AMBOY, a city and port of entry of Middlesex county,
New Jersey, U.S.A., at the mouth of the Raritan river, on
Raritan Bay and Staten Island Sound, about 15 m. S. by W.
of Newark. Pop. (1910 census) 32,121. It is served by
the Pennsylvania, Lehigh Valley, Central of New Jersey and
Staten Island Rapid Transit railways, and by boats to New
York City. It is connected by a railway bridge (C.R.R.
of N.J.) and by a foot and wagon bridge with South Amboy,
on the south shore of the Raritan. Perth Amboy has a good
harbour, shipyards and dry-docks. In the city still stands
Franklin Palace (erected in 1764-1774), the home of William
Franklin (1729-1813), a natural son of Benjamin Franklin and
the last royal governor of New Jersey. In the vicinity is the
Bartow House, in which William Dunlap (1766-1839), the art
historian, made his first drawings. Other buildings of historic
interest are the Parker Castle (c. 1729), a centre of Loyalist
influence at the time of the War of Independence, and the
Kearny Cottage, the home of " Madam Scribblerus," a half-
sister of Captain James Lawrence. The city has various manu-
factures, the factory product in 1905 being valued at $34,800,402.
Clay is obtained in the vicinity, and large shipments of coal are
made. Perth Amboy was founded in 1683. It was at first
called Amboy after the original Indian name; in 1684 the
proprietors named it Perth in honour of James, earl of Perth
(1648-1716), one of their number, and a few years later the two
names were combined. From 1686 until the end of the pro-
prietary government in 1702 Perth Amboy was the capital of
the province of East Jersey, and during the period of royal

government the general assembly and supreme court of New
Jersey met alternately here and at Burlington. Perth Amboy
was incorporated as a city in 1718, and received a new charter
in 1784, and another in 1844, the last being revised in 1870.
The township of Perth Amboy was incorporated in 1693 and
in 1844 was included in the city.

PERTHES, FRIEDRICH CHRISTOPH (1772-1843), German
publisher, nephew of Johan Georg Perthes (q.v.) , was born at
Rudolstadt on the 2ist of April 1772. At the age of fifteen
he became an apprentice in the service of Adam Friedrich
Bohme, a bookseller in Leipzig, with whom he remained for
about six years. In Hamburg, where he settled in 1793 as an
assistant to the bookseller B. G. Hoffmann, he started in 1796
a bookselling business of his own, and in 1798 he entered into
partnership with his brother-in-law, Johann Heinrich Besser
(1775-1826). By his marriage in 1797 with a daughter of the
poet, Matthias Claudius, he was brought into intimate relation
with a group of Protestant writers, who exercised a powerful
influence on the growth of his religious opinions. This, however,
did not prevent him from being on friendly terms with a number
of eminent Roman Catholic authors. Perthes was an ardent
patriot; and during the period of Napoleon's supremacy he
distinguished himself by his steady resistance to French preten-
sions. His zeal for the national cause led him, in 1810-1811, to
issue Das deutsche Museum, to which many of the foremost
publicists in Germany contributed. For some time the French
made it impossible for him to live in Hamburg; and when, in 1814,
he returned to that city he found that his business had greatly
diminished. In 1821, his wife having died, he left Hamburg,
transferring his business there to his partner, and went to Gotha,
where he established what ultimately became one of the first
publishing houses in Germany. It was owing to his initiation
that the Borsenverein der deutschen Buchhandler (Union of Ger-
man Booksellers) in Leipzig was founded in 1825. When the
foundation-stone of the fine building of the Union was laid in
1834, Perthes was made an honorary freeman of the city of
Leipzig, and in 1840 the university of Kiel conferred upon him
the degree of doctor of philosophy. Perthes died at Gotha on
the i8th of May 1843. His Life was written by his son, Klemens
Theodor Perthes (1809-1867), professor of law in the university
of Bonn, and author of Das deutsche Staatsleben vor der
Resolution (Hamburg and Gotha, 1845), and Das Herbergswesen
der Handwerksgesellen (Gotha, 1856, and again 1883), whose
son Hermann Friedrich Perthes (1840-1883) was the founder
of the Fridericianum at Davos Platz. The publishing business
at Gotha was carried on by Perthes's . younger son, Andreas,
(1813-1890) and his grandson, Emil (1841- ), until 1889,
when it was handed over to a company.

See also O. Adler, Friedrich and Karoline Perthes (Leipzig, 1900).

PERTHES, JOHAN GEORG JUSTUS (1740-1816), German
publisher, was born at Rudolstadt on the nth of September
1749. In 1785 he founded at Gotha the business which bears
his name (Justus Perthes). In this he was joined in 1814 by
his son Wilhelm (1793-1853), who had been in the establishment
of Justus' nephew, Friedrich Christoph Perthes, at Hamburg.
On the death of Justus at Gotha on the 2nd of May 1816, Wilhelm
took entire control of the firm. He laid the foundation of the
geographical branch of the business, for which it is chiefly
famous, by publishing the Hand-atlas (1817-1823) of Adolf Stieler
(1775-1836). Wilhelm Perthes engaged the collaboration of
the most eminent German geographers of the time, including
Heinrich Berghaus, Christian Gottlieb Reichard (1758-1837),
who was associated with Stieler in the compilation of the atlas,
Karl Spruner (1803-1892) and Emil von Sydow (1812-1873).
The business passed to his son Bernard Wilhelm Perthes (1821-
1857), who was associated with August Petermann (under whose
direction the well-known periodical Petermanns Mitteilungen
was founded) and Bruno Hassenstein (1830-1902); and subse-
quently to his son Bernard (1857- ). In 1863 the firm first
issued the Almanack de Gotha, a statistical, historical and
genealogical annual (in French) of the various countries of the

262

PERTHSHIRE

world; and in 1866 the elaborate Geographisches Jahrbuch was
produced under the editorship of Ernst Behm (1830-1884), on
whose death it was continued under that of Professor Hermann
Wagner.

PERTHSHIRE, an inland county of Scotland, bounded N.
by the shires of Inverness and Aberdeen; E. by Forfarshire;
S.E. by the Firth of Tay and the counties of Fife and Kinross;
S. by the shires of Clackmannan and Stirling; S.W. by the coun-
ties of Stirling and Dumbarton; W. by Argyllshire and N.W. by
Inverness-shire. It is the fourth largest county in Scotland,
having an area of 1,595,774 acres, or 2493-4 sq. m., including the
island of Mugdrum in the Firth of Tay. By far the greater
part of the county is mountainous. Including the hills on the
confines of Inverness-shire and Argyllshire, there are at least
fifty mountains exceeding 3000 ft. in height. Of these the most
familiar are Ben Lawers (3984 ft.) near Loch Tay, Ben More
(3843) east of Crianlarich, Ben Lui (3708) on the Argyllshire
border, Schiehallion (3547) south of Loch Rannoch, Ben Vannoch
(3125) west of Loch Lyon, and Ben Chonzie (3048) near the head
of Glen Almond. Of the immense number of hills of lesser
altitude there may be mentioned four that have been popularized
by the Lady of the Lake — Ben Ledi (2875) and Uam Var (2179)
near Callander, and Ben Venue (2393) and Ben A'an (1750),
guardians of the Trossachs. The Ochils divide Perthshire
from the shires of Clackmannan, Kinross and Fife. The chief
stream is the Tay, which rises on the Argyllshire frontier and
discharges into the North Sea off Buddon Ness, after a course of
117 m., being thus the longest river in Scotland. Its head-waters
are the Fillan and Dochart, and among its affluents are, on the
right, the Bran, Almond and Earn and, on the left, the Lyon,
Tummel, rising in Argyllshire and receiving the Garry on its
left, and Isla. The Earn flows out of Loch Earn and enters
the Firth of Tay 6| m. below Perth. The Forth, the principal
natural boundary of the shire on the south, properly belongs
to Stirlingshire, in which it rises, but its leading left-hand affluents
are Perthshire rivers, namely, the Teith, the Goodie, issuing
from the lake of Menteith, and the Allan, rising in the Ochils
near Sheriffmuir. All the lakes are narrow , scarcely one
exceeding a mile in width. Loch Ericht, belonging partly to
Inverness-shire, is 14! m. long. Loch Tay (14! m. long),
situated about the centre, is the largest lake in the county.
In the south are the series of lakes which the Lady of the Lake
has rendered famous — Loch Vennachar (4! m. long), Loch
Achray (ij m. long), Loch Katrine (about 8 m. long) ; to the west
of Aberfoyle is Loch Ard (3 m. long) and to the east Lake Men-
teith (ij m. long). Nearly all the glens possess striking natural
features, among them, from south to north, being Glens Artney,
Almond, Dochart, Ogle, Lochay, Lyon, Garry, Shee, Bruar and
Tilt; while the Trossachs, Killiecrankie, Birnam and Leny are
the loveliest passes in the Highlands. The low-lying country
is represented mainly by Strathmore, Strath Gartney, Strath-
allan, noted for its annual " gathering " or games, Strathearn,
Strath Bran, Strath Tay and Strath Fillan, but more particularly
by the fertile alluvial belts of the Carse of Cowrie, on the
northern shore of the Firth of Tay, and the Carse of Stirling.
The Moor of Rannoch on the borders of Argyllshire is a sterile
boulder-strewn waste, and Flanders Moss, to the south-east
of Lake Menteith, is a vast boggy tract, which is, however, being
gradually reclaimed and brought under cultivation.

Geology. — The Highland portion of this county is built up of a
great series of schists and metamorphosed rocks grouped as Dai-
radian " or Eastern schists. The general direction of the strike
of these rocks is W.S.W.-E.N.E. They are cut off from the Old
Red Sandstone, which occupies most of the remainder of the county,
by the great fault which traverses the county somewhat to the
north of Aberfoyle and Crieff. But for some distance north and
east of Crieff the boundary between these two formations is an
unconformable one. In the neighbourhood of the fault line the
Highland schists are less metamorphosed than they are farther
north ; about Comrie and Callander they consist of shales, greywackes
and igneous rocks with radiolarian cherts and black shales that are sug-
gestive of the rocks of Arenig age in south Scotland. At Aberfoyle,
Comrie and Dunkeld roofing; slates are worked and massive lime-
stones occur in Glen Tilt, Pitlochry, Callander, Blair Atholl, Loch
Rannoch and other places. A gritty series comes on above the

slates and is well seen capping the summit of Ben Vorlich. A
great variety of schists form the bulk of the series; but granite
masses appear in their midst as at Loch Rannoch, Loch Ericht
and Glen Tilt, and there are numerous acid and intermediate dikes
which are themselves traversed by later basaltic dikes. The Old
Red Sandstone consists in the lower portion mainly of coarse
volcanic agglomerates and lava flows followed by conglomerates,
sandstones and marls. The lowest beds are exposed along the
crest of the Ochil Hills which like the Sidlaw Hills are anticlinal in
structure, while between the Ochils and the Highland fault the
rocks are folded into syncline; near the fault they become very
steeply inclined and even inverted, and it is interesting also to note
that the sediments become coarser as the fault is approached.
The Upper Old Red Sandstone is well exposed near the Bridge of
Earn and it extends beneath the marine platform of the Carse of
Gowrie. The rocks are mainly red sandstones and marls, let down
between two parallel east and west faults but between the Bridge
of Earn and Forgandenny, west of the tract, they are seen to rest
unconformably upon the lower division. Small outliers of Car-
boniferous rocks (lower) occur on the north of the Ochils. The
marks of ice action left by the Glacial epoch are abundant and
striking in Perthshire; moraines are common in the Highland glens,
as those at the head of the Glengarry on borders of Loch Katrine ;
ice-scratched surfaces are found on the Sidlaw Hills, the Ochils,
Kinnoull Hill and elsewhere; and erratic blocks of stone, such as
" Samson's Putting Stone," a mass of Highland schist resting on
a hill of Old Red Sandstone near Coilantogle, are widely distributed.
Old high level marine beaches form terraces far up several of the
larger streams, and the Carse of Gowrie, as already indicated, is
formed by the beach at the 5o-ft. level. The gravel cones poured out
at the mouths of many of the glens which open on the south of the
Ochils on to the loo-ft. or 5o-ft. beaches are often the site of villages.
Climate and Agriculture. — The mountainous territory is extremely
wet, the rainfall for the year varying from 93 in. in Glengyle at the
head of the Loch Katrine to 37 in. at Pitlochry and 23 in. at Perth.
Winter and autumn are the rainiest seasons. The temperature
is remarkably constant everywhere, averaging 47° F. for the year,
January being the coldest month (36-5° F.) and July the hottest
(59° F-)- Only a little more than one-fifth of the total area is
under cultivation, and of this nearly one-third is in permanent
pasture, while in addition there are about 930,000 acres of hill
pasturage. The arable land is chiefly in the drier regions of the
east and south-east, the soil for the most part being fertile. Light
soils prevail in the lower undulating districts; clay and alluvial
land occur in the Carse of Gowrie, the Carse of Stirling and the
lower reach of Strathearn below and above Bridge of Earn. The
best heavy carse land is very rich and productive, but requires to
be thoroughly worked, limed and manured, being well adapted for
wheat. A considerable area is occupied by orchards, the light
quick soil of Tayside and the upper districts of Menteith being
admirably fitted for apples. The number_of holdings is slightly
in excess of 5000 and of these the majority are under 50 acres
each, chiefly in the Highland valleys and near the villages and
small towns. Of grain, oats is the predominating crop, but barley
and wheat are also grown. Two-thirds of the area devoted to
green crops is occupied by turnips? the rest by potatoes. Most of
the horses raised, chiefly Clydesdales, are used solely for agricultural
purposes. Although dairy-farming is not an important industry,
a large number of cows, principally Ayrshires, are kept on the
lowland farms, the herds of the straths and mountain pastures
being most usually West Highlands or Kyloes. Perthshire, next
to Argyllshire, still carries the heaviest flocks in Scotland. Black-
faced is the principal breed in the Grampians, but there is also a
large number of Cheviots and South Downs, and Leicesters are
common on the lower runs. Only one-seventeenth of the surface
is under wood. This is well up to the proportion of the other
Scottish counties, but compares unfavourably with the conditions
existing in 1812, when 203,880 acres were under wood, of which
61,164 were planted and 142,716 natural. In Breadalbane and
Menteith there are remains of the ancient Caledonian forest.
Perthshire affords exceptional facilities for sport with rod and gun.
The lochs and rivers abound with salmon and trout, while hardly
any of the streams have suffered pollution from industries or
manufactures. The deer forests, exceeding 100,000 acres in area,
are frequented by red deer and roe deer, and on the extensive
moors and in the woods are found grouse, pheasants, partridge,
capercailzie, woodcock, ptarmigan and hares.

Industries. — The shire is famous for its dyeing and bleaching
works, which are situated in Perth and its vicinity; but, apart from
these, there are flax and jute mills at Rattray and cotton mills at
Stanley, Deanston and Crieff; woollens, linen, jute and tartans are
woven at Dunblane, Alyth, Blairgowrie, Coupar-Angus, Auchter-
arder and Crieff; tanning is carried on at Blackford, Coupar-Angus
and Crieff; there are breweries and distilleries at various places,
as at Auchterarder and Logierait; granite, freestone, limestone
and slate are quarried at different centres; and there are sawmills
and flour-mills.

Communications. — The Caledonian railway main line to Aberde
enters the county near Dunblane and runs in a north-easterly

PERTINAX— PERTZ

263

direction via Perth. At Crieff junction it sends off a branch to
Crieff and at Perth branches to Dundee and Lochearnhead. The
Stirling to Oban line of the same company crosses the shire from
Dunblane to Tyndrum. The Highland railway runs northwards
from Perth, and has a branch at Ballinluig to Aberfeldy. Branches of
the North British railway reach Perth from Mawcarse in Kinross-
shire and Ladybank in Fifeshire; part of the branch from Buchlyvie
on the Forth and Clyde line runs to Aberfoyle, and the West
Highland railway skirts the extreme west of the shire. At several
points coaches supplement the rail. In the tourist season steamers
ply on Loch Tay and Loch Katrine, and there is a service on the
Tay between Perth and Dundee.

Population and Administration. — In 1891 the population
amounted to 122,185 and in 1901 to 123,283, or 49 persons to the
sq. m. The rate of increase was the smallest of any Scottish
county for the decade. In 1901 there were 78 persons speaking
Gaelic only and 11,446 Gaelic and English. The chief towns
are Perth (pop. 32,873), Crieff (5208), Blairgowrie (3378),
Dunblane (2516), Auchterarder (2276), Coupar-Angus (2064),
Rattray (2019). Among lesser centres may be mentioned Aber-
feldy (1508), a favourite resort on the Tay, well known for the
falls of Moness, mentioned in Robert Burns's song " The Birks
of Aberfeldy "; Abernethy (623), the seat of an early bishopric,
retaining one of the three ancient round towers in Scotland;
Alyth (1965); Callander (1458); Comrie (1118), a holiday resort
on the Earn; Pitlochry (1541); and Stanley (1035), on the Tay.
Of old the county was divided into hereditary jurisdictions,
which were abolished in 1748, and in 1795 the county was
divided into districts for administrative purposes, a system which
obtained until 1889, when county and district councils were
established. The sheriffdom is divided into an eastern and
western district, the seat of the one being Perth and the other
Dunblane. For parliamentary purposes the county is also
divided into an eastern and a western division, and the city of
Perth returns a member. The shire is under school-board
jurisdiction, and there are secondary schools at Perth and
Crieff, and Trinity College in Glen Almond is a well-known
public school on the English model.

History. — In 83 Agricola explored the lands beyond the Forth
and in the following year penetrated to the Grampians, defeating
the Caledonians under Galgacus with great slaughter. The site
of this battle is conjectured by William Forbes Skene to have
been near Meikleour, south of Blairgowrie, but other writers
have referred it to Dalginross, near Comrie; to Ardoch (where
there are the most perfect remains of a Roman encampment in
the British Isles) ; and even as far north as Raedykes, near Stone-
haven in Kincardineshire. The Romans did not pursue their
victory, and the Picts were left undisturbed for a considerable
period. At this time, according to Ptolemy, the territory now
known as Perthshire was occupied by three tribes — the Dam-
nonii, the Venicones and the Vacomagi. The Damnonii held
Menteith, Strathearn and Fothrif (the western part of modern
Fife and Kinross), with Alauna (Allan), just above Stirling,
Lindum (Ardoch) and Victoria (believed by some authorities
to be Lochore in Fifeshire, and by others to be Perth city), as
their chief towns. The Venicones inhabited north-western Fife
and the adjoining tract of Perthshire, with Orrea (probably
Abernethy) as their chief town and a station at Ardargie. The
Vacomagi dwelt in the Highland region, with stations at Inch-
tuthil (a peninsula in the Tay above Kinclaven) and Banatia
(Buchanty on the Almond). The growing lawlessness of the
southern Picts and their frequent raids in the more settled
country in the south at last compelled the attention of the
emperor Severus. He arrived in Britain in 208, but though he
led a strong army to the shores of the Moray Firth, he was
unable effectually to subdue the tribesmen. The road he
constructed ran from Stirling to Ardoch (where there are notable
remains) and thence by Strageath, near Muthill, where it
branched north-westwards to Dalginross and Buchanty, and
north-eastwards to Perth and so to the Grampians. When the
Romans finally withdrew from Britain, the Picts established
their capital first at Abernethy and then at Forteviot. Aber-
nethy was the centre of the Celtic church after the conversion
of the natives by Ninian, Palladius and other missionaries in the

5th and 6th centuries. On the burning of Forteviot by the
Norsemen in the 8th century, the seat of Pictish government was
removed to Scone. In the latter half of the 9th century Dunkeld
— to which Kenneth Macalpine had brought some of the relics
of Columba from lona — became the scene of monastic activity,
the abbot succeeding to the position of the abbot of lona, and
exercising great influence for nearly a hundred years. The
Danes periodically harried the land, but a crushing defeat at
Luncarty in 961 put an end to their inroads in this quarter.
In 1054 Macbeth was defeated at Dunsinane by Siward, earl
of Northumberland, who had invaded Scotland in the interest
of his kinsman, Duncan's son, who, on the death of the usurper
three years later, ascended the throne as Malcolm III., called
Canmore. With Malcolm's accession the Celtic rule of the
monarchy of Scone came to an end. Nevertheless, the Scottish
sovereigns (excepting James II., James III. and Mary) continued
to be crowned at Scone, which also retained the position of
capital until the beginning of the i2th century, when it was
displaced by Perth. From the time of Alexander I. (d. 1124),
therefore, the history of the shire is merged in that of the county
town, with the exception of such isolated incidents as the removal
of the Coronation Stone from Scone to Westminster in 1296,
the defeat of Robert Bruce at Methven in 1306, the battle of
Dupplin in 1332, the victory of Dundee at Killiecrankie in 1689
and the indecisive contest at Sheriff muir in 1715. Among
archaeological remains may be mentioned the hill-fort on
Dunsinane; the ship-barrow of the vikings at Rattray, weems
(or earth-houses) in the parishes of Monzie, Alyth and Bendochy;
the witch-stone near Cairnbeddie, one of the numerous spots
where Macbeth is alleged to have met the witches, but probably
a sepulchral memorial of some forgotten battle; standing stones
near Pitlochry, and an extraordinary assemblage of sculptured
stones at Meigle.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Robertson, Comitatus de Atholiae (Edinburgh,
1860) ; P. R. Drummond, Perthshire in Bygone Days (London, 1879) ;
Marshall, Historic Scenes of Perthshire (Perth, 1880); Beveridge,
Perthshire-on- Forth (2 vols., London, 1885); R. B. Cunninghame-
Grahame, Notes on the District of Menteith (London, 1895) ; Hutchison,
The Lake of Menteith (Stirling, 1899).

PERTINAX, PUBLIUS HELVIUS (A.D. 126-193), Roman
emperor, the son of a charcoal-burner, was born at Alba Pompeiain
Liguria. From being a teacher of grammar he rose through many
important offices, both civil and military, to the consulate, which
he held twice. Chosen, at an advanced age and against his
will, on the ist of January 193, to succeed Commodus, he was
himself assassinated in a mutiny of the soldiers, on the 28th of
March 193.

PERTZ, GEORG HEINRICH (1795-1876), German historian,
was born at Hanover on the 28th of March 1795. From 1813
to 1818 he studied at Gottingen, chiefly under A. H. L. Heeren.
His graduation thesis, published in 1819, on the history of the
Merovingian mayors of the palace, attracted the attention of
Baron Stein, by whom he was engaged in 1820 to edit the Carol-
ingian chroniclers for the newly-founded Historical Society of
Germany. In search of materials for this purpose, Pertz made
a prolonged tour through Germany and Italy, and on his return
in 1823 he received at the instance of Stein the principal charge
of the publication of Monumenta germaniae historica, texts
of all the more important historical writers on German affairs
down to the year 1500, as well as of laws, imperial and regal
archives, and other valuable documents, such as letters, falling
within this period. Pertz made frequent journeys of explora-
tion to the leading libraries and public record offices of Europe,
publishing notes on the results of his explorations in the Archiv.
der Gesellsch. f. deutsche Geschichtskunde (1824-1872). In 1823
he had been made secretary of the archives, and in 1827 principal
keeper of the royal library at Hanover; from 1832 to 1837 he
edited the Hannoverische Zeitung, and more than once sat as a
representative in the Hanoverian second chamber. In 1842
he was called as chief librarian to Berlin, where he shortly
afterwards was made a privy councillor and a member of the
Academy of Sciences. He resigned all his appointments in

264

PERU

1874, and on the 7th of October 1876 died at Munich while
attending the sittings of the historical commission.

The Monumenta began to appear in 1826, and at the date of
his resignation 24 volumes folio (Scriptores, Leges, Diplomala)
had appeared. This work for the first time made possible the
existence of the modern school of scientific historians of medieval
Germany. In connexion with the Monumenta Pertz also began
the publication of a selection of sources in octavo form, the
Scriptores rerum germanicarum in usum scholarum; among his
other literary labours may be mentioned an edition of the Gesam-
melte Werke of Leibnitz, and a life of Stein (Leben des Ministers
Freiherrn vom Stein (6 vols., 1849-1855); also, in an abridged form,
Aus Steins Leben (2 vols., 1856).

Scale, 1:12,000,000
English Miles

IOO ISO 200

Boundaries of Deportments & ntMMM

Capitals of Departments A Provinces
Railways

Reference to
Departments & Provinces

1. Tumbez (Province)

2. Piura ,

3. Lambayeque

4. Cajamarca

5. Amazonas

6. Loreto

7. San Martin

8. Llbertad

9. Ancachs

10. JH uanuco

11. Callao (Province)

12. Lima
IS. Junin

11 Huancaveltea

15. lea

16. Ayacucho

17. Apurimae

Pttt-Carret

8. at la lnaer*ntSencia

19. Puno

20. Arequlpa

21. Moquegua (Provlnet)

R Longitude West 76° of Greenwich

PERU (apparently from Biru, a small river on the west coast
of Colombia, where Pizarro landed), a republic of the Pacific
coast of South America, extending in a general N.N.W.-S.S.E.
direction from lat. 3° 21' S. to about 18° S., with a sea-coast of
1240 m. and a width of 300 to 400 m., exclusive of territories
in dispute. Its area in 1906, including Tacna and Arica, and
other disputed territories occupied by neighbouring states, was
officially estimated at 1,752,422 sq. kilometers, or 676,638 sq. m.;
exclusive of these territories, the area of Peru is variously

estimated at 439,000 to 480,000 sq. m., the Gotha measurements
being 1,137,000 sq. kilometers, or 439,014 sq. m.

With the exception of parts of the Ecuador, Brazil and Bolivia
frontiers, all the boundary lines have been disputed and referred
to arbitration — those with Colombia and Ecuador to the king
of Spain, and that with Bolivia to the president of Argentina,
on which a decision was rendered on the gth of July 1909.
There have been misunderstandings with Ecuador in regard
to some small areas in the Chira valley, but it may be assumed
that the line is fixed between Santa Rosa (3° 21' S.) on the Gulf
of Guayaquil, and the Chinchipe river, a tributary of the

Maranon. At the junction of
the Cauches with that river,
that Ecuadorean line descends
the Chinchipe to the Maranon,
and the Peruvian ascends to a
point where it is intersected by
a line following the eastern
Cordillera northward to the
head-waters of the Caqueta, or
Japura, which forms the
northern boundary down to the
Brazilian frontier. This claim
covers all eastern Ecuador and
a large part of south-eastern
Colombia. In 1903 there were
encounters between small bodies
of Peruvian and Ecuadorean
troops on the disputed frontier.
After arbitration by the king
of Spain had been agreed
upon, the question was con-
sidered by two Spanish com-
missions, and modifications
favouring Peru were recom-
mended. These became known
prematurely, and in May 1910
war was threatened between
Peru and Ecuador in spite of
an offer of mediation by the
United States, Brazil and
Argentina under the Hague
Convention.

From the Japura southward
to the Amazon, in 4° 13' 21" S.,
69° 35' W., and thence up the
Javary, or Yavari, to its source
in 7° 8' 4" S., 73° 46' 3°" W.,
as determined by a mixed
commission, the line has been
definitely settled. From near
the source of the Javary, or
lat. 7° i' 17" S., a line running
eastward to the Madeira in
lat. 6° 52' 15" S., which is
half the distance between the
mouth of the Mamore and the
mouth of the Madeira, divides
the Spanish and Portuguese
possessions in this part of South
America, according to the pro-
visions of the treaty of San
Ildefonso of 1777. This line has been twice modified by treaties
between Bolivia and Brazil, but without the consent of Peru,
which claimed all the territory eastward to the Madeira between
the above-mentioned line and the Beni-Madidi rivers, the line
of demarcation following the Pablo-bamba, a small tributary
of the Madidi, to its source, and thence in a straight line to the
village of Conima, on Lake Titicaca. The dispute with Brazil
relates to the territory acquired by that republic from Bolivia
in 1867 and 1903, and was to be settled, according to an agreement

Emery

PERU

265

of 1908, by direct negotiation if possible, or, failing this,
by arbitration. The decision of the president of Argentina of
the pth of July 1909, in regard to the remainder of this extensive
territory, was a compromise, and divided it into two nearly
equal parts. The line adopted starts from Lake Suches, the
source of a small river of that name flowing into the north of
Lake Titicaca, crosses the Cordillera by the Palomani to the
Tambopata river, follows that stream to the mouth of the Lanza,
thence crosses to the source of the Heath river, which forms the
dividing line down to its junction with the Madre de Dios,
descends that river to the mouth of the Torosmonas, thence in
a straight line north-westerly to the intersection of the Tahua-
manu river by the 6gth meridian, and thence north on that
meridian to the Brazilian frontier. This decision at first gave
offence to the Bolivians, but friendly overtures from Peru led
to its acceptance by both parties with the understanding that
modifications would be made in locating the line wherever actual
settlements had been made by either party on territory awarded
to the other. With Chile the dejure line is that of the Camarones
ravine which separated the old department of Moquegua (includ-
ing the provinces of Tacna and Arica) from that of Tarapaca.
The de facto line is that of the Sama river (usually dry), which
opens on the coast a little south of Sama point, near 18° S., Chile
retaining possession of the two above-mentioned provinces in
violation of the treaty of Ancon, which she forced upon her
defeated antagonist.

Physical Geography. — Peru is divided longitudinally into three
well-defined regions, the coast, the sierra and the montana. The
coast, extending from the base of the Western or Maritime Cor-
dillera to the Pacific Ocean, consists of a sandy desert crossed at
intervals by rivers flowing through narrow, fertile valleys. The
sierra is the region of the Andes, and is about 250 m. in width. It
contains stupendous chains of mountains, elevated plains and
table-lands, warm and fertile valleys and ravines. The montana
is the region of tropical forests within the valley of the Amazon, and
skirts the eastern slopes of the Andes.

The coast has been upraised from the ocean at no very distant

geological epoch, and is nearly as destitute of vegetation as the

African Sahara. It is watered, however, by fifty

1 ° • streams which cross the desert at intervals. Half
of these have their origin in the summits of the Andes, and run
with a permanent supply of water into the ocean. The others,
rising in the outer range, which does not reach the snow-line
and receives less moisture, carry a volume of water to the sea during
the rainy season, but for the rest of the year are nearly dry. The
absence of rain here is ascribed to the action of the lofty uplands
of the Andes on the trade-wind, and to the influence of the cold
Humboldt current sweeping northward along the west coast of
the continent. The south-east trade-wind blows obliquely across
the Atlantic Ocean until it reaches Brazil. By this time it is
heavily laden with vapour, which it continues to bear along across the
continent, depositing it and supplying the sources of the Amazon
and La Plata. When the wind rises above the snow-capped Andes,
the last particle of moisture is wrung from it that a very low
temperature can extract. Passing the summit of that range, it
rushes down as a cool and dry wind on the Pacific slopes beyond.
Meeting with no evaporating surface, and with no temperature
colder than that to which it is subjected on the mountain-tops, this
wind reaches the ocean before it becomes charged with fresh
moisture. The constantly prevailing wind on the Peruvian coast
is from the south, which is a cold wind from the Humboldt current.
As it moves north it becomes gradually warmed and takes up
moisture instead of depositing it as ram. From November to
April there are usually constant dryness, a clear sky, and con-
siderable, though by no means oppressive, heat. From June to
September the sky is obscured for weeks together by fog, which
is often accompanied by drizzling rain called garua. At the time
when it is hottest and driest on the coast it is raining heavily
in the Andes, and the rivers are full. When the rivers are
at their lowest, the garua prevails on the coast. The climate
of various parts of the coast, however, is modified by local
circumstances.

The Western Cordillera, overhanging the Peruvian coast, contains
a long line of volcanic mountains, most of them inactive, but their
presence is probably connected with the frequent and severe
earthquakes, especially in the southern section of the coast. Since
1570 seventy violently destructive earthquakes have been recorded
on the west coast of South America, but the register is incomplete
in its earlier part. The most terrible was that of 1746, which
destroyed Callao, on the 28th of October, and there were 220 shocks
in the following twenty-four hours. The town was overwhelmed
by a vast wave, which rose 80 ft.; and the shocks continued until
the following February. On the I3th of August 1868 an earthquake

nearly destroyed Arequipa, and great waves rolled in upon the
ports of Arica and Iquique. On the gth of May 1877 nearly all the
southern ports were overwhelmed.

The deserts between the river-valleys vary in extent, the largest
being more than 70 m. across. On their western margin steep
cliffs generally rise from the sea, above which is the tablazo or
plateau, in some places slightly undulating, in others with ridges
of considerable height rising out of it. The surface is generally
hard, but in many places there are large accumulations of drifting
sea-sand. The sand usually forms isolated hillocks, called medanos,
of a half-moon shape, having their convex sides towards the trade-
wind. They are from 10 to 20 ft. high, with an acute crest, the
inner side perpendicular, the outer with a steep slope. Sometimes,
especially at early dawn, there is a musical noise in the desert, like
the sound of distant drums, which is caused by the eddying of
grains of sand in the heated atmosphere, on the crests of the
medanos.

Apparently the deserts are destitute of all vegetation ; yet three
kinds of herbs exist, which bury themselves deep in the earth, and
survive long periods of drought. One is an amar- c _.
anthaceous plant, whose stems ramify through the
sandhills; the other two are a Martynia and an Aniseia, which
maintain a subterranean existence during many years, and
only produce leafy stems in those rare seasons when sufficient
moisture penetrates to the roots. In a few hollows which are
reached by moisture the trees of the desert find support, the
algarrobo (Prosopis horrida), a low tree of very scraggy growth,
the vichaya (Capparis crotonoides), and the zapote del perro (Colico-
dendrum scabridum), mere shrubs. Near the Cordillera and on its
lower slopes a tall branched cactus is met with, and there are
Salicornias and Salsolas near the coast. But, when the mists set
in, the low hills near the coast bordering the deserts, which are
called lomas, undergo a change as if by magic. A blooming vege-
tation of wild flowers for a short time covers the barren hills. Near
Lima one of the low ranges is brightened by the beautiful yellow
lily called amancaes (Ismene Amancaes). The other flowers of the
lomas are the papita de San Juan (Begonia geranifolia), with red
petals contrasting with the white inner sides, valerians, the beautiful
Bomarea ovata, several species of Oxalis, Solarium and crucifers.
But this carpet of flowers is very partially distributed and lasts
but a short time.

The valleys form a marvellous contrast to the surrounding
desert. A great mass of pale-green foliage is usually composed
of the algarrobo trees, while the course of the river is marked by
lines or groups of palms, by fine old willows (Salix humboldtiana) ,
fruit-gardens, and fields of cotton, Indian corn, sugar-cane and
alfalfa (lucerne). In some valleys there are expanses of sugar-cane,
in others cotton, whilst in others vineyards and olive-yards pre-
dominate. The woods of algarrobo are used for pasture, cattle and
horses enjoying the pendulous yellow pods.

For purposes of description the coast-region of Peru may be
divided into five sections, beginning from the north: (i) the Piura
region; (2) the Lambayeque and Trujillo section; sections at
(3) the Santa valleys; (4) the section from Lima to Nasca; the Coasti
(5) the Arequipa and Tacna section.

(i) The great desert-region of Piura extends for nearly 200 m. from
the Gulf of Guayaquil to the borders of the Morrope Valley, and
is traversed by three rivers — the Tumbes, Chira and Piura, the
two former receiving their waters from the inner Cordillera and
breaking through the outer range. It is here that the coast of South
America extends farthest to the westward until it reaches Capes
Blanco and Parina, and then turns southward to the Bay of Paita.
The climate of Piura is modified by the lower latitude, and also
•by the vicinity of the forests of Guayaquil. Fog and garua are
much less frequent than in the coast-region farther south, while
rain sometimes falls. At intervals of three or four years there are
occasional heavy showers of rain from February to April. (2) The
second section of the coast-region includes the valleys of the Morrope,
the Chiclayo, and Lambayeque, the Sana, the Jequetepeque, the
Chicama, Moche, Viru and Chao. With the intervening deserts
this section extends over 200 m. All these valleys, except Morrope
and Chao, are watered by rivers which have their sources far in
the recesses of the mountains, and which furnish an abundant
supply in the season when irrigation is needed. (3) The third
section, also extending for 200 m., contains the valleys of Santa,
Nepena, Casma, Huarmey, Fortaleza, Pativilca, Sup6 and Huaura.
The river Santa, which rises in the lake of Conococha, 12,907 ft.
above the sea, and has a length of 180 m., is remarkable for its
long course between the outer and central ranges of the Andes, in a
trough known as the " Callejon de Huaylas," 100 m. in length.
It then breaks through in a deep gorge, and reaches the sea after
a course of 35 m. over the coast-belt, and after fertilizing a rich
valley. The Santa and Nepena valleys are separated by a desert
8 leagues in width, on the shores of which there is a good anchorage
in the bay of Ferrol, where the port of Chimbote is the terminus of
a railway. The Nepena, Casma, Huarmey, Fortaleza and Sup6
rivers rise on the slope of an outer range called the Cordillera Negra,
and are consequently dry during the great part of the year. Wells
are dug in their beds, and the fertility of the valleys is thus main-
tained. The Pativilca (or Barranca) river and the Huaura break

266

PERU

through the outer range from their distant sources in the snowy
Cordillera, and have a perennial supply of water. There are 9
leagues of desert between the Nepena and Casma, 16 between the
Casraa and Huarmey, and 18 between the Huarmey and Fortaleza.
The latter desert, much of which is loose sand, is called the Pampa
de Mala, Cavallos, from the number of exhausted animals which die
there. Between the Sup6 and Pativilca is the desert called the
Pampa del Media Mundo. (4) The next coast-section extends for
over 300 m., from Chancay to Nasca, and includes the rivers of
Chancay or Lacha, of Carabayllo, Rimac, Lurin, Mala, Canete,
Chincha, Pisco or Chunchanga, lea and Rio Grande. Here the
maritime range approaches the ocean, leaving a narrower strip of
coast, but the fertile valleys are closer and more numerous. Those
of Carabayllo and Rimac are connected, and the view from the Bay
of Callao extends over a vast expanse of fertile plain bounded by
the Andes, with the white towers of Lima in a setting of verdure.
Lurin and Mala are smaller valleys, but the great vale of Canete
is one green sheet of sugar-cane; and narrow strips of desert separate
it from the fertile plain of Chincha, and Chincha from the famous
vineyards of Pisco. The valleys of lea, Palpa, San Xavier and Nasca
are rich and fertile, though they do not extend to the sea ; but between
Nasca and Acari there is a desert 60 m. in width. (5) The Arequipa
and Tacna section extends over 350 m. and comprises the valleys of
Acari, Atequipa, Atico, Ocona, Majes or Camana, Quilca, with the
interior valley of Arequipa, Tambo, Ilo or Moquegua, It6 or Locumba,
Sanaa, Tacna, and Azapa or Arica. Here the Western Cordillera
recedes, and the important valley of Arequipa, though on its western
slope, is 7000 ft. above the sea and 90 m. from the coast. Most
of the rivers here have their sources in the central range, and are
well supplied with water. The coast-valleys through which they
flow, especially those of Majes and Locumba, are famous for their
vineyards, and in the valley of Tambo there are extensive olive
plantations.

The coast of Peru has few protected anchorages, and the headlands
are generally abrupt and lofty. These and the few islands are
frequented by sea-birds, whence come the guano-
isiaaas. deposits, the retention of ammonia and other fertilizing
properties being due to the absence of rain. The islets off the
coast are all barren and rocky.

The most northern is Foca, in 5° 13' 30* S., near the coast to the
south of Paita. The islands of Lobos de Tierra and Lobos de Afuera
(2) in 6° 27' 45' S. and 6° 56' 45" S. respectively, are off the desert of
Sechura, and contain deposits of guano. The two Afuera islands
are 6p and 36 m. respectively from the coast at the port of Sari Jos6.
The islets of Macabi, in 7° 49' 20* S., also have guano deposits, now
practically exhausted. The two islets of Guanape, surrounded by
many rocks, in 8° 34' S., contain rich deposits. Chao rises 450 ft.
above the sea, off the coast, in 8° 46' 30* S. Corcobado is in 8° 57' S.
La Viuda is off the port of Casma, in 9° 23' 30" S. ; arid Tortuga is
2 m. distant to the north. Santa Islet lies off the bay of Cosca, in
9° i' 40*, and the three high rocks of Ferrol in 9° 8' 30' S. Farther
south there is the group of islets and rocks called Huaura, in 1 1 ° 27' S.,
the chief of which are El Pelado, Tambillo, Chiquitana, Bravo,
Quitacalzones and Mazorque. The Hormigas are in 11° 4' S. and
n° 58', and the Pescadores in 1 1 ° 47' S. The island of San Lorenzo,
in 12° 4' S., is a lofty mass, 4$ m. long by I broad, forming the
Bay of Callao; its highest point is 1050 ft. Off its south-east end
lies a small but lofty islet called Fronton, and to the south-west
are the Palomitas Rocks. Horadada Islet, with a hole through
it, is to the south of Callao Point. Off the valley of Lurin are the
Pachacamac Islands, the most northern and largest being half a
mile long. The next, called San Francisco, is Tike a sugar-loaf,
perfectly rounded at the top. The others are mere rocks. Asia
Island is farther south, 17 m. north-west of Cerro Azul, and about
a mile in circuit. Pisco Bay contains San Gallan Island, high, with
a bold cliff outline, 2j m. long by I broad, the Ballista Islets, and
farther north the three famous Chincha Islands, whose vast guano
deposits are now exhausted. South of the entrance to Pisco Bay
is Zarate Island, and farther south the white level islet of Santa
Rosa. The Infiernillo rock is quite black, about 50 ft. high, in the
form of a sugar-loaf, a mile west of the point of Santa Maria, which
is near the mouth of the lea river. Alacran is a small islet off the
lofty " morro " of Arica. All these rocks and islets are barren and
uninhabitable. The more common sea-birds are the Sula variegata
or guano-bird, a large gull called the Larus modestus, the Pelecanus
thayus, and the Sterna Ynca, a beautiful tern with curved white
feathers on each side of the head. The rarest of all the gulls is also
found on the Peruvian coast, namely, the Xemafureatum. Sea-lions
(Otaria forsteri) are common on the rocky islands and promontories.

The region of the Cordilleras of the Andes is divided into puna,
or lofty uninhabited wilderness, and sierra, or inhabitable moun-
Sl tain slopes and valleys. This great mountain-system,

running south-east to north-west, consists of three
chains or Cordilleras. The two chains, which run parallel and near
each other on the western side, are of identical origin, and have
been separated by the action of water during many centuries. On
these chains are the volcanoes and many thermal springs. The
narrow space between them is for the most part, but not always, a
cold and lofty region known as the puna containing alpine lakes —
the sources of the coast-rivers. The great eastern chain, rising from

the basin of the Amazon and forming the inner wall of the system,
is of distinct origin. These three chains are called the Western or
Maritime Cordillera, the Central Cordillera and the Andes. Paz
Soldan and other Peruvian geographers give the name of Andes,
par excellence, to the Eastern Cordillera.

The Maritime Cordillera of Peru has no connexion with the coast
ranges of Chile, but is a continuation of the Cordillera Occidental
of Chile, which under various local names forms the eastern margin
of the coastal desert belt from Atacama northward into Peru.
It contains a regular chain of volcanic peaks overlooking the coast-
region of Tarapaca. Chief among them are the snowy peak of
Lirima (19,128 ft.) over the ravine of Tarapaca, the volcano of
Isluga overhanging Camina, the Bolivian peak of Sajama, and
Tocora (19,741 ft.) near the Bolivian frontier. In rear of Moquegua
there is a group of volcanic peaks, clustering round those of Ubinas
and Huaynaputina. A great eruption of Huaynaputina began on
the I5th of February 1600 and continued until the 28th. But
generally these volcanoes are quiescent. Farther north the Misti
volcano rises over the city of Arequipa in a perfect cone to a height
of over 20,013 ft., and near its base are the hot sulphur and iron
springs of Yura. The peak of Sarasara, in Parinacochas (Ayacucho)
is 19,500 ft. above the sea, and in the mountains above Lima the
passes attain a height of more than 15,000 ft. In latitude 10° S.
the maritime chain separates into two branches, which run parallel
to each other for 100 m., enclosing the remarkable ravine of Callejon
de Huaylas — the eastern or main branch being known as the
Cordillera Nevada and the western as the Cordillera Negra. On
the Nevada the peak of Huascan reaches a height of 22,051 ft.
The Huandoy peak, above Carhuaz, rises to 21,088 ft.; the Hualcan
peak, overhanging the town of Yungay, is 19,945 ft- high ; and most
of the peaks in this part of the chain reach a height of 19,000 ft.
During the rainy season, from October to May, the sky is generally
clear at dawn, and the magnificent snowy peaks are clearly seen.
But as the day advances the clouds collect. In most parts of the Peru-
vian Andes the line of perpetual snow is at 16,400 ft. ; but on the Cor-
dillera Nevada, above the Callejon de Huaylas, it sinks to 15,400 ft.
This greater cold is caused by the intervention of the Cordillera
Negra, which intercepts the warmth from the coast. As this lower
chain does not reach the snow-line, the streams rising from it are
scanty, while the Santa, Pativilca and other coast-rivers which
break through it from sources in the snowy chain have a greater
volume from the melted snows. At the point where the river
Santa breaks through the Cordillera Negra that range begins to
subside, while the Maritime Cordillera continues as one chain to and
beyond the frontier of Ecuador.

The Central Cordillera is the true water-parting of the system.
No river, except the Maranon, breaks through it either to the east or
west, while more than twenty coast streams rise on its slopes and
force their way through the maritime chain. The Central Cordillera
consists mainly of crystalline and volcanic rocks, on each side of
which are aqueous, in great part Jurassic, strata thrown up almost
vertically. In 14° 30' S. the central chain is connected with the
Eastern Andes by the transverse mountain-knot of Vilcanota, the
peak of that name being 17,651 ft. above the sea. The great inland
basin of Lake Titicaca is thus formed. The central chain continues
to run parallel with the Maritime Cordillera until, at Cerro Pasco,
another transverse knot connects it with the Andes in 10° 30' S. lat.
It then continues northward, separating the basins of the Maranon
and Huallaga; and at the northern frontier of Peru it is at length
broken through by the Maranon flowing eastward.

The Eastern Andes is a magnificent range in the southern part of
Peru, of Silurian formation, with talcose and clay slates, many
quartz veins and eruptions of granitic rocks. Mr Forbes says that
the peaks of Illampu (21,709 ft.) and Illimani (21,014 ft.) in Bolivia
are Silurian and fossiltferous to their summits. The eastern range
is cut through by six rivers in Peru, namely, the Maranon and Hual-
laga, the Perene, Mantaro, Apurimac, Vilcamayu and Paucartambo,
the last five being tributaries of the Ucayali. The range of the
Andes in south Peru has a high plateau to the west and the vast
plains of the Amazonian basin to the east. The whole range is
highly auriferous, and the thickness of the strata is not less than
10,000 ft. It is nowhere disturbed by volcanic eruptions, except at
the very edge of the formation near Lake Titicaca, and in this respect
it differs essentially from the Maritime Cordillera. To the eastward
numerous spurs extend for varying distances into the great plain
of the Amazons.

The Andes lose their majestic height to the northward ; and beyond
Cerro Pasco the eastern chain sinks into a lower range between the
Huallaga and Ucayali. But throughout the length of Peru the three
ranges are clearly defined.

For purposes of description the sierra of Peru may be divided
into four sections, each embracing portions of all three ranges.
The first, from the north, comprises the upper basins Sfctian, at
of the Maranon and the Huallaga, and is 350 m. long by %jra
100 broad. The second extends from the Knot of
Cerro Pasco to Ayacucho, about 200 m., including the Lake of
Chinchay-cocha and the basin of the river Xauxa. The third or
Cuzco section extends 250 m. to the Knot of Vilcanota with the basins
of the Pampas, Apurimac, Vilcamayu and Paucartambo. The
fourth is the basin of Lake Titicaca.

PERU

267

Lake Junin, or Chinchay-cocha, in the second section, is 36 m.
long by 7 m. broad, and 13,232 ft. above the sea. Its marshy
banks are overgrown with reeds and inhabited by numerous water-
fowl. From this lake the river Xauxa flows southwards through
a populous valley for 150 m. before entering the forests. Lake
Titicaca (see BOLIVIA), in the fourth or most southern section, is
divided between Peru and Bolivia. It receives a number of short
streams from the ranges shutting in the upper end of the valley;
the largest is the Ramiz, formed by the two streams of Pucara and
Azangaro, both coming from the Knot of Vilcanota to the north.
The Suches, which has its source in Lake Suches, falls into Lake
Titicaca on the north-west side, as well as the Yllpa and Ylave.
The principal islands are Titicaca and Coati (at the south end near
the peninsula of Copacabana), Campanaria (9 m. from the east
shore), Soto and Esteves. There are two other lakes in the Cottao,
as the elevated region round Titicaca is called. Lake Arapa, a few
miles from the northern shore of Titicaca, is 30 m. in circumference.
Lake Umayo is on higher ground to the westward. The lake in
Peru which is third in size is that of Parinacochas on the coast
watershed, near the foot of the snowy peak of Sarasara. It is 12 m.
long by 6 broad, but has never been visited and described by any
modern traveller. The smaller alpine lakes, often forming the
sources of rivers, are numerous.

The great rivers of the sierra are the Maranon, rising in the lake
of Lauricocha and flowing northward in a deep gorge between the
Maritime and Central Cordilleras for 350 m., when it forces its way
through the mountains at the famous Pongo de Manseriche and
enters the Amazonian plain. The Huallaga rises north of Cerro
Pasco, and, passing Huanuco, flows northwards on the other side of
the Central Cordillera for 300 m. It breaks through the range at
the Pongo de Chasuta and falls into the Maranon. The other great
rivers are tributaries of the Ucayali. The Pozuzu, flowing east-
ward from the Knot of Cerro Pasco, joins the Pachitea, which is
the most important northern affluent of the Ucayali. The Xauxa,
becoming afterwards the Mantaro, receives the drainage of Xauxa,
Huancavelica and Ayacucho. The southern valleys of this part of
the sierra furnish streams which form the main rivers of Pampas,
Pachachaca and Apurimac. These, uniting with the Mantaro,
form the Ene, and the Ene and Perene (which drains the province
of Tambo) form the Tambo. The Vilcamayu rises on the Knot of
Vilcanota, flows north through a lovely valley, received the Yanatilde
and Paucartambo on its right bank, and, uniting with the Tambo,
forms the Ucayali. Most of these main streams flow through pro-
found gorges in a tropical climate, while the upper slopes yield
products of the temperate zone, and the plateaus above are cold and
bleak, affording only pasture and the hardiest cereals.

The great variety of elevation within the sierra produces vege-
tation belonging to every zone. There is a tropical flora in the
deep gorges, higher up a sub-tropical, then a temper-
Slerraa at6i ^en a sub-arctic flora. In ascending from the
*""* coast-valleys there is first an arid range, where the
Fauna. great-branched cacti rear themselves up among
the rocks. Farther inland, where the rains are more plentiful,
is the native home of the potato. Here also are other plants
with edible roots — the oca (Oxalis luberosa), ulluca (Ullucus
tuberosus), massua (Tropteolum tuberosum), and learco (Polymnia
sonchifolia). Among the first wild shrubs and trees that are met
with are the chilca (Baccharis Feuilki), with a pretty yellow flower,
the Mutisia acuminata, with beautiful red and orange flowers,
several species of Senecio, calceolarias, the Schinus moUe, with its
graceful branches and bunches of red berries, and at higher elevations
the lambras (Alnus acuminata), the sauco (Sambucus peruviana),
the quenuar (Buddleia incana), and the Polylepis racemosa. The
Buddleia, locally called oliva silveslre, flourishes at a height of
12,000 ft. round the shores of Lake Titicaca. The most numerously
represented family is the Compositae, the grasses being next in num-
ber. The temperate valleys of the sierra yield fruits_ of many
kinds. Those indigenous to the country are the delicious chin-
moyas, paltas or alligator pears, the paccay, a species of Inga, the
lucma, and the granadilla or fruit of the passion-flower. Vineyards
and sugar-cane yield crops in the warmer ravines; the sub-tropical
valjeys are famous for splendid crops of maize; wheat and barley
thrive on the mountain slopes; and at heights from 7000 to 13,000 ft.
there are crops of quinua (Chenopodium quinua). In the loftiest
regions the pasture chiefly consists of a coarse grass (Stipa ychu),
of which the llamas eat the upper blades and the sheep browse on the
tender shoots beneath. There are also two kinds of shrubby plants,
a thorny Composite, called " ccanlli " and another, called tola,"
which is a resinous Baccharis and is used for fuel.

The animals which specially belong to the Peruvian Andes are
the domestic llamas and alpacas and the wild vicunas. There are
deer, called taruco (Cervus antisensis) ; the viscacha, a large rodent ;
a species of fox called atoc ; and the puma (Felis concolor) and wumari
or black bear with a white muzzle, when driven by hunger, wander
into the loftier regions. The largest bird is the condor, and there is
another bird of the vulture tribe, with a black and white wing
feather formerly used by the Incas in their head-dress, called the
coraquenque or alcamari. The pito is a brown speckled creeper which
flutters about the rocks. There is a little bird, the size of a starling,
with brown back striped with black, and white breast, which the

Indians call yncahualpa ; it utters a monotonous sound at each hour
of the night. A partridge called yutu frequents the long grass.
On the lakes there is a very handsome goose, with white body and
dark-green wings shading into violet, called huachua, two kinds
of ibis, a large gull (Larus serranus) frequenting the alpine lakes in
flocks, flamingoes called parihuana, ducks and water-hens. Many
pretty little finches fly about the maize-fields and fruit-gardens,
and a little green parakeet is met with as high as 1 2,000 ft. above the
sea.

The third division of Peru is the region of the tropical forests,
at the base of the Andes, and within the basin of the Amazon.
It is traversed by great navigable rivers. The Maranon, „ . -
having burst through the defile of the Pongo de Man-
seriche (575 ft. above sea level), and the Huallaga through that of
Chasuta, enter the forests and unite after separate courses of about
600 and 400 m., the united flood then flowing eastward to the
Brazilian frontier. After 150 m. it is joined by the Ucayali, a great
navigable river with a course of 600 m. The country between
the Huallaga and the Ucayali, traversed by the Eastern Cordillera,
is called the Pampa del Sacramento, and is characterized by exten-
sive grassy plains. The forests drained by the Maranon, Huallaga
and Ucayali form the northern portion of the Peruvian montana.
The southern half of the montana is watered by streams flowing
from the eastern Andes, which go to form the river Madre de
Dios or Amaru -mayu, the principal branch of the river Beni, which
falls into the Madeira. The region of the Peruvian montana, which
is 800 m. long from the Maranon to the Bolivian frontier, is naturally
divided into two sections, the sub-tropical forests in the ravines
and on the eastern slopes of the Andes, and the dense tropical
forests in the Amazonian plain. The sub-tropical section is impor-
tant from the value of its products and interesting from the grandeur
and beauty of its scenery. Long spurs run on from the Andes,
gradually decreasing in elevation, and it is sometimes a distance of
60 or 80 m. before they finally subside into the vast forest-covered
plains of the Amazon basin. Numerous rivers flow through the
valleys between these spurs, which are the native home of the
quinine-yielding cinchona trees. The most valuable species, called
C. Calisaya, is found in the forests of Caravaya in south Peru and in
those of Bolivia. The species between Caravaya and the head-
waters of the Huallaga yield very little of the febrifuge alkaloid.
But the forests of Huanuco and Huamalios abound in species yield-
ing the grey bark of commerce, which is rich in cinchonine, an
alkaloid efficacious as a febrifuge, though inferior to quinine. With
the cinchona trees grow many kinds of melastomaceae, especially
the Lasiandra, with masses of purple flowers, tree-ferns and palms.
In the warm valleys there are large plantations of coca (Erythro-
xylon Coca), the annual produce of which is stated at 15,000,000 Ib.
The other products of these warm valleys are excellent coffee, cocoa,
sugar, tropical fruits of all kinds, and gold in abundance. In the
vast untrodden forests farther east there are timber trees of many
kinds, incense trees, a great wealth of rubber trees of the Hevea genus,
numerous varieties of beautiful palms, sarsaparilla, vanilla, ipecac-
uanha and copaiba. The abundant and varied fauna is the same as
that of the Brazilian forests.

Geology.* — The Eastern Cordillera, which, however, is but little
known, appears to consist, as in Bolivia, chiefly of Palaeozoic rocks;
the western ranges of the Andes are formed of Mesozoic beds, together
with recent volcanic lavas and ashes; and the lower hills near the
coast are composed of granite, syenite and other crystalline rocks,
sometimes accompanied by limestones and sandstones, which are
probably of Lower Cretaceous age, and often covered by marine
Tertiary deposits. Thus the orographical features of the country
correspond broadly with the geological divisions.

The constitution of the Mesozoic band varies. Above Lima
the western chain of the Andes is composed of porphyritic tuffs
and massive limestones, while the longitudinal valley of the Oroya
is hollowed in carbonaceous sandstones. From the analogy of the
neighbouring countries it is possible that some of the tuffs may be
Jurassic, but the other deposits probably belong for the most part
to the Cretaceous system. The carbonaceous sandstone contains
Gault fossils. Like the similar sandstone in Bolivia, it includes
steams of coal and is frequently impregnated with cinnabar. It is
in this sandstone that the rich mercury mines of Huancavelica are
worked.

Farther north, in the department of Ancachs, the Mesozoic belt is
composed chiefly of sandstones and shales, and the limestones which
form so prominent a feature above Lima seem to have disappeared.
The Cordillera Negra in this region is in many places cut by numerous
dikes of diorite, and it is near these dikes that silver ores are chiefly

1 See L. Crosnier, " Notice gdologique sur les departements de
Huancavelica et d'Ayacucho," Ami. des mines, 5th series, vol. ii.
pp. 1-43, PI. I (1852); A. Raimondi, El Departamento de Ancachs y
sus riquezas minerales (Lima, 1873); G. Stemmann, " Ueber Tithon
und Kreide in den peruanischon Anden," Neues Jahrb. (1882), vol. ii.
pp. 130-153, Pis. 6-8; K. Gerhardt, " Beitrag zur Kenntniss der
Kreideformation in Venezuela und Peru," Neues Jahrb., Beil.-Bd. XI.
(1897), pp. 65-1 17, Pis. 1 , 2 ; J. Grzybowski, "Die Tertiarablagerungen
des nordlichen Peru und ihre Molluskenfauna," Neues Jahrb., Beil.-
Bd. XII. (1899), pp. 610-664, Pis. 15-20.

268

PERU

found. In the Cordillera Nevada the Mesozoic rocks which form
the chain are often covered by masses of modern volcanic rock.
Similar rocks are also found in the Cordillera Negra, but the volcanic
centres appear to have been in the Sierra Nevada.

Population. — The first trustworthy enumeration of the people
of Peru was made in 1793, when there were 617,700 Indians,
241,225 mestizos (Indian and white inter-mixture), 136,311
Spaniards, 40,337 negro slaves and 41,404 mulattoes, making a
total of 1,076,977, exclusive of the wild Indians of the monlana.
Viceroy Toledo's enumeration of the Indians in 1575 gave them
a total of 8,000,000, the greater part of whom had been sacrificed
by Spanish cruelty. Others had withdrawn into the mountains
and forests, and in the native villages under Spanish administra-
tion the birth rate had dropped to a small part of what it had
been because the great bulk of the male population had been
segregated in the mines and on the estates of the conquerors.
This tells a story of depopulation under Spanish rule, to which
the abandoned terraces (andenes) on the mountain sides, once
highly cultivated, bear testimony. Several diverse totals have
been published as the result of the census taken in 1876, which
is considered imperfect. One estimate places the total at
2,660,881, comprising about 13-8% whites, 57-6% Indians,
1-9% negroes, 1-9% Asiatics, chiefly Chinese, and 24-8 %
mixed races. In 1906 estimates were made under official
auspices (see A. Garland, Peru in 1906, Lima, 1907), which
gave the population as 3,547,829, including Tacna (8000). It
is believed, however, that this and other larger estimates are
excessive. There is no considerable immigration.

The population of Peru is mixed, including whites, Indians,
Africans, Asiatics, and their mixtures and sub-mixtures. The
dominant race is of Spanish origin, to a considerable extent
mixed with Indian blood. The Indians are in great part
descendants of the various tribes organized under the rule of
the Incas at the time of the Spanish conquest. There are two
distinct general types — the coast tribes occupying the fertile
river valleys, who are employed on the plantations, in domestic
service in the cities, or in small industries of their own, no longer
numerous; and the sierra tribes, who are agriculturists, miners,
stock-breeders and packers, still comparatively numerous.
In addition to these are the tribes of wild Indians of the montana
region, or eastern forests, who were never under Inca rule and
are still practically independent. Their number is estimated
at 150,000 to 300,000, divided into 112 tribes, and differing
widely in habits, customs and material condition. Some
live in settled communities and roughly cultivate the soil.
Others are hunters and fishermen and are nomadic in habit.
Others are intractable forest tribes, having no relations with the
whites. The sierra or upland Indians, the most numerous
and strongest type, belong largely to the Quichua and Aymard
families, the former inhabiting the regions northward of Cuzo,
and the latter occupying the Titicaca basin and the sierras of
Bolivia. These Indians are generally described as Cholos, a
name sometimes mistakenly applied to the mestizos, while the
tribes of the eastern forests are called Chunchos, barbaros, or
simply Indians. The Cholos may be roughly estimated at about
i ,800,000 and form by far the larger part of the sierra population.
Practically all the industries and occupations of this extensive
region depend upon them for labourers and servants.

The mestizos are of mixed Spanish and Indian blood. There
are two general classes — the costenos or those of the coast, and
the serranos or those of the sierras. The mestizos of the coast
are usually traders, artisans, overseers, petty officers and clerks,
and small politicians. In the sierras they have the same general
occupations, but there are no social bars to their advancement,
and they become lawyers, physicians, priests, merchants, officials
and capitalists. The African and Asiatic elements furnish only
about 2 % each of the population. The Africans were introduced
as slaves soon after the conquest, because the coast Indians were
physically incapable of performing the work required of them
on the sugar estates. All the heavy labour in the coast provinces
was performed by them down to 1855, when African slavery was
abolished. They have since preferred to live in the towns,

although many continue on the plantations. The first Chinese
coolies were introduced in 1849 to supply labourers on the sugar
estates, which had begun to feel the effects of the suppression
of the African slave traffic. At first the coolies were treated
with cruelty. The scandals that resulted led to investigations
and severe restrictions, and their employment now has become
a matter of voluntary contract, usually for two years, in which
fair dealing and good treatment are the rule. Many Chinese
are also settled in the coast cities. Commercial relations have
also been opened with Japan, and a small Japanese colony has
been added to the population. The Spanish and African cross
is to be seen in the mulattoes, quadroons and octoroons that
inhabit the warm coast cities. Other race mixtures consist of
thezambos (the African-Indian cross), an Asiatic graft upon these
various crosses, and an extremely confusing intermixture of the
various crosses, for which the Spanish races have descriptive
appellations. The foreign population is chiefly concentrated in
Lima and Callao, though mining and other industries have drawn
small contingents to other places.

Education.- — Universities and colleges were founded in Peru soon
after the conquest, and Lima, Cuzco, Arequipa and Chuquisaca
(now the Bolivian town of Sucre) became centres of considerable intel-
lectual activity. Something was done for the education of the sons of
the Indian" nobility," schools being created at Lima and Cuzco. The
university of San Marcos at Lima is the oldest collegiate institution
in the New World, originating in a grant from Charles V. in 1551 to
the Dominicans for the establishment of a college in their monastery
at Lima. Its present name, however, was not adopted until 1574,
two years after its first secular rector had been chosen. The
college of San Carlos was founded in 1770, and the school of medicine
in 1792. At Cuzco the university of San Antonio Abad was
founded in 1598, and the college of San Geronirno at Arequipa in
1616. The instruction given in these institutions was of the
religious-scholastic character of that time, and was wholly under the
supervision of the Church. Independence opened the way for a
larger measure of intellectual and educational progress, especially
for the lower classes. As organized under the law of the 5th of
December 1905, primary instruction is free and nominally obligatory,
and is under the control of the national government. The primary
schools are divided into two grades: a free elementary course of
two years, and a higher course of three years, in a school called the
" scholastic centre,' in which learning a trade is included. There
were 1508 elementary schools and 862 scholastic centres in 1906.
There are, besides these, a large number of private schools, which in
1906 carried about 22,000 pupils on their rolls, or three times the num-
ber in the public primary schools. To provide teachers six normal
schools have been established, two of which (one for males and one
for females) are in Lima. For intermediate or secondary instruction
there are 23 national colleges for boys in the various departmental
capitals, and three similar colleges for girls, in Ayacucho, Cuzco
and Trujillo. In these the majority of pupils were under the direc-
tion of Belgian and German instructors. The private schools of
this grade are still more numerous, and there are a number of special
schools that belong to the same category. For higher instruction
there are four universities: the Universidad Mayor de San Marcos
at Lima, and three provincial institutions at Arequipa, Cuzco and
Trujillo. All these have faculties of letters and law, and San Marcos
has in addition faculties of theology, medicine, mathematics and
science, philosophy and administrative and political economy.
The professional schools include a school of civil and mining engineer-
ing at Lima (created 1876), a military school at Chornllos under
the direction of French instructors, a naval school at Callao, nine
episcopal seminaries (one for each diocese), a national agricultural
school in the vicinity of Lima (created 1902), and a few commercial
schools. There is also a correctional school at Lima devoted to the
education and training of youthful delinquents.

Science and Literature. — Towards the end of the l8th century
scientific studies began to receive attention in Peru. M. Godin, a
member of the French commission for measuring an arc of the
meridian near Quito, became professor of mathematics at San Marcos
in 1750; and the botanical expeditions sent out from Spain gave
further zest to scientific research. Dr Gabriel Moreno (d. 1809),
a native of Huamantanga in the Maritime Cordillera, studied
under Dr Jussieu, and became an eminent botanist. Don Hipolito
Unanue, born at Arica in 1755, wrote an important work on the
climate of Lima and contributed to the Mercurio peruano. _This
periodical was started in 1791 at Lima, the contributors forming a
society called " amantes del pais," and it was completed in eleven
volumes. It contains many valuable articles on history, topography,
botany, mining, commerce and statistics. An ephemeris and guide
to Peru was begun by the learned geographer Dr Cosme Bueno, and
continued by Dr Unanue, who brought out his guides at Lima from
1793 to 1798. In 1794 a nautical school was founded at Lima,
with Andres Baleato as instructor and Pedro Alvarez as teacher of
the use of instruments. Baleato also constructed a map of Peru.

PERU

269

A list of Peruvian authors in viceregal times occupies a long chapter
in the life of St Toribio1 by Montalvo; and the bibliographical
labours of the Peruvian Leon Pinelo are still invaluable to Spanish
students. The most prolific author of colonial times was Dr Pedro
de Peralta y Barnuevo, who wrote more than sixty works, including
an epic poem entitled Lima fundada.

The topographical labours of Cosme Bueno and Unanue were
ably continued at Lima by Admiral Don Eduardo Carrasco, who
compiled annual guides of Peru from 1826. But the most eminent
Peruvian geographer is Dr Don Mariano Felipe Paz Soldan (1821-
1886), whose Geografia del Peru appeared in 1 86 1. His still more
important work, the Diccionario geografico estadistico del Peru (1877),
is a gazetteer on a most complete scale. In 1868 appeared his first
volume of the Historia del Peru independiente, and two others have
since been published. His Historia de la guerra del Pacifico is the
Peruvian version of that disastrous war. The earlier history of
Peru has been written in three volumes by Sebastian Lorente (d.
1884); Mariano Rivero has discussed its antiquities; and Manuel
Fuentes has edited six volumes of memoirs written by Spanish
viceroys. But the most valuable and important historical work by
a modern Peruvian is General Mendiburu's (1805-1885) Diccionario
historico-biografico del Peru, a monument of patient and conscien-
tious research, combined with critical discernment of a high order.
As laborious historical students, Don JoscS Toribio Polo, the author
of an ecclesiastical history of Peruvian dioceses, and Don Enrique
Torres Saldamando, the historian of the Jesuits in Peru, have great
merit. Among good local annalists may be mentioned Juan Gilberto
Valdivia, who has written a history of Arequipa, and Pio Benigno
Mesa, the author of the Annals of Cuzco.

The leading Peruvian authors on constitutional and legal subjects
are Dr Jos6 Santistevan, who has published volumes on civil and
criminal law; Luis Felipe Villaran (subsequently rector of the univer-
sity at Lima), author of a work on constitutional right; Dr Francisco
Garcia Calderon (once president of Peru), author of a dictionary of
Peruvian legislation, in two volumes ; Dr Francisco Xavier Mariategui,
one of the fathers of Peruvian independence; and Dr Francisco de
Paula Vigil (i 792-1 875) , orator and statesman as well as author, whose
work, Defensa de los gobiernos, is a noble and enlightened statement
of the case for civil governments against the pretensions of the
court of Rome. Manuel A. Fuentes, an able statistician and the
author of the Estadistica de Lima, has also written a manual of
parliamentary practice. Perhaps the most important work on Peru
of modern times is that of the Italian savant Antonio Raimondi
(1825-1890), who spent the greater part of his life in studying the
topography and natural resources of the country. Only four
volumes had been published at the time of his death, but he left a
mass of papers and manuscripts which the government has put in
the hands of the Geographical Society of Lima for publication.
His great work is entitled El Peru: estudios mineralogicos, &c.
(3 vols., Lima, 1890-1902), and one separate volume on the depart-
ment of Ancachs. Peruvian literature since the independence has
also attained high merit in the walks of poetry and romance. The
Guayaquil author, Olmedo, who wrote the famous ode on the victory
of Junin, and the Limenians Felipe Pardo and Manuel Segura
are names well known wherever the Spanish language is spoken.
Both died between 1860 and 1870. The comedies of Segura on the
customs of Lima society, entitled Un Paseo a Amancaes and La
Saya y Manto, have no equal in the dramatic literature of Spanish
America and few in that of modern Spain. From 1848 date the first
poetical efforts of Arnaldo Marquez, who is distinguished for his
correct diction and rich imagination, as is Nicolas Corpancho for his
dramas and a volume of poems entitled Brisas, Adolfo Garcia for a
beautiful sonnet to Bolivar, which was published at Havre in 1870,
in his one volume of poems, and Clemente Althaus for his produc-
tivity and style. Pedro Paz Soldan was a classical scholar who
published three volumes of poems. Carlos Augusto Salaverry is
known as one of Peru's best lyrical poets, and Luis Benjamin
Cisneros for his two novels, Julia and Edgardo. Trinidad Fernandez
and Constantino Carrasco were two poets of merit who died young,
the principal work of the latter being his metrical version of the
Quichua drama, Ollantay. Jos6 Antonio Lavalle and Narciso
Arestegui are chiefly known as novelists. In his youth Ricardo
Palma published three books of poems, entitled Armonias, Verbos y
Gerundios and Pasionarias, and_ then, since 1870, devoted his great
literary talents to writing the historical traditions of Peru, of which
six volumes were published. At the outbreak of the war with Chile
he was vice-director of the national library at Lima, which was
wantonly pillaged by the Chilean forces. After the evacuation of
Lima by the Chileans Palma devoted his life to the recovery of his
scattered books and the acquisition of new collections, and he had
the satisfaction before his death of re-opening the library, which had
obtained about 30,000 volumes, or three-fourths of the number
on its shelves before the Chilean invasion.

Of the aboriginal inhabitants of Peru much has been written.
The important work of Mariano Eduardo Rivero, of Arequipa,

1 The city of Lima produced two saints, the archbishop St
Toribio, who flourished from 1578 to 1606, and Santa Rosa, the patron
saint of the city of the kings (1586-1616), whose festival is cele-
brated on the 26th of August.

assisted by J. J. von Tschudi, on the antiquities of Peru (Antigue-
dades peruanas, Vienna, 1841 ; Eng. trans., New York, 1853) has
been followed by other investigators into the language, literature,
customs and religion of the Incas. The best known of these are
Jos6 Sebastian Barranca, the naturalist and antiquary, Jos6
Fernandez Nodal, and Gavino Pacheco Zegarra of Cuzco, who
published translations of the Inca drama of Ollantay, and Leonardo
Villar, of Cuzco.

Among Peruvian naturalists since the advent of the republic,
the most distinguished have been Mariano Eduardo Rivero, the
geologist, mineralogist and archaeologist, and his friend and colleague
Nicolas, de Pierola, authors of Memorial de ciencias naturales.
The Lima Geographical Society (founded in 1888) is perhaps the best
and most active scientific organization in the republic. Its special
work covers national geographical exploration and study, archae-
ology, statistics and climatology, and its quarterly bulletins contain
invaluable information. The society receives a government subsidy,
and its rooms in the national library in Lima are the principal
centre of scientific study in Peru. It had an active membership of
163 in 1906, besides 172 honorary and corresponding members.
The historical institute of Peru, also at Lima, is charged by the
government, from which it receives a liberal subsidy, with the work
of collecting, preparing and publishing documents relating to Peru-
vian history, and of preserving objects of archaeological and historic
character. Its museum, which is of great historical and artistic
value and includes a collection of portraits of the Peruvian viceroys
and presidents, is in the upper floors of the Exposition Palace.
Another subsidized national society is the athenaeum, which was
founded in 1877 as the " literary club," and reorganized in 1887
under its present title. Its purpose is to foster learning and literary
effort, and it is a popular and prominent feature in the intellectual
life of the country.

Religion. — According to the constitution of 1 860 "the nation
professes the apostolic Roman Catholic religion; the state protects
it, and does not permit the public exercise of any other." There is
a certain degree of tolerance, however, and the Anglican and some of
the evangelical churches are permitted to establish missions in the
country, but not always without hostile demonstrations from the
Catholic priesthood. There are Anglican churches in Lima and
Cuzco, belonging to the diocese of the Bishop of the Falkland Islands;
but their existence is illegal and is ignored rather than permitted.
In its ecclesiastical organization Peru is divided into nine dioceses:
Lima, which is an archbishopric, Arequipa, Puno, Cuzco, Ayacucho,
Huanuco, Huaraz, Trujillo and Chachapoyas. These dioceses are
subdivided into 613 curacies, presided over by curas, or curate-
vicars. Each diocese has its seminary for the education of the priest-
hood, that of Arequipa being distinguished for its influence in church
affairs. Arequipa, like Cordoba and Chuquisaca, is a stronghold
of clericalism and exercises a decisive influence in politics as well as
in church matters. There are a number of fine churches in Lima
and in the sees of the various dioceses. Monasteries and nunneries
are numerous, dating back to the l6thand 1 7th centuries, but their
influence is now less potent than in those days and the monastic
population is not so large. In modern times many of the convents
nave been devoted to educational work especially for girls, which is
an obstacle to the successful development of a public school system
in the country.

Political Divisions. — The empire of the Incas was divided
into four main divisions, Chinchay-suyu to the north of Cuzco,
Anti-suyu to the east, Colla-suyu to the south and Cunti-suyu
to the west, the whole empire being called Ttahuantin-suyu, or
the four governments. Each was ruled by a viceroy, under
whom were the " huaranca-camayocs," or officers ruling over
thousands, and inferior officers, in regular order, over 500, 100,
50 and 10 men. All disorders and irregularities were checked
by the periodical visits of the tucuyricocs or inspectors. The
Spanish conquest destroyed this complicated system. In 1569
the governor, Lope Garcia de Castro, divided Peru into corregi-
mientos under officers named corregidors, of whom there were
77, each in direct communication with the government at Lima.
An important administrative reform was made in 1784, when
Peru was divided into 7 intendencias, each under an officer called
an inlendenle. These intendencias included about 6 of the old
corregimienlos, which were called partidos, under officers named
subdelegados. Thus the number of officers reporting direct to
Lima was reduced from 77 to 7, a great improvement. The
republic adopted the same system, calling the intendencias
departments, under a prefect, and the partidos provinces, under
a sub-prefect. Peru is divided into 18 departments, 2 littoral
provinces, and what is called the constitutional province of
Callao. This is exclusive of Tacna and its 3 provinces. The
departments, which contain 98 provinces, with their areas,
capitals and estimated populations of 1906, are as follow: the

270

PERU

list being arranged to show the coast, sierra and montafia
divisions: —

Departments.

An\i
sq. m.

Estimated
pop., 1906.

Capital.

Estimated
pop., 1906.

Coast^-

Piura . . .

14,849

154,080

Piura . . .

9,100

Lambaycque .

4.615

93,070

Chiclayo .

10,000

Libertad .

188,200

Trujillo . .

6,500

Ancachs .

16^567

317-050

Mil. ii. i .

13.000

Lima .

250,000

Lima (1903)

140,000

lea (or Yea)

»!72I

68,220

lea . . .

6,000

Arequipa .

21,953

171.750

Arequipa

28,000

Sierra: —

Cajamarca .
Huanuco.

12,542
14,028

333,310

108,980

Cajamarca .
Huanuco .

9,000

Junin.
Huancavelica

23.354

'),-\S4

305,700

167,840

Cerro de Pasco
Huancavelica

10,000

6,000

Ayacucho
Apurimac

18,190
8,189

226,850
133.00°

Ayacucho . .
Abancay . .

15,000
2,400

Cuzco. .

156,317

328,980

Cuzco . . .

23,000

Puno . . .

41,211

403,000

Puno . N .

4.500

Montana: —

Amazonas .

13.947

53.000

Chachapoyas .

4.500

Loreto

120,000

Iquitos

6,000

San Martin .

30J45

33,000

Moyobamba

7,500

Littoral

Provinces: —

Tumbez .

1,981

8,000

Tumbez .

-. >ix>

Callao . .

I4i

33.879

Callao (1905).

31,128

Moquegua .

5.55°J

31.920

Moquegua

5,000

Apart from the departmental capitals there are few towns
of size and importance. The so-called coast towns are commonly
at some distance from the seashore, and their shipping ports are
little more than a straggling collection of wretched habitations
in the vicinity of the landing-stage and its offices and ware-
houses. Callao (q.v.) is a noteworthy exception, and Paita
and Pisco are something more than the average coast village.
Near Lima, on the south, there are three bathing resorts,
Chorrillos, Miraflores and Barranco, which have handsome
residences and large populations in the bathing season. North
of Lima is the port and bathing resort of Ancon, in an extremely
arid locality but having a fine beach, a healthy climate and a
considerable population in the season. The towns of the coast
region are usually built on the same general plan, the streets
crossing each other at right angles and enclosing squares, or
quadras. In the sierra there is the same regular plan wherever
the site is level enough. High-pitched red tiled roofs take the
place of the flat roofs of the coast. The upper storey often
recedes, leaving wide corridors under the overhanging eaves,
and in the " plazas " there are frequently covered arcades.
In addition to the capitals of the departments, Tarma (about
4000) and Xauxa, or Jauja (about 3000), are important towns
of this region. In the montaHa there are no towns of importance
other than the capitals of the departments and the small river
ports.

Communications. — The problem of easy and cheap transportation
between the coast and the interior has been a vital one for Peru,
for upon it depends the economic development of some of the
richest parts of the republic. The arid character of the coastal
zone, with an average width of about 80 m., permits cultivation
of the soil only where water for irrigation is available. Only in the
sierra and montaHa regions is it possible to maintain a large popu-
lation and develop the industries upon which their success as a
nation depends. During colonial times and down to the middle
of the I9th century pack animals were the only means of trans-
portation across the desert and ove_r the rough mountain trails.
Railway construction in Peru began in 1848 with a short line from
Callao to Lima, but the building of railway lines across the desert
to the inland towns of the fertile river valleys and the Andean
foot-hills did not begin until twenty years later. These roads added
much to the productive resources of the country, but their extension
to the sierra districts was still a vital necessity. Under the adminis-
tration (1868-1872) of President Jos6 Balta the construction of
two transandean and several coastal zone railways was begun,
but their completion became impossible for want of funds. Balta's
plans covered 1281 m. of state railways and 749 m. of private
lines, the estimated cost to be about £37,500,000—3 sum far beyond
the resources of the republic. The two transandean lines were
the famous Oroya railway, running from Callao to Oroya (1893),
which crosses the Western Cordillera at an elevation of 15,645 ft.,

and later on to Cerro de Pasco (1904), the Goillarisquisga coal mines
(1904) and Hauri (1906); and the southern line from Mollendo
to Lake Titicaca, which reached Arequipa in 1869, Puno in 1871
and Checcacupe (Cuzco branch) in 1906. Surveys were completed
in 1909 for an extension of the Oroya line from a point on its Cerro
de Pasco branch eastward to the Ucayali, and another transandean
line frequently discussed is projected from Paita across the Andes
to Puerto Limon, on the Marafion — a distance of 410 m.

The most important means of communication in the republic
is that of its river system, comprising, as it does, the navigable
channels of the Marafion, or upper Amazon, and its tributaries.
It is officially estimated that this system comprises no less than
20,000 m. of connected riverways navigable at high water for all
descriptions of boats, or 10,000 m. for steamers of 20 to 2 ft. draught,
which is reduced to 5800 m. at low water. The rivers forming
this system are the Maranon from Puerto Limon to Tabatinga on
the Brazilian frontier (484. m.), the Japura, Putumayo, Javary,
Napo, Tigre, Huallaga, Ucayali, Pachitea, Jurua, Purus, Acre,
Curaray and Aguarico all navigable over parts of their courses
for steamers of 4 to 8 ft. draught in periods of nigh water. As for the
Marafion, it is claimed that steamers of 20 ft. draught can ascend to
Puerto Limon at all seasons of the year. The inclusion of the
upper waters of the Brazilian rivers Juru4, Purus and Acre is
pro forma only, as they are wholly under Brazilian jurisdiction.
Practically the whole of the region through which these rivers run —
the m it n Ui fni of Peru — is undeveloped, and is inhabited by Indians,
with a few settlements of whites on the river courses. Its chief
port is Iquitos, on the Maranon, 335 m. above the Brazilian frontier
and 2653 m. from the mouth of the Amazon. It is visited by
ocean-going^ steamers, and is the centre of the Peruvian river
transportation system. The second port in importance is Yuri-
maguas, on the Huallaga, 143 m. from the mouth of that river
and 528 m. from Iquitos, with which it is in regular communication.
There are small ports, or trading posts, on all the large rivers, and
occasional steamers are sent to them with supplies and to bring
away rubber and other forest products. Of the rivers farther
south, which discharge into the Amazon through the Madeira,
the Madre de Dios alone offers an extended navigable channel,
together with some of its larger tributaries, such as the Heath
and Chandless. Of a widely different character is the navigation
of Lake Titicaca, where steamers ply regularly between Puno and
Guaqui, the latter on the south-east shore in railway connexion
with La Paz, the capital of Bolivia. This is one of the most
remarkable steamer routes in the world, being 12,370 ft. above sea-
level. The lake is 165 m. long and from 70 to 80 m. wide and has
a number of small Indian villages on its shores.

There are two submarine cable lines on the Peruvian coast —
the (American) Central and South American Co. extending from
Panama to Valparaiso, and the (British) West Coast Cable Co.,
subsidiary to the Eastern Telegraph Co., with a cable between
Callao and Valparaiso. The inland telegraph service dates from
1864, when a short line from Callao to Lima was constructed, and
state ownership from 1875, when the government assumed control
of all lines within the republic, some of which were subsequently
handed over to private administration. They connect all the
important cities, towns and ports, but cover only a small part of
the republic. The cost of erecting and maintaining telegraph lines
in the sierra and montaHa regions is too great to permit their exten-
sive use, and the government is seeking to substitute wireless
telegraphy. From Puerto Bermudez, on the Pachitea or Pichis
river, the terminus of a government road and telegraph line, a
wireless system connects with Massisea on the Ucayali, and thence
with Iquitos, on the Maranon — a distance of 930 m. by steamer, which
is much shortened by direct communication between the three
radiographic stations. This service was opened to Iquitos on
the 8th of July 1908, the first section between Puerto Bermndez
and Massisea having been pronounced a success. The Peruvian
telegraph system connects with those of Ecuador and Bolivia.
The use of the telephone is general, 5236 m. being in operation in
1906. The postal service is unavoidably limited and defective,
owing to the rugged character of the country, its sparse population,
and the large percentage of illiterates. On the coast, however,
in and near the large cities and towns, it compares well with other
South American countries. Peru belongs to the international
postal union, and had in 1906 a money order and parcels exchange
with seven foreign states. A noteworthy peculiarity in the foreign
mail service is that an extra charge of 2 cents for each letter and
I cent for each post-card is collected when they are sent across the
isthmus of Panama. No charge is made for the _ transmission of
newspapers within the republic. The letter rate is 5 cents silver
for 15 grams, or 10 cents to foreign countries in the postal union.

Commerce. — Owing to political disorder, difficulty in land com-
munications, and the inheritance of vicious fiscal methods from
Spanish colonial administration, the commercial development of
Peru has been slow and erratic. There are many ports on the
coast, but only eight of them are rated as first class, viz. Paita,
Eten, Pacasmayo, Salaverry, Callao, Pisco, Mollendo and Ilo,
five of which are ports of call for foreign coasting steamers. The
inland port of Iquitos, on the Marafion, is also rated as first class,
and enjoys special privileges because of its distance from the national

PERU

271

capital. The second-class ports are Tumbez, Talara, Pimentel,
Chimbote, Samanco, Casma, Huacho, Cerro-Azul, Tambo de Mora,
Lomas and Chala, on the coast, Puno on Lake Titicaca, and
Leticia on the Amazon near the western mouth of the Javary,
Callao (q.v.) is the chief port of the republic and monopolizes the
greater part of its foreign trade. Its harbour, one of the best
on the west coast of South America, has been greatly improved
by the port works begun under the administration of President
Balta. Paita and Chimbote have good natural harbours, but the
others, for the most part, are open roadsteads or unsheltered bays.
Mollendo is a shipping port for Bolivian exports sent over the railway
from Puno. There were 12 foreign steamship lines trading at
Peruvian ports in 1908, some of them making regular trips up and
down the coast at frequent intervals and carrying much of its
coastwise traffic. Foreign sailing vessels since 1886 have not been
permitted to engage in this traffic, but permission is given to steam-
ships on application and under certain conditions. The imports
were valued in 1907 at 55,147,870 soles (10 soles = £1 stg.) and the
exports at 57,477,320 soles — the former showing a considerable
increase and the latter a small decrease in comparison with 1906.
The exports consist of cotton, sugar, cocaine, hides and skins,
rubber and other forest products, wool, guano and mineral products.
The most important export is sugar, the products of the mines
ranking second. The largest share in Peru's foreign trade is taken
by Great Britain, Chile ranking second and the United States
third.

Products. — Although her mining industries have been the longest
and most widely known, the principal source of Peru's wealth is
agriculture. This seems incompatible with the arid character of
the country and the peculiar conditions of its civilization, but
irrigation has been successfully employed in the fertile valleys of
the coast.

Agriculture. — Sugar-cane is cultivated in most of the coast valleys,
and with exceptional success in those of the Canete, Rimac, Chancay,
Huaura, Supe, Santa, Chicama, Pacasmayo and Chiclayo. Some
of the large estates are owned and worked by British subjects.
The industry was nearly ruined by the Chileans in 1880, but its
recovery soon followed the termination of the war and the output
has been steadily increasing. At the outbreak of the war the
production was about 80,000 tons; in 1905 the production of sugar
and molasses amounted to 161,851 metric tons, of which 134,344
were exported. In 1906 the total production reached 169,418
metric tons. Next in importance is cotton, which is grown along
the greater part of the Peruvian coast, but chiefly in the depart-
ments of Piura, Lima and lea. Four kinds are produced: rough
cotton or " vegetable wool," sea island, brown or Mitafifi, and
smooth or American. Production is steadily increasing, the export
having been 8000 metric tons in 1900, 17,386 in 1905 and 20,000
in 1906. Local consumption required about 2500 tons in 1905.
Rice is an important crop in the inundated lands of Lambayeque
and Libertad. It is a universal article of food in Peru, and the
output is consumed in the country. Maize is another important
food product which is generally cultivated along the coast and in
the lower valleys of the sierra. In some places two or three crops
a year are obtained. It is the staple food everywhere, and little is
exported. It is largely used in the manufacture of chicha, a fer-
mented drink popular among the lower classes. Tobacco is grown
in the department of Piura, and in the montana departments of
Loreto, Amazonas and Cajamarca. The local consumption is large
and the export small. Another montana product is coffee, whose suc-
cessful development is prevented by difficult transport. A superior
quality of bean is produced in the eastern valleys of the Andes,
especially in the Chanchamayp valley. Cacao is another montana
product, although like coffee it is cultivated in the warm valleys
of the sierra, but the export is small. With cheap transport to
the coast the production of coffee and cacao must largely increase.
Coca (Erythroxylon coca) is a product peculiar to the eastern Andean
slopes of Bolivia and Peru, where it has long been cultivated for
its leaves. These are sun-dried, packed in bales, and distributed
throughout the sierra region, where coca is used by the natives
as a stimulant. The Cholos are never without it, and with it are
able to perform incredible tasks with little food. _ The common
manner of using it is to masticate the dried leaves with a little lime.
Cocaine is also derived from coca leaves, and a considerably quantity
of the drug is exported. The coca shrub is most successfully
cultivated at an elevation of 5000 to 6000 ft. Fruits in great
variety are grown everywhere in Peru, but beyond local market
demands their commercial production is limited to grapes and
olives. Grapes are produced in many of the irrigated valleys of
the coast, such as Chincha, Lunahuana, lea, Vitor, Majes, Andaray,
Moquegua and Locumba, and the fruit is manufactured into wines
and brandies. Excellent clarets and white wines are produced,
and the industry is steadily increasing. Olives were introduced
early in colonial times and are cultivated in several coast valleys,
especially in the provinces of CamanS (Arequipa) and Moquegua.
The fruit is commonly used for the manufacture of oil, which is
consumed in the country, and only a small part is exported. Were
large markets available, other fruits such as oranges, lemons, limes
and bananas would undoubtedly be extensively cultivated. In
the sierra region, wheat, barley, oats, quinua (Chenopodium quinoa).

alfalfa, Indian corn, oca (Oxalis tuberosa) and potatoes are the
principal products. Wheat is widely grov/n but the output is not
large. Barley and oats are grown for forage, but for this purpose
alfalfa has become the staple, and without it the mountain pack-
trains could not be maintained. Quinua is an indigenous plant,
growing at elevations of 13,500 ft. and more; its grain is an important
food among the upland natives. Potatoes are grown everywhere in
the sierras, and with quinua are the only crops that can be raised
for human food above 13,000 ft. Yuca (Manihot utilissima),
known as cassava in the West Indies and mandioca in Brazil, is also
widely cultivated for food and for the manufacture of starch.

There are good pastures in the sierras, and cattle have been
successfully reared in some of the departments since the early years
of Spanish occupation, chiefly in Ancachs, Cajamarca, Junin,
Ayacucho, Puno, and some parts of Cuzco. The development
of alfalfa cultivation is extending the area of cattle-breeding
somewhat and is improving the quality of the beef .

produced. The cattle are commonly small and hardy, Mvcttock.
and, like the Mexican cattle, are able to bear unfavourable
conditions. Sheep are reared over a somewhat wider range,
exclusively for their wool. The " natives," or descendants of the
early importations, are small, long-legged animals whose wool is
scanty and poor. Since the end of the igth century efforts have
been made to improve the stock through the importation ef merinos,
with good results. Sheep ranges under the care of Scottish shep-
herds have also been established in the department of Junin, the
stock being imported from southern Patagonia, England and
Australia. Goats are raised in Piura and Lambayeque for their
skins and fat, and swine-breeding for the production of lard has
become important in some of the coast valleys immediately north
of Lima. Horses are reared only to a limited extent, although
there is a demand for them for military purposes. The government
is seeking to promote the industry through the importation of
breeding mares from Argentina. Mules are bred in Piura and
Apurimac, and are highly esteemed for mountain travel. The
chief breeding industry is that of the llama, alpaca and vicuna —
animals of the Auchenia family domesticated by the Indians and
bred, the first as apack animal, and the other two for their wool,
hides and meat. The llama was the only beast of burden known
to the South American natives before the arrival of the Spaniards
and is highly serviceable on the difficult trails of the Andes. The
alpaca and vicuna are smaller and weaker and have never been
used for this service, but their fine, glossy fleeces were used by the
Indians in the manufacture of clothing and are still an important
commercial asset of the elevated table-lands of Peru and Bolivia.
The export of wool in 1905 exceeded 3,300,000 Ib. The rearing
of these animals requires much patience and skill, in which no
one has been able to match the Indian breeders of the Andean
plateaus.

The natural products of Peru include rubber, cabinet woods in
great variety, cinchona or Peruvian bark and other medicinal
products, various fibres, and guano. There are two p0rt*t
kinds of rubber supplied by the Peruvian montana product*.
forests : jebe (also written hebe) or seringa, and caucho—
the former being collected from the Hevea guayanensis, or H.
brasiliensis, and the latter from the Caslilloa elastica and some
other varieties. The Hevea product is obtained annually by tapping
the trees and coagulating the sap over a smoky fire, but the caucho
is procured by felling the tree and collecting the sap in a hollow in
the ground where it is coagulated by stirring in a mixture of soap
and the juice of a plant called vetilla. As the species from which
Ceara rubber is obtained (Hancorina speciosa) is found in Bolivia,
it is probable that this is also a source of the Peruvian caucho. The
Hevea is found along the water-courses of the lowlands, which
includes the large tributaries of the Maranon, while the caucho
species flourish on higher ground, above 900 ft. elevation. Owing
to the export tax on rubber (8 cents per kilogram on jebe and 5 cents
on caucho) it is probable that the official statistics do not cover the
total production, which was returned as 2539 metric tens in 1905^
valued at £913,989. The export of cinchona, or Peruvian bark,
is not important in itself, being only 64 tons, valued at £1406 in
1905. The best bark comes from the Carabaya district in south-
eastern Peru, but it is found in many localities on the eastern slopes
of the Andes. The Peruvian supply is practically exhausted through
the destructive methods employed in collecting the bark, and the
world now depends chiefly on Bolivia and Ecuador. The forests
of eastern Peru are rich in fine cabinet woods, but their inaccessi-
bility renders them of no great value. Among the best known
of them are cedar, walnut, ironwood and caoba, a kind of mahogany.
Many of the forest trees of the upper Amazon valley of Brazil
are likewise found in Peru. The palm family is numerous and
includes the species producing vegetable ivory (Phytelephas),
straw for plaiting Panama hats (Carludovica palmala), and the
peach palm (Guifielma speciosa).

From guano an immense revenue was derived during the third
quarter of the igth century and it is still one of the largest exports.
The guano beds are found on the ban-en islands of the oamao.
Pacific coast. They were developed commercially
during the administration (1845-1851) of President Ramon Castilla,
at the same time that the nitrate deposits of Tarapaca became a

272

PERU

commercial asset of the republic. The large revenues derived from
these sources undoubtedly became a cause of weakness and
demoralization and eventually resulted in bankruptcy and the loss
of Tarapaca. The deposits have been partially exhausted by the
large shipments of over a half-century, but the export in 1905 was
73,369 tons, valued at £285,729.

Mining. — Mining was the chief industry of Peru under Spanish
rule. The Inca tribes were an agricultural and pastoral people, but
the abundance of gold and silver in their possession at the time of
the conquest shows that mining must have received considerable
attention. They used these precious metals in decorations and as
ornaments, but apparently attached no great value to them. The
use of bronze also shows that they must have worked, perhaps super-
ficially, some of the great copper deposits. Immediately following
the Spanish invasion the Andean region was thoroughly explored,
and with the assistance of Indian slaves thousands of mines were
opened, many of them failures, some of them becoming famous.
There was a decline in mining enterprise after the revolt of the
colonists against Spanish rule, owing to the unsettled state of the
country, and this decline continued in some measure to the end
of the century. The mining laws of the colonial regime and
political disorder together raised a barrier to the employment of
the large amount of capital needed, while the frequent outbreaks
of civil war made it impossible to work any large enterprise because
of its interference with labour and the free use of ports and roads.
The Peruvians were impoverished, and under such conditions
foreign capital could not be secured. In 1876 new mining laws
were enacted which gave better titles to mining properties and
better regulations for their operation, but the outbreak of the war
with Chile at the end of the decade and the succeeding years of
disorganization and partisan strife defeated their purpose. Another
new mining code was adopted in 1901 , and this, with an improvement
in political and economic conditions, has led to a renewal of mining
enterprise.

Practically the whole Andean region of Peru is mineral-bearing —
a region 1500 m. long by 200 to 300 m. wide. Within these limits
are to be found most of the minerals known — gold, silver, quick-
sirver, copper, lead, zinc, iron, manganese, wolfram, bismuth,
thorium, vanadium, mica, coal, &c. On or near the coast are coal,
salt, sulphur, borax, nitrates and petroleum. Gold is found in
lodes and alluvial deposit ; the former on the Pacific slope at Salpo,
Otuzco, Huaylas, Yungay, Ocros, Chorrillos, Cafiete, lea, Nasca,
Andaray and Arequipa, and on the table-lands and Amazon slope
at Pataz, Huanuco, Chuquitambo, Huancavelica, Cuzco, Cota-
bambas, Aymares, Paucartambo, Santo Domingo and Sandia;
the latter wholly on the Amazon slope, in the country about the
Pongo de Manseriche and at Chuquibamba, both on the upper
Maranon, in the districts of Pataz, Huanuco, Aymares and Anta-
bamba (Apurimac), Paucartambo and Quippicauchi (Cuzco), and
Sandia and Carabaya (Puno). The last two are most important
and, it is believed, were the sources from which the Incas derived
the greater part of their store. The alluvial deposits are found both
in the beds of the small streams and in the soil of the small plains or
pampas. The Aporoma deposit, in the district of Sandia, is the best
known. Long ditches with stone-paved sluices for washing this
mineral-bearing material have long been used by the Indians, who
also construct stone bars across the beds of the streams to make
riffles and hold the deposited grains of gold. Modern methods of
hydraulic mining have been introduced to work the auriferous banks
of Poto; elsewhere antiquated methods only are employed. The
upper valley of the Maranon has undeveloped gold-bearing lodes.
The number of mines worked is small and there is not much foreign
capital invested in them. The gold ores of Peru are usually found
in ferruginous quartz. The production in 1906 was valued at

Peru has been known chiefly for its silver mines, some of which
have been marvellously productive. The Cerro de Pasco district,
with its 342 mines, is credited with a production, in value, of
£40,000,000 between 1784 and 1889, and is still productive, the
output for 1906 being valued at £972,958. The principal silver-
producing districts, the greater part on the high table-lands and
slopes of the Andes, are those of Salpo, Hualgayoc, Huari,
Huallanca, Huaylas, Huaraz, Recuay, Cajatambo, Yauli, Cerro
de Pasco, Morococha, Huarochiri, Huancavelica, Quespisisa, Castro-
virreyna, Lucanas, Lampa, Caylloma and Puno, but there are
hundreds of others outside their limits. Silver is generally found
as red oxides (locally called rosider), sulphides and argentiferous
galena. Modern machinery is little used and many mines are
practically unworkable for want of pumps. In the vicinity of some
of the deposits of argentiferous galena are large coal beds, but
timber is scarce on the table-lands. The dried dung of the llama
(taquia) is generally used as fuel, as in pre-Spanish times, for roasting
ores, as also a species of grass called ichu (Stipa incana), and a
singular woody fungus, called yareta (Azorella umbellifera), found
growing on the rocks at elevations exceeding 12,000 ft. The methods
formerly employed in reducing ores were lixiviation and amalga-
mation with quicksilver, but modern methods are gradually coming
into use. Quicksilver is found at Huancavelica, Chonta (Ancachs),
and in the department of Puno. The mine first named has been
worked since 1566 and its total production is estimated at 60,000

tons, the annual product being about 670 tons for a long period.
The metal generally occurs as sulphide of mercury (cinnabar),
but the ores vary greatly in richness — from 2j to 20%. The
annual production has fallen to a small fraction of the former
output, its value in 1905 being only £340, and in 1906 £495.

The copper deposits of Peru long remainea undeveloped
through want of cheap transport and failure to appreciate their
true value. The principal copper-bearing districts are Chimbote,
Cajamarca, Huancayo, Huaraz, Huallanca, Junin, Huancavelica,
lea, Arequipa, Andahuaylas and Cuzco — chiefly situated in the
high, bleak regions of the Andes. The Junin district is the best
known and includes the Cerro de Pasco, Yauli, Morococha and
Huallay groups of mines, all finding an outlet to the coast over
the Oroya railway. These mines are of recent development, the
Cerro de Pasco mines having been purchased by American
capitalists. A smelting plant was erected in the vicinity of Cerro
de Pasco designed to treat 1000 tons of ore daily, a railway was
built to Oroya to connect with the state line terminating at that
point, and a branch line 62 m. long was built to the coal-mines of
Goillarisquisga. The Cerro de Pasco mines are supposed by some
authorities to be the largest copper deposit in the world. In
addition to the smelting works at Cerro de Pasco there are other
large works at Casapalca, between Oroya and Lima, which belong
to a British company, and smaller plants at Huallanca and Huinac.
The production of copper is steadily increasing, the returns for
1903 being 9497 tons and for 1906 13,474 tons, valued respectively
at £476,824 and £996,055. Of other metals, lead is widely distri-
buted, its chief source being a high grade galena accompanied by
silver. Iron ores are found in Piura, the Huaylas valley, Aya,
and some other places, but the deposits have not been worked
through lack of fuel. Sulphur deposits exist in the Sechura
desert region, on the coast, and extensive borax deposits have been
developed in the department of Arequipa. Coal has been found
in extensive beds near Piura, Salaverry, Chimbote, Huarmey and
Pisco on the coast, and at Goillarisquisga, Huarochiri and other
places in the interior. Both anthracite and bituminous deposits
have been found. Most of the deposits are isolated and have not
been developed for want of transport. Petroleum has been found
at several points on the coast in the department of Piura, and near
Lake Titicaca in the department of Puno. The most productive
of the Piura wells are at Talara and Zorritos, where refineries have
been established. The crude oil is used on some of the Peruvian
railways.

The number of mining claims (perlenencias) registered in 1907 was
12,858, according to official returns, each subject to a tax of 30
soles, or £3, per annum, the payment of which secures complete
ownership of the property. The claims measure 100X200 metres
(about 5 acres) in the case of mineral veins or lodes, and 200X200
metres (about 10 acres) for coal, alluvial gold and other deposits.
The labourers are commonly obtained from the Cholos, or Indian
inhabitants of the sierras, who are accustomed to high altitudes,
and are generally efficient and trustworthy.

Manufactures. — The manufacturing industries of Peru are confined
chiefly to the treatment of agricultural and mineral products —
the manufacture of sugar and rum from sugar cane, textiles from
cotton and wool, wine and spirits from grapes, cigars and cigarettes
from tobacco, chocolate from cacao, kerosene and benzine from
crude petroleum, cocaine from coca, and refined metals from their
ores. Many of the manufacturing industries are carried on with
difficulty and maintained only by protective duties on competing
goods. The Incas had made much progress in weaving, and
specimens of their fabrics, both plain and coloured, are to be found
in many museums. The Spanish introduced their own methods,
and their primitive looms are still to be found among the Indians
of the interior who weave the coarse material from which their
own garments are made. Modern looms for the manufacture of
woollens were introduced in 1861 and of cotton goods in 1874.
There are large woollen factories at Cuzco and Lima, the Santa
Catalina factory at the latter place turning out cloth and cashmere
for the army, blankets, counterpanes and underclothing. There
are cotton factories about Lima, at lea and at Arequipa. Besides
the wine industry, an irregular though important industry is the
manufacture of artificial or counterfeit spirits and liqueurs in Callao
and Lima. There are breweries in Arequipa, Callao, Cuzco and
Lima, and the consumption of beer is increasing. There are large
cigarette factories in Lima, and others in Arequipa, Callao, Piura
and Trujillo. The plaiting of Panama hats from the specially
prepared fibre of the " toquilla " palm is a domestic industry
among the Indians at Catacoas (Piura) and Eten (Lambayeque).
Coarser straw hats are made at other places, as well as hammocks,
baskets, &c.

Government. — Peru is a centralized republic, whose supreme
law is the constitution of 1860. Like the other states of
South America its constitution provides for popular control of
legislation and the execution of the laws through free elections
and comparatively short terms of office, but in practice these
safeguards are often set aside and dictatorial methods super-
sede all others. Nominally the people are free and exercise

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273

sovereign rights in the choice of their representatives, but the
ignorance of the masses, their apathy, poverty and dependence
upon the great land proprietors and industrial corporations
practically defeat these fundamental constitutional provisions.
Citizenship is accorded to all Peruvians over the age of 21 and
to all married men under that age, and the right of suffrage
to all citizens who can read and write, or possess real estate
or workshops, or pay taxes. In all cases the exercise of
citizenship is regulated by law.

The government is divided into three independent branches,
legislative, executive and judicial, of which through force of
circumstances the executive has become the dominating power.
The executive branch consists of a president and two vice-
presidents elected for terms of four years, a cabinet of six
ministers of state appointed by the president, and various
subordinate officials who are under the direct orders of the
president. The president is chosen by a direct popular election
and cannot be re-elected to succeed himself. He must be not
less than 35 years of age, a Peruvian by birth, in the enjoyment
of all his civil rights, and domiciled in the republic ten years
preceding the election. The immediate supervision and despatch
of public administrative affairs is in the hands of the cabinet
ministers — interior, foreign affairs, war and marine, finance and
commerce, justice and public instruction, and public works and
promotion (Jomenlo). The execution of the laws in the depart-
ments and provinces, as well as the maintenance of public
order, is entrusted to prefects and sub-prefects, who are appoin-
tees of the president. A vacancy in the office of president is
filled by one of the two vice-presidents elected at the same
time and under the same conditions. Inability of the first
vice-president to assume the office opens the way for the
second vice-president, who becomes acting president until a
successor is chosen. The vice-presidents cannot be candidates
for the presidency during their occupancy of the supreme
executive office, nor can the ministers of state, nor the general-
in-chief of the army, while in the exercise of their official duties.

The legislative power is exercised by a national Congress —
senate and chamber of deputies — meeting annually on the
28th of July in ordinary session for a period of 90 days. Sena-
tors and deputies are inviolable in the exercise of their duties,
and cannot be arrested or imprisoned during a session of Congress,
including the month preceding and following the session, except
in flagrante delicto. Members of Congress are forbidden to
accept any employment or benefit from the executive. Senators
and deputies are elected by direct vote — the former by depart-
ments, and the latter in proportion to the population. With
both are elected an equal number of substitutes, who assume
office in case of vacancy.

Departments with eight and more provinces are entitled to four
senators, those of four to seven provinces three senators, those of
two to three provinces two senators, and those of one province
one senator. The deputies are chosen to represent 15,000 to 30,000
population each, but every province must have at least one
deputy. Both senators and deputies are elected for terms of
six years, and both must be native-born Peruvian citizens in the full
enjoyment of their civil rights. A senator must be 35 years of age,
and have a yearly income of $1000. The age limit of a deputy is
25 years, and his income must be not less than $500. In both
chambers the exercise of some scientific profession is accepted
in lieu of the pecuniary income. No member of the executive
branch of the government (president, cabinet minister, prefect,
sub-prefect, or governor) can be elected to either chamber, nor can
any judge or " fiscal " of the supreme court, nor any member of the
ecclesiastical hierarchy from his diocese, province or parish, nor any
judge or " fiscal " of superior and first-instance courts from their
judicial districts, nor any military officer from the district where he
holds a military appointment at the time of election. No country
is provided with more and better safeguards against electoral and
official abuses than is Peru, and yet few countries suffered more
from political disorder during the igth century. The- president has
no veto power, but has the right to return a law to Congress with
comments within a period of ten days. Should the act be again
passed without amendments it becomes law; if, however, the
suggested amendments are accepted the act must go over to the
next session. Congress may also sit as a court of impeachment —
the senate hearing and deciding the case, and the chamber acting
as prosecutor. The president, ministers of state and judges of the
supreme court may be brought before this court.

Justice. — The judiciary is composed of a supreme court, superior
courts and courts of first instance, and justices of the peace. The
supreme court is established at the national capital and consists
of II judges and 2 " fiscals " or prosecutors. Ihe judges are
selected by Congress from lists of nominees submitted by the exe-
cutive. The judges of the superior courts are chosen by the presi-
dent from the list of nominees submitted by the supreme court.
Questions of jurisdiction between the superior and supreme courts,
as well as questions of like character between the supreme
court and the executive, are decided by the senate sitting as a
court. The courts of first instance are established in the capitals
of provinces and their judges are chosen by the superior courts of
the districts in which they are located. The independence of the
Peruvian courts has not been scrupulously maintained, and there
has been much criticism of their character and decisions.

The national executive appoints and removes the prefects of
the departments and the sub-prefects of the provinces, and the
prefects appoint the gobiernadores of the districts. The police
officials throughout the republic are also appointees of the presi-
dent and are under his orders.

Army. — After the Chilean War the disorders fomented by the
rival military officers led to a desire to place the administration
of public affairs under civilian control. This led to a material
reduction in the army, which, as reorganized, consists of 4000
officers and men, divided into seven battalions of infantry of 300 men
each, seven squadrons of cavalry of 125 men each, and one regiment
of mountain artillery of 590 men, with six batteries of mountain guns.
The reorganization of the army was carried out by 10 officers and
4 non-coms, of the French army, known as the French military
mission, who are also charged with the direction of the military
school at Chorrillos and all branches of military instruction. There
are a military high school, preparatory school, and " school of
application " in connexion with the training of young officers for
the army. The head of the mission is chief of staff. Formerly the
Indians were forcibly pressed into the service and the whites filled
the positions of officers, in great part untrained. Now military
service is obligatory for all Peruvians between the ages of 19 and
50, who are divided into four classes, first and second reserves (19
to 30, and 30 to 35 years), supernumeraries (those who have
purchased exemption from service in the regular army), and the
national guard (35 to 50 years). The regular force is maintained
by annual drawings from the lists of young men 19 years of age
in the first reserves, who are required to serve four years. The
direction of military affairs is entrusted to a general staff, which
was reorganized in 1904 on the lines adopted by the great
military powers of Europe. The republic is divided into four
military districts with headquarters at Piura, Lima, Arequipa and
Iquitos, and these into eleven circumscriptions. The mounted
police force of the republic is also organized on a military basis.

Navy. — -The Peruvian navy was practically annihilated in the
war with Chile, and the poverty of the country prevented for many
years the adoption of any measure for its rebuilding. In 1908 it
consisted of only five vessels. The naval school at Callao is under
the direction of an officer of the French navy. In addition to the
foregoing the government has a few small river boats on the Maranon
and its tributaries, which are commanded by naval officers and used
to maintain the authority of the republic and carry on geographical
and hydrographical work.

Finance. — The financial record of Peru, notwithstanding her
enormous natural resources, has been one of disaster and discredit.
Internal strife at first prevented the development of her resources,
and then when the export of guano and nitrates supplied her treasury
with an abundance of funds the money was squandered on extrava-
gant enterprises and in corrupt practices. This was followed by the
loss of these resources, bankruptcy, and eventually the surrender of
her principal assets to her foreign creditors. The government
then had to readjust expenditures to largely diminished resources;
but the obligation has been met intelligently and courageously,
and since 1895 there has been an improvement in the financial state
of the country. The public revenues are derived from customs,
taxes, various inland and consumption taxes, state monopolies,
the government wharves, posts and telegraphs, &c. The customs
taxes include import and export duties, surcharges, harbour dues,
warehouse charges, &c. ; the inland taxes comprise consumption taxes
on alcohol, tobacco, sugar and matches, stamps and stamped paper,
capital and mining properties, licences, transfers of property, &c.;
and the state monopolies cover opium and salt. In 1905 a loan
of £600,000 was floated in Germany for additions to the navy. The
growth of receipts and expenditures is shown in the following table : —

1904.

1906.

1908.

Revenue
Expenditure

£1,990,568
£1,884,949

£2,527,766
£2,178,252

£2,997,433
£3-043,032

The revenues of 1896 were only £1,128,714.

The foreign debt began with a small loan of £1,200,000 in London
in 1822, and another of £1,500,000 in 1825 of which only £716,516
was placed. At the end of the war, these loans, and sums owing
to Chile and Colombia, raised the foreign debt to £4,000,000. In

274

PERU

1830 the debt and accumulated interest owing in London amounted
to £2,310,767, in addition to which there was a home debt of
17,183,397 dollars. In 1848 the two London loans and accumulated
interest were covered by a new loan of £3,736,400, and the home
debt was partially liquidated, the sale of guano giving the treasury
ample resources. Lavish expenditure followed and the government
was soon anticipating its revenues by obtaining advances from
guano consignees, usually on unfavourable terms, and then floating
loans. There was another conversion loan in 1862 in the sum of
£5,500,000 and in 1864 still another loan of this character was issued,
nominally for £10,000,000, of which £7,000,000 only were issued.
Then followed the ambitious schemes of President Balta, which
with the loans of 1870 and 1872 raised the total foreign debt to
£49,000,000, on which the annual interest charge was about
£2,500,000, a sum wholly beyond the resources of the treasury.
In 1876 interest payments on account of this debt were suspended
and in 1879-1882 the war with Chile deprived Peru of her principal
sources of income — the guano deposits and the Tarapaca nitrates.
In 1889 the total foreign debt, including arrears of interest, was
£54,000,000, and in the following year a contract was signed with
the Peruvian Corporation, a company in which the bondholders
became shareholders, for the transfer to it for 66 years of the state
railways, the free use of certain ports, the right of navigation on
Lake Titicaca, the exploitation of the remaining guano deposits
up to 3,000,000 tons, and thirty-three annual subsidies of £80,000
each, in consideration of the cancellation of the debt. Some modi-
fications were later made in the contract, owing to the government's
failure to meet the annual subsidies and the corporation's failure
to extend the railways agreed upon. This contract relieved Peru
of its crushing burden of foreign indebtedness, and turned an
apparently heavy loss to the bondholders into a possible profit. _In
1910 the foreign debt stood at £3,140,000, composed of (i) Peruvian
Corporation £2,160,000; (2) wharves and docks, £80,000; (3) loan
of 1905, £500,000; (4) loan of 1906, £400,000.

Currency. — The single gold standard has been in force in Peru
since 1897 and 1898, silver and copper being used for subsidiary
coinage. The monetary unit is the Peruvian pound (libra) which is
uniform in weight and fineness with the British pound sterling.
Half and fifth pounds are also coined. The silver coinage consists
of the sol (100 cents), half sol (50 cents), and pieces of 20 (peseta),
10 and 5 cents; and the copper coinage of I and 2 cents. The
single standard has worked well, and has contributed much toward
the recovery of Peruvian commerce and finance. The change from
the double standard was effected without any noticeable disturbance
in commercial affairs, but this was in part due to the precaution of
making the British pound sterling legal tender in the republic and
establishing the legal equivalent between gold and silver at 10 soles
to the pound. The coinage in 1906-1907 was about £150,000
gold and £65,000 silver, and the total circulation in that year was
estimated at £1,400,000 in gold coin and £600,000 in silver coin.
Previous to the adoption of the single gold standard in 1897 the
monetary history of Peru had been unfortunate. The first national
coinage was begun in 1822, and the decimal system was adopted in
1863. Although the double standard was in force, gold was
practically demonetized by the monetary reform of 1872 because of
the failure to fix a legal ratio between the two metals. Experience
with paper currency has been even more disastrous. During the
administration (1872-1876) of President Pardo the government
borrowed heavily from the banks to avoid the suspension of work on
the railways and port improvements. These banks enjoyed the
privilege of issuing currency notes to the amount of three times the
cash in hand without regard to their commercial liabilities. A large
increase in imports, caused by fictitious prosperity and inability
to obtain drafts against guano shipments, led to the exportation of
coin to meet commercial obligations, and this soon reduced the
currency circulation to a paper basis. The government being
unable to repay its loans from the banks compelled the latter to
suspend the conversion of their notes, which began to depreciate
in value. In 1875 the banks were granted a moratorium, to enable
them to obtain coin, but without result. The government in 1877
contracted a new loan with the banks and assumed responsibility
for their outstanding emissions, which are said to have aggregated
about 100,000,000 soles, and were worth barely 10% of their nominal
value. At last their depreciation reached a point where their
acceptance was generally refused and silver was imported for com-
mercial needs, when the government suspended their legal tender
quality and allowed them to disappear.

Weights and Measures. — The French metric system is the official
standard of weights and measures and is in use in the custom-houses
of the republic and in foreign trade, but the old units are still com-
monly used among the people. These are the ounce, 1-104 oz-
avoirdupois; the libra, 1-014 ft avoirdupois; the quintal, 101-44 R>
avoirdupois; the arroba, 25-36 Ib avoirdupois; ditto of wine,
6-70 imperial gallons; the gallon, -74 of an imperial gallon; the
vara, -927 yard ; and the square vara, -859 square yard. (A. J. L.)

History. — Cyclopean ruins of vast edifices, apparently never
completed, exist at Tiahuanaco near the southern shore of Lake
Titicaca. Remains of a similar character are found at Huaraz

in the north of Peru, and at Cuzco, Ollantay-tambo and Huinaque
between Huaraz and Tiahuanaco. These works appear to have
been erected by powerful sovereigns with unlimited command
of labour, possibly with the object of giving employment to
subjugated people, while feeding the vanity or pleasing the taste
of the conqueror. Of their origin nothing is historically known.
It is probable, however, that the settlement of the Cuzco valley
and district by the Incas or " people of the sun " took place
some 300 years before Pizarro landed in Peru. The conquering
tribe or tribes had made their way to the sierra from the plains,
and found themselves a new land sheltered from attack amidst
the lofty mountains that hem in the valley of Cuzco and the
vast lake basin of Titicaca, situated 12,000 ft. above the sea
level. The first historical records show us these people already
possessed of a considerable civilization, and speaking two allied
languages, Aymara and Quichua. The expansion of the Inca
rule and the formation of the Peruvian Empire was of modern
growth at the time of the Spanish conquest, and dated from the
victories of Pachacutic Inca who lived about a century before
Huayna Capac, the Great Inca, whose death took place in 1526,
the year before Pizarro first appeared on the coast. His con-
solidated empire extended from the river Ancasmayu north of
Quito to the river Maule in the south of Chile. The Incas had
an elaborate system of state-worship, with a ritual, and fre-
quently recurring festivals. History and tradition were pre-
served by the bards, and dramas were enacted before the
sovereign and his court. Roads with post-houses at intervals
were made over the wildest mountain-ranges and the bleakest
deserts for hundreds of miles. A well-considered system of
land-tenure and of colonization provided for the wants of all
classes of the people. The administrative details of government
were minutely and carefully organized, and accurate statistics
were kept by means of the " quipus " or system of knots. The
edifices displayed marvellous building skill, and their workman-
ship is unsurpassed. The world has nothing to show, in the way
of stone-cutting and fitting, to equal the skill and accuracy
displayed in the Inca structures of Cuzco. As workers in metals
and as potters they displayed infinite variety of design, while as
cultivators and engineers they excelled their European con-
querors. (For illustrations see AMERICA, Plate V.)

The story of the conquest has been told by Prescott and
Helps, who give ample references to original authorities; it will
be sufficient here to enumerate the dates of the
leading events. On the zoth of March 1526 the fi"^ y
contract for the conquest of Peru was signed by
Francisco Pizarro, Diego de Almagro and Hernando de Luque,
Caspar de Espinosa supplying the funds. In 1527 Pizarro,
after enduring fearful hardships, first reached the coast of Peru
at Tumbez. In the following year he went to Spain, and on
the 26th of July 1529 the capitulation with the Crown for the
conquest of Peru was executed. Pizarro sailed from San Lucar
with his brothers in January iS3°, and landed at Tumbes in
1531. The civil war between Huascar and Atahualpa, the sons
of Huayna Capac, had been fought out in the meanwhile, and
the victorious Atahualpa was at Cajamarca on his way from
Quito to Cuzco. On the isth of November 1532 Pizarro with
his little army, made his way to Cajamarca, where he received
a friendly welcome from the Inca, whom he treacherously seized
and made prisoner. He had with him only 183 men. In
February 1533 his colleague Almagro arrived with reinforce-
ments. The murder of the Inca Atahualpa was perpetrated
on the 2Cjth of August 1533, and on the isth of November
Pizarro entered Cuzco. He allowed the rightful heir to the
empire, Manco, the legitimate son of Huayna Capac, to be
solemnly crowned on the 24th of March 1534. Almagro then
undertook an expedition to Chile, and Pizarro founded the city
of Lima on the i8th of January 1535. In the following year the
Incas made a brave attempt to expel the invaders, and closely
besieged the Spaniards in Cuzco during February and March.
But Almagro, returning from Chile, raised the siege on the i8th
of April 1537. Immediately afterwards a dispute arose between
the brothers, Francisco, Juan and Gonzalo Pizarro and Almagro

PERU

275

as to the limits of their respective jurisdictions. An interview
took place at Mala, on the sea-coast, on the i3th of November
1537, which led to no result, and Almagro was finally defeated
in the battle of Las Salinas near Cuzco on the 26th of April 1538.
His execution followed. His adherents recognized his young
half-caste son, a gallant and noble youth generally known as
Almagro the Lad, as his successor. Bitterly discontented, they
conspired at Lima and assassinated Francisco Pizarro on the
26th of June 1541. Meanwhile Vaca de Castro had been sent
out as governor of Peru by Charles V., and on hearing of the
murder of Pizarro he assumed the government of the country.
On the i6th of September 1542 he defeated the army of Almagro
the Lad in the battle of Chupas near Guamanga, and the boy
was beheaded at Cuzco.

' Charles V. enacted the code known as the " New Laws " in
1542. " Encomiendas," or grants of estates on which the
Civil Wars inhabitants were bound to pay tribute and give
' personal service to the grantee, were to pass to the
Crown on the death of the actual holder; a fixed sum was
to be assessed as tribute; and forced personal service was
forbidden. Blasco Nunez de Vela was sent out, as first viceroy
of Peru, to enforce the " New Laws." Their promulgation
aroused a storm among the conquerors. Gonzalo Pizarro rose
in rebellion, and entered Lima on the 28th of October 1544.
The viceroy fled to Quito, but was followed, defeated and killed
at the battle of Anaquito on the i8th of January 1546. The
" New Laws " were weakly revoked, and Pedro de la Gasca, as
first president of the Audiencia (court of justice) of Peru, was
sent out to restore order. He arrived in 1547, and on the 8th
of April 1548 he routed the followers of Gonzalo Pizarro on the
plain of Sacsahuaman near Cuzco. Gonzalo was executed
on the field. La Gasca made a redistribution of " encomiendas "
to the loyal conquerors, which caused great discontent, and left
Peru before his scheme was made public in January 1550. On
the 23rd of September 1551 Don Antonio de Mendoza arrived as
second viceroy, but he died at Lima in the following July. The
country was then ruled by the judges of the Audiencia, and a
formidable insurrection broke out, headed by Francisco Hernan-
dez Giron, with the object of maintaining the right of the
conquerors to exact forced service from the Indians. In May
1554 Giron defeated the army of the judges at Chuquinga, but
he was hopelessly routed at Fucara on the nth of October
1554, captured, and on the 7th of December executed at Lima.
Don Andres Hurtado de Mendoza, marquis of Canete, entered
Lima as third viceroy of Peru on the 6th of July 1555, and ruled
with an iron hand for six years. All the leaders in former
disturbances were sent to Spain. Corregidors, or governors
of districts, were ordered to try summarily and execute every
turbulent person within their jurisdictions. All unemployed
persons were sent on distant expeditions, and moderate " en-
comiendes " were granted to a few deserving officers. At the
same time the viceroy wisely came to an agreement with Sayri
Tupac, the son and successor of the Inca Manco, and granted
him a pension. He took great care to supply the natives with
priests of good conduct, and promoted measures for the estab-
lishment of schools and the foundation of towns in the different
provinces. The cultivation of wheat, vines and olives, and
European domestic animals were introduced. The next viceroy
was the Conde de Nieva (1561-1564). His successor, the
licentiate Lope Garcia de Castro, who only had the title of
governor, ruled from 1564 to 1569. From this time there was
a succession of viceroys until 1824. The viceroys were chief
magistrates, but in legal matters they had to consult the Audi-
encia of judges, in finance the Tribunal de Cuentas, in other
branches of administration the Juntas de Gobierno and de
Guerra.

Don Francisco de Toledo, the second son of the count of
Oropesa, entered Lima as viceroy on the a6th of November 1 569.
Toledo's Fearing that the little court of the Inca Tupac Amaru
Admiaistra-(-w\io had succeeded his brother Sayri Tupac) might
become a focus of rebellion, he seized the young
prince, and unjustly beheaded the last of the Incas in the square

of Cuzco in the year 1571. After a minute personal inspection
of every province in Peru, he, with the experienced aid of the
learned Polo de Ondegardo and the judge of Matienza, estab-
lished the system under which the native population of Peru
was ruled for the two succeeding centuries. His Libro de
Tasos fixed the tribute to be paid by the Indians, exempting
all men under eighteen and over fifty. He found it necessary,
in order to secure efficient government, to revert in some measure
to the system of the Incas. The people were to be directly
governed by their native chiefs, whose duty was to collect the
tribute and exercise magisterial functions. The chiefs or
" curacas " had subordinate native officials under them called
" pichca-pachacas " over 500 men, and " pachacas " over
100 men. The office of curaca or cacique was made hereditary,
and its possessor enjoyed several privileges. Many curacas
were descended from the imperial family of the Incas, or from
great nobles of the Incarial court. In addition to the tribute,
which was in accordance with native usage, there was the
" mita," or forced labour in mines, farms and manufactories.
Toledo enacted that one-seventh of the male population of a
village should be subject to conscription for this service, but
they were to be paid, and were not to be taken beyond a specified
distance from their homes.

The Spanish kings and viceroys desired to protect the people
from tyranny, but they were unable to prevent the rapacity
and lawlessness of distant officials and the country
was depopulated by the illegal methods of enforcing royalty.
the mita. Toledo was succeeded in 1581 by Don
Martin Henriquez, who died at Lima two years afterwards.
The Spanish colonies suffered from the strict system of monopoly
and protection, which was only slightly relaxed by the later
Bourbon kings, and from the arbitrary proceedings of the
Inquisition. Between 1581 and 1776 as many as fifty-nine
heretics were burned at Lima, and there were twenty-nine
"autos"; but the Inquisition affected Europeans rather than
natives, for the Indians, as catechumens, were exempted from
its terrors. The curacas sorrowfully watched the gradual extinc-
tion of their people by the operation of the mita, protesting from
time to time against the exactions and cruelty of the Spaniards.
At length a descendant of the Incas, who assumed the name of
Tupac Amaru, rose in rebellion in 1780. The insurrection lasted
until July 1783, and cruel executions followed its suppression.
This was the last effort of the Indians to throw off the Spanish
yoke and the rising was by no means general. The army which
overthrew Tupac Amaru consisted chiefly of loyal Indians, and
the rebellion was purely anti-Spanish, and had no support from
the Spanish population. The movement for independence,
which slowly gained force during the opening decade of the i9th
century, did not actually become serious until the conquest of
Spain by the French in 1807-1808. The Creoles (Criallos) or
American-born Spaniards had for long been aggrieved at being
shut out from all important official positions, and at the restric-
tions placed upon their trade, but the bulk of the Creole popula-
tion was not disloyal.

Peru was the centre of Spanish power, and the viceroy had
his military strength concentrated at Lima. Consequently the
insurrections in the more distant provinces, such as
Chile and Buenos Aires, were the first to declare
themselves independent, in 1816 and 1817. But
the destruction of the viceroy's power was essential to their
continued independent existence. The conquest of the Peruvian
coast must always depend on the command of the sea. A fleet
of armed ships was fitted out at Valparaiso in Chile, under the
command of Lord Cochrane (afterwards earl of Dundonald) and
officered by Englishmen. It convoyed an army of Argentine
troops, with some Chileans, under the command of the Argentine
general, San Martin, which landed on the coast of Peru in
September 1820. San Martin was enthusiastically received,
and the independence of Peru was proclaimed at Lima after
the viceroy had withdrawn (July 28, 1821). On the 2oth of
September 1822 San Martin resigned the protectorate, with
which he had been invested, and on the same day the first

PERU

congress of Peru became the sovereign power of the state.
After a short period of government by a committee of three,
the congress elected Don Jose de la Riva Aguero to be first
president of Peru on the 28th of February 1823. He displayed
great energy in facing the difficulties of a turbulent situation,
but was unsuccessful. The aid of the Colombians under Simon
Bolivar was sought, and Aguero was deposed.

Bolivar arrived at Lima on the ist of September 1823, and
began to organize an army to attack the Spanish viceroy in
the interior. On the 6th of August 1824 the cavalry action of
Junin was fought with the Spanish forces under the command
of a French adventurer, General Canterac, near the shores of
the lake of Chinchay-cocha. It was won by a gallant charge
of the Peruvians under Captain Suarez at the critical moment.
Soon afterwards Bolivar left the army to proceed to the coast,
and the final battle of Ayacucho (Dec. 9, 1824) was fought by
his second in command, General Sucre. The viceroy and all
his officers were taken prisoners, and the Spanish power in Peru
came to an end.

General Bolivar ruled Peru with dictatorial powers for more
than a year, and though' there were cabals against him there can
be little doubt of his popularity. He was summoned back to
Colombia when he had been absent for five years and, in spite
of protests left the country on the 3rd of September 1826,
followed by all the Colombian troops in March 1827.

General Jose de Lamar, who commanded the Peruvians at

Ayacucho, was elected president of Peru on the 24th of August

1827, but was deposed, after waging a brief but

Presidents disastrous war with Colombia on the 7th of June

' 1829. General Agustin Gamarra, who had been

in the Spanish service, and was chief of the staff in the patriot

army at Ayacucho, was elected third president on the 3ist of

August 1829.

For fifteen years, from 1829 to 1844, Peru was painfully
feeling her way to a right use of independence. The officers
who fought at Ayacucho, and to whom the country felt natural
gratitude, were all-powerful, and they had not learned to settle
political differences in any other way than by the sword. Three
men, during that period of probation, won a prominent place
in their country's history, Generals Agustin Gamarra, Felipe
Santiago Salaverry, and Andres Santa Cruz. Gamarra, born
at Cuzco in 1785, never accommodated himself to constitutional
usages; but he attached to himself many loyal and devoted
friends, and, with all his faults he loved his country and sought
its welfare according to his lights. Salaverry was a very different
character. Born at Lima in 1806, of pure Basque descent, he
joined the patriot army before he was fifteen and displayed
his audacious valour in many a hard-fought battle. Feeling
strongly the necessity that Peru had for repose, and the guilt
of civil dissension, he wrote patriotic poems which became very
popular. Yet he too seized the supreme power, and perished
by an iniquitous sentence on the i8th of February i836.1
Andres Santa Cruz was an Indian statesman. His mother was a
lady of high rank, of the family of the Incas, and he was very
proud of his descent. Unsuccessful as a general in the field, he
nevertheless possessed remarkable administrative ability and for
nearly three years (1836-1839) realized his lifelong dream of a
Peru-Bolivian confederation.2 But the strong-handed inter-
vention of Chile on the ground of assistance rendered to rebels,
but really through jealousy of the confederation, ended in the
defeat and overthrow of Santa Cruz, and the separation of
Bolivia from Peru. But Peruvian history is not confined to
the hostilities of these military rulers. Three constitutions
were framed — in 1828, 1833 and 1839. Lawyers and orators
are never wanting in Spanish-American states, and revolution
succeeded revolution in one continuous struggle for the spoils

1 The romance of his life has been admirably written by Manuel
Bilbao (isted., Lima, 1853; 2nd ed., Buenos Aires, 1867).

2 The succession of presidents and supreme chiefs of Peru from
1829 to 1844 was as follows: 1820-1833, Agustin Gamarra;
1834-1835, Luis Jos6 Orbegoso; 1835-1836, Felipe Santiago Sala-
verry; 1836-1839, Andres Santa Cruz; 1839-1841, Agustin Gamarra;
1841-1844, Manuel Menendez.

of office. An exception must be made of the administration
of General Ramon Castilla, who restored peace to Peru, and
showed himself to be an honest and very capable ruler. He
was elected constitutional president on the 2oth of April 1845.
Ten years of peace and increasing prosperity followed. In
1849 the regular payment of the interest of the public debt
was commenced, steam communication was established along
the Pacific coast, and a railroad was made from Lima to Callao.
After a regular term of office of six years of peace and moral
and material progress Castilla resigned, and General Jose
Echenique was elected president. But the proceedings of
Echenique's government in connexion with the consolidation
of the internal debt were disapproved by the nation, and, after
hostilities which lasted for six months, Castilla returned to power
in January 1855. From December 1856 to March 1858 he had
to contend with and subdue a local insurrection headed by
General Agostino Vivanco, but, with these two exceptions,
there was peace in Peru from 1844 to 1879, a period of thirty-five
years. Castilla retired at the end of his term of office in 1862,
and died in 1868. On the 2nd of August 1868 Colonel Juan
Balta was elected president. With the vast sum raised from
guano and nitrate deposits President Balta commenced the
execution of public works, principally railroads on a gigantic
scale. His period of office was signalized by the opening of an
international exhibition at Lima. He was succeeded (Aug.
2, 1872) by Don Manuel Pardo (d. 1878), an honest and
enlightened statesman, who did all in his power to retrieve the
country from the financial difficulty into which it had been
brought by the reckless policy of his predecessor, but the con-
ditions were not capable of solution. He regulated the Chinese
immigration to the coast-valleys, which from 1860 to 1872 had
amounted to 58,606. He promoted education, and encouraged
literature. On the 2nd of August 1876 General Mariano-Ignacio
Prado was elected. (C. E. M.; X.)

On the 5th of April 1879 the republic of Chile declared war
upon Peru, the alleged pretext being that Peru had made an
offensive treaty, directed against Chile, with Bolivia, War with
a country with which Chile had a dispute; but the Chile, 1879-
publication of the text of this treaty made known 1882'
the fact that it was strictly defensive and contained no just
cause of war. The true object of Chile was the conquest of
the rich Peruvian province of Tarapaca, the appropriation
of its valuable guano and nitrate deposits, and the spoliation
of the rest of the Peruvian coast. The military events of the
war, calamitous for Peru, are dealt with in the article CHILE-
PERUVIAN WAR. Suffice it here to note that, after the crushing
defeat of the Peruvian forces at Arica (June 7, 1880) Senor
Nicolas de Pierola assumed dictatorial powers, with General
Andres Caceres as commander-in-chief, but the defeats at
Chorrillos (Jan. 13, 1881) and Miraflores (Jan. 15) proved
the Chilean superiority, and put Lima at their mercy though
desultory fighting was maintained by the remnants of the
Peruvian army in the interior, under direction of General
Caceres. An attempt was made to constitute a government
with Senor Calderon as president of the republic and General
Caceres as first vice-president. The negotiations between this
nominal administration and the Chilean authorities for a treaty
of peace proved futile, the Chilean occupation of Lima and the
Peruvian seaboard continuing uninterruptedly until 1883. In
that year Admiral Lynch, who had replaced General Baquedano
in command of the Chilean forces after the taking of Lima, sent
an expedition against the Peruvians under General Caceres,
and defeated the latter in the month of August. The Chilean
authorities now began preparations for the evacuation of Lima,
and to enable this measure to be effected a Peruvian administra-
tion was organized with the support of the Chileans. General
Iglesias was nominated to the office of president of the republic,
and in October 1883 a treaty of peace, known as the treaty of
Ancon, between Peru and Chile was signed. The Chilean army
of occupation was withdrawn from Lima on the 22nd of October

1883, but a strong force was maintained at Chorrillos un*il July

1884, when the terms of the treaty were finally approved. The

PERU

277

principal conditions imposed by Chile were the absolute cession
by Peru of the province of Tarapaca, and the occupation for a
period of ten years of the territories of Tacna and Arica, the
ownership of these districts to be decided by a popular vote of
the inhabitants of Tacna and Arica at the expiration of the
period named. A further condition was enacted that an
indemnity of 10,000,000 soles was to be paid by the country
finally remaining in possession — a sum equal to about £1,000,000
to-day. The Peruvians in the interior refused to recognize
President Iglesias, and at once began active operations to over-
throw his authority on the final departure of the Chilean troops.
Affairs continued in this unsettled state until the middle of 1885,
Caceres meanwhile steadily gaining many adherents to his side
of the quarrel. In the latter part of 1885 President Iglesias
abdicated.

Under the guidance of General Caceres a junta was then
formed to carry on the government until an election for the
presidency should be held and the senate and cham-
ber of dePuties constituted. In the following year
(1886) General Caceres was elected president of the
republic for the usual term of four years. The task assumed
by the new president was no sinecure. The country had been
thrown into absolute confusion from a political and administra-
tive point of view, but gradually order was restored, and peaceful
conditions were reconstituted throughout the republic. The
four years of office for which General Caceres was elected passed
in uneventful fashion, and in 1890 Seuor Morales Bermudez
was nominated to the presidency, with Sefior Solar and Senor
Borgono as first and second vice-presidents. Matters continued
without alteration from the normal course until 1894, and in
that year Bermudez died suddenly a few months before the
expiration of the period for which he had been chosen as presi-
dent. General Caceres secured the nomination of the vice-
president Borgono as chief of the executive for the unexpired
portion of the term of the late president Bermudez. This
action was unconstitutional, and was bitterly resented by the
vice-president Solar, who by right should have succeeded to the
office. Armed resistance to the authority of Borgono was
immediately organized in the south of Peru, the movement being
supported by Senores Nicolas de Pierola, Billinghurst, Durand
and a number of influential Peruvians. In the month of August
1894 General Caceres was again elected to fill the office of presi-
dent, but the revolutionary movement rapidly gained ground.
President Caceres adopted energetic measures to suppress the
outbreak: his efforts, however, proved unavailing, the close of
1894 finds the country districts in the power of the rebels and the
authority of the legal government confined to Lima and other
cities held by strong garrisons. Early in March 1895 the insur-
gents encamped near the outskirts of Lima, and on the lyth,
1 8th and igth of March severe fighting took place, ending in
the defeat of the troops under General Caceres. A suspension
of hostilities was then brought about by the efforts of H.B.M.
consul. The loss on both sides to the struggle during these two
days was 2800 killed and wounded. President Caceres, finding
his cause was lost, left the country, a provisional government
under Senor Candamo assuming the direction of public affairs.

On the 8th of September 1895 Senor Pierola was declared
president of the republic for the following four years. The
Peruvians were now heartily tired of revolutionary
'president, disturbances, and an insurrectionary outbreak in
the district of Iquitos met with small sympathy,
and was speedily crushed. In 1896 a reform of the electoral
law was sanctioned. By the provisions of this act an electoral
committee was constituted, composed of nine members, two of
these nominated by the senate, two by the chamber of deputies,
four by the supreme court, and one by the president with the
consent of his ministers. To this committee was entrusted the
task of the examination of all election returns, and of the pro-
clamation of the names of successful candidates for seats in
congress. Another reform brought about by Pierola was a
measure introduced and sanctioned in 1897 for a modification
of the marriage laws. Under the new act marriages of non-

Catholics solemnized by diplomatic or consular officers or by
ministers of dissenting churches, if properly registered, are
valid, and those solemnized before the passing of this act were
to be valid if registered before the end of 1899. Revolutionary
troubles again disturbed the country in 1899, when the presi-
dency of Senor Pierola was drawing to a close. In consequence
of dissensions amongst the members of the election committee
constituted by the act of 1896, the president ordered the suppres-
sion of this body. A group of malcontents under the leadership
of one Durand, a man who had been prominent in the revolution
against General Caceres in 1894-95, conspired against the
authorities and raised several armed bands, known locally as
montaneras. Some skirmishes occurred between these insur-
gents and the government troops, the latter generally obtaining
the advantage in these encounters.

In September 1899 President Pierola vacated the presidency
in favour of Senor Romana, who had been elected to the office
as a popular condidate and without the exercise
of any undue official influence. President Romana
was educated at Stonyhurst in England, and was a
civil engineer by profession. The principal political problem
before the government of Peru was the ownership of the terri-
tories of Tacna and Arica. The period of ten years originally
agreed upon for the Chilean occupation of these provinces
expired in 1894. At that date the peace of Peru was so seriously
disturbed by internal troubles that the government was quite
unable to take active steps to bring about any solution of the
matter. After 1894 negotiations between the two governments
were attempted from time to time, but without any satisfactory
results. The question hinged to a great extent on the qualifica-
tion necessary for the inhabitants to vote, in the event of a
plebiscite being called to decide whether Chilean ownership
was to be finally established or the provinces were to revert to
Peruvian sovereignty. Peru proposed that only Peruvian
residents should be entitled to take part in a popular vote;
Chile rejected this proposition, on the ground that all residents in
the territories in question should have a voice in the final decision.
The agreement between Chile and Bolivia, by which the disputed
provinces were to be handed over to the latter country if Chilean
possession was recognized, was also a stumbling-block, a strong
feeling existed among Peruvians against this proceeding. It
was not so much the value of Tacna and Arica that put diffi-
culties in the way of a settlement as the fact that the national
pride of the Peruvians ill brooked the idea of permanently losing
all claim to this section of country. The money, about £i ,000,000,
could probably have been obtained to indemnify Chile if occasion
for it arose.

The question of the delimitation of the frontier between Peru
and the neighbouring republics of Ecuador, Colombia, and
Brazil also cropped up at intervals. A treaty was signed with
Brazil 1876, by which certain physical features were accepted
by both countries as the basis for the boundary. In the case
of Ecuador and Colombia a dispute arose in 1894 concerning
the ownership of large tracts of uninhabited country in the
vicinity of the headwaters of the Amazon and its tributaries.
An agreement was proposed between Peru and Ecuador in
connexion with the limits of the respective republics, but diffi-
culties were created to prevent this proposal from becoming
an accomplished fact by the pretensions put forward by Colom-
bia. The latter state claimed sovereignty over the Napo and
Maranon rivers on the grounds of the ecclesiastical jurisdiction
exercised over this section of territory during the period of
Spanish dominion, the government of Colombia asserting
that these ecclesiastical rights to which Colombia became
entitled after her separation from the Spanish crown carried
also the right of absolute ownership. In a treaty signed by
the three interested states in 1895 a compromise was effected
by which Colombia withdrew a part of the claim advanced,
and it was agreed that any further differences arising out of this
frontier question should be submitted to the arbitration of the
Spanish crown. The later development of the boundary ques-
tion is dealt with at the outset of this article.

278

PERU— PERUGIA

Senor Manuel Candamo succeeded Senor Romana as president
in 1903. In the following year he died, and on the 24th of
September 1904 Senor Jose Pardo was installed in the presiden-
tial chair. In 1908 there were some insurrectionary movements
at Lima and an attempt was made to assassinate President
Pardo, but they were, however, suppressed without a serious
outbreak. Senor August o Leguiva became president on the
24th of September 1908. (C. E. A.; G. E.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Among the principal publications relating to
Peru are: C. E. Akers, A History of South America (London, 1904) ;
L. E. Albertini, Perou en 1878 (Paris, 1878); C. B. Cisneros and
R. E. Garcia, El Peru en Europa (Lima, 1900) ; the same authors,
Geografia comercial de la America del Sud (3 vols., ibid. 1898);
E. B. Clark, Twelve Months in Peru (London, 1891) ; Geo. R. Fitzroy
Cole, The Peruvians at Home, (ibid. 1884); A. J. Duffield, Peru in
the Guano Age (ibid. 1877) ; C. R. Enock, The Andes and, the Amazon
(ibid. 1907); idem, Peru: its Former and Present Civilization, &c.
(ibid. 1908); P. F. Evans, From Peru to the Plate (ibid. 1889);
M. A. Fuentes, Lima, or Sketches of the Capital of Peru (ibid. 1866);
Calderon F. Garcia, Le Perou contemporain (Paris, 1907) ; Garcilasso
de la Vega, Royal commentaries of the Incas, 1609 (Hakluyt Society's

1863); T. Haenke, Descripcion del Peru (Lima, 1901); E. Higginson,
Mines and Mining in Peru (ibid. 1903).; S. S. Hill, Travels in Peru
and Mexico (2 vols., London, 1860); T. J. Hutchinson, Two Years
in Peru (2 vols.; ibid. 1874); R. Laos, A Handbook of Peru for Inves-
tors and Immigrants (Baltimore, 1903) ; C. R. Markham, Cuzco and
Lima (London, 1858); idem, Travels in Peru and India (ibid. 1862);
idem, The War between Peru and Chile (ibid. 1883); idem, History
of Peru (Chicago, 1892) ; V. M. Maurtua, The Question of the Pacific
(Philadelphia, 1901); M. de Mendiburu, Diccionario historico-
biogr&fico del Peru (8 vols., Callao, 1874-1890); E. W. Middendorf,
Peru: Beobachtungen und Studien uber das Land und seine Bewohner,
&c. (Berlin, 1 893) ; Federico Moreno, Petroleum in Peru (Lima, 1891);
Dr M. Neveu-Lemaire, Les Lacs des hauls plateaux de I'Amerique du
Sud (Paris, 1906); M. F. Paz-Soldan, Historia del Peru indepen-
diente (3 vols., 1868 et seq.); idem, Diccionario geogrdfico-estadistico
del Peru (Lima, 1879); A. Plane, A travers I'Amerique equatoriale
(Paris, 1903) ; W. H. Prescott, History of the Conquest of Peru (3 vols.,
Philadelphia, 1868); A. Raimondi, El Peru: Estudios mineralogicos,
&c. (4 vols., Lima, 1890-1902); M. Ch. Renoz, Le Perou (Bruxelles,
1897): G. Rene'-Moreno, Ultimas dias coloniales en el Alto Peru
1807-1808 (Santiago de Chile, 1896-1898); F. Seebee, Travelling
Impressions in and Notes on Peru (2nd ed., London, 1905) ; E. G.
Squier, Peru: Incidents of Travel and Exploration in the Land of the
Incas (ibid. 1877); Edmond Temple, Travels in Various Parts of
Peru (2 vols., ibid. 1830); J. J. Von Tschudi, Reisen durch Sud-
amerika (5 vols., Leipzig, 1866-1868) ; idem, Travels in Peru (London,
1847) ; Charles Wiener, Perou et Bolivie (Paris, 1880) ; Frank Vincent,
Around and about South America (New York, 1890) ; Marie Robinson
Wright, The Old and New Peru (Philadelphia, 1909) ; the Consular and
Diplomatic Reports of Great Britain and the United States; Hand-
book of Peru and Bulletins of the Bureau of American Republics;
and the departmental publications of the Peruvian Government.

PERU, a city of La Salle county, Illinois, U.S.A., in the
north-central part of the state, on the N. bank of the Illinois
River, about 100 m. S.W. of Chicago and i m. W. of La
Salle, a terminus of the Illinois & Michigan Canal. Pop. (1900),
6863 (2095 foreign-born) ; (1910), 7984. It is served by the
Chicago, Burlington & Quincy and the Chicago, Rock Island &
Pacific railways. The city is built on the face and top of a
series of river bluffs. It is the seat of St Bede College (Roman
Catholic, opened in 1891), conducted by Benedictine fathers.
In a large public park there is a bronze monument in memory of
the soldiers of Peru who died in the Civil War. There are
extensive coal-mines in the vicinity; and the city includes
various manufactures. Peru was first settled about 1827, was
incorporated in 1845, and re-incorporated in 1800.

PERU, a city and the county-seat of Miami county, Indiana,
U.S.A., about 75 m. N. of Indianapolis, on the Wabash River.
Pop. (1910 U.S. census), 10,910. Peru is served by the Chicago
Cincinnati & Louisville, the Lake Erie & Western and the
Wabash railways (each of which maintains shops here), and by
electric lines to Indianapolis, Warsaw and other cities. The
city has a Carnegie library, a railway Young Men's Christian
Association, and a hospital for the employes of the Wabash
railroad. There is a city park on the river, and 9 m. east of the
city is Boyd park, an amusement resort. Peru is an important
grain and produce market, and has various manufactures.

In 1905 the value of the factory products was $1,703,417
(27-3% more than in 1900). Petroleum is found in the
vicinity. Peru was settled in 1834 and was chartered as a
city in 1867.

PERUGIA (anc. Perusia), a city and archiepiscopal see of
Italy, the capital of the province of Perugia (which forms the
entire compartimento of Umbria) situated 1444 ft. above sea-
level. Pop. (1906), 22,321 (town); 65,527 (commune). The
town is finely situated upon a group of hills nearly 1000 ft.
above the valley of the Tiber. Its outline is very irregular; from
the centre of the town, at the junction of several ridges, parts
of it extend for a considerable distance along their summits,
being divided from one another by deep valleys. This is the
extent enclosed by the medieval walls; within them are consider-
able remains of the lofty terrace walls of the Eutruscan period.
The so-called Arco di Augusto is a town gate with a Decorated
superstructure, perhaps of the Etruscan period, bearing the
inscription Augusta Perusia; above this again is a Renaissance
loggia. The superstructure of a similar gate (Porta Marzia),
which was removed in 1540 to make way for the citadel, but is
depicted in a fresco by Benedetto Bonfigli (between 1461 and
1477), was re-erected in the substruction walls of the citadel
itself. It bears the inscription Colonia Vibia Augusta Perusia,
so that the town must have become a colony in the reign of the
emperor C. Vibius Trebonianus Gallus (A.D. 251-253), who was
a native of it. Four other gates of the Etruscan period can still
be traced (F. Noack in Romische Mitteilungen, 1897, 166 sqq).
In the garden of the church of S. Elisabeth was found in 1876
a fine mosaic in black on a white ground representing Orpheus in
the midst of the beasts (Notizie degli scam, 1876, 181; 1877 309).

The citadel was erected by Pope Paul III. in 1540-1546, after
the plans of Antonio da Sangallo the younger, and demolished
in 1860 (see Bacile di Castiglione in L'Arte, 1903, 347). The
Piazza del Duomo is at the north of the Corso. On one side
stands the cathedral of San Lorenzo, a Gothic structure of the
1 4th and isth centuries, in the plan of a Latin cross, with nave
and aisles of equal height ; on the other the Palazzo del Municipio,
presenting two fine Gothic facades, of the i4th century (though
the building was not completed till 1443), with the figures of
the Perugian griffin and the Guelph lion above the outside stair;
and in the centre the marble fountain constructed in 1277-1280
by Arnolfo di Cambio, and adorned with statues and statuettes
by Niccolo and Giovanni Pisano. The cathedral contains the
burial-place of Urban IV. and Martin IV. — the remains of Inno-
cent III. were removed to Rome in 1892 and placedin the basilica
of S. Giovanni in Laterano — and the Virgin's wedding -ring; and
at the north-east corner is a sitting statue of Pope Julius III.
by Vincenzo Danti, erected in 1555 by the people of Perugia
in gratitude for the restoration of their civic privileges. On
the decoration of the Sala del Cambio, or old exchange, Perugino
put forth the full force of his genius. Most of the movable
paintings have since 1863 been collected in the Pinacoteca
Vannucci, established in the Palazzo del Municipio; besides a
considerable number of pieces by Perugino, there are specimens
of Niccolo Alunno, Bonfigli, Pinturicchio, &c. A very interest-
ing and important exhibition of Umbrian art was held here in
1907. The pictures, the needlework with some splendid pieces
of embroidery from S. Francesco at Assisi, the vestments of
Pope Benedict XI., and the majolica of Perugia and Deruta,
a village 10 m. south, were especially noteworthy (see U. Gnoli,
L'Arte umbra alia mostra di Perugia, Bergamo, 1908). The
illuminated MSS. of the communal library, the cathedral and
the church of S. Pietro, from the 7th century onwards, were also
exhibited.

The formation of the Pinacoteca Vannucci has impaired the
interest of several churches but in others it remains undiminished.
San Domenico, a Gothic edifice originally designed by Giovanni
Pisano but rebuilt in 1614, contains the monument of Pope
Benedict XI. (attributed, but probably wrongly, to Giovanni
Pisano by Vasari), and in its east front a Gothic window with
stained glass by Fra Bartolommeo of Perugia (1441). San
Pietro de' Cassinensi (outside the Porta Romana) is a basilica

PERUGINO

279

•with nave and aisles, founded in the beginning of the nth
century by San Pietro Vincioli on the site of a building of the
6th century, and remarkable for its conspicuous spire, its ancient
granite and marble columns, its walnut stall- work of 1535 by
Stefano de' Zambelli da Bergamo, and its numerous pictures (by
Perugino, &c.). The oratory of S. Bernardino has an early
Renaissance polychrome facade, richly sculptured, of 1457-1461,
by Agostino d'Antonio di Duccio of Florence. S. Severo con-
tains Raphael's first independent fresco (1505), much damaged
by restoration. The circular church of S. Angelo, with sixteen
antique columns in the interior, probably dates from the middle
of the 6th century. The university dates from 1307, and has
faculties of law, science and medicine; it had 318 students in
1902-1903. It contains an important museum of Etruscan and
Roman antiquities. Three miles to the S.S.E. the Etruscan
necropolis of the ancient city was discovered in 1870. The
large tomb of the Volumni (3rd century B. c.) hewn in the rock,
with its carved cinerary urns, is interesting.

The ancient Perusia first appears in history as one of the
twelve confederate cities of Etruria. It is first mentioned in
the account of the war of 310 or 309 B.C. between the Etruscans
and the Romans. It took, however, an important part in the
rebellion of 295, and was reduced, with Vulsinii and Arretium,
to seek for peace in the following year. In 216 and 205 it
assisted Rome in the Hannibalic war, but afterwards it is not
mentioned until 41-40 B.C., when L. Antonius took refuge there,
and was reduced by Octavian after a long siege. A number of
lead bullets used by slingers have been found in and around the
city (Corpus inscr. lat. xi. 1212). The city was burnt, we
are told, with the exception of the temples of Vulcan and Juno
— the massive Etruscan terrace-walls, naturally, can hardly
have suffered at all — and the town, with the territory for a mile
round, was allowed to be occupied by whoever chose. It must
have been rebuilt almost at once, for several bases exist, inscribed
Augusta sacr(um) Perusia restituta; but, as we have seen, it
did not become a colony until A.D. 251-253. It is hardly men-
tioned except by the geographers until the middle of the 6th
century, when it was captured by Totila after a long siege. In
the Lombard period it is spoken of as one of the principal cities
of Tuscia. In the gth century, with the consent of Charles the
Great and Louis the Pious, it passed under the popes; but
for many centuries the city continued to maintain an indepen-
dent life, warring against many of the neighbouring lands
and cities — Foligno, Assisi, Spoleto, Montepulciano, &c. It
remained true for the most part to the Guelphs. On various
occasions the popes found asylum within its walls, and it was
the meeting-place of the conclaves which elected Honorius II.
(1124), Honorius IV. (1285), Celcstine V. (1294), and Clement V.
(1305). But Perugia had no mind simply to subserve the papal
interests. At the time of Rienzi's unfortunate enterprise it
sent ten ambassadors to pay him honour; and, when papal
legates sought to coerce it by foreign soldiers, or to exact con-
tributions, they met with vigorous resistance. In the i5th
century power was at last concentrated in the Baglioni family,
who, though they had no legal position, defied all other authority.
Gian Paolo Baglioni was lured to Rome in 1520 and beheaded
by Leo X.; and in 1534 Rodolfo, who had slain a papal legate,
was defeated by Pier Luigi Farnese, and the city, captured
and plundered by his soldiery, was deprived of its privileges.
The citadel was begun six y.ears later " ad coercendam Perusi-
norum audaciam." In 1797 Perugia was occupied by the
French; in 1832, 1838 and 1854 it was visited by earthquakes;
in May 1849 it was seized by the Austrians; and, after a futile
insurrection in 1859, it was finally united, along with the rest of
Umbria, to Piedmont, in 1860.

See G. Conestabile, / Monumenti di Perugia etrusca e romana
(Perugia, 1855) ; M. Symonds and L. Duff Gordon, Perugia (" Medi-
eval Towns Series"), (1898); R. A. Gallenga Stuart, Perugia
(Bergamo, 1905; W. Heywood, Hist, of Perugia (1910). (T. As.)

PERUGINO, PIETRO (1446-1524), whose correct family
name was VANNUCCI, Italian painter, was born in 1446 at Citta
della Pieve in Umbria, and belongs to the Umbrian school of

painting. The name of Perugino came to him from Perugia,
the chief city of the neighbourhood. Pietro was one of several
children born to Cristoforo Vannucci, a member of a respectable
family settled at Citta della Pieve. Though respectable, they
seem to have been poor, or else, for some reason or other, to
have left Pietro uncared for at the opening of his career. Before
he had completed his ninth year the boy was articled to a master,
a painter at Perugia; Who this may have been is very uncertain ;
the painter is spoken of as wholly mediocre, but sympathetic
for the great things in his art. Benedetto Bonfigli is generally
surmised; if he is rejected as being above mediocrity, either
Fiorenzo di Lorenzo or Niccolo da Foligno may possibly have
been the man. Pietro painted a little at Arezzo; thence he went
to the headquarters of art, Florence, and frequented the famous
Brancacci Chapel in the church of the Carmine. It appears
to be sufficiently established that he studied in the atelier of
Andrea del Verrocchio, where Leonardo de Vinci was also a
pupil. He may have learned perspective, in which he par-
ticularly excelled for that period of art, from Piero de' Fran-
ceschi. The date of this first Florentine sojourn is by no means
settled; some authorities incline to make it as early as 1470.
while others, with perhaps better reason, postpone it till 1479.
Pietro at this time was extremely poor; he had no bed, but
slept on a chest for many months, and, bent upon making his
way, resolutely denied himself every creature comfort.

Gradually Perugino rose into notice, and became famous not
only throughout Italy but even beyond. He was one of the
earliest Italian painters to practise oil-painting, in which he
evinced a depth and smoothness of tint, which elicited much
remark; and in perspective he applied the novel rule of two
centres of vision. Some of his early works were extensive
frescoes for the Ingesati fathers in their convent, which was
destroyed not many years afterwards in the course of the siege
of Florence; he produced for them also many cartoons, which
they executed with brilliant effect in stained glass. Though
greedy for gain, his integrity was proof against temptation;
and an amusing anecdote has survived of how the prior of the
Ingesati doled out to him the costly colour of ultramarine, and
how Perugino, constantly washing his brushes, obtained a
surreptitious hoard of the pigment, which he finally restored
to the prior to shame his stingy suspiciousness. A good speci-
men of his early style in tempera is the circular picture in the
Louvre of the " Virgin and Child enthroned between Saints."

Perugino returned from Florence to Perugia, and thence,
towards 1483, he went to Rome. The painting of that part of
the Sixtine Chapel which is now immortalized by Michelangelo's
" Last Judgment " was assigned to him by the pope; he covered
it with frescoes of the "Assumption," the " Nativity," and " Moses
in the Bulrushes." These works were ruthlessly destroyed to
make a space for his successor's more colossal genius, but other
works by Perugino still remain in the Sixtine Chapel; " Moses
and Zipporah " (often attributed to Signorelli), the " Baptism
of Christ," and " Christ giving the Keys to Peter." Pinturicchio
accompanied the greater Umbrian to Rome, and was made his
partner, receiving a third of the profits; he may probably have
done some of the Zipporah subject.

Pietro, now aged forty, must have left Rome after the comple-
tion of the Sixtine paintings in 1486, and in the autumn of that
year he was in Florence. Here he figures by no means advan-
tageously in a criminal court. In July 1487 he and another
Perugian painter named Aulista di Angelo were convicted, on
their own confession, of having in December waylaid with staves
some one (the name does not appear) in the street near S. Pietro
Maggiore. Perugino limited himself, in intention, to assault
and battery, but Aulista had made up his mind for murder.
The minor and more illustrious culprit was fined ten gold florins,
and the major one exiled for life.

Between 1486 and 1499 Perugino resided chiefly in Florence,
making one journey to Rome and several to Perugia. He was in
many other parts of Italy from time to time. He had a regular
shop in Florence, received a great number of commissions,
and continued developing his practice as an oil-painter, his

28o

PERUKE

system of superposed layers of colour being essentially the
same as that of the Van Eycks. One of his most celebrated
pictures, the " Pieta " in the Pitti Gallery, belongs to the year
1495. From about 1498 he became increasingly keen after money,
frequently repeating his groups from picture to picture, and
leaving much of his work to journeymen. In 1499 the gild of
the cambio (money-changers or bankers) of Perugia asked him
to undertake the decoration of their audience-hall, and he
accepted the invitation. This extensive scheme of work, which
may h^ve been finished within the year 1500, comprised the
painting of the vault with the seven planets and the signs of
the zodiac (Perugino doing the designs and his pupils most
probably the executive work) and the representation on the walls
of two sacred subjects — the " Nativity " and " Transfiguration "
— the Eternal Father, the four virtues of Justice, Prudence,
Temperance and Fortitude, Cato as the emblem of wisdom,
and (in life size) numerous figures of classic worthies, prophets
and sibyls. On the mid-pDaster of the hall Perugino placed his
own portrait in bust-form. It is probable that Raphael, who
in boyhood, towards 1496, had been placed by his uncles under
the tuition of Perugino, bore a hand in the work of the vaulting.
It may have been about this time (though some accounts date
the event a few years later) that Vannucci married a young and
beautiful wife, the object of his fond affection ; he loved to see
her handsomely dressed, and would often deck her out with his
own hands. He was made one of the priors of Perugia in 1501.

While Perugino, though by no means stationary or unpro-
gressive as an executive artist, was working contentedly upon the
old lines and carrying out the ancient conceptions, a mighty
wave of new art flooded Florence with its rush and Italy with
its rumour. Michelangelo, twenty-five years of age in 1500,
following after and distancing Leonardo da Vinci, was opening
men's eyes and minds to possibilities of achievement as yet
unsurmised. Vannucci in Perugia heard Buonarroti bruited
abroad, and was impatient to see with his own eyes what the
stir was all about. In 1504 he allowed his apprentices and
assistants to disperse, and returned to Florence. Though not
openly detracting, he viewed with jealousy and some grudging
the advances made by Michelangelo; and Michelangelo on his
part replied, with the intolerance which pertains to superiority,
to the faint praise or covert dispraise of his senior and junior in
the art. On one occasion, in company, he told Perugino to
his face that he was " a bungler in art " (goffo nell' arte). Van-
nucci brought, with equal indiscretion and ill success, an action
for defamation of character. Put on his mettle by this mortifying
transaction, he determined to show what he could do, and he
produced the chef-d'cBuvre of the " Madonna and Saints " for
the Certosa of Pavia. The constituent parts of this noble
work have now been sundered. The only portion which remains
in the Certosa is a figure of God the Father with cherubim.
An " Annunciation " has disappeared from cognisance; three
compartments — the Virgin adoring the infant Christ, St Michael,
and St Raphael with Tobias — are among the choicer treasures
of the National Gallery, London. The current story that
Raphael bore a hand in the work is not likely to be true. This
was succeeded in 1505 by an " Assumption," in the Cappella dei
Rabatta, in the church of the Servi in Florence. The painting
may have been executed chiefly by a pupil, and was at any rate
a failure: it was much decried; Perugino lost his scholars; and
towards 1506 he once more and finally abandoned Florence,
going to Perugia, and thence in a year or two to Rome.

Pope Julius II. had summoned Perugino to paint the Stanza
in the Vatican, now called that of the Incendio del Borgo; but
he soon preferred a younger competitor, that very Raphael who
had been trained by the aged master of Perugia; and Vannucci,
after painting the ceiling with figures of God the Father in
different glories, in five medallion-subjects, found his occupation
gone; he retired from Rome, and was once more in Perugia from
1512. Among his latest works one of the best is the extensive
altar-piece (painted between 1512 and 1517) of S. Agostino in
Perugia; the component parts of it are now dispersed in various
galleries.

Perugino's last frescoes were painted for the monastery of
S. Agnese in Perugia, and in 1522 for the church of Castello di
Fortignano hard by. Both series have disappeared from their
places, the second being now in the Victoria and Albert Museum.
He was still at Fontignano in 1524 when the plague broke out,
and he died. He was buried in unconsecrated ground in a field,
the precise spot now unknown. The reason for so obscure and
unwonted a mode of burial has been discussed, and religious
scepticism on the painter's own part has been assigned as the
cause; the fact, however, appears to be that, on the sudden
and widespread outbreak of the plague, the panic-struck local
authorities ordained that all victims of the disorder should
be at once interred without any waiting for religious rites. This
leads us to speak of Perugino's opinions on religion. Vasari is
our chief, but not our sole, authority for saying that Vannucci
had very little religion, and was an open and obdurate disbeliever
in the immortality of the soul. For a reader of the present day
it is easier than it was for Vasari to suppose that Perugino may
have been a materialist, and yet just as good and laudable a
man as his orthodox Catholic neighbours or brother-artists;
still there is a strong discrepancy between the quality of his art,
in which all is throughout Christian, Catholic, devotional, and
even pietistic, and the character of an anti-Christian con-
temner of the doctrine of immortality. It is difficult to reconcile
this discrepancy, and certainly not a little difficult also to suppose
that Vasari was totally mistaken in his assertion; he was born
twenty years before Perugino's death, and must have talked with
scores of people to whom the Umbrian painter had been well
known. We have to remark that Perugino in 1494 painted
his own portrait, now in the Uffizi Gallery of Florence, and into
this he introduced a scroll lettered " Timete Deum." That an
open disbeliever should inscribe himself with " Timete Deum "
seems odd. The portrait in question shows a plump face, with
small dark eyes, a short but well-cut nose, and sensuous lips;
the neck is thick, the hair bushy and frizzled, and the general
air imposing. The later portrait in the Cambio of Perugia
shows the same face with traces of added years. Perugino died
possessed of considerable property, leaving three sons.

Among the very numerous works of Perugino a few not already
namedj require mention. Towards 1496 he painted the " Cruci-
fixion," in S. Maria Maddalena dei Pazzi, Florence. The attribu-
tion to him of the picture of the marriage of Joseph and the Virgin
Mary (the " Sposalizio ") now in the museum of Caen, which served
indisputably as the original, to a great extent, of the still more
famous " Sposalizio " which was painted by Raphael in 1504, and
which forms a leading attraction of the Brera Gallery in Milan,
is now questioned, and it is assigned to Lo Spagna. A vastly
finer work of Perugino's is the " Ascension of Christ, which, painted
a littler earlier for S. Pietro of Perugia, has for years past been in the
museum of Lyons; the other portions of the same altar-piece are
dispersed in other galleries. In the chapel of the Disciplinati of
Citta dclla Pieve is an " Adoration of the Magi," a square of 21 ft.
containing about thirty life-sized figures; this was executed, with
scarcely credible celerity, from the 1st to the 25th of March (or
thereabouts) in 1505, and must no doubt be in great part the work
of Vannucci's pupils. In 1507, when the master's work had for years
been in a course of decline and his performances were generally
weak, he produced, nevertheless, one of his best pictures — the
" Virgin between St Jerome and St Francis," now in the Palazzo
Penna. In S. Onofno of Florence is a much lauded and much-
debated fresco of the " Last Supper," a careful and blandly correct
but not inspired work; it has been ascribed to Perugino by some
connoisseurs, by others to Raphael; it may more probably be by
some different pupil of the Umbrian master.

AUTHORITIES. — In addition to Csowe and Cavalcaselle, see Di
Pietro Perugino e degli scolari (1804); Mezzanotte, Vita, &c., di
Pietro Vannucci (1836); Mariotti, Lettere pittoriche Perugine (1788);
Claude Phillips (in The Portfolio) (1893) ; G. C. Williamson, Perugino
(1900 and 1903). (W. M. R.)

PERUKE, an artificial head of hair, a wig. The word is
From Fr. perruque, an adaptation of Ital. perruca or parrucca.
This is usually taken to be from Ital. pelo, hair; Lat. pilus.
Span, peluca, wig, and Sardinian pilucca, lock or tuft of hair,
support this view. In the I7th century the English forms
which the French word took, such as perruck or perug, were
corrupted into perwyke, and thence into perewyk, perrjrig, and
lastly " periwig," which again was shortened into " wig," the

PERUZZI— PESCADORES

281

common term for all types of artificial heads of hair. Periwig
is sometimes confined to the heavy full-bottomed wigs worn
from the reign of Charles II. to the introduction of the light,
tailed wig of the i8th century.

PERUZZI, BALDASSARE (1481-1536), Italian architect
and painter of the Roman school, was born at Ancajano, in
the diocese of Volterra, and passed his early life at Siena, where
his father resided. While quite young Peruzzi went to Rome,
and there studied architecture and painting; in the latter he
was at first a follower of Perugino. The choir frescoes in
Sant' Onofrio on the Janiculan Hill, usually attributed to
Pinturicchio, are by his hand. One of the first works which
brought renown to the young architect was the villa on the banks
of the Tiber in Rome now known as the Farnesina, originally
built for the Sienese Agostino Chigi, a wealthy banker. This
villa, like all Peruzzi's works, is remarkable for its graceful
design and the delicacy of its detail. It is best known for the
frescoes painted there by Raphael and his pupils to illustrate
the stories of Psyche and Galatea. One of the loggie has frescoes
by Peruzzi's own hand — the story of Medusa. On account of
his success Peruzzi was appointed by Leo X. in 1520 architect
to St Peter's at a salary of 250 scudi; his design for its comple-
tion was not, however, carried out. During the sack of Rome
in 1527 Peruzzi barely escaped with his life, on condition of his
painting the portrait of Constable de Bourbon, who had been
killed during the siege (see VASARI). From Rome he escaped to
Siena, where he was made city architect, and designed fortifica-
tions for its defence, a great part of which still exist. Soon
afterwards he returned to Rome, where he made designs for a
palace for the Orsini family, and built the palaces Massimi and
Vidoni, as well as others in the south of Italy. He died in
1536, and was buried by the side of Raphael in the Pantheon.

Peruzzi was an eager student of mathematics and was also
a fair classical scholar. Like many of the great artists of his
time, he was remarkable for the varied extent of his knowledge
and skill. A most able architect, a fair painter, and a scientific
engineer, he also practised minor arts, such as stucco-work in
relief, sgraffito, and the decorative painted arabesques which
the influence of Raphael did so much to bring into use. His
best existing works in fresco are in the Castel di Belcaro and the
church of Fontegiusta in Siena. For Siena Cathedral he also
designed a magnificent wooden organ-case, painted and gilt,
rich with carved arabesques in friezes and pilasters; he also
designed the high altar and the Cappella del Battista.

His chief pupil was the architect Serlio, who, in his work on
architecture, gratefully acknowledges the great debt he owed to
Peruzzi's instruction. The English National Gallery possesses
an interesting drawing by his hand. The subject is the " Adora-
tion of the Magi," and it is of special value, because the heads
of the three kings are portraits of Michelangelo, Raphael, and
Titian. The Uffizi and the library at Siena contain a number
of Peruzzi's designs and drawings, many of which are now of
priceless value, as they show ancient buildings which have
been destroyed since the i6th century.

AUTHORITIES. — Vasari, Vita di Baldassare Peruzzi (Milanese's ed.,
1882), iv. 489; Milizia, Memorie degli archiletti (1781, i. 210^-215);
Delia Valle, Lettere senesi (1782-1786); Gaye, Carteggio inedito
d' artisti (1839-1840); Lanzi, Storia pittorica (1804); and Platner,
Beschreibung der Stadt Rom (1830-1842).

PERVIGILIUM1 VENERIS, the Vigil of Venus, a short
Latin poem. The author, date, and place of composition are
unknown. The poem probably belongs to the 2nd or 3rd
century A.D. An article signed L. Raquettius in the Classical
Review (May 1905) assigns it to Sidonius Apollinaris ($th cent.)
It was written professedly in early spring on the eve of a
three-nights' festival of Venus (probably April 1-3). It
describes in poetical language the annual awakening of the
vegetable and animal world through the goddess. It consists
of ninety-three verses in trochaic septenarii, and Is divided
into strophes of unequal length by the refrain:

" Cras amet qui nunquam amavit; quique amavit eras amet."

1 Pervigilium was the term for a nocturnal festival in honour of
some divinity, especially Bona Dea.

Editio princeps (1577); modern editions by F. Bucheler (1859),
A. Riese, m Anthologia latino, (1869), E. Bahrens in Unedierte latein-
ische Cedichte (1877) ; S. G. Owen (with Catullus, 1893). There are
translations into English verse by Thomas Stanley (1651) and
Thomas Parnell, author of The Hermit-, on the text see J. W. Mackail
in Journal of Philology (1888), vol. xvii.

PESARO (anc. Pisaurum, q.v.), a city and seaport of the
Marches, Italy, the capital of the province of Pesaro and Urbino,
situated on the coast of the Adriatic 37 m. N.W. of Ancona by
rail, on the right bank of the Foglia, the ancient Pisaurus. The
ground on which it is built is only from 10 to 40 ft. above the
sea, but it is surrounded by hills — on the E. by Monte Ardizio,
on the W. by Monte Accio or San Bartolo, which derives one
of its names from the tradition that the Roman dramatist
L. Attius was born and buried on the spot. Upon this hill stands
the Villa Imperiale, the foundation stone of which was laid by
the emperor Frederick III., built by the Sforza, and decorated
with fine stucco ceilings and wall paintings and pavements
of majolica plaques. A new palace was begun in 1530 by the
Genga for Eleonora Gonzaga, but never finished. The city walls
were in 1830 transformed into a public promenade. Besides
the ancient cathedral of the Annunciation (restored since 1860)
with a 12th-century mosaic pavement, there are a number of
smaller churches, several with Gothic portals. One of these,
the church of San Francesco, now used as a cathedral, contains
the " Coronation of the Virgin " by Giovanni Bellini, the largest
and most important of his works outside Venice. The most
conspicuous buildings are the prefecture (a palace originally
erected in 1455-1465 by the Dalmatian architect Luciano da
Laurana for the Sforza, and restored by Francesco Maria della
Rovere in the i6th century, the Rossini theatre (opened in 1818),
the fortress of Rocca Costanzia (built by Costanzo Sforza in
1474, Laurana being the architect), and the large lunatic asylum.
The composer Gioacchino Rossini, who was a native of Pesaro,
left all his fortune to found a musical lyceum in the city, and his
statue by Marochetti (1864) stands near the railway station.
The Olivieri library (established by the antiquary of that name,
author of Marmora pisaurensia, &c.) contains about 14,000
volumes, MSS. of Tasso, &c., inscriptions and various antiquities,
and a very fine collection of majolica (one of the best in Italy)
from the old Urbino and other manufactories. The Museo
Mosca, left by its owner to the town, contains important collec-
tions of faience, furniture, &c. Among the industries of Pesaro
are the growing, spinning and weaving of silk, tanning, iron-
founding, and the manufacture of glass and pottery. It is also
the centre of a rich agricultural district. The harbour is of no
great importance, but there is a small export trade in wine,
olives, silk and glass. Pop. (1901), 14,768 (town); 24,823
(commune).

Destroyed by Vitiges the Goth, the town was restored and
strengthened by Belisarius, and afterwards along with Ancona,
Fano, Senigallia, and Rimini formed the Pentapolis Maritima.
In the course of the I3th century Pasaro was sometimes under
the government of the popes, sometimes under that of the
emperors; but the Malatesta family, which first took root in the
city about 1285, gradually became the real masters of the place.
In 1445 they sold their rights to Francesco Sforza; and in 1512,
through the influence of Julius II., the Sforza were supplanted
by his nephew Francesco Maria, duke of Urbino. Leo X. took
the city away from Francesco and gave it to Lorenzo de' Medici ;
but on Lorenzo's death Francesco was restored and Pesaro
became the ordinary residence of the dukes of Urbino till the
death of Francesco Maria II. in 1631, when it reverted to the
States of the Church. It has formed part of the present kingdom
of Italy since 1860. Terenzio Mamiani della Rovere, poet and
statesman, was born at Pesaro in 1800.

PESCADORES (i.e. fishers,) a group of islands (called
by the Japanese Hoko to or Hoko Gunto) lying 30 m. west
of Formosa, from which they are separated by the Pescadores
Channel, about the tropic of Cancer. The islands number 48
(21 inhabited), have a coast-line of 98^67 miles, a total area of
85'5osq. m., and a population of about 55,ooo,principallyChinese.
Flat and with unproductive soil, they are swept during one

282

PESCARA— PESHAWAR

half of the year by violent N.E. winds, and also lie full in the
path of the numerous typhoons that rush up the Strait of
Formosa. Meteorological observations taken by the Japanese
during a period of three years show that the annual average
number of stormy days is 237. The anchorage is at Mako
(Makyu or Makun) on the principal island of Penghu. The
chief industry is fishing (whence the old Spanish name which
has come into general use) and dried fish are exported.

PESCARA, FERNANDO FRANCESCO DAVALOS, MARQUIS
OF (1489-1525), Italian condottiere, was born at Naples, his
family being of Spanish origin. Rodrigo (Ruy) Lopez Davalos,
his great-grandfather, a noble of Toledo, who had taken an
active part in the civil wars of Castile in the reign of John II.
(1407-1454), had been driven into exile, and died at Valencia.
Ifiigo (Ignatius), his son, entered the service of Alphonso of
Aragon and Naples, followed his master to Italy, and there,
making an advantageous marriage with a lady of the family
of Aquino, was created marquis of Pescara. His son Alphonso,
who succeeded him in the marquisate, married a lady of the
Sicilian branch of the Spanish family of Cardona, and when
he was treacherously killed, during a French invasion of Naples,
his only son Fernando, or Ferrante, was a child in arms. At
the age of six the boy was betrothed to Vittoria Colonna (q.v.),
daughter of the general Fabrizio Colonna, and the marriage was
celebrated in 1509. His position as a noble of the Aragonese
party in Naples made it incumbent on him to support Ferdinand
the Catholic in his Italian wars. In 1512 he commanded a body
of light cavalry at the battle of Ravenna, where he was wounded
and taken prisoner by the French. Thanks to the intervention
of one of the foremost of the French generals, the Italian
J. J. Trivulzio, who was his connexion by marriage, he was
allowed to ransom himself for 6000 ducats. He commanded
the Spanish infantry at the battle of La Morta, or Vicenza,
on the 7th of October 1513. It was on this occasion that he
called his men before the charge to take care to step on him
before the enemy did if he fell. From the battle of Vicenza
in 1513, down to the battle of La Bicocca on the agth of April
1522, he continued to serve in command of the Spaniards and
as the colleague rather than the subordinate of Prosper Colonna.
It was only by the accident of his birth at Naples that Pescara
was an Italian. He considered himself a Spaniard, spoke
Spanish at all times, even to his wife, and was always surrounded
by Spanish soldiers and officers. His opinion of the Italians as
fighting men was unfavourable and was openly expressed. After
the battle of La Bicocca Charles V. appointed Prosper Colonna
commander-in-chief. Pescara, who considered himself aggrieved,
made a journey to Valladolid in Spain, where the emperor then
was, to state his own claims. Charles V., with whom he had
long and confidential interviews, persuaded him to submit for
the time to the superiority of Colonna. But in these meetings
he gained the confidence of Charles V. His Spanish descent
and sympathies marked him out as a safer commander of the
imperial troops in Italy than an Italian could have been. When
Francis I. invaded Italy in 1524 Pescara was appointed as lieu-
tenant of the emperor to repel the invasion. The difficulties
of his position were very great, for there was much discontent
in the army, which was very ill paid. The tenacity, patience
and tact of Pescara triumphed over all obstacles. His influence
over the veteran Spanish troops and the German mercenaries
kept them loyal during the long siege of Pavia. On the 24th of
February 1525 he defeated and took prisoner Francis I. by a
brilliant attack. Pescara's plan was remarkable for its
audacity and for the skill he showed in destroying the superior
French heavy cavalry by assailing them in flank with a mixed
force of harquebusiers and light horse. It was believed that
he was dissatisfied with the treatment he had received from the
emperor; and Girolamo Morone, secretary to the duke of Milan,
approached him with a scheme for expelling French, Spaniards
and Germans alike from Italy, and for gaining a throne for
himself. Pescara may have listened to the tempter, but in
act he was loyal. He reported the offer to Charles V. and put
Morone into prison. His health however had begun to give

way under the strain of wounds and exposure; and he died at
Milan on the 4th of November 1525. Pescara had no children;
his title descended to his cousin the marquis del Vasto, also a
distinguished imperial general.

AUTHORITIES. — The life of Pescara was written in Latin by Paolo
Giovio, and is included in the Vilae illustrium virorum, printed at
Basel 1578. Giovio's Latin Life was translated by L. Domenichi,
the translator of his other works, and published at Florence, 1551.
The Spanish Historic, del fortissimo y prudentissimo capitan Don
Hernando de Avalos, by El Maestro P. Valles (Antwerp, 1553),
is also a translation of Giovio. See also Mignet, Rivalite de Francois
I" et de Charles Quint (Paris, 1875), which gives references to all
authorities. (D. H.)

PESCARA, a river of Italy, formed by the confluence of the
Gizio and Aterno, and flowing into the Adriatic at the small town
of Pescara. This town 'occupies the site of the ancient Aternum,
the terminus of the Via Claudia Valeria, and up to 1867 a fortress
of some importance. The railway from Sulmona follows the
Pescara valley and joins the coast line to Brindisi at Pescara.
In this valley, 22 m. from the sea, was the site of the ancient
Interpromium, a town belonging probably to the Paeligni; and
not far off is the very fine Cistercian abbey church of S. Clemente
di Casauria, founded by the emperor Louis II. in 871. The
present building belongs to the 1 2th century. The sculptures
of the portals, the pulpit, the Paschal candelabrum, &c., and
the bronze doors of this period are important. The chronicle
of the abbey, of the end of the I2th century, is in the Bibliotheque
nationale at Paris.

See V. Hindi, Monumenti degliAbruzzi (Naples, 1889), pp. 405 sqq. ;
P. L. Calore in Archivio storico dell' arte (Rome, 1891), iv. 9 sqq.

PESCHIERA SUL GARDA, a fortress of Venetia, Italy, in
the province of Verona, on an island in the Mincio at its outlet
from the lake of Garda, 77 m. by rail E. of Milan. It was one
of the famous fortresses of the Quadrilateral, the chief bulwark
of the Austrian rule in Italy until 1866 (Mantua, Legnago and
Verona being the other three) and has played a prominent part
in all the campaigns conducted in north Italy, more especially
during the Napoleonic wars. It was taken by the Piedmontese
from the Austrians, after a gallant defence by General Rath
lasting six weeks, on the 3Oth of May 1848, and since that date
has been in Italian hands.

PESCIA, a town of Tuscany, Italy, in the province of Lucca,
from which it is 15 m. E.N.E. by rail, 203 ft. above sea-level.
Pop. (1901), 12,400 (town); 18,000 (commune). The cathedral,
restored in 1693, contains the fine chapel of the Turini family,
built for Baldassare Turini (d. 1540) by Giuliano di Baccio of
Florence, with his tomb by Raffaello da Montelupo. The
town also has some buildings by Lazzaro Buggiano, the pupil
and adoptive son of Brunelleschi. It has silk and paper manu-
factures.

PESETA, a silver coin and unit of value, the Spanish equivalent
of the French, Belgian and Swiss franc, the Italian lira and the
Greek drachma in the Latin monetary union. The peso (Lat.
pensum, weight), of which peseta is a diminutive, was a Spanish
coin of gold, peso de oro, or silver, peso de plata, once current in
Spain and her colonies, and now the name of a silver coin of
many South American states. The peso is also the name of
the Mexican dollar.

PESHAWAR, a city of British India, the capital of the
North-West Frontier Province, giving its name to a district.
The city is situated near the left bank of the river Bara, 1 1 m. from
Jamrud at the entrance of the Khyber Pass, the railway station
being 1588 m. north-west of Calcutta; pop. (1901), 95,147. Two
miles west of the native city are the cantonments, forming the
principal military station of the North-West Frontier Province.
Peshawar lies within a horseshoe ring of hills on the edge of
the mountain barrier which separates India from Afghanistan,
and through it have passed nearly all the invaders from the north.
The native quarter is a huddle of flat-roofed houses within mud
walls, crowded along narrow, crooked alleys; there is but one fairly
wide street of shops. Here for many centuries the Povindahs,
or Afghan travelling merchants, have brought their caravans
from Kabul, Bokhara and Samarkand every autumn. They

PESHIN— PESSIMISM

283

bring horses, wool, woollen stuffs, silks, dyes, gold-thread,
fruits, precious stones, carpets and poshtins (sheepskin clothing) ,
fighting and buying their way to the British border where,
leaving their arms, they are free to wander at will to Delhi,
Agra and Calcutta. The chief speciality of Peshawar consists
of bright-coloured scarves called lungis; wax-cloth and orna-
mental needle-work are also local products, as well as knives
and small arms.

The district of PESHAWAR has an area of 2611 sq. m.; pop.
(1901), 788,707, showing an increase of 10-8% in the
decade. Except on the south-east, where the Indus flows,
it is encircled by mountains which are inhabited by the
Mohmand, Utman Khel and Afridi tribes. The plain consists
of alluvial deposits of silt and gravel. The district is naturally
fertile and well watered, and is irrigated by the Swat River
Canal. The principal crops are wheat, barley, maize, millets
and oil-seeds, with a little cotton and sugar-cane. Peshawar
also produces a fine variety of rice, known as " Bara rice,"
after the river which irrigates it. The North-Western railway
crosses the district from Attock, and has been extended
from Peshawar city to Jamrud for military purposes. The
district is chiefly inhabited by Pathans; there are some Hindus
engaged in trade as bankers, merchants and shop-keepers.

In early times the district of Peshawar seems to have had an
essentially Indian population, for it was not till the isth century
that its present Pathan inhabitants occupied it. Under the
name of Gandhara it was a centre of Buddhism, and especially
Graeco-Buddhism. Rock-edicts of Asoka still exist at two places ;
and a slupa excavated in 1909 was found to contain an inscription
of Kanishka, as well as relics believed to be those of Buddha
himself. The last of the Indian Buddhist kings was conquered
by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1009. The Mogul emperors always
found difficulty in maintaining their authority over the Afghan
border tribes, who finally established their independence during
the reign of Aurangzeb. Peshawar was a favourite residence
of the Afghan dynasty founded by Ahmed Shah Durrani, and
here Mountstuart Elphinstone came as ambassador to Shah
Shujah in 1809. A few years later Ranj't Singh crossed the
Indus, and after much hard fighting Sikh authority was firmly
established under General Avitabile in 1834.. In 1848 the whole
of the Punjab passed to the British. During the Mutiny,
after the sepoy regiments had been disaimed, Peshawar was a
source of strength rather than of danger, though Sir John
Lawrence did at one time contemplate the necessity of surrender-
ing it to the Afghans, in order to preserve the rest of Northern
India.

PESHIN, or PISHIN, a district of Baluchistan. Area 2717
sq.m. Pop. (1901), 50,200. It consists of a large plain surrounded
on three sides by hills, which formerly belonged to Afghan-
istan but was ceded to the British by the treaty of Gandamak
in 1879. This plain is of considerable strategic importance, as
it forms the focus of a great number of routes leading from
Sind and the Punjab frontier districts to Kandahar, and is
intersected by the Sind-Peshin railway. The agricultural
wealth of Peshin, and consequently its revenues, have increased
greatly under British administration.

PESHITTO, or PESHITO (i.e. " simple "), the standard version
of the Bible in the Syriac language. It was long supposed to
be the original Syriac version, but is now generally recognized
as representing a revision made by Rabbula, bishop of Edessa,
early in the 5th century, an attempt at standardizing the Syriac
text such as Jerome had made for the Latin in his Vulgate. (See
BIBLE.)

PESHWA (Persian for "leader," "guide"), the title of the
head of the Mahratta confederacy in India. Originally the
peshwa was only prime minister, but afterwards he supplanted
his master and became chief of the state, founding an hereditary
dynasty, with the capital at Poona. The last peshwa, Baji
Rao, came into collision with the British, and was dethroned
in 1818. His adopted son, Nana Sahib, took a leading part in
the Mutiny of 1857, in revenge for being deprived of what he
considered his rights.

PESSIMISM (from Lat. pessimus, worst), a word of modern
coinage,1 denoting an attitude of hopelessness towards life, a
vague general opinion that pain and evil predominate in human
affairs. It is the antithesis of " optimism," which denotes the
view that on the whole there is a balance of good and pleasure,
or at least that in the long run good will triumph. Between
optimism and pessimism is the theory of " meliorism," according
to which the world on the whole makes progress in goodness.
The average man is pessimist or optimist not on theoretical
grounds, but owing to the circumstances of his life, his material
prosperity, his bodily health, his general temperament. Perhaps
the most characteristic example of unsystematic pessimism
is the language of Ecclesiastes, who concludes that " all is
vanity."

Pessimism and optimism have, however, been expressed in
systematic philosophical forms, a brief summary only of which
need here be given. Such systems have been elaborated chiefly
by modern thinkers, but the germs of the ideas are found widely
spread in the older Oriental philosophies and in pre-Christian
European thought. Generally speaking, pessimism may be
found in all pantheistic and materialistic systems. It is im-
portant, however, to point out an essential distinction. The
thinker who sees man confronted by the infinite non-moral
forces presumed by natural pantheism inevitably predominating
over the finite powers of men may appear to the modern Christian
theologian or to the evolutionist as a hopeless pessimist, and yet
may himself have concluded that, though the future holds out
no prospect save that of annihilation, man may yet by prudence
and care enjoy a considerable measure of happiness. Pessimism,
therefore, depends upon the individual point of view, and the
term is frequently used merely in a condemnatory sense by hostile
critics. The attitude of a man who denies the doctrine of
immortality and rejoices in the denial is not strictly pessimistic.
A Christian again may be pessimistic about the present; he
must logically be optimistic about the future — a Ideological
view of the universe implies optimism on the whole; the agnostic
may be indifferent to, or pessimistic, regarding the future, while
exceedingly satisfied with life as he finds it.

This complex view of life is exemplified by Plato, whose general
theory of idealism is entirely optimistic. In analysing the world
of phenomena he necessarily takes a pessimistic view because
phenomena are merely imitations more or less removed from
reality, i.e. from the good. Yet the idealistic postulate of a
summum bonum is in result optimistic, and this view predomin-
ated among the Stoics and the Neoplatonists. The Epicureans,
on the other hand, were empirical pessimists. Man is able
to derive a measure of enjoyment from life in spite of the non-
existence of the orthodox gods; yet this enjoyment is on the
whole negative, the avoidance of pain. A similar view is that
of the ancient sceptics.

Oriental pessimism, at least as understood by Europeans,
is best exemplified in Buddhism, which finds in human life
sorrow and pain. But all pain and sorrow are incidental to
the human being in his individual capacity. He who will cast
aside the " Bonds," the " Intoxications," the " Hindrances,"
and tread the Noble Eightfold Path (see BUDDHISM) which leads
to Nirvana, will attain the ideal, the " Fruit of Arahatship,"
which is described in terms of glowing praise in the Pali hymns.
This, the original doctrine of the Buddha, though not adopted
in the full sense by all his followers, is in fact at least as optimistic
as any optimism of the West. To call it " pessimism " is merely
to apply to it a characteristically Western principle according
to which happiness is impossible without personality. The
true Buddhist on the contrary looks forward with enthusiasm
to this absorption into eternal bliss.

In Europe on the whole the so-called pessimistic attitude
was commoner in the Teutonic north than in the Mediterranean
basin. But even here the hopefulness as regards a future life,
in which the inequalities of the present would be rectified, com-
pensated for the gloomy fatalism with which the present was

1 The earliest example given in the New English Dictionary is
in S. T. Coleridge's Letters (1794).

284

PESSINUS— PESTALOZZI

regarded. The advent of Christianity, with its categorica
assertion of future happiness for the good, to a large extent
did away with pessimism in the true sense. In Leibnitz we
find a philosophic or religious optimism, which saw in the universe
the perfect work of a God who from all possibilities selected the
best. Kant, though pessimistic as regards the actual man, is
optimistic regarding his moral capacity. To Hegel similarly
the world, though evil at any moment, progresses by conflict
and suffering towards the good.

Passing over the Italian Leopardi we may notice two lead-
ing modern pessimists, Schopenhauer and von Hartmann.
Schopenhauer emphasizes the pessimistic side of Hegel's thought.
The universe is merely blind Will, not thought; this Will is
irrational, purposeless and therefore unhappy. The world
being a picture of the Will is therefore similarly unhappy.
Desire is a state of unhappiness, and the satisfaction of desire
is therefore merely the removal of pain. Von Hartmann's doctrine
of the Unconscious is in many respects similar to Schopenhauer's
doctrine of the Will. The Unconscious which combines Will
and Reason is, however, primarily Will. The workings of this
Will are irrational primarily, but, as in its evolution it becomes
more rationalized and understands the whole meaning of the
Weltschmerz, it ultimately reaches the point at which the desire
for existence is gone. This choice of final nothingness differs
from that of Schopenhauer in being collective and not individual.
The pessimism of Schopenhauer and Hartmann does not,
however, exclude a certain ultimate mysticism, which bears
some analogy to that of Buddhism.

Pessimism is naturally connected with materialist, optimism
with idealist, views of life. The theories of the modern evolution-
ist school, however, have introduced into materialistic theory
a new optimistic note in doctrines such as that of the survival
of the fittest. Such doctrines regard the progress of humanity
as on the whole tending to the greater perfection, and are
markedly optimistic in contrast with earlier theories that
progressive differentiation is synonymous with progressive
decay. Similarly the cynical contempt which Nietzsche shows
for morality and the conventional virtues is counterbalanced
by the theory of the Ubermensch, the highest type of manhood
which by struggle has escaped from the ordinary weaknesses
of normal humanity.

See James Sully, Pessimism: A History and a Criticism (1877);
Caro, Le Pessimism* au xiy? siecle (1878) ; Saltus, The Anatomy of
Negation (1886); Tulloch, Modern Theories on Philosophy and
Religion (1884); William James, The Will to Believe; Diihring, Der
Werth des Lebens (1865); Meyer, Weltelend und Weltschmerz (1872);
E. Pfleiderer, Der moderne Pessimismus (1875); Agnes Taubert
(Hartmann), Der Pessimismus und seine Gegner (1873); Gass,
Optimismus und Pessimismus (1876); Rehmke, Die Philos. des
Weltschmerzes (1876); Huber, Der Pessimismus (1876); von Golther,
Der moderne P. (1878); Paulsen, Schopenhauer, Hamlet, Mephisto-
pheles (1900); Kowalewski, Studien zur Psychologie des P. (1904).

PESSINUS (Htffaivovs, Hfffivovs) , an ancient city of Galatia
in Asia Minor, situated on the lowest southern slope of Mt
Dindymus, on the left bank of the river Sangarius, not far from
its source. The ruins, discovered by Texier, lie round the village
of Bala-Hissar, 8 or 9 m. S.E. of Sivri-Hissar. They include
a theatre in partial preservation, but they have been mostly
carried off to Sivri-Hissar, which is largely built out of them.
Originally a Phrygian city, probably on the Persian " Royal
Road," it became the capital of the Gallic tribe Tolistobogii
and the chief commercial city of the district. It contained the
most famous sanctuary of the mother of the gods (Cybele), who
here went by the name of Agdistis, and was associated with
the god Attis, as elsewhere with Sabazius, &c. Her priests
were also princes, who bore rule not only in the city (the coinage
of which, beginning about 100 B.C., was for long issued by them)
but also in the country round, deriving a large revenue from
the temple estates; but in the time of Strabo (A.D. 19-20) their
privileges were much diminished. The high-priest always bore
the god's name Attis. In the crisis of the second Punic War
(205 B.C.), when the Romans lost faith in the efficacy of their
own religion to save the state, the Senate, in compliance with
an oracle in the Sibylline books to the effect that the foreign

foe could be driven from Italy if the Idaean Mother (Cybele)
were brought from Pessinus to Rome, sent ambassadors to
the towii, who obtained the sacred stone which was the symbol
of the goddess and brought it to Rome, where the worship of
Cybele was established. But the goddess continued to be
worshipped in her old home; her priests, the Galli, went out to
welcome Manlius on his march in 189 B.C., which shows that the
town was not yet in the hands of the Tolistobogii. Soon after
this a splendid new temple of the goddess was built by the
Pergamenian kings. Some time before 164 B.C. Pessinus fell
into the power of the Gauls, and the membership of the priestly
college was then equally divided between the Gauls and the
old priestly families. Like Ancyra and Tavium, Pessinus was
Romanized first and Hellenized afterwards. Only about A. D.
165 did Hellenic ways and modes of thought begin to be
assumed; before that we find a deep substratum of Celtic feeling
and ways, on which Roman elements had been superimposed
without filtering through a Hellenic medium. Christianity was
introduced late; it cannot be traced before the 4th century.
When Galatia was divided into two provinces (A.D. 386-395)
Pessinus was made the capital of Galatia Secunda or Salutaris,
and it became a metropolitan bishopric. After the i6th century
it disappears from history, being supplanted, from the begin-
ning of the period of Saracen invasion, by the impregnable
fortress Justinianopolis (Sivri-Hissar), which became the capital
and the residence of the bishop, thenceforward called " arch-
bishop of Pessinus or of Justinianopolis." (J. G. C. A.)

PESTALOZZI, JOHANN HEINRICH (1746-1827), Swiss
educational reformer, was born at Zurich on the I2th of January
1 746. His father died when he was young, and he was brought
up by his mother. At the university of Zurich he was associated
with Lavater and the party of reform. His earliest years were
spent in schemes for improving the condition of the people.
The death of his friend Bluntschli turned him however from
politics, and induced him to devote himself to education. He
married at twenty-three and bought a piece of waste land at
Neuhof in Aargau, where he attempted the cultivation of madder.
Pestalozzi knew nothing of business, and the plan failed. Before
this he had opened his farm-house as a school; but in
1780 he had to give this up also. His first book published at
this time was The Evening Hours of a Hermit (1780), a series
of aphorisms and reflections. This was followed by his master-
piece, Leonard and Gertrude (1781), an account of the gradual
reformation, first of a household, and then of a whole village, by
the efforts of a good and devoted woman. It was read with
avidity in Germany, and the name of Pestalozzi was rescued from
obscurity. The French invasion of Switzerland in 1798 brought
into relief his truly heroic character. A number of children
were left in Canton Unterwalden on the shores of the Lake of
Lucerne, without parents, home, food or shelter. Pestalozzi
collected a number of them into a deserted convent, and spent
his energies in reclaiming them. During the winter he personally
tended them with the utmost devotion, but in June 1799 the
building was required by the French for a hospital, and his charges
were dispersed. In 1801 Pestalozzi gave an exposition of his
ideas on education in the book How Gertrude teaches her Children.
His method is to proceed from the easier to the more difficult.
To begin with observation, to pass from observation to conscious-
ness, from consciousness to speech. Then come measuring,
drawing, writing, numbers, and so reckoning. In 1799 he had
been enabled to establish a school at Burgdorf , where he remained
:ill 1804. In 1802, he went as deputy to Paris, and did his
aest to interest Napoleon in a scheme of national education;
but the great conqueror said that he could not trouble himself
about the alphabet. In 1805 he removed to Yverdun on the
Lake of Neuchatel, and for twenty years worked steadily at
lis task. He was visited by all who took interest in education —
Talleyrand, Capo d'Istria, and Mme de Stael. He was praised
}y Wilhelm von Humboldt and by Fichte. His pupils
ncluded Ramsauer, Delbruck, Blochmann, Carl Ritter, Frobel
and Zeller. About 1815 dissensions broke out among the
eachers of the school, and Pestalozzj's last ten years were

PETALITE— PETER, ST

285

chequered by weariness and sorrow. In 1825 he retired to
Neuhof, the home of his youth; and after writing the adventures
of his life, and his last work, the Swan's Song, he died at Brugg on
the 1 7th of February 1827. As he said himself, the real work
of his life did not lie in Burgdorf or in Yverdun. It lay in the
principles of education which he practised, the development of
his observation, the training of the whole man, the sympathetic
application of the teacher to the taught, of which he left an
example in his six months' labours at Stanz. He had the deepest
effect on all branches of education, and his influence is far from
being exhausted.

Pestalozzi's complete works were published at Stuttgart in 1819-
1826, and an edition by Seyffarth appeared at Berlin in 1881.
Volumes on his life and teaching have been written by De Guimps
(1889), Barnard (1862), Kriisi (1875) and Pinloche (1901).

PETALITE, a mineral species consisting of lithium aluminium
silicate, LiAl(Si2Os)2. The monoclinic crystals approach spodu-
mene (<?.».) in form, which is also a lithium aluminium silicate
with the formula LiAl(SiOa)2. There is a perfect cleavage parallel
to the basal plane, and the mineral usually occurs in platy
cleavage masses; on this account it was named, from Gr. ireTCiAoi'
(a leaf). The hardness is 65 and the specific gravity 2-4 (that
of spodumene being 3-16). The mineral is colourless or occasion-
ally reddish, varies from transparent to translucent, and has
a vitreous lustre. It was discovered in 1800 as cleavage masses
in an iron mine on the island of Uto in the Stockholm
archipelago, where it is associated with lepidolite, tourmaline
(rubellite and indicolite) and spodumene. A variety known as
" castor " is found as transparent glassy crystals associated with
pollux (q.v.) in cavities in the granite of Elba. (L.J.S.)

PETARD (Fr. petard, peter, to make a slight explosion), a
device formerly used by military engineers for blowing in a
gate or other barrier. It consisted of a small metal or wooden
case, usually of sugar-loaf shape, containing a charge of powder
and fired by a fuse.

PETAU, DENYS (1583-1652), Jesuit scholar, better known
as DIONYSIUS PETAVIUS, was born at Orleans on the 2ist of
August 1583. Educated at Paris University, he came under the
influence of Isaac Scaliger, who directed his attention towards
the obscurer fathers of the Church. In 1603 he was appointed
to a lectureship at the university of Bourges, but resigned his
place two years later, in order to enter the Society of Jesus.
For many years he was professor of divinity at the College de
Clermont, the chief Jesuit establishment in Paris; there he died
on the i ith of December 1652. He was one of the most brilliant
scholars in a learned age. Carrying on and improving the
chronological labours of Scaliger, he published in 1627 an Opus
de doctrina temporum, which has been often reprinted. An
abridgment of this work, Rationarium temporum, was translated
into French and English, and has been brought down in a modern
reprint to the year 1849. But Petau's eminence chiefly rests
on his vast, but unfinished, De theologicis dogmatibus, the
first systematic attempt ever made to treat the development
of Christian doctrine from the historical point of view.

PETCHENEGS, or PATZINAKS, a barbarous people, probably
of Turkish race, who at the end of the gth century were driven
into Europe from the lower Ural, and for about 300 years
wandered about the northern frontier of the East Roman
Empire. (See TURKS).

PETER (Lat. Petrus from Gr. irerpos, a rock, Ital. Pietro,
Piero, Pier, Fr. Pierre, Span. Pedro, Ger. Peter, Russ. Petr),
a masculine name, derived from the famous surname bestowed by
Christ upon his apostle Simon (" Thou art Peter and upon this
rock will I build my church," Matt. xiv. 17-19). The name has
consequently been very popular in Christian countries. It is
noteworthy, however, that, out of deference to the " prince of
the apostles " and first bishop of Rome, the name has never been
assumed by a pope. The biographies which follow are arranged
in the order: (i) the apostle; (2) kings; (3) other eminent men.

PETER, ST, the chief of the Twelve Apostles. He is known
also by other names : (a) " Simon " (SifMv) in Mark four times
and Luke seven times. This use is only found in narrative

before the story of the mission of the apostles: it is also found in
speeches ; Matthew once, Mark once and Luke twice. (6) " Simon
who is called Peter " is found in Matthew twice and Acts four
times, (c) " Simon Peter " is found in Matthew once, Luke
once, John seventeen times (and perhaps also in 2 Peter i. i,
where the text varies between Simon and Symeon. (d) " Peter "
is found in Matthew nineteen times, Mark eighteen times,
Luke sixteen times, Acts fifty-one times, John fifteen times,
Galatians twice, i Peter once, (e) " Cephas " is found in John
once, Galatians four times, i Corinthians four times. (/) Symeon
(Zvfieuv) is found in Acts once. It appears that the apostle
had two names, each existing in a double form — Greek and
Hebrew, Symeon (pyc?0 which was Graecized according
to the sound into Simon, and Cephas (fS'3) which was
Graecized according to the meaning into Peter (Herpes) . Symeon
and Simon are both well-known names in Aramaic and Greek
respectively, but Cephas and Peter are previously unknown.
Symeon was no doubt his original Aramaic name, and the
earliest gospel, Mark, which has some claim specially to
reproduce Petrine tradition, is careful to employ Simon until
after the name Peter had been given, and not then to use it
again. The Gospels agree in regarding Cephas or Peter as an
additional name, which was given by Christ. But they differ as
to the occasion. According to Mark iii. 13 sqq. it was given on
the occasion of the mission of the Twelve. According to
John i. 42 it was given at his first call. According to
Matt. xvi. 13 sqq. it was given after the recognition of Jesus as
Messiah at Caesarea Philippi. This last account is the only
one which describes any circumstances (for a further discussion
see § 3 (2) below).

According to the Gospels Peter was the son of John ("Icodi^js,
John i. 42, xxi. 15 seq.) or Jonas ('Icovas, Matt. xxvi. 17).
According to Mark i. 29 he was a fisherman of Capernaum,
but John i. 44 describes him and his brother Andrew as of
Bethsaida. From Mark i. 30 he is seen to have been married,
and i Cor. ix. 5 suggests (but another interpretation is
possible) that his wife went with him on his missionary
journeys. In i Pet. v. 13 Mark is referred to as his son, but
this is usually interpreted of spiritual kinship. According to
legend (Acta Nerei et Achillei, and Ada Philippi) he had a
daughter Petronilla, but there is no reason for thinking that
this is historical.

The Gospel narratives are unanimous in describing Peter as
one of the first disciples of Christ, and from the time of his call
he seems to have been present at most of the chief Hlstory la
incidents in the narrative. He formed together the aospels
with the sons of Zebedee to some extent an inner up to the
circle within the Twelve, and this favoured group *^urrec"
is specially mentioned as present on three occasions
— the raising of the daughter of Jairus (Mark v. 22-43;
Matt. ix. 18-36; Luke viii. 41-56), the transfiguration (Mark
ix. 2 sqq.; Matt. xvii. i sqq.; Luke ix. 28 sqq.) and the scene
in the Garden at Gethsemane (Mark xiv. 32 sqq.; Matt. xxvi.
36 sqq.). He is also specially mentioned in connexion with
his call (Mark i. 16-20; Matt. iv. 18 sqq.; Luke v. i sqq.;
John i. 40 sqq.); the healing of his wife's mother (Mark i. 21
sqq.; Matt. viii. 14 sqq.; Luke iv. 38 sqq.); the mission of
the Twelve Apostles (Mark iii. 13 sqq.; Matt. x. i sqq.; Luke vi.
12 sqq.); the storm on the Lake of Galilee (Mark vi. 45 sqq.;
Matt. xiv. 22 sqq.; John vi. 16 sqq.); the Messianic recognition
at Caesarea Philippi (Mark vii. 27 sqq.; Matt. xvi. 16 sqq.;
Luke ix. 18 sqq.); the incident of the payment of tribute by
the coin found in the fish caught by Peter (Matt. xvii. 25 sqq.)
and with various questions leading to parables or their expla-
nations (Mark xiii. 36 sqq.; Luke xii. 41; Matt, xviii. 21 sqq.;
Mark x. 28; Matt. xix. 27; Luke xviii. 28). In the week of
the Passion he appears in connexion with the incident of the
withered fig-tree (Mark xi. 21; Matt. xxi. 20); as introducing
the eschatological discourse (Mark xiii. 3 sqq.); and as promi-
nent during the Last Supper (Luke xxii. 8 sqq.; John
xiii. 4 sqq.; Mark xiv. 27 sqq.; Matt. xxvi. 31 sqq.). He

286

PETER, ST

was present in Gethsemane, and tried to offer some resistance to
the arrest of Jesus (Mark xiv. 47; Matt. xxvi. 51; Luke xxii. 50;
John xviii. 10). After the arrest he followed the Lord to the
scene of the trial, but denied him and fled. The message of the
young man at the tomb (Mark xvi. 4) was especially addressed
to Peter and it is clear that the genuine conclusion of Mark must
have contained an account of an appearance of the risen Lord
to him.

Out of this mass of incidents the following are central and call
for closer critical consideration.

1. The Call of St Peter.— (Mark i. 16-20; Matt. iv. 18-22;
Luke v. i-n; John i. 40-42). The account in Matthew is
practically identical with that in Mark and is no doubt taken
from the Marcan source, but Luke and John have different
traditions. The main points are as follows: according to Mark,
at the beginning of the Galilean ministry Jesus saw Peter and
Andrew fishing. He called them, and they joined him. After
this he went with them to Capernaum, preached in the syna-
gogue, and healed Peter's wife's mother. Luke, who certainly
used Mark, has partly rearranged this narrative and partly
rejected it in favour of a different version. According to him the
visit to Capernaum and the healing of the wife's mother preceded
the call of Peter, and this was associated with a tradition of
a miraculous draught of fishes. The advantage of the Lucan
reconstruction, so far as the first part is concerned, is that it
supplies a reason for Peter's ready obedience, which is somewhat
difficult to understand if he had never seen Jesus before. But it
seems probable that this is the motive which led to the redac-
torial change in Luke, and that the Marcan account, which is
traditionally connected with Peter, ought to be followed. With
regard to the narrative of the miraculous draught of fishes, the
matter is more complicated. Luke obviously preferred this
narrative to the Marcan account, but the fact that the same
story comes in John xxi. suggests that there was an early
tradition of some such incident of which the actual occasion
and circumstances were undetermined. Luke preferred to
connect it with the call of Peter, the writer of John xxi. with his
restitution: probably both are of the nature of redactorial
guesses, and the Marcan account must be regarded as preferable
to either. The Johannine account of the call of Peter is quite
different. According to this it took place immediately after
the baptism of Jesus, in Judaea not in Galilee. It is connected
with the giving of the name Peter, which in Mark was not given
until much later.

2. The Confession of Peter at Caesarea Philippi. — (Mark
viii. 27-33; Matt. xvi. 13-23; Luke ix. 18-22). According to
Mark, Peter, in answer to the question of Jesus, recognized that
He was the Messiah, but protested against the prophecy of
suffering which Jesus then added. This narrative is followed,
with the exception of the last part, by Luke, who as usual is
inclined to omit anything which could be regarded as derogatory
to the Apostles. Matthew also uses the Marcan narrative, but
adds to it a new section from some other source which suggests
that the name of Peter was conferred on this occasion — not, as
Mark says, at the first mission of the Twelve — and confers on
him the keys of the kingdom of heaven and the right of binding
and loosing. This must be probably * interpreted as a reference
to the prophecy concerning Eliakim in Isa. xxii. 22, and to
technical use of the words " binding " and " loosing " by the
scribes in authoritative decisions as to the obligations of the law.
It thus confers on Peter a position of quite unique authority.
It must, however, be noted that the power of binding and loosing
is given in Matt, xviii. 18 to the whole body of disciples. This
seems to be an alternative version, also found only in Matthew.
The question of the historical character of the Matthaean
addition to the Marcan narrative is exceedingly difficult; but it

1 See, however, A. Sulzbach's article in the Zeitschr. f. N.T. Wiss.
(I9°3)i P- 19°- He thinks there is an allusion to a room in the Temple
where the great key was kept ; this room was called Kephas, because
the key was placed in a recess closed by a stone. There is also a
valuable article by W. Kohler in the Archiv fur Religionswiss.
treating the question of the keys from the point of view of compara-
tive religion.

is hard to think that if it were really authentic it would have
been omitted from all the other gospels, and it perhaps belongs
to the little group of passages in Matthew which seem to represent
early efforts towards church legislation, rather than a strictly
historical narrative. Besides it is noticeable that in one other
point Matthew has slightly remodelled the Marcan narrative.
According to the latter Jesus asked, " Whom say men that I
am ? " and Peter replied " the Messiah," without qualification.
But in Matthew the question is changed into " Whom say men
that the Son of Man is?" and, whatever may be the original
meaning of the phrase " the son of man " it cannot be doubted
that in the gospels it means Messiah. Thus the simple answer
of Peter in Mark would be meaningless, and it is replaced by
" The Messiah, the son of the living God," which is no longer
a recognition of the Messiahship of Jesus (this is treated in
Matthew as an already recognized fact, cf. x. 23, xii. 40, &c.),
but is a definition and an exaltation of the nature of the Messiah.

3. The Conduct of Peter after the Betrayal. — The consideration
of this point brings one into touch with the two rival traditions
as to the conduct of the disciples after the betrayal and cruci-
fixion of the Lord — the Galilean and the Jerusalem narratives.
There is one incident which must in any case be accepted as it
is found in both narratives. This is the denial of Peter. It
appears that Peter did not stay with the disciples and neither
returned home immediately to Galilee (according to the Galilean
tradition) nor sought hiding in Jerusalem (according to the
Jerusalem tradition), but followed the Lord at a distance and
was a witness of at least part of the trial before the Sanhedrim.
He was detected and accused of being a disciple, which he denied,
and so fulfilled the prophecy of Jesus that he would deny Him
before the cock crowed.

But putting this incident aside, the Galilean and Jerusalem
traditions do not admit of reconciliation with one another. The
former is represented by Mark. According to it the disciples
all fled after the betrayal (though Peter waited until after the
denial), and afterwards saw the risen Lord in Galilee. The
details of this narrative are unfortunately lost, as the genuine
conclusion of Mark is not extant. But Mark xiv. 28 and
xvi. 7 clearly imply a narrative which described how the disciples
returned to Galilee, there saw the risen Lord, and perhaps even
how they then returned to Jerusalem in the strength of their
newly recovered faith, and so brought into existence the church
of Jerusalem as we find it in the Acts. It is also clear from Mark
xvi. 7 that Peter was in some special way connected with this
appearance of the risen Lord, and this tradition is confirmed by
i Cor. xv. 5, and perhaps by Luke xxiv. 34.

The Jerusalem narrative is represented especially by Luke
and John (excluding John xxi. as an appendix). According to
this the disciples, though they fled at the betrayal, did not
return to their homes, but remained in Jerusalem, saw the risen
Lord in that city, and stayed there until after the day of Pente-
cost. Attempts to reconcile these two narratives seem to be
found in Matthew and in John xxi.

Obviously the choice which has to be made between these
traditions cannot be adequately discussed here: it must suffice
to say that intrinsic and traditional probability seem to favour
the Galilean narrative. If so, one must say that after the denial
Peter returned to Galilee — probably to resume his trade of
fishing — and he there saw the risen Lord. This appearance is
referred to in i Cor. xv. 5, and was certainly described in the lost
conclusion of Mark. An account of it is preserved in John xxi.,
but it is here connected — probably wrongly — with a miraculous
draught of fishes, just as the account of his call is in Luke.

Immediately after the resurrection there is a missing link
in the history of Peter. We know that he saw the risen Lord,
and, according to the most probable view, that this Hlstory
was in Galilee; but the circumstances are unknown, after the
and we have no account of his return to Jerusalem, Resurrection
as at the beginning of the Acts the disciples are all according to
in Jerusalem, and the writer, in contradiction to the '*e/*.f " ""'

Marcan or Galilean narrative, assumes that they had

Epistles.

never left it. The first part of the Acts is largely concerned with

PETER, ST

287

the work of Peter. He appears as the recognized leader of the
Apostles in their choice of a new member of the Twelve to take
the place of Judas Iscariot (Acts i. 15 sqq.); on the day of
Pentecost he seems to have played a prominent part in explaining
the meaning of the scene to the people (Acts ii. 14 sqq.) ; and soon
afterwards was arrested by the Jews on the charge of being a ring-
leader in the disorders caused by the healing of the lame man at
the " Beautiful " gate of the temple, but was released. After
this he appears as the leader of the apostles in the story of
Ananias and Sapphira, who perished at his rebuke for their
duplicity (Acts v. i-n). The last episode of this period is
another arrest by the priests, which ended in his being scourged
and released (Acts v. 17 sqq.).

After this Peter's attention was directed to the growth of
Christianity in Samaria, and he and John made a journey of
inspection through that district, laying hands on those who had
been baptized in order that they might receive the Holy Spirit.
Here Simon Magus (q.v.) was encountered. He was a magician
who had been converted by Philip and baptized; he desired to
obtain the power of conferring the Spirit, arid offered Peter
money for this purpose, but was indignantly repulsed. After
this Peter and John returned to Jerusalem.

During the following stay in Jerusalem, the duration of which
is not defined, Peter was visited by Paul (Acts ix. 26-29;
Gal. i. 1 8), and a comparison of the chronological date afforded
by Gal. i. and ii. points to a year not earlier than 33 (Harnack)
or later than 38 (C. H. Turner) for this meeting. According to
Galatians, Paul saw none of the apostles on this occasion except
Peter and James: it is therefore probable that none of the others
were then in Jerusalem.

After this Peter made another journey, visiting especially
Lydda, Joppa and Caesarea. His stay at Lydda was marked
by the healing of Aeneas (Acts ix. 32-4) and at Joppa by the
resuscitation of Tabitha or Dorcas. While at Joppa he stayed
with Simon the tanner, and thence was summoned to Caesarea
to Cornelius the centurion. He hesitated whether to go, but
was persuaded by a vision and the injunction to call nothing
unclean which God had cleansed. Cornelius was accordingly
baptized. This is an important incident, as being the first ad-
mission of a Gentile into the church: but he was already " God-
fearing," (t>oj3ovfjiti>os TOV 0€ov (Acts x. i), which probably
denotes some sort of connexion with the Jewish synagogue,
though it is difficult to say exactly what it was. After this inci-
dent Peter returned to Jerusalem. The members of the Church
were somewhat shocked at the reception of a Gentile: their view
apparently was that the only road to Christianity was through
Judaism. They were, however, persuaded by Peter's speech
(Acts xi. 4—17) ; but it is uncertain how far their concession went,
and in the light of subsequent events it is probable that they still
regarded circumcision as a necessary rite for all Christians.

After the return of Peter to Jerusalem the most important
events were the famine at Jerusalem, and the persecution of the
Church by Herod. During the latter Peter was put in prison
(Acts xii. 3 sqq.), but was released by an angel; he first went to
the house of Mary, the mother of John Mark, and afterwards
went to " another place." This expression has been interpreted
to mean another town, and even to be an implied reference to
Rome. This last suggestion, improbable though it be, is his-
torically important. The persecution of Herod seems to have
been in his last year, which was probably A.D. 43-44. There was
a marked tendency to make the duration of Peter's episcopate
at Rome twenty-five years: and a combination of this tendency
with the explanation that the trtpos TOTTOS was Rome probably is
the origin of the traditional dating of the martyrdom of Peter
in A.D. 67-68. There is, however, no justification for this view,
and erepos roiros need not mean more than another house in
Jerusalem.

The famine referred to in Acts xi. 27 sqq. probably began
before the death of Herod, but it continued after his death, and
the relief sent by the church at Antioch to Jerusalem through
Paul and Barnabas probably arrived about the year 45. It is
not stated in the Acts that Peter was present, and it is therefore

usually assumed that he was absent, but Sir W. M. Ramsay has
argued in -his St Paul the Traveller that the visit of Paul to
Jerusalem with the famine relief is the meeting between Paul
and Peter referred to in Gal. ii. as the occasion of an agreement
between them as to the preaching of the gospel to Jews and
Gentiles. This view is not generally accepted, but it has the
great advantage of avoiding the difficulty that otherwise Paul
in Gal. ii. i sqq. must describe as his second visit to Jerusalem
what was really his third. According to Ramsay, then, Peter
was present during the famine, and made a private agreement
with Paul that the latter should preach to the Gentiles, and so
far Gentile Christianity was recognized, but the conditions of
the intercourse between Gentile and Jewish Christians were not
defined, and the question of circumcision was perhaps not finally
settled. According to the more popular view the description in
Gal. ii. applies to Acts xv. the so-called council of Jerusalem.
This council met after the first missionary journey (c. A.D. 49)
of Paul to discuss the question of the Gentiles. Peter, who was
present, adopted the view that Gentile Christians were free from
the obligation of the law, and this view was put into the form of
the so-called Apostolic decrees by James (Acts xv. 23 sqq.).

The next information which we have about Peter is given in
Gal. ii. 1 1 sqq. According to this he went to Antioch and at
first accepted the Gentile Christians, but afterwards drew back
and was rebuked by Paul. On the ordinary interpretation this
must have taken place after the council, and it is exceedingly
difficult to reconcile it with the attitude of Peter described in
Acts xv., so that Mr C. H. Turner thinks that in this respect the
account in Gal. ii. is not chronological, and places the visit of
Peter to Antioch before the council. If, however, we take the
theory of Sir W. M. Ramsay the matter is simpler. We thus
get the compact between Paul and Peter during the famine,
then a visit of Peter to Antioch, during which Peter first adopted
and afterwards drew back from the position which he had agreed
to privately.

This vacillation may then have been one of the causes which
led up to the council, which may have been held before, not, as is
usually thought, after the sending of the Epistle History
to the Galatians. For this we have no knowledge after the
of details for which the same certainty can be claimed. Co"^11 of
There are, however, various traditions of importance. eri
The following points are noteworthy, i Cor. i. 12 suggests the
possibility that Peter went to Corinth, as there was a party
there which used his name. It is, however, possible that this
party had merely adopted the principles which, as they had been
told, perhaps falsely, were supported by the leader of the
Twelve. Dionysius of Corinth (c. 170) states that Peter was in
Corinth. This may represent local tradition or may be an
inference from i Cor. i. 12. i Peter suggests a ministry in the
provinces of Asia Minor. There is, of course, nothing improb-
able in this, and even if i Peter be not authentic, it is early
evidence for such a tradition, but it is also possible that Peter
wrote to converts whom he had not personally made. This
tradition is found in Origen (Eus. H.E. iii. i), Epiphanius
(Haer. xxvii., vi.), Jerome (De Vir. ill. i) and other later writers;
but it is possible that it is merely an inference from the epistle.
Early tradition connects Peter with Antioch, of which he is said
to have been the first bishop. The first writer to mention it is
Origen (Horn. vi. in Lucam), but it is also found in the Clementine
Homilies and Recognitions (Horn. 20, 23; Recog. 10, 68) and
probably goes back to the lists of bishops which were drawn up
in the 2nd century. Other important references to this tradition
are found in Eus. H.E. iii. 26, 2; Apost. Const, vii. 46; Jerome,
De Vir. ill. i; Chronicon paschale; and Liber pontificalis. The
tradition of work in Antioch may well be historical. Otherwise
it is a rather wild elaboration of Gal. ii. ii. The most important
and widespread tradition is that Peter came to Rome; and
though this tradition has often been bitterly attacked, it seems
to be probable that it is at least in outline quite historical. The
evidence for it is earlier and better than that for any other
tradition, though it is not quite convincing.

The earliest witness to a residence of Peter in Rome is probably

288

PETER I.

i Peter, for (see PETER, EPISTLES OF) it is probable that the
reference to Babylon ought to be interpreted as meaning Rome.
If so, and if the epistle be genuine, this is conclusive evidence
that Peter was in Rome. Even if the epistle be not genuine
it is evidence of the same tradition. Nor is corroboration lacking :
Clement (c. A.D. 97) refers to Peter and Paul as martyrs (i Clem.
5-6) and says that " To these men . . . there was gathered a
great company of the elect who . . . became an example to us."
This points in two ways to a martyrdom of Peter in Rome, (i)
because Peter and Paul are co-ordinated, and it is generally
admitted that the latter suffered in Rome, (2) because they seem
to be joined to the great company of martyrs who are to be an
example to the Church in Rome. Similarly Ignatius (c. A.D. 115)
says to the Romans (Rom. iv.), " I do not command you as Peter
and Paul." The suggestion obviously is that the Romans had
been instructed by these Apostles. By the end of the 2nd
century the tradition is generally known: Irenaeus (3, i, i),
Clement of Alexandria (comment, on i Peter), Origen (Horn. vi.
in Lucam), Tertullian (Scorp. 15, and several passages) are
explicit on the point, and from this time onwards the tradition
is met with everywhere. There is also a tradition, found in
Irenaeus (3, i, i) and in many later writers, and supported by
i Pet. v. 13, and by the statements of Papias (Eus. H.E. 3, 39,
15) that Mark acted as Peter's assistant in Rome and that his
gospel is based on recollections of Peter's teaching.

This evidence is probably sufficient to establish the fact that
Peter, like Paul, had a wide missionary career ending in a violent
death at Rome, though the details are not recoverable. The
chronological question is more difficult both as regards the
beginning and the end of this period of activity.

The Acts, in describing the visits of Peter to Samaria, Joppa,
Lydda and Caesarea, justify the view that his missionary activity
began quite early. Gal. ii. II and I Cor. ix. 5 show
Chronology l^at Acts minimizes rather than exaggerates this
ofPeter's activity; the Antiochian tradition probably repre-
wider sents a period of missionary activity with a centre
at Antiocn; similarly the tradition of work in Asia
is possibly correct as almost certainly is that of the
visit to Rome. But we have absolutely no evidence justifying
a chronological arrangement of these periods. Even the silence
of Paul in the epistles of the captivity proves nothing except
that Peter was not then present; the same is true of 2 Tim.
even if its authenticity be undoubted.

The evidence as to the date of his death is a little fuller, but
not quite satisfactory. The earliest direct witness is Tertullian,
who definitely states that Peter suffered under Nero by cruci-
fixion. Origen also relates the latter detail and adds that at
his own request Peter was crucified head downwards. Probably
John xxi. 18 seq. is a still earlier reference to his crucifixion.
Fuller evidence is not found until Eusebius, who dates the arrival
of Peter at Rome in 43 and his martyrdom twenty-five years
later. But the whole question of the Eusebian chronology
is very confused and difficult, and the text of the Chronicon is
not certain. The main objection to this date is based partly
on general probability, partly on the language of Clement of
Rome. It is more probable on general grounds that the martyr-
dom of Peter took place during the persecution of Christians in
64, and it is urged that Clement's language refers to this period.
It is quite possible that an error of a few years has crept into the
Eusebian chronology, which is probably largely based on early
episcopal lists, and therefore many scholars are inclined to think
that 64 is a more probable date than 67. As a rule the dis-
cussion has mainly been between these two dates, but Sir-W. M.
Ramsay, in his Church in the Roman Empire, has adopted a
different line of argument. He thinks that i Peter was written
c. A.D. 80, but that it may nevertheless be Petrine; therefore he
lays stress on the fact that whereas the tradition that Peter was
in Rome is early and probably correct, the tradition that he was
martyred under Nero is not found until much later. Thus he
thinks it possible that Peter survived until c. 80, and was
martyred under the Flavian emperors. The weak point of
this theory is that Clement and Ignatius bring Peter and Paul

together in a way which seems to suggest that they perished,
if not together, at least at about the same time. If this view
be rejected and it is necessary to fall back on the choice between
64 and 67, the problem is perhaps insoluble, but 64 has somewhat
more intrinsic probability, and 67 can be explained as due to
an artificial system of chronology which postulated for Peter an
episcopate of Rome of twenty-five years — a number which comes
so often in the early episcopal lists that it seems to mean little
more than " a long time," just as " forty years " does in the Old
Testament. On the whole 64 is the most probable date, but it
is very far from certain: the evidence is insufficient to justify
any assurance.

For further information and discussion see especially Harnack's
Chronologic, and Bishop Chase's article in Hastings'! Dictionary of
the Bible. The latter is in many ways the most complete statement
of the facts at present published.

Caius, who lived in the beginning of the 3rd century (see Eus.
H.E. 2, 25), stated that the rpcnrata (i.e. probably the burial
place, not that of execution) of Peter and Paul were
on the Vatican. This is also found in the Acta Pelri,
84 (in the Lib. Pont., ed. Duchesne, p. 52 seq., 118
sqq.). From this place it appears that the relics (whether
genuine or not) were moved to the catacombs in A.D. 258
(cf . the Depositis martyrum, and see Lightfoot's Clement, i. 249) ;
hence arose the tradition of an original burial in the catacombs,
found in the Hieronymian Martyrology.

For further information and investigations see Duchesne, Liber
pontificalis; Lipsius, Die Apokr. Apostelgesch.; and Erbes " Die
Todestage der Apostel Paulus u. Petrus," in Texte und Unter-
suchungen, N.F., iv. I. (K. L.)

PETER I., called " the Great " (1672-1725), emperor of Russia,
son of the tsar Alexius Mikhailovich and Natalia Naruishkina,
was born at Moscow on the 3oth of May 1672. His earliest
teacher (omitting the legendary Scotchman Menzies) was the
dyak, or clerk of the council, Nikita Zotov, subsequently the
court fool, who taught his pupil to spell out the liturgical and
devotional books on which the children of the tsar were generally
brought up. After Zotov's departure on a diplomatic mission,
in 1680, the lad had no regular tutor. From his third to his
tenth year Peter shared the miseries and perils of his family. His
very election (1682) was the signal for a rebellion. He saw one
of his uncles dragged from the palace and butchered by a savage
mob. He saw his mother's beloved mentor, and his own best
friend, Artamon Matvyeev, torn, bruised and bleeding, from
his retaining grasp and hacked to pieces. The haunting
memories of these horrors played havoc with the nerves of a
supersensitive child. The convulsions from which he suffered
so much in later years must be partly attributed to this violent
shock. During the regency of his half-sister Sophia (1682-1689)
he occupied the subordinate position of junior tsar, and after
the revolution of 1689 Peter was still left pretty much to himself.
So long as he could indulge freely in his favourite pastimes — ship-
building, ship-sailing, drilling and sham fights — he was quite
content that others should rule in his name. He now found a
new friend in the Swiss adventurer, Francois Lefort, a shrewd
and jovial rascal, who not only initiated him into all the
mysteries of profligacy (at the large house built at Peter's
expense in the German settlement), but taught him his true
business as a ruler. His mother's attempt to wean her prodigal
son from his dangerous and mostly disreputable pastimes, by
forcing him to marry the beautiful but stupid Eudoxia Lopu-
khina (Jan. 27, 1689), was a disastrous failure. The young
couple were totally unsuited to each other. Peter practically
deserted his unfortunate consort a little more than a year after
their union.

The death of his mother (Jan. 25, 1694) left the young
tsar absolutely free to follow his natural inclinations. Tiring
of the great lake at Pereyaslavl, he had already seen the sea
for the first time at Archangel in July 1683, and on the ist of
May 1694 returned thither to launch a ship built by himself the
year before. Shortly afterwards he nearly perished during a
storm in an adventurous voyage to the Solovetsky Islands in

PETER I.

289

the White Sea. His natural bent was now patent. From the
first the lad had taken an extraordinary interest in the technical
and mechanical arts, and their application to military and naval
science. He was taught the use of the astrolabe (which Prince
Yakov Dolgoruki, with intent to please, had brought him from
Paris) by a Dutchman, Franz Timmerman, who also instructed
him in the rudiments of geometry and fortifications. He had
begun to build his own boats at a very early age, and the ultimate
result of these pastimes was the creation of the Russian navy.
He had already surrounded himself with that characteristically
Petrine institution " the jolly company," or " the company,"
as it was generally called, consisting of all his numerous personal
friends and casual acquaintances. " The company " was
graduated into a sort of mock hierarchy, political and ecclesi-
astical, and shared not only the orgies but also the labours of the
tsar. Merit was the sole qualification for promotion, and Peter
himself set the example to the other learners by gradually
rising from the ranks. In 1695 he had only advanced to the
post of " skipper " in his own navy and of " bombardier " in
his own army. It was, however, the disreputable Lefort who,
for the sake of his own interests, diverted the young tsar from
mere pleasure to serious enterprises, by persuading him first
to undertake the Azov expedition, and then to go abroad to
complete his education.

By this time the White Sea had become too narrow for Peter,
and he was looking about him for more hospitable waters. The
Baltic was a closed door to Muscovy, and the key to it was held
by Sweden. The Caspian remained; and it had for long been
a common saying with foreign merchants that the best way
of tapping the riches of the Orient was to secure possession
of this vast inland lake. But so long as the Turks and Tatars
made the surrounding steppes uninhabitable the Caspian was
a possession of but doubtful value. The first step making for
security was to build a fleet strong enough to provide against
the anarchical condition of those parts; but this implied a direct
attack not only upon the Crimean khan, who was mainly
responsible for the conduct of the Volgan hordes, but upon the
khan's suzerain, the Turkish sultan. Nevertheless Peter did
not hesitate. War against Turkey was resolved upon, and
Azov, the chief Turkish fortress in those regions, which could
be approached by water from Moscow, became the Russian
objective. From the 8th of July to the 22nd of September
1695 the Muscovites attempted in vain to capture Azov. On
the 22nd of November Peter re-entered Moscow. His first
military expedition had ended in unmitigated disaster, yet
from this disaster is to be dated the reign of Peter the Great.

Immediately after his return he sent to Austria and Prussia
for as many sappers, miners, engineers and carpenters as money
could procure. He meant to build a fleet strong enough to
prevent the Turkish fleet from relieving Azov. The guards
and all the workmen procurable were driven, forthwith, in
bands, to all the places among the forests of the Don to fell
timber and work day and night, turning out scores of vessels of
all kinds. Peter himself lived among his workmen, himself
the most strenuous of them all, in a small two-roomed wooden
hut at Voronezh. By the middle of April two warships, twenty-
three galleys, four fireships and numerous smaller craft were
safely launched. On the 3rd of May " the sea caravan " sailed
from Voronezh, " Captain Peter Aleksyeevich " commanding
the galley-flotilla from the galley " Principium," built by his
own hand. The new Russian fleet did all that was required
of it by preventing the Turks from relieving Azov by water;
and on the i8th of July the fortress surrendered. Peter now
felt able to advance along the path of progress with a quicker
and a firmer step. It was resolved to consolidate the victory by
establishing a new naval station at the head of the Sea of Azov,
to which the name of Taganrog was given. But it was necessary
to guarantee the future as well as provide for the present.
Turkey was too formidable to be fought single-handed, and it
was therefore determined to send a grand embassy to the
principal western powers to solicit their co-operation against
the Porte. On the loth of March 1697 this embassy, under the
xxi. 10

leadership of Lefort, set out on its travels. Peter attached
himself to it as a volunteer sailormah, " Peter Mikhailov,"
so as to have greater facility for learning ship-building and other
technical sciences. As a political mission it failed utterly, the
great powers being at that period far more interested in western
than in eastern affairs. But personally Peter learnt nearly
all that he wanted to know — gunnery at Konigsberg, ship-
building at Saardam and Deptford, anatomy at Leiden, engrav-
ing at Amsterdam — and was proceeding to Venice to complete
his knowledge of navigation when the revolt of the stryeltsy,
or musketeers (June 1698), recalled him to Moscow. This
revolt has been greatly exaggerated. It was suppressed in an
hour's time by the tsar's troops, of whom only one man was
mortally wounded; and the horrible vengeance (September-
October 1698) which Peter on his return to Russia wreaked upon
the captive musketeers was due not to any actual fear of these
antiquated warriors, but to his consciousness that behind them
stood the reactionary majority of the nation who secretly
sympathized with, though they durst not assist, the rebels.

Peter's foreign tour had more than ever convinced him of
the inherent superiority of. the foreigner. Imitation had
necessarily to begin with externals, and Peter at once fell foul
of the long beards and Oriental costumes which symbolized
the arch-conservatism of old Russia. On the 26th of April 1698
the chief men of the tsardom were assembled round his wooden
hut at Preobrazhenskoye, and Peter with his own hand deliber-
ately clipped off the beards and moustaches of his chief boyars.
The ukaz of the ist of September 1698 allowed as a compromise
that beards should be worn, but a graduated tax was imposed
upon their wearers. The wearing of the ancient costumes was
forbidden by the ukaz of the 4th of January 1700; thenceforth
Saxon or Magyar jackets and French or German hose were
prescribed. That the people themselves did not regard the
reform as a trifle is plain from the numerous rebellions against
it. By the ukaz of the 2oth of December 1699 it was next
commanded that henceforth the new year should not be
reckoned, as heretofore, from the ist of September, supposed
to be the date of the creation, but from the first day of January,
anno domini.

The year 1 700 is memorable in Russian history as the starting-
point of Peter's long and desperate struggle for the hegemony of
the north. He had concluded peace with the Porte (June 13,
1700) on very advantageous terms, in order to devote himself
wholly to a war with Sweden to the end that Russia might gain
her proper place on the Baltic. The possession of an ice-free
seaboard was essential to her natural development; the creation
of a fleet would follow inevitably upon the acquisition of such a
seaboard; and she could not hope to obtain her due share of the
trade and commerce of the world till she possessed both. All the
conjunctures seemed favourable to Peter. The Swedish govern-
ment was in the hands of an untried lad of sixteen; and the
fine fleets of Denmark, and the veteran soldiers of Saxony, were
on the same side as the myriads of Muscovy. It seemed an
easy task for such a coalition to wrest the coveted spoil from
the young Charles XII.; yet Peter was the only one of the three
conspirators who survived the Twenty-one Years' War in which
they so confidently embarked during the summer of 1701. He
was also the only one of them who got anything by it. Charles's
" immersion in the Polish bog " (1702-1707), as Peter phrased
it, enabled the tsar, not without considerable expense and trouble,
to conquer Ingria and lay the foundations of St Petersburg.
In these early days Peter would very willingly have made peace
with his formidable rival if he had been allowed to retain these
comparatively modest conquests. From 1707 to 1709 the war
on his part was purely defensive; Charles would not hear of
peace till full restitution had been made and a war indemnity
paid, while Peter was fully resolved to perish rather than sur-
render his " paradise," Petersburg. After Pultava (June 26,
1709), Peter, hitherto commendably cautious even to cowardice,
but now purled up with pride, rashly plunged into as foolhardy
an enterprise as ever his rival engaged in. The campaign of
the Pruth (March to July 1711) must have been fatal to the

290

PETER I.

tsar but for the incalculable behaviour of the omnipotent grand
vizier, who let the Russian army go at the very instant when it
lay helpless in the hollow of his hand. Even so, Peter, by the
peace of the Pruth, had to sacrifice all that he had gained by
the Azov expedition fifteen years previously. On receiving
the tidings of the conclusion of the peace of Nystad (August
30, 1721), Peter declared, with perfect justice, that it was
the most profitable peace Russia had ever concluded. The
gain to Russia was, indeed, much more than territorial. In
surrendering the pick of her Baltic provinces, Sweden had
surrendered along with them the hegemony of the north, and
all her pretensions to be considered a great power.

The Great Northern War was primarily a training school for a
backward young nation, and in the second place a means of
multiplying the material resources of a nation as poor as she
was backward. During the whole course of it the process of
internal domestic reformation had been slowly but unceasingly
proceeding. Brand-new institutions on Western models were
gradually growing up among the cumbrous, antiquated, worn-
out machinery of old Muscovy; and new men, like Menshikov,
Goloykin, Apraksin, Osterman,. Kurakin, Tolstoy, Shafirov,
Prokopovich, Yaguszhinsky, Yavorsky, all capable, audacious,
and brimful of new ideas, were being trained under the eye of
the great regenerator to help him to carry on his herculean
task. At first the external form of the administration remained
much the same as before. The old dignities disappeared of
their own accord with the deaths of their holders, for the new
men, those nearest to Peter, did not require them. " The
Administrative Senate " was not introduced till 1711, and only
then because the interminable war, which required Peter's
prolonged absence from Russia, made it impossible for him to
attend to the details of the domestic administration. Still
later came the " Spiritual Department," or " Holy Synod "
(January 1721), which superseded the ancient patriarchate. It
was established, we are told, " because simple folks cannot
distinguish the spiritual power from the sovereign power, and
suppose that a supreme spiritual pastor is a second sovereign,
the spiritual authority being regarded as higher and better than
the temporal." From the first the regenerator in his ukazes
was careful to make everything quite plain. He was always
explaining why he did this or that, why the new was better
than the old, and so on; and we must recollect that these were
the first lessons of the kind the nation had ever received. The
whole system of Peter was deliberately directed against the chief
evils from which old Muscovy had always suffered, such as
dissipation of energy, dislike of co-operation, absence of responsi-
bility, lack of initiative, the tyranny of the family, the insignifi-
cance of the individual. The low social morality of all classes,
even when morality was present at all, necessitated the regenera-
tion of the nation against its will, and the process could therefore
only be a violent one. Yet the most enlightened of Peter's
contemporaries approved of and applauded his violence; some
of them firmly believed that his most energetic measures were
not violent enough. Thus Ivan Poroshkov, Peter's contempor-
ary, the father of Russian political economy, writes as follows:
" If any land be over-much encumbered with weeds, corn cannot
be sown thereon unless the weeds first be burned with fire.
In the same way, our ancient inveterate evils should also be
burnt with fire." Peter himself carried this principle to its
ultimate limits in dealing with his unfortunate son the Tsarevich
Alexius (<?.».). From an ethical and religious point of view
the deliberate removal of Alexius was an abominable, an
inhuman crime: Peter justified it as necessary for the welfare
of the new Russia which he had called into existence.

The official birthday of the Russian empire was the 22nd
of October 1721, when, after a solemn thanksgiving service
in the Troitsa Cathedral for the peace of Nystad, the tsar pro-
ceeded to the senate and was there acclaimed: " Father of the
Fatherland, Peter the Great, and Emperor of All Russia."
Some Russians would have preferred to proclaim Peter as
emperor of the East; but Peter himself adopted the more
patriotic title.

Towards the end of the reign the question of the successior
to the throne caused the emperor some anxiety. The rightful
heir, in the natural order of primogeniture, was the little grand
duke Peter, son of the Tsarevich Alexius, a child of six; but
Peter decided to pass him over in favour of his own beloved
consort Catherine. The ustav, or ordinance of 1722, heralded
this unheard-of innovation. Time-honoured custom had
hitherto reckoned primogeniture in the male line as the best
title to the Russian crown; in the ustav of 1722 Peter denounced
primogeniture in general as a stupid, dangerous, and even
unscriptural practice of dubious origin. The ustav was but
a preliminary step to a still more sensational novelty. Peter
had resolved to crown his consort empress, and on the isth
of November 1723 he issued a second manifesto explaining at
some length why he was taking such an unusual step. That
he should have considered any explanation necessary demon-
strates that he felt himself to be treading on dangerous ground.
The whole nation listened aghast to the manifesto. The corona-
tion of a woman was in the eyes of the Russian people a
scandalous innovation in any case, and the proposed coronation
was doubly scandalous in view of the base and disreputable
origin of Catherine herself (see CATHERINE I.). But Peter had
his way, and the ceremony took place at Moscow with
extraordinary pomp and splendour on the 7th of May 1724.

During the last four years of his reign Peter's policy was
predominantly Oriental. He had got all he wanted in Europe,
but the anarchical state of Persia at the beginning of 1722
opened up fresh vistas of conquest. The war which lasted
from May 1722 to September 1723 was altogether successful,
resulting in the acquisition of the towns of Baku and Derbent
and the Caspian provinces of Gilan, Mazandaran and Astarabad.
The Persian campaigns wore out the feeble health of Peter,
who had been ailing for some time. A long and fatiguing
tour of inspection over the latest of his great public works,
the Ladoga Canal, during the autumn of 1724, brought back
another attack of his paroxysms, and he reached Peters-
burg too ill to rally again, though he showed himself in
public as late as the i6th of January 1725. He expired in
the arms of his consort, after terrible suffering, on the 28th
of January 1725.

Peter's claim to greatness rests mainly on the fact that from
first to last he clearly recognized the requirements of the Rus-
sian nation and his own obligations as its ruler. It would
have materially lightened his task had he placed intelligent
foreigners at the head of every department of state, allowing them
gradually to train up a native bureaucracy. But for the sake of
the independence of the Russian nation he resisted the temptation
of taking this inviting but perilous short-cut to greatness. He
was determined that, at whatever cost, hardship and incon-
venience, Russia should be ruled by Russians, not by foreigners;
and before his death he had the satisfaction of seeing every
important place in his empire in the hands of capable natives
of his own training. But even in his most sweeping reforms
he never lost sight of the idiosyncrasies of the people. He
never destroyed anything which he was not able to replace by
something better. He possessed, too, something of the heroic
nature of the old Russian bogatuirs, or demigods, as we see them
in the skazki and the builinui. His expansive nature loved
width and space. No doubt this last of the bogatuirs possessed
the violent passions as well as the wide views of his prototypes.
All his qualities, indeed, were on a colossal scale. His rage was
cyclonic: his hatred rarely stopped short of extermination.
His banquets were orgies, his pastimes convulsions. He lived
and he loved like one of the giants of old. There are deeds
of his which make humanity shudder, and no man equally
great has ever descended to such depths of cruelty and treachery.
Yet it may generally be allowed that a strain of nobility, of
which we occasionally catch illuminating glimpses, extorts
from time to time an all-forgiving admiration. Strange, too,
as it may sound, Peter the Great was at heart profoundly
religious. Few men have ever had a more intimate persuasion
that they were but instruments for good in the hands of God.

PETER II.— PETER (KINGS OF SPAIN)

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Letters and Papers of Peter the Great (Rus.)
(St Petersburg, 1887, &c.); S. M. Solovev, History of Russia (Rus.),
vols. xiv.-xviii. (St Petersburg, 1895, &c.); A. Brueckner, Die
Europdisierung Russlands (Gotha, 1888) ; R. Nisbet Bain, The Pupils
of Peter the Great, chs. i.-iv. (London, 1897), and The First Romanovs,
chs. vii.-xiv. (London, 1905); E. Schuyler, Life of Peter the Great
(London, 1884); K. Wafiszewski, Pierre le Grand (Paris, 1897);
V. N. Aleksandrenko, Russian Diplomatic Agents in London in the
i8th Century (Rus.) (Warsaw, 1897-1898; German ed., Guben, 1898) ;
S. A. Chistyakov, History of Peter the Great (Rus.) (St Petersburg,
1903); S. M. Solovev, Public Readings on Peter the Great (Rus.)
(St Petersburg, 1903) ; Documents relating to the Great Northern War
(Rus.) (St Petersburg, 1892, &c.). (R. N. B.)

PETER II. (1715-1730), emperor of Russia, only son of the
Tsarevich Alexius, was born on the i8th of October 1715.
From his childhood the orphan grand duke was kept in the
strictest seclusion. His grandfather, Peter the Great, systemati-
cally ignored him. His earliest governesses were the wives
of a tailor and a vintner from the Dutch settlement; a sailor
called Norman taught him the rudiments of navigation; and,
when he grew older, he was placed under the care of a Hungarian
refugee, Janos Zeikin, who seems to have been a conscientious
teacher. During the reign of Catherine I. Peter was quite
ignored; but just before her death it became clear to those
in power that the grandson of Peter the Great could not be kept
out of his inheritance much longer. The majority of the nation
and three-quarters of the nobility were on his side, while his
uncle, the emperor Charles VI., through the imperial ambassador
at St Petersburg, Rabutin, persistently urged his claims. The
matter was arranged between Menshikov, Osterman and Rabu-
tin; and on the i8th of May 1727 Peter II., according to the
terms of the supposed last will of Catherine I., was proclaimed
sovereign autocrat. The senate, the privy council and the
guards took the oath of allegiance forthwith. The education
of the young prince was wisely entrusted to the vice-chancellor
Osterman. Menshikov, who took possession of Peter II. and
lodged him in his own palace on the Vasily island, had intended
to marry Peter to his daughter Maria; the scheme was frus-
trated by his fall (Sept. 21, 1727); but Peter only fell into the
hands of the equally unscrupulous Dolgoruki, who carried
him away from Petersburg to Moscow. Peter's coronation
was celebrated at that city on the 25th of February 1728.
He was betrothed to Catherine, second daughter of Alexis
Dolgoruki, and the wedding was actually fixed for the 30th
of January 1730; but on that very day the emperor died of
small-pox.

PETER III. (1728-1762), emperor of Russia, only son of
Charles Frederick, duke of Holstein-Gottorp, and of Anne, eldest
surviving daughter of Peter the Great, was born at Kiel on the
2ist of February 1728. In December 1741 he was adopted by
his aunt, Elizabeth Petrovna, as soon as she was safely estab-
lished on the Russian throne, and on the 1 8th of November
1742 was received into the Orthodox Church, exchanging his
original name of Karl Peter Ulrich for that of Peter Fedorovich.
On the 2ist of August 1745, by the command of his aunt, he
married the princess Sophia Augusta Frederica of Anhalt-
Zerbst, who exchanged her name for that of Catherine Aleksye-
evna. The union between a prince who physically was some-
thing less than a man and mentally little more than a child,
and a princess of prodigious intellect and an insatiable love
of enjoyment, was bound to end in a catastrophe. But there
is no foundation for the stories of Peter's neglect and brutality.
It took the spouses five years to discover that their tastes were
divergent and their tempers incompatible. Even when Peter III.
succeeded his aunt on the 5th of January 1762, he paid off all
the debts that Catherine had contracted without inquiring what
they were for. On her birthday, in April, he made her a present
of domains worth £10,000 per annum, though he had already
readjusted her establishment on a truly imperial scale. A great
deal has been made of Peter's infidelity towards his consort;
but the only one who really suffered from his liaison with the
ugly, stupid and vixenish countess Elizabeth Vorontsova was
the unfortunate emperor. So far from being scandalized by
the juxtaposition of "Das Fraulein " in the Winter Palace,

291

Catherine accepted it as a matter of course, provided that her
own relations with the handsome young guardsman, Gregory
Orlov, were undisturbed. Nor was Peter's behaviour to his
consort in public of the outrageous character we have been
led to suppose. Peter, in fact, was too good-natured and incon-
sequent to pursue, or even premeditate, any deliberate course
of ill treatment. No personal wrongs, but the deliberate deter-
mination of a strong-minded, capable woman to snatch the reins
of government from the hands of a semi-imbecile, was the cause
of Peter's overthrow, and his stupendous blunders supplied
Catherine with her opportunity. Peter's foreign policy was
the absolute reversal of the policy of his predecessor. He had
not been on the throne for two months when he made pacific
overtures to the wellnigh vanquished king of Prussia, whom he
habitually alluded to as " the king my master." Peter's
enthusiastic worship of Frederick resulted in a peace (May 5)
and then (June 19) in an offensive and defensive alliance
between Russia and Prussia, whereby Peter restored to Prussia
all the territory won from her by Russia during the last five
years at such an enormous expense of men and money, and
engaged to defend Frederick against all his enemies. This was
followed up by a whole series of menacing rescripts addressed
by Peter to the court of Vienna, in which war was threatened unless
Austria instantly complied with all the demands of the king
of Prussia. Finally he picked a quarrel with Denmark for not
accepting as an ultimatum the terms to be submitted by Russia
to a peace conference to meet at Berlin for the purpose of
adjusting the differences between the two powers. On the 6th
of July the Russian army received orders to invade Denmark
by way of Mecklenburg. This advance was only arrested,
when the opposing forces were almost within touch of each
other, by the tidings that a revolution had taken place at St
Petersburg, and that Peter III. was already a prisoner in the
hands of his consort. The coup d'etat of the Qth of July 1762
properly belongs to the history of Catherine II. (q.v.). Here
only a few words must be said as to the mysterious death of
Peter at the castle of Ropsha, to which he was removed imme-
diately after his surrender. Here he remained from the evening
of the 9th to the afternoon of the i8th of July. At first Catherine
and her counsellors could not make up their minds what to do
with " the former emperor." Imprisonment in Schliisselburg
for life, or repatriation to Holstein, were proposed only to be
rejected as dangerous. The Orlovs had even stronger motives
than Catherine for suppressing the ex-emperor, for Gregory
Orlov aspired to win the hand as well as the heart of his imperial
mistress, and so long as Catherine's lawful husband lived, even
in a prison, such a union would be impossible. The available
evidence points to the irresistible conclusion that on the after
noon of the i8th of July 1762, Peter III., with his consort's con-
nivance, was brutally murdered at Ropsha by Alexius Orlcv.
Theodore Baryatinski, and several other persons still unknown.
See R. N. Bain, Peter III., Emperor of Russia (London, 1902):
V. A. Bilbasov, History of Catherine II. (Rus.), vol. i. (Berlin.
1900). (R. N. B.)

PETER (PEDRO), the name of several Spanish kings.

PETER I., king of Aragon (d. 1104), son of Sancho Ramirez,
the third in order of the historic kings of Aragon, belonged to
times anterior to the authentic written history of his kingdom;
and little is known of him save that he recovered Huesca from
the Mahommedans in 1096.

PETER II., king of Aragon (1174-1213), son of Alphonso II.
and his wife Sancia, daughter of Alphonso VIII. of Castile,
was born in 1174. He had a very marked and curious personal
character. As sovereign of lands on both sides of the Pyrenees,
he was affected by very different influences. In his character
of Spanish prince he was a crusader, and he took a distinguished
part in the great victory over the Almohades at the Navas de
Tolosa in 1212. But his lands to the north of the Pyrenees
brought him into close relations with the Albigenses. He was
a favourer of the troubadours, and in his ways of life he indulged
in the laxity of Provencal morals to the fullest extent. We
are told in the chronicle written by Desclot soon after his time,

292

PETER DBS ROCHES

that Peter was only trapped into cohabiting with his wife by
the device which is familiar to readers of Measure for Measure.
In the year after the battle of the Navas de Tolosa he took up
arms against the crusaders of Simon of Montfort, moved not
by sympathy with the Albigenses, but by the natural political
hostility of the southern princes to the conquering intervention
of the north under pretence of religious zeal. His son records
the way in which he spent the night before the battle of Muret
with a crudity of language which defies translation, and tells us
that his father was too exhausted in the morning to stand at
Mass, and had to be lifted into the saddle by his squires. Peter
none the less showed the greatest personal valour, and his body,
recognizable by his lofty stature and personal beauty, was
found on the field after the rout (Sept. 12, 1213).

See Chronicle of James I. of Aragon, translated by J. Forster
(London, 1883) ; and Life and Times of James the First the Conqueror,
by F. Darwin Swift (Oxford, 1894).

PETER III., king of Aragon (1236-1286), son of James the
Conqueror, and his wife Yolande, daughter of Andrew II. of
Hungary, was born in 1236. Having married Constance,
daughter of Manfred of Beneventum, he came forward as the
representative of the claims of the Hohenstaufen in Naples
and Sicily against Charles, duke of Anjou. Peter began the
long strife of the Angevine and Aragonese parties in southern
Italy. His success in conquering Sicily earned him the surname
of " the Great." He repelled an invasion of Catalonia under-
taken by the king of France in support of Charles of Anjou, and
died on the 8th of November 1286.

For the personal character of Peter III., the best witness is the
Chronicle of Ramonde Muntanez — reprinted in the original Catalan
by R. Lanz, Literarischer Verein in Stuttgart, vol. vii. (1844), and in
French by Buchon, Coll. des chroniques nationales (Pans, 1824-
1828). See also O. Cartellieri, Peter von Aragon und die Sizilian-
ische Vesper (Heidelberg, 1904).

PETER IV., king. of Aragon (d. 1387), son of Alphonso IV.
and his wife Teresa d'Enteca, is known as " The Ceremonious "
and also as " he of the dagger." He acquired the first title
by the rigid etiquette he enforced, as one means of checking
the excessive freedom of his nobles. The second name was
given him because he wounded himself with his dagger in the
act of cutting to pieces the so-called " charter of the Union,"
which authorised the rebellions of his nobles, and which he
forced them to give up, after he had routed them at the battle
of Epila in 1348. Of no man of the i4th century can it be more
truly said that his life was a warfare on earth. He had first
to subdue his nobles, and to reannex the Balearic Islands to the
crown of Aragon. When he had made himself master at home,
he had to carry on a long and fierce contest with his namesake
Peter the Cruel of Castile, which only terminated when Henry
of Trastamara succeeded, largely with Aragonese help, in making
himself king of Castile in 1369. Peter succeeded in making
himself master of Sicily in 1377, but ceded the actual possession
of the island to his son Martin. He was three times married:
to Mary, daughter of Philip of Evreux, king of Navarre; to
Eleanor, daughter of Alphonso IV. of Portugal; and to Eleanor,
daughter of Peter II. of Sicily, his cousin. The marriage of his
daughter by his third marriage, Eleanor, with John I. of Castile,
carried the crown of Aragon to the Castilian line when his male
representatives became extinct on the death of his son Martin

in 1410.

See Zurita, Angles de Aragon (Saragossa, 1610).

PETER, " the Cruel," king of Castile (1333-1369), son of
Alphonso XI. and Maria, daughter of Alphonso IV. of Portugal,
was born in 1333. He earned for himself the reputation of
monstrous cruelty which is indicatd by the accepted title. In
later ages, when the rbyal authority was thoroughly established,
there was a reaction in Peter's favour, and an alternative name
was found for him. It became a fashion to speak of him as
El Justiciero, the executor of justice. Apologists were found to
say that he had only killed men who themselves would not
submit to the law or respect the rights of others. There is
this amount of foundation for the plea, that the chronicler
Lopez de Ayala, who fought against him, has confessed that the

king's fall was regretted by the merchants and traders, who
enjoyed security under his rule. Peter began to reign at the
age of sixteen, and found himself subjected to the control of
his mother and her favourites. He was immoral, and unfaithful
to his wife, as his father had been. But Alphonso XI. did not
imprison his wife, or cause her to be murdered. Peter certainly
did the first, and there can be little doubt that he did the second.
He had not even the excuse that he was passionately in love with
his mistress, Maria de Padilla; for, at a time when he asserted
that he was married to her, and when he was undoubtedly
married to Blanche of Bourbon, he went through the form
of marriage with a lady of the family of Castro, who bore him
a son, and then deserted her. Maria de Padilla was only the
one lady of his harem of whom he never became quite tired.
At first he was controlled by his mother, but emancipated
himself with the encouragement of the minister Albuquerque
and became attached to Maria de Padilla. Maria turned him
against Albuquerque. In 1354 the king was practically coerced
by his mother and the nobles into marrying Blanche of Bourbon,
but deserted her at once. A period of turmoil followed in which
the king was for a time overpowered and in effect imprisoned.
The dissensions of the party which was striving to coerce him
enabled him to escape from Toro, where he was under observation,
to Segovia. From 1356 to 1366 he was master, and was engaged
in continual wars with Aragon, in which he showed neither
ability nor daring. It was during this period that he perpetrated
the series of murders which made him odious. He confided in
nobody save the Jews, who were his tax-gatherers, or the
Mahommedan guard he had about him. The profound hatred
of the Christians for the Jews and Mudejares, or Mahommedans
settled among them, dates from the years in which they were
the agents of his unbridled tyranny. In 1366 he was assailed by
his bastard brother Henry of Trastamara at the head of a host
of soldiers of fortune, and fled the kingdom without daring to
give battle. Almost his last act in Spain was to murder Suero,
the archbishop of Santiago, and the dean, Peralvarez. Peter
now took refuge with the Black Prince, by whom he was restored
in the following year. But he disgusted his ally by his faithless-
ness and ferocity. The health of the Black Prince broke down,
and he left Spain. When thrown on his own resources, Peter
was soon overthrown by his brother Henry, with the aid of
Bertrand du Guesclin and a body of French free companions.
He was murdered by Henry in du Guesclin's tent on the 23rd
of March 1369. His daughters by Maria de Padilla, Constance
and Isabella, were respectively married to John of Gaunt, and
Edmund, duke of York, sons of Edward III., king of England.

The great original but hostile authority for the life of Peter the
Cruel is the Chronicle of the Chancellor Pero Lopez de Ayala (Madrid
1779-1780). A brilliantly written Life is that by Prosper M6rim6e,
Hist, de Don Pldre I., roi de Castille (Paris, 1848). (D. H.)

PETER DES ROCHES (d. 1238), bishop of Winchester under
John and Henry III., and conspicuous among the foreign favour-
ites to whom these sovereigns owed much of their unpopularity,
was a Poitevin by extraction. He received the office of chamber-
lain towards the close of Richard's reign, and under Richard's
successor became an influential counsellor. In 1205, doubtless
through John's influence, he was elected to the see of Winchester.
His election was disputed but, on appeal, confirmed by Pope
Innocent III., who honoured Peter by consecrating him in
person. None the less, the new bishop stood by his royal patron
during the whole period of the interdict. In 1213 he was made
justiciar in succession to Geoffrey Fitz Peter. This promotion
was justified by the fidelity with which Peter supported the
king through the barons' war. At the battle of Lincoln (1217)
Peter led a division of the royal army and earned some distinc-
tion by his valour; but he played a secondary part in the
government so long as William Marshal held the regency.
After Marshal's death (1219) Peter led the baronial opposition
to Hubert de Burgh, with varying success. At first the justiciar
was successful. In 1221 Peter meditated going on crusade;
1223-1224 saw his party broken up by Hubert's energetic
measures; in 1227 was himself dismissed from his office and

PETER LOMBARD— PETER OF COURTENAY

293

turned his back on England to join the crusade of the emperor
Frederick II. He was absent from England until 1231; but in
the meantime enhanced his reputation both as a soldier and
diplomatist. After the fall of De Burgh he kept in the back-
ground, but offices and honours were heaped on his dependants,
especially on his nephew, Peter des Rievaulx, and other Poitevins.
This foreign party triumphed over the revolt which was headed
by Richard Marshal in 1233. But the primate, Edmund
Rich, voiced the general feeling when he denounced Peter
as ;a mischief maker, and demanded that he should be
dismissed from court. The king complied, and threatened
the bishop with charges of malversation. Peter was how-
ever permitted to leave the country with a pardon (1235);
he conciliated Gregory IX. by rendering efficient aid in
a war with the citizens of Rome (1235); and in the next year
returned without molestation to his see. He was invited to go
as the king's envoy to the court of Frederick II., but refused
apparently on the score of ill health. His public reconciliation
with De Burgh (1236), effected through the mediation of the
papal legate, provided a dramatic close to their long rivalry,
but had no political significance, since both were now living in
retirement. Peter died in 1238, and was buried at Winchester.
He was undoubtedly a man of a winning personality, a good
diplomat and financier, a statesman whose unpopularity was
due in some measure to his freedom from the insularity of the
Englishmen, against whom he matched himself. But his name
is associated with a worthless clique of favourites, and with
the first steps which were taken by Henry III. to establish a
feeble and corrupt autocracy.

See C. Petit Dutaillis, Vie et rlgne de Louis VIII. (Paris, 1894) ;
Lecointre Dupont, Pierre des Roches (Poitiers, 1868) ; Stubbs's Con-
stitutional History of England, vol. ii. ; H. W. C. Davis, England under
the Normans and Angevins (1905) ; T. F. Tout in the Political History
of England, vol. iii. (1905). (H. W. C. D.)

PETER LOMBARD (c. noo-c. 1160), bishop of Paris, better
known as Magister sententiarum, the son of obscure parents,
was born about the beginning of the I2th century, at Novara
(then reckoned as belonging to Lombardy). After receiving
his education at Bologna, he removed to France, bearing a
recommendation to Bernard of Clairvaux, who first placed him
under Lotolf at Reims, and afterwards sent him to Paris with
letters to Gilduin, the abbot of St Victor. He soon became
known as a teacher, and obtained a theological chair in the
cathedral school. His famous textbook, the Sententiae, was
written between 1145 and 1150. On the 2gth of June 1159 he
became bishop of Paris. The accounts of his bishopric are
satisfactory. There is a charge that he was guilty of simony,
having received his office through the favour of Philip, brother
of Louis VII., his former pupil. The date of his death is
uncertain. According to one account he died on the 2oth of
July 1 1 60, and as Maurice de Sully became bishop that year the
statement seems probable. Yet there is evidence for a later
date, and he may have been set aside for simony.

His famous theological handbook, Sententiarum libri quatuor,
is, as the title implies, primarily a collection of opinions of the
fathers, " sententiae patrum." These are arranged, professedly on
the basis of the aphorism of Augustine, Lombard's favourite author-
ity, that " omnis doctrina vel rerum est vel signorum," into four
books, of which the first treats of God, the second of the creature,
the third of the incarnation, the work of redemption, and the
virtues, and the fourth of the seven sacraments and eschatology.
The Sententiae show the influence of Abelard, both in method and
arrangement, but lack entirely the daring of Sic et Non. Compared
with that book they are tame. Gratian's Concordia discordantium
canonum, as he called his Decretum, was another strong influence,
Lombard doing in a sense for theology what Gratian did for the canon
law. The influence of Hugh of St Victor is also marked. The rela-
tion to the " sentences " of a Gandulph of Bologna (still unpublished)
has not been established. The most important thing in the book was
its crystallization of the doctrine concerning the sacramental system,
by the definite assertion of the doctrine of the seven sacraments,
and the acceptance of a definition of sacrament, not merely as "a
sign of a sacred thing," but as itself " capable of conveying the grace
of which it is the sign." The sentences soon attained immense
popularity, ultimately becoming the text-book in almost every
theological school, and giving rise to endless commentaries, over 1 80
of these being written in England. In 1300 the theological professors

? KriSjagLee m * reJ?<:tion of sateen propositions taken from
Lombard, but their decision was far from obtaining universal
currency.

Besides the Sententiae, Lombard wrote numerous commentaries
(e.g. on the Psalms, Canticles, Job, the Gospel Harmony, and the
Pauline Epistles), sermons and letters, which still exist in MS. The
Glossae seu commentarius in psalmos Davidis, were first published
at Paris in 1533.

Lombard's collected works have been published in J. P. Migne's
Patrologie latine, Tome 191 and 192. See also Denifle and Chatelain,
Chartularium universitatis parisiensis, Tome i. (Paris, 1889) ; Protois,
Pierre Lombard, son epoque, sa vie, ses ecrits, son influence (Paris,
1881) ; Kogel, Petrus Lombard in seiner Stellung zur Philosophie des
Mittelalters (Leipzig, 1897); A. Harnack, Dogmengeschichte, Bd.
m. (1890; Eng. trans. 1894-1899); and the article in Herzog-Hauck's
Realencyklopadie, Bd. xi. (Leipzig, 1902).

PETER OF AIGUEBLANCHE (d. 1268), bishop of Hereford,
belonged to a noble family of Savoy and came to England in
1236 with his master, William of Savoy, bishop of Valence, being
in attendance on Eleanor of Provence, the bride of Henry III.
A year or two later he is found residing permanently in England
as a member of the king's court; before 1239 he was archdeacon
of Salop, and in 1240 he was chosen bishop of Hereford. In
1255 Peter acted as Henry's principal agent in the matter
of accepting the kingdom of Sicily from Pope Alexander IV.
for his son Edmund, and his rapacious and dishonest methods
of raising money for this foolish enterprise added not a little
to the unpopularity which surrounded the king and his foreign
favourites. When civil war broke out between Henry and his
barons the bishop remained loyal to his master, and whilst
residing, almost for the first time, at Hereford he was taken
prisoner in May 1263. He was, however, released when the
king and his enemies came to terms, and after a stay in France
he retired to Savoy, where he died on the 27th of November
1268.

See F. Mugnier, Les Savoyards en Angleterre au XIII' sitcle et
Pierre d' Aigueblanche (Chambdry, 1890).

PETER OF BLOIS [PETRUS BLESENSIS] (c. 1135-6. 1205),
French writer, the son of noble Breton parents, was born at
Blois. He studied jurisprudence at Bologna and theology in
Paris, and in 1167 he went to Sicily, where he became tutor to
the young king William II., and keeper of the royal seal (sigil-
larius). But he made many enemies and soon asked permission
to leave the country; his request was granted and about 1170 he
returned to France. After spending some time teaching in
Paris and serving Rotrou de Perche, archbishop of Rouen, as
secretary, Peter entered the employ of Henry II. of England
about 1173. He quickly became archdeacon of Bath and soon
afterwards chancellor, or secretary, to Richard, archbishop of
Canterbury, and to Richard's successor, Baldwin, being sent
on two occasions to Italy to plead the cause of these prelates
before the pope. After the death of Henry II. in 1189, he was
for a time secretary to his widow, Eleanor, in Normandy; he
obtained the posts of dean of Wolverhampton and archdeacon
of London, but he appears to have been very discontented in his
later years. He died some time after March 1 204.

Peter's writings fa|l into four classes, letters, treatises, sermons
and poems. His Epistolae, which were collected at the request of
Henry II., are an important source for the history of the time;
they are addressed to Henry II. and to various prelates and scholars,
including Thomas Becket and John of Salisbury. His treatises
include De lerosolymitana peregrinatione accelerando,, an exhortation
to take part in the third crusade, and Dialogus inter regent Henricum
II. et abbatem Bonaevallensem; his extant sermons number 65 and
his poems are unimportant. Peter's works have been printed in
several collections, including the Patrologia of J. P. Migne and the
Histor toe francorum scriptores of A. Duchesne. Of separate editions
the best are those by Pierre de Goussainville (Paris, 1667) and J. A.
^.iles (Oxford, 1846-1847).

See the Histoire litteraire de la France, Tome xv. ; W. Stubbs,
Lectures on Medieval and Modern History (Oxford, 1886); Sir T. D.
Hardy, Descriptive Catalogue of Materials relating to the History
of Great Britain (1862-1867), and C. L. Kingsford in vol. xlv. of the
Dictionary of National Biography (1896).

PETER OF COURTENAY (d. 1219), emperor of Romania (or
Constantinople), was a son of Peter of Courtenay (d. 1183), and
a grandson of the French king, Louis VI. Having, by a first
marriage, obtained the counties of Nevers and Auxerre, he took

294

PETER OF DUISBURG— PETER THE HERMIT

for his second wife, Yolande (d. 1219), a sister of Baldwin and
Henry of Flanders, who were afterwards the first and second
emperors of the Latin Empire of Constantinople. Peter accom-
panied his cousin, King Philip Augustus, on the crusade of 1190,
fought against the Albigenses, and was present at the battle
of Bouvines in 1214. When his brother-in-law, the emperor
Henry, died without sons in 1216, Peter was chosen as his
successor, and with a small army set out from France to take
possession of his throne. Consecrated emperor at Rome, in a
church outside the walls, by Pope Honorius III. on the 9th of
April 1217, he borrowed some ships from the Venetians, prom-
ising in return to conquer Durazzo for them; but he failed in
this enterprise, and sought to make his way to Constantinople
by land. On the journey he was seized by the despot of Epirus,
Theodore Angelus, and, after an imprisonment of two years,
died, probably by foul means. Peter thus never governed his
empire, which, however, was ruled for a time by his wife,
Yolande, who had succeeded in reaching Constantinople. Two
of his sons, Robert and Baldwin, became in turn emperors of
Constantinople.

PETER OF DUISBURG (d. c. 1326), German chronicler, was
born at Duisburg, and became a priest-brother of the Teutonic
Order. He wrote the Chronicon terrae Prussiae, dedicated to
the grand-master, Werner of Orseln, which is one of the chief
authorities for the history of the order in Prussia. There is a
rhyming translation in German by Nicholas of Jeroschin, which,
together with the original, is published in Bd. I. of the
Scriptores rerum prussicarum (Leipzig, 1861).

See M. Toppen, Geschichte der preussischen Historiographie (Berlin,
1853) I a°d W. Fuchs, Peter von Duisburg und das Chronicon olivense
(Konigsberg, 1884).

PETER OF MARICOURT (i3th century), a French savant, to
whom his disciple, Roger Bacon, pays the highest tribute in his
opus tertium and other works. According to Bacon he was a
recluse who devoted himself to the study of nature, was able to
work metals, invented armour and assisted St Louis in one of
his expeditions more than his whole army. According to Emile
Charles (Roger Bacon sa vie, ses outrages, ses doctrines, 1861),
Peter of Maricourt is the Pierre Peregrin (or Pelerin) de Maricourt
(Meharicourt in Picardy), known also as Petrus Peregrinus of
Picardy, one of whose letters, De magnete, is partly reproduced
in Libri's Hist, des sciences mathematiques en Italic (1838), ii.
70-71, 487-5°5-

PETER OF SAVOY (c. 1203-1268), earl of Richmond, younger
son of Thomas I. (Tommaso), count of Savoy, was born at Susa.
After spending some years as an ecclesiastic he resigned his
preferments, and in 1234 married his cousin Agnes, daughter
and heiress of Aymon II., lord of Faucigny. Accepting an
invitation from the English king, Henry III., who had married
his niece, Eleanor of Provence, Peter came to England in 1240,
and was created earl of Richmond, receiving also large estates
and being appointed to several important offices. During
several visits to the continent of Europe Peter had largely
increased his possessions in Vaud and the neighbourhood, and
returning to England in 1252 he became associated with Simon
de Montfort, retaining at the same time the king's friendship.
Having been employed by Henry to negotiate with the pope
and with Louis IX. of France, he supported Earl Simon in his
efforts to impose restrictions upon the royal power; but, more
moderate than many members of the baronial party, went over
to Henry's side in 1 260, and was consequently removed from the
council. In 1263 he left England, and when his nephew,
Boniface, count of Savoy, died in the same year he assumed the
title of count of Savoy. This was also claimed by another
nephew, Thomas; but Peter compelled the inhabitants of Turin
to submit to him and secured possession of the county. He died
on the i6th or i7th of May 1268, leaving an only child, Beatrice
(d. 1310). Peter gave to the castle of Chillon its present form,
and his name to the Savoy palace in London. He has been
called le petit Charlemagne, and was greatly praised for his valour
and his wisdom.

See L. Wurstemberger, Peter der Zweite, Graf von Savoyen (Zurich,

1858); F. Mugnier, Les Savoyards en Angleterre (Chambe'ry, 1890);
and C. B6mont, Simon de Montfort (Paris, 1884).

PETER THE HERMIT, a priest of Amiens, who may, as Anna
Comnena says, have attempted to go on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem
before 1096, and have been prevented by the Turks from reaching
his destination. It is uncertain whether he was present at Urban 's
great sermon at Clermont in 1095; but it is certain that he was one
of the preachers of the crusade in France after that sermon, and
his own experience may have helped to give fire to his eloquence.
He soon leapt into fame as an emotional revivalist preacher: his
very ass became an object of popular adoration; and thousands
of peasants eagerly took the cross at his bidding. The crusade
of the pauperes, which forms the first act in the first crusade, was
his work; and he himself led one of the five sections of the
pauperes to Constantinople, starting from Cologne in April,
and arriving at Constantinople at the end of July 1096. Here
he joined the only other section which had succeeded in reaching
Constantinople — that of Walter the Penniless; and with the
joint forces, which had made themselves a nuisance by pilfering,
he crossed to the Asiatic shore in the beginning of August. In
spite of his warnings, the pauperes began hostilities against the
Turks; and Peter returned to Constantinople, either in despair
at their recklessness, or in the hope of procuring supplies. In
his absence the army was cut to pieces by the Turks; and he was
left in Constantinople without any followers, during the winter
of 1096-1097, to wait for the coming of the princes. He joined
himself to their ranks in May 1097, with a little following which
he seems to have collected, and marched with them through
Asia Minor to Jerusalem. But he played a very subordinate
part in the history of the first crusade. He appears, in the
beginning of 1098, as attempting to escape from the privations
of the siege of Antioch — showing himself, as Guibert of Nogent
says, a " fallen star." In the middle of the year he was sent by
the princes to invite Kerbogha to settle all differences by a duel;
and in 1099 he appears as treasurer of the alms at the siege of
Area (March), and as leader of the supplicatory processions in
Jerusalem which preceded the battle of Ascalon (August).
At the end of the year he went to Laodicea, and sailed thence
for the West. From this time he disappears; but Albert of Aix
records that he died in 1151, as prior of a church of the Holy
Sepulchre which he had founded in France.

Legend has made Peter the Hermit the author and originator
of the first crusade. It has told how, in an early visit to Jeru-
salem, before 1096, Christ appeared to him in the Church of the
Sepulchre, and bade him preach the crusade. The legend is
without any basis in fact, though it appears in the pages of
William of Tyre. Its origin is, however, a matter of some
interest. Von Sybel, in his Geschichte des ersten Kreuszuges,
suggests that in the camp of the pauperes (which existed side by
side with that of the knights, and grew increasingly large as the
crusade told more and more heavily in its progress on the purses
of the crusaders) some idolization of Peter the Hermit had
already begun, during the first crusade, parallel to the similar
glorification of Godfrey by the Lorrainers. In this idolization
Peter naturally became the instigator of the crusade, just as
Godfrey became the founder of the kingdom of Jerusalem and the
legislator of the assizes. This version of Peter's career seems as
old as the Chanson des chetifs, a poem which Raymond of Antioch
caused to be composed in honour of the Hermit and his followers,
soon after 1130. It also appears in the pages of Albert of Aix,
who wrote somewhere about 1130; and from Albert it was
borrowed by William of Tyre. The whole legend of Peter is
an excellent instance of the legendary amplification of the first
crusade — an amplification which, beginning during the crusade
itself, in the " idolizations " of the different camps (idola cas-
trorum, if one may pervert Bacon), soon developed into a regular
saga. This saga found its most piquant beginning in the
Hermit's vision at Jerusalem, and there it accordingly began —
alike in Albert, followed by William of Tyre and in the Chanson
des chetifs, followed by the later Chanson d'Anlioche.

The original authorities for the story of Peter the Hermit are:
for the authentic Peter, Anna Comnena and the Gesta Francorum;

PETER THE WILD BOY— PETER, EPISTLES OF

295

for the legendary Peter, Albert of Aix. The whole career of the
Hermit has been thoroughly and excellently discussed by H. Hagen-
meyer, Peter der Heremite (Leipzig, 1879). (E. BR.)

PETER THE WILD BOY (ft. 1723-1785), a Hanoverian
imbecile of unknown parentage, who, having been found living
wild in the woods near Hanover in 1725, was brought to England
by order of George I., whose interest had been aroused in the
unfortunate youth. An extraordinary amount of curiosity and
speculation concerning Peter was excited in London, and the
craze was the subject of a biting satire by Swift, and of another
entitled The Most Wonderful Wonder that ever appeared to the
Wonder of the British Nation, which has been attributed to Swift
and Arbuthnot; Defoe also wrote on the subject, and Lord
Monboddo in his Origin and Progress of Language presents the
idiot Peter as an illustration of his theory of the evolution of
the human species. He lived to an advanced age, was seen by
Lord Monboddo in 1782, and died in 1785.

See Henry Wilson, The Book of Wonderful Characters (London,
1869).

PETER, EPISTLES OF, the two books of the New Testament
traditionally ascribed to the apostle Peter.

i PETER

This epistle is addressed to " the elect who are sojourners
of the Dispersion [Diaspora] in Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia,
Asia and Bithynia." The " Diaspora " was the name generally
given to the Jews who were " scattered abroad." This suggests
that the letter was intended for Jewish Christians in the provinces
mentioned. But i. 14, 18; ii. 9, 10; iv. 3 point rather to Gentile
Christians, and it is better to take this view, and interpret the
" Diaspora " metaphorically as referring to the isolated position of
Christians among the heathen. The general impression made by
the epistle is that the central idea was to strengthen the courage
of the recipients, who were likely to undergo per-
secution, and to enjoin on them conduct which
would remove all reasonable excuse for thinking
that Christianity ought to be regarded as a crime.

Ch. i. 3-12 is an introduction of praise to God that
he had caused the recipients of the epistle to be
born again to the living hope in a glorious salvation.
The rest of the epistle may be divided into three parts :
(a) i. I3~ii. 10, mainly hortatory injunctions to live
holy lives in accordance with this new birth, and to
grow up as God's people in communion with Christ;
0?) ii. ll-iv. 6, particular directions as to the
line of conduct to be pursued towards the Gentiles and
towards those in authority, with special reference to the relations
of slaves to masters, of wives and husbands to each other, and of
Christians to one another; to the first of these a passage is appended
dealing with the sufferings of Christ as an example (ii. 21-25), and
the whole is completed by an exhortation to meekness and patience
in suffering, in the light of the sufferings of Christ and the blessings
given by them both to the living and to the dead; (7) iv. 7~v. II,
has less cohesion. It begins with exhortations not to forget prayer
and love, then the believers are warned to be careful to suffer only as
Christians, not as breakers of the laws. The elders and the younger
men are reminded of their duties to the community and to one
another. The whole is brought to a close with an exhortation to all
to fight manfully against the devil and to trust in God.

Date and Authorship. — These two questions are so closely
connected that they cannot be considered separately. The
external evidence of tradition is that the epistle was written by
St Peter. This can be traced back tq Irenaeus (iv. 9, 2) and
Clement of Alexandria (Strom, iii. 18, no), and it is thought by
many writers that 2 Peter iii. i, even if it be not itself Petrine,
is good evidence that the writer regarded i Peter as apostolic.
Evidence for its use, without mention of its name, may be found
in Polycarp, but probably not in the other apostolic fathers
(cf. The N.T. in the Apostolic Fathers, Oxford, 1905, p. 137). It
is, however, possible that Papias made use of it. It is doubtful
whether Justin Martyr used it, but probable that it was known
to Theophilus of Antioch. It is not mentioned in the canon
of Muratori. Thus external evidence, though unanimous in
favour of the Petrine authorship, is not sufficient to settle the
question. The internal evidence consists of (a) evidence bearing
on the date in connexion with the persecution of Christians,
03) evidence establishing the relation of the epistle to other

documents in early Christian history, and (7) evidence concerning
St Peter personally.

(a) It is clear from I Peter i. 6, ii. 12, iv. 12-19, v- 9i that the
epistle was written during a time of persecution. The question
which is doubtful is to which persecution the description best
applies. The traditional opinion was that the persecution referred
to was that under Nero. But it has been argued that the Neroine
persecution according to Tacitus (Ann. xv. 44) was not a persecution
of Christians as such, but was rather the result of false accusation.
Moreover there is no proof that there was any persecution of
Christians at this time outside Rome, and I Peter alludes to per-
secution in the provinces of Asia Minor. Therefore many critics
have felt obliged to bring the epistle into connexion with the epistle
of Pliny to Trajan, written c. 112, and asking for advice as to the
procedure to be followed in trials of Christians. This is the earliest
evidence which implies organized persecution in the provinces in
question, and therefore Holtzmann, Weizsacker and others regard
this as fixing the date of the epistle in the beginning of the 2nd
century, and excluding the Petrine authorship. Against this view
it may be argued that the epistle describes the beginning of per-
secution. The writer still hopes that Christians will not be obliged
to suffer " for the name " and is clearly aware of false accusations
of crime. On the other hand Pliny's letter implies a time when
Christianity was in itself a crime and was recognized as such. Thus
it is urged, probably correctly, that the epistle belongs to the
beginning of a period of which Pliny's letter marks a later develop-
ment, and we can only say that c. 112 is the terminus ad quern. The
terminus a quo is more difficult to find. We do not know with cer-
tainty when Christianity became a recognized offence, and scholars
have supported various hypotheses. T. Mommsen, Hardy and
Sanday think that even under Nero it was criminal to be a Christian ;
Neumann thinks that this was first the case under Domitian; Sir
W. M. Ramsay believes that this attitude was one of the results of
the Jewish War of 70, and ascribes it to Vespasian. If the Domitianic
date be adopted the Petrine authorship is almost excluded, and it
is difficult to reconcile the traditional date of St Peter's martyrdom
with Ramsay's theory.

03) The relations of I Peter to other books in early Christian
literature is shown in the following table : —

i Pet. Rom.

i Pet. Eph.

i Pet. Jas.

I Pet. Polycarp.

i. 14 — xii. 2

i. I seq. — i. 3seq.

i. I — i. I

i. 8— i. 3

ii. 5 — xii. I

i. 14 — ii. 3

i. 6 seq. — i. 2 seq.

i. 13 — ii. I

ii. 6-10 — ix. 32

ii. 1 8 — vi. 5

i. 24 — i. 10

i. 21 — ii. i

ii. 13 — xiii. I

iii. i — v. 22

i. 23 — i. 18

ii. II — v. 3

iii. 9 — xii. 17

iii. 22 — i.2O

iv. 8 — v. 20

ii. 12 — x. 2

iii. 22 — viii. 34

v. 5 — v.2l

v. 5 seq. — iv. 6,10

ii. 21 — viii. 1,2

iv. 3 — xiii. II

iii. 9 — ii. 2

iv. 7 — xiii. 12

iv. 7 — vii. 2

iv. 9 — xiii. 13

iv. 16 — viii. 2

iv. IO — xii. 6

From this table it is sufficiently plain that i Peter is closely connected
with Romans, Ephesians, James and Polycarp. The majority of
scholars are agreed that in the case of Romans the dependence is
on the side of i Peter, and in the case of Polycarp on the side of
Polycarp. There is less agreement as to Ephesians and James,
though in the former case the general opinion favours the dependence
of i Peter, in the latter case its priority. In England, however, the
priority of James has been supported by Mayor and Hort. In the
light of the established use of Romans it is possible that i Peter also
used other Pauline epistles and some scholars have seen special
traces of the influence of i Cor. and Gal. (for a list of these cf.
Holtzmann, Einleitung in das N.T., 3,_p. 314). It has been argued
that the use of the Pauline epistles is improbable for Peter, but
this is a subjective argument which is not decisive.

(y) According to tradition Peter was martyred in Rome, and it
is probable that this was in the Neroine persecution. If this be so,
the year 64 is the terminus ad quern of the letter, if it be authentic.
Ramsay, however, thinks that Peter may have survived this persecu-
tion and suffered at the beginning of the persecutions which, he
thinks, were initiated by the Flavian emperors (see PETER, ST: § 5,
4 and 6).

The whole question of authorship and date is thus a complex
of smaller problems, many of which do not seem to admit of
any definite answer. If St Paul's epistle to the Ephesians be
genuine, and it were really known to the writer of i Peter, and if
Peter were martyred in 64, the theory of Petrine authorship
demands that it was written by Peter between 59 and 64. On
the Petrine hypothesis this is the most probable view. The
weak point is that it assumes a great spread of Christianity in
the provinces of Asia Minor outside the activity of Paul, and that
the official persecution of Christians as such began throughout
the Roman Empire under Nero, for neither of which is there

296

PETER, EPISTLES OF

corroborative evidence. On the non-Petrine hypothesis a date
is demanded some time before the letter of Pliny; this suits the
internal evidence better than any possible on the Petrine
hypothesis, but it fails to explain the really considerable and
early evidence for the Petrine authorship, and necessitates
some purely hypothetical suggestion, such as Harnack's view
that the epistle was originally anonymous, and that the opening
and closing sentences (i. I sqq., v. 12 sqq.) were added between
A.D. 150 and 175, perhaps by the writer of 2 Peter.

The Provenance of the Epistle. — This is defined in i Peter v. 13
as Babylon. It has sometimes been argued that this is Babylon
in Mesopotamia, in which there were, until the time of the em-
peror Caius, many Jews; but no good tradition connects St Peter
with the evangelization of Mesopotamia, and this district
would have had little in common with the Graeco-Roman world
of Asia Minor. Another suggestion is that the Egyptian Babylon
is meant (Old Cairo); but in the ist century this was probably
merely a fortress. Thus there is an overwhelming weight of
opinion in favour of the view that Rome, the Babylon of
Apocalyptic literature, is intended. This also agrees with the
tradition in 2 Tim. iv. n, which (cf. i Pet. v. 13) suggests that
St Mark was in Rome.

Reception in the Canon. — i Peter seems to have been the
earliest of the Catholic epistles to obtain recognition. By the
year 200 it was accepted everywhere except in two places — the
church of Edessa, which did not receive the Catholic epistles
until the sth century, and, if the canon of Muratori is to be
trusted, the church of Rome. It should, however, be noted that
Zahn emends the text of the Muratorianum (rather violently)
so as to include the epistle (see also BIBLE: New Testament
Canon.)

The Theology of i Peter. — The simplicity of the theology is marked,
and affords an argument for an early date. Jesus is the Messiah
of whom the prophets had spoken, and the " Spirit of Christ " is
identified with the spirit which was in them. His suffering for sin
had rescued the elect, and was also an example for Christians to
follow. After his death he preached to the " spirits in prison."
The source of Christian life is on the one hand belief in God who
raised the Messiah from the dead, and on the other hand baptism
which " saves . . . through the resurrection of Jesus Christ." The
members of the community are " a royal priesthood, a holy nation "
— i.e. inherit the promises made to the Jews, but this inheritance
is bound up with the strongly eschatological doctrine that Christians
are strangers in the world, the end of which is at hand.

The Church Organization of i Peter. — This also is very simple and
primitive, and closely based on the Jewish model. The leaders are
called presbyters or elders, and their duty is to act as shepherds to
the flock. Beyond this there is no sign of a developed organization :
each is to act in accordance with the gift (xipur^o) which he has
received. There is no trace of a specially set apart ministry either
for the service of the community or for teaching, as to which the only
limitation given is " If any man speak let him speak as the oracles
of God," i.e. probably, in accordance with the Old Testament.

2 PETER

This epistle may be divided into five parts, (i) The writer
who describes himself as " Simon (var. lect. Symeon) Peter,
a servant and apostle of Jesus Christ," exhorts his readers to
become perfect in knowledge and virtue, so as to enter the
kingdom of Christ (i. 3-11). (2) He then explains his desire
once more to testify to the power of Jesus, and bases his testimony
partly on his own experience in the Holy Mount (apparently
a reference to the Transfiguration), and partly on the " word
of prophecy " (i. 12-21). (3) The mention of prophecy leads
him to deal with the question of false prophets, who are accused
of false doctrine and immoral practices. In this section is
incorporated almost the whole of the epistle of Jude (ii. 1-22).
(4) He then discusses a special feature of the false teaching,
viz. doubts thrown on the Parousia, the certainty of which
for the future he defends (iii. 1-13). Finally he warns his
hearers that they must be found spotless at the Parousia,
and emphasizes the agreement of his teaching with St Paul's
(iii. 14-18).

The main object of the epistle is to be seen in the attack
made on the false teachers, and in the defence of the certainty
of the Parousia of the Lord.

Authorship. — The traditional view is that it was written by
St Peter from Rome after i Peter. This view is however
untenable for the following reasons, (i) The epistle is not
quoted by any writer of the 2nd century, and Origen, who is
the first to mention it as Petrine, admits that its authorship was
disputed. (2) The style and language differ greatly from that
of i Peter: this argument may however fairly be met by the
suggestion that it is improbable that he wrote Greek with ease,
and that he may have used a variety of amanuenses. (3) The
growth of immorality and false teaching to which it witnesses
seems irreconcilable with a very primitive period of church life.

(4) It has incorporated the greater part of Jude in a whole-
sale manner difficult to reconcile with apostolical authorship.

(5) It seems to attribute a position of scriptural authority to
the Pauline epistles, and this is improbable either in the mouth
of Peter, or during the ist century.

Any one of these arguments would be weighty by itself; in
combination they form an irresistible cumulative argument
against the Petrine authorship of 2 Peter.

Date. — If the Petrine authorship be abandoned, the terminus
ad quern of the epistle is its use by Origen (or, just possibly, by
Clement of Alexandria), and the terminus a quo is fixed by the
following considerations: (i) the activity of an immoral
Gnosticism; (2) the attainment by the Pauline epistles of great
authority, and their perversion by heretics; (3) the use made
of the epistle of Jude.

It is difficult to define the exact date to which these indications
point, but there is a general agreement that it must be sought
in the 2nd century, and perhaps the decades immediately before
and after the year A.D. 150 are the most probable.

Place of Origin. — There is hardly any evidence on this point :
but the most probable place seems to be Egypt, as the letter has
points of connexion with Philo, Clement of Alexandria and the
Apocalypse of Peter, and seems first to have been used in the
church of Alexandria. It should however be noted that Deiss-
mann argues on lexical grounds in favour of Asia Minor (Bibel
Stud. pp. 277-284).

Relation to other Early Christian Documents. — The documents
with which 2 Peter has the greatest affinities are the epistle
of Jude, and the Apocalypse of Peter, of which a fragment was
found in Akhmim in 1892 by M Bouriant. In each case the
affinity is very close, and is capable of more than one explanation.
Roughly speaking 2 Peter ii. reproduces Jude: it is possible
therefore either that Jude is an epitome of 2 Peter or that the
writer of 2 Peter used Jude. The former hypothesis has a few
supporters, notably T. Zahn and Spitta, but most writers are
emphatic in thinking that 2 Peter has incorporated Jude, and
this view is almost certainly correct (see JUDE, EPISTLE OF).
The connexion with the Apocalypse of Peter is more complicated:
the evidence of a comparison between the two documents (which
is made in full in F. H. Chase's article in Hastings's Dictionary
of the Bible) is to show that either one document is dependent
on the other, or both were written by the same person, or both
come from the same circle. Of these theories there is least to
be said for the dependence of the Apocalypse on 2 Peter, and
perhaps most for the dependence of 2 Peter on the Apocalypse.

Reception in the Canon. — 2 Peter was the last of the Catholic
epistles to be accepted as canonical. It was first regarded as
such in Alexandria, perhaps originally in connexion with the
Apocalypse of Peter rather than with i Peter. Thence it passed
into the canon used by the church of Constantinople, in the 4th
century made its way into the Roman canon, and in the 6th was
accepted last of all by the Syria church (see also BIBLE: New
Testament Canon).

The Theology of 2 Peter. — The theology of the epistle is specially
marked by two characteristics — its high Christology and its eschato-
logical character. Christ is referred to as " our God and Saviour,"
and the fatherhood of God is apparently only regarded as referring
to the Divine Son. The work of Christ was the redemption of
the elect, and this redemption awaits its consummation in the
Parousia. This is the central point of the teaching of the epistle
and is obviously directed against that of the false prophets. The
writer looks forward to the destruction of the present world by fire,

PETERBOROUGH

297

when the wicked, whether angels or men, who have been reserved
for judgment will be finally condemned, and a new era of happiness
for the elect will begin.

Church Organization. — There is very little in 2 Peter which throws
light on church organization. From his silence it would appear that
the monarchial episcopacy did not yet exist in the church to which
the writer belonged, and perhaps the prophets were still the chief
guides, but the argument from silence cannot be pressed. In any
case the growth of false and immoral prophets, which ultimately
led to the obsolescence and suppression of this order, was far advanced
and was one of the reasons which led to the writing of the epistle.

AUTHORITIES. — Besides the books and articles already mentioned
the following are important: F. H. Chase, " Peter " and " Epistles
of Peter" in Hastings's Diet. Bible; P. W. Schmiedel, "Simon
Peter " in the Ency. Bib.; Lightfoot, 5. Clement of Rome, I, 201-315
and II, 481-502; Harnack, Altchr. Lift, and Chronologic I (the rele-
vant sections). The relevant sections in the Introductions of
Holtzmann, T. Zahn, Jiilicher, Salmon, Weiss and Moffat. The
commentaries of Bigg, Mayor, F. Spitta, Ktihl (in Meyer's Commen-
tary), von Soden (in Holtzmann's Commentary), and Weiss.

(K. L.)

PETERBOROUGH, a town and port of entry of Ontario,
Canada, and capital of Peterborough county, situated 70 m.
N.E. of Toronto, on the Otonabee river and the Grand Trunk
and Canadian Pacific railways. Pop. (1901), 11,239. The
five falls of the Otonabee at this point, with a total descent
of 50 ft., furnish power for a large and increasing number of
manufacturing establishments, whilst its canalization as part
of the Trent canal gives communication with Lake Ontario and
Georgian Bay. Peterborough has an electric railway, and con-
tains important manufactories of electrical machinery and
supplies, iron and steel bridges, agricultural implements and
cordage, saw, flour and woollen mills.

PETERBOROUGH, a city and municipal and parliamentary
borough of Northamptonshire, England, 76 m. N. from London
by the Great Northern railway; served also by the London &
North Western, Great Eastern and Midland railways. Pop.
(1891), 25,171; (1901), 30,872. It is built chiefly along the
river Nene, on the north side, and on the western border of the
Fen country.

The cathedral of St Peter is the third church that has occupied
the site; the first, founded under Penda, king of the Mercians,
about 656, was entirely destroyed by the Danes in 870, and the
second, founded in King Edgar's reign, was accidentally burnt
in 1 1 1 6. The present building, founded in the following year,
was, inclusive of the west front, 120 years in building, being
consecrated on the 4th of October 1237. It embraces in all,
however, eight periods of construction, and in no other building
can the transition be better studied through the various grades
of Norman to Early English, while the later addition is an
admirable example of Perpendicular.

The erection proceeded as usual from east to west, and, while
an increase in elegance and elaboration is observable in the later
parts, the character of the earlier buildings was so carefully kept in
mind that no sense of incongruity is produced. A series of uniform
Decorated windows were added throughout the church in the I4th
century, and their effect is rather to enhance than detract from the
unity of design. The choir, early Norman, terminating in an apse,
was founded in 1117 or 1118 by John de Sais or Sez, and dedicated
in 1140 or 1143; the aisles of both transepts and the whole of the
south transept were built by Martin of Bee, 1 140-1 155 ; the remaining
portions of the transepts and the central tower, of three stories, were
completed by William de Waterville, 1155-1175; the nave, late
Norman, was completed by Abbot Benedict, 1177-1193, who added
a beautiful painted roof of wood ; the western transepts, transitional
Norman, were the work of Abbot Andrew, 1193-1200; the western
front, actually a vast portico of three arches, the unique feature of
the building, and one of the finest specimens of Early English
extant, must have been built between 1200 and 1250, during which
period there were several abbots; but there exists no record of its
reconstruction. The lady chapel, built parallel with the choir by
William Parys, prior, was consecrated in 1290; the bell-tower was
erected by Abbot Richard between 1260 and 1274; the south-west
spire, the pinnacles of the flanking tower of the west portal, and the
enlargement of the windows of the nave and aisles were the work
of Henry de Morcot in the beginning of the I4th century; the " new
building " or eastern chapel in the Perpendicular style, begun in
1438, was not completed till 1528. In 1541 the church was converted
into a cathedral, the abbot being made the first bishop. The
extreme length of the building is 471 ft., and of the nave 211 ft.,
the breadth of the west front being 156; the height of the central
tower, as reconstructed in the I4th century, was 150, that of the

spires and tower of the west front is 156 ft. In 1643 the building
was defaced by the soldiers of Cromwell, who destroyed nearly all
the brasses and monuments, burnt the ancient records, levelled the
altar and screen, defaced the windows, and demolished the cloisters.
To obtain materials for repairs the lady chapel was taken down.
In the latter part of the l8th century the church was repaved.
In 1831 a throne, stalls and choir-screen were erected and other
restorations completed. On account of the insecure state of the
central tower in 1883 it was taken down; and its reconstruction,
exactly as it stood with the exception of the four corner turrets
added early in the igth century, was completed in 1886. The choir
was reopened in 1889 after being closed, for thorough restoration,
for six years.

In 1895 the restoration of the west front and other parts was begun
in the face of considerable adverse criticism; but the work was
carried on with the utmost care. During the carrying out of this
work many interesting discoveries were made, the most important
being the site of the cruciform Saxon church, enclosed within a crypt
under the south transept. Catherine of Aragon was interred in the
cathedral in 1536, and Mary Queen of Scots in 1587, but the body of
the Scottish queen was removed to Westminster Abbey in 1612.
Both interments were superintended by Robert Scarlett the sexton,
commonly known as " Old Scarlett," whose portrait, a copy of the
original, hangs in the west transept. He died in 1594 at the age of
98. Of the monastic buildings there are some interesting remains.
The cathedral is approached by a Norman gateway, above which
is the chapel of St Nicholas, built by Abbot Benedict, and now used
as the music school, and on the left the chapel of St Thomas
a Becket, built by Abbot Ashton in the I5th century as it stands,
but originally Norman. The gateway to the bishop s palace, for-
merly the abbot's house, was built by Abbot Godfrey de Croyland
in 1319, and the deanery gate by Abbot Kirton about 1520. One of
the canonry houses is formed partly from a hall of the I3th century.

Peterborough is included for civil purposes in the parish of St
John the Baptist, but for ecclesiastical purposes it is divided into
four, the additional parishes being St Mary's Boongate (1857),
St Mark's (1858) and St Paul's (1869). The old parish church
of St John originally stood to the east of the cathedral, but was
rebuilt on its present site in the centre of the city (1401-1407)
in Perpendicular style. The educational establishments include
the Henry VIII. grammar or chapter school, which used the
chapel of St Thomas a Becket until 1885; the St Peter's training
college for schoolmasters for the dioceses of Peterborough, Ely
and Lincoln, erected from designs of Sir Gilbert Scott (1864);
and Deacon's and Ireland's charity school, established in 1721
for the clothing and educating of twenty poor boys. The
principal public building is the market house (1671), used as a
town-hall. The modern prosperity and rapid growth of the
town are chiefly due to the trade caused by the junction of so
many railway lines. Adjoining the town are extensive works
and sheds connected with the Great Northern and Midland
railways. The principal manufacture is that of agricultural
implements. The parliamentary borough returns one member
(since 1885). The municipal borough, incorporated in 1874,
is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 1878
acres. The soke or liberty of Peterborough, with a population
of 41,122, constitutes a separate administrative county (1888).
The diocese of Peterborough includes the whole of Rutland,
nearly all Leicestershire and Northamptonshire, and small
portions of Derbyshire and Huntingdonshire.

Peterborough (Burgh, Burgus sancti Petri) is proved by its
original name Medehamstede to have been a Saxon village
before 655 when Saxulf, a monk, founded the monastery on
land granted to him for that purpose by Penda, king of Mercia.
Its name was altered to Burgh between 992 and 1005 after
Abbot Kenulf had made a wall round the minister, but the town
does not appear to have been a borough until the I2th century.
The burgesses received their first charter from " Abbot Robert,"
probably Robert of Sutton (1262-1273). Until the igth century
the dean and chapter, who succeeded the abbot as lords of the
manor, appointed a high bailiff, and the constables and other
borough officers were elected at their court leet, but the borough
was incorporated in 1874 under the government of a mayor,
6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Among the privileges claimed
by the abbot as early as the I3th century was that of having
a prison for felons taken in the soke and borough. In 1576
Bishop Scamble sold the lordship of the hundred of Nassaburgh,
which is coextensive with the soke, to Queen Elizabeth, who

298

PETERBOROUGH AND MONMOUTH, EARL OF

gave it to Lord Burghley, and from that time until the igth
century he and his descendants, marquesses of Exeter, had a
separate gaol in Peterborough for prisoners arrested in the soke.
The trades of weaving and woolcombing were carried on in
Peterborough in the I4th century. The abbot formerly held
four fairs, of which two, one called St Peter's fair, granted in
1189 and now held on the second Tuesday and Wednesday in
July, and the other called the Bridge fair, granted in 1439 and
held on the first Tuesday, Wednesday and Thursday in October,
still survive and were purchased by the corporation from the
ecclesiastical commissioners in 1876. Peterborough sent two
members to parliament for the first time in 1547.

PETERBOROUGH AND MONMOUTH, CHARLES MOR-
DAUNT, EASL OF (c. 1658-1735), English soldier and statesman,
was born about 1658. His father, John Mordaunt, was created
Viscount Mordaunt of Avalon and Baron Mordaunt of Reigate,
Surrey, in 1659^ his mother was Elizabeth, the daughter and sole
heiress of Thomas Carey, the second son of Robert Carey, ist
earl of Monmouth.2 He matriculated at Christ Church, Oxford,
on the nth of April 1674. When about sixteen years of age
he joined Sir John Narborough's fleet in the Mediterranean, and
won his first distinction in arms in the destruction of the dey's
fleet under the very guns of Tripoli. His father died on the 5th
of June 1675, and Charles Mordaunt succeeded to the peerage
as Viscount Mordaunt. On his return from the second expedi-
tion to Tangier he plunged into active political life as a zealous
Whig and an unswerving opponent of the duke of York. But
his continued hostility to James II. forced him to repair to
Holland in 1686, when he proposed to William of Orange to
invade England. The disposition of the cold and cautious
William had little in common with the fierce and turbulent
Mordaunt. His plan was rejected, though the prudent prince
of Orange deemed it judicious to retain his services. When
William sailed to Torbay his friend accompanied him, and when
the Dutch prince was safely established on the throne of England
honours without stint were showered upon Lord Mordaunt.
He was sworn of the privy council on the I4th of February
1689, on the 8th of April of the same year appointed first lord
of the treasury, and a day later advanced in the peerage by
creation as earl of Monmouth.

In less than a year he was out of the treasury, but he still
remained by the person of his monarch and was with him in
his dangerous passage to Holland in January 1691. He was
one of the eighteen peers who signed the protest against the
rejection, on the 7th of December 1692, of the motion for the
appointment of a committee to inquire into the conduct of the
war, and although William had refused his consent to a bill for
triennial parliaments in the previous session, Lord Monmouth
did not shrink from reintroducing it in December 1693. This
led to a disagreement with the court, though the final breach
did not take place until January 1697, when Monmouth was
accused of complicity in Sir John Fenwick's conspiracy and
of the use of " undutiful words " towards the king. He was
committed to the Tower, staying in confinement until the 3Oth
of March 1697, and deprived of his employments. Some
consolation for these troubles came to him on the igth of June
of the same year, when he succeeded to the earldom of Peter-
borough, by the death of his uncle Henry Mordaunt, 2nd earl.

The four years after his release from the Tower were mainly
passed in retirement, but on the accession of Anne he plunged
into political life again with avidity. His first act was to draw
down on himself in February 1702 the censure of the House of
Commons for the part which he took in the attempt to secure
the return of his nominee for the borough of Malmesbury.
Through the fear of the ministry that his restless spirit would
drive him into opposition to its measures if he stayed at home,
he was appointed early in 1705 to command an expedition of

1 A barony of Mordaunt by writ had existed in the family since
1529, and the viscount was the second son of the fifth of these
barons, who in 1628 was created earl of Peterborough, the elder son
Henry being second earl.

1 Cr. 1626. This peerage became extinct in 1661 on the death
of the 2nd earl.

English and Dutch troops in Spain. He was created the sole
commander of the land forces in April 1705 and joint-commander
with Sir Cloudesley Shovel of the fleet on the ist of May, after
he had been reinstated a member of the privy council on the
2gth of March. He arrived at Lisbon on the 2oth of June 1705,
sailed for Barcelona (Aug. 1705) on an expedition for the
conquest of Catalonia, and began to besiege that town. For
some weeks the operations were not prosecuted with vigour
and Peterborough urged that the fleet should transport the
troops to Italy, but the energetic counsels of the Archduke
Charles at last prevailed and by the I4th of October the city
fell into his hands. On the 24th of January 1706 he entered
Valencia in triumph, but these movements had weakened the
garrison at Barcelona, which was now besieged by a superior
French force under Tesse. The garrison, commanded by the
archduke, defended their positions with great bravery, but
would have been obliged to surrender had not the fleet of Sir
John Leake, answering the appeals of Charles but contrary to
the original orders of Peterborough, come to their assistance
on the 8th of May, whereupon the French raised the siege on
the nth of May. It is difficult to understand the action of
Peterborough during this campaign, unless on the supposition
that he was out of sympathy with the movement for placing an
Austrian prince on the throne of Spain. When Charles deter-
mined upon uniting with Lord Galway's troops and marching
to Madrid, the advice of Peterborough again hindered his progress.
At first he urged an advance by Valencia as supplies had there
been collected, then he withdrew this statement; afterwards
he delayed for some weeks to join Galway, who was in need of
succour, but ultimately reached the camp on the 6th of August.
The leaders of the army differed in their views, and Lord
Peterborough was recalled to England to explain his conduct
(March 1707).

On his return to England in August he allied himself with the
Tories, and received his reward in being contrasted, much to
his advantage, with the Whig victor of Blenheim and Malplaquet.
The differences between the three peers, Peterborough, Galway
and Tyrawley, who had served in Spain, formed the subject
of angry debates in the Lords, when the majority declared for
Peterborough; after some fiery speeches the resolution that he
had performed many great and eminent services was carried,
and votes of thanks were passed to him without any division
(January and February 1708). His new friends were not
desirous of detaining him long on English soil, and they
sent him on a mission to Vienna, where he characteristically
engaged the ministry in pledges of which they disapproved.
His resentment at this disagreement was softened by the com-
mand of a cavalry regiment, and by his appointment as a Knight
of the Garter (Aug. 3 and 4, 1713). With the accession
of George I. Lord Peterborough's influence was gone. Worn
out with suffering, he died at Lisbon on the 25th of October
1735. His remains were brought to England, and buried at
Turvey in Bedfordshire on the 2 ist of November.

Lord Peterborough was short in stature and spare in habit of
body. His activity knew no bounds. He was said to have seen
more kings and postilions than any man in Europe, and the
whole point of Swift's lines on " Mordanto " consisted in a
description of the speed with which he hastened from capital
to capital. He was eloquent in debate and intrepid in war, but
his influence in the senate was ruined through his inconsistency,
and his vigour in the field was wasted through his want of union
with his colleagues. His first wife, Carey, daughter of Sir
Alexander Fraser of Dores, Kincardineshire, died on the I3th
of May 1709, and was buried at Turvey. Some years later
(1722) he secretly married Anastasia Robinson (c. 1695-1755), a
famous dramatic singer (from 1714) of great beauty and sweet-
ness of disposition, daughter of Thomas Robinson (d. 1722),
a portrait painter; but she was at first unrecognized as his wife,
and lived apart from him (regarded merely as his mistress)
with her two sisters at Parson's Green. She remained
on the operatic stage, till 1724. It was only a few months
before his death that (after a second marriage ceremony) she

PETERHEAD— PETERS, H.

299

was introduced to society as the countess of Peterborough.
He had a son John (1681-1710) who predeceased him, and was
therefore succeeded in the title by his grandson Charles (1710-
1779), whose son Charles Henry (1758-1814), sth earl, died
unmarried, the honours becoming extinct, except for the
barony of Mordaunt, which passed to a collateral branch and
fell into abeyance in 1836.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The best accounts of the career of Peterborough
are in the life by William Stebbing (1890), and the War of the
Succession in Spain, by Colonel the Hon. Arthur Parnell (1905).
The earlier lives are founded on the memoir of Captain George
Carleton (1728), which was analysed by Colonel Parnell, and dis-
missed as a fictitious narrative inspired by Swift, in the Eng. Hist.
Rev. (1891), vi. 97-151). (W. P. C.)

PETERHEAD, a municipal and police burgh, and seaport of
Aberdeenshire, the most easterly town in Scotland. Pop.
(1901), 11,794. It is situated about 33 m. by road E.N.E. of
Aberdeen and 44! m. by rail, via Maud Junction, on the Great
North of Scotland railway, from which there is a branch line.
The town is built of the red granite for which it is famous, and
the quarrying of which for home and foreign use constitutes
an important industry. Among the principal buildings are the
town-house (1788), with a spire 125 ft. high, and the Arbuthnot
museum and art gallery. In front of the town-hall is a statue to
Field Marshal Keith (born at Inverugie Castle, 2 m. north-west,
in 1696), which was presented to the burgh in 1868 by William I.
of Prussia, afterwards German emperor. Peterhead is one
of the Elgin district group of parliamentary burghs, with Banff,
Cullen, Elgin, Inverurie and Kintore. It formerly had an
extensive trade with the ports of the Baltic, the Levant and
America, and was once a sub-port to Aberdeen, but was made
independent in 1832. It was also for a long period the chief
seat of the Greenland trade, but the Arctic seal and whale
fishery is now extinct. The north and south harbours lie
between the town and Keith Inch — a suburb at the extremity
of the peninsula on part of which the town is built — and the
isthmus dividing them is pierced by a canal crossed by an iron
swing-bridge. In the north harbour are two graving docks. A
third harbour has been built, the area of the three basins
amounting to 21 acres. In addition to the granite quarrying
and polishing, the leading industries are ship- and boat-building,
agricultural implement works and woollen manufactures. The
herring fleet possesses more than 600 boats and the annual
catch averages nearly £200,000. About a mile to the south
is the convict prison for Scotland. Since 1886 the prisoners
have been employed upon the construction of a vast harbour
of refuge, for which the breakwater extends from Boddam
Point northwards across the bay. This great undertaking
(intended to be completed in 1921) was designed by Sir John
Coode (d. 1892). Peterhead is the terminus of a cable to
Norway. About 6 m. south of Peterhead are the famous
Bullers, or Roarers, of Buchan, an enormous rocky cauldron
into which the waves pour through a natural arch of granite,
with incredible violence, in a storm.

The town and lands belonged of old to the Abbey of Deer,
built in the I3th century by William Comyn, earl of Buchan;
but when the abbey was erected into a temporal lordship in the
family of Keith the superiority of the town passed to the earl
marischal, with whom it continued till the forfeiture of the
earldom in 1716. The town and lands were purchased in 1720
by a fishing company in England and, on their failure, by the
Merchant Maidens' Hospital of Edinburgh for £3000, who are
still the overlords. Peterhead, made a burgh of barony in 1593
by George Keith, fifth earl marischal, was the scene of the
landing of the Pretender on Christmas Day 1715.

PETERHOF, a town of Russia, in the government of St
Petersburg, 18 m. W. of the capital, on the south coast of the
Gulf of Finland. It was founded in 1711 and has grown up
round the palace built by Peter the Great in 1720; pop., 11,300.
Peterhof is almost exclusively a residential town, but gem-cutting
and the manufacture of agricultural implements are carried on.
The palace has undergone alterations and additions, e.g. by
Catharine II., but retains a distinct Petrine stamp. It is built

on a height 50 ft. above the sea, and contains portraits of
the Russian imperial family and other pictures. A statue of
Peter the Great was set up near the palace in 1883, and one of
Francis I. of France in 1896, a gift from the town of Havre to
Nicholas II. Peterhof is connected with Oranienbaum on the
west and with Stryelna on the east by series of gardens and
villas.

PETERMANN, AUGUST HEINRICH (1822-1878), German
cartographer, was born at Bleicherode, near Nordhausen, on
the i8th of April 1822. At the age of seventeen he entered the
Geographical School of Art in Potsdam, and in 1845 proceeded
to Edinburgh to assist Dr Keith Johnston in the production
of an English edition of the Physical Atlas of Berghaus. In
1847 he came to London, and published among other works,
an account of Earth's expedition to Central Africa (1855).
In 1854 he became director of the geographical institute of
Justus Perthes in Gotha, and editor of the well-known Petermanns
Mitteilungen. His work did much towards elucidating the
geography of the interior of Africa and of the North Polar
regions. Queen Victoria, at the suggestion of Bunsen, appointed
him physical geographer-royal. Petermann died by his own
hand at Gotha on the 25th of September 1878.

PETERS (or PETER), HUGH (1598-1660), English Independent
divine, son of Thomas Dyckwoode, alias Peters, descended from
a family which had quitted the Netherlands to escape religious
persecution, and of Martha, daughter of John Treffry of Treffry
in Cornwall, was baptized on the 29th of June 1598, and was
educated at Trinity College, Cambridge. Having experienced
conversion, he preached in Essex; returning to London he took
Anglican orders and was appointed lecturer at St Sepulchre's.
He entertained, however, unorthodox opinions, and eventually
left England for Holland. He visited Gustavus Adolphus in
Germany about 1632, and afterwards became the minister of
the English church at Rotterdam. Here his unorthodox
leanings again attracted attention, and Peters made a further
move to New England. He was connected with John Winthrop
through his wife, and had already formed several friendships
with the American colonists. He arrived at Boston in October
1635 and was given charge of the church at Salem. He took a
leading part in the affairs of the colony, and interested himself
in the founding of the new colony in Connecticut. In 1641 he
returned to England as agent of the colony, but soon became
involved in the political troubles which now began. He became
chaplain to the forces of the adventurers in Ireland, and served in
1642 in Lord Forbes's expedition, of which he wrote an account.
On his return he took a violent part in the campaign against
Laud, and defended the doctrines of the Independents in a
preface to a tract by Richard Mather entitled " Church Govern-
ment and Church Covenant discussed . . ." (1643). He gained
great reputation as a preacher by his discourses and exhorta-
tions at public executions, and as army chaplain. In the latter
capacity he accompanied Lord Warwick's naval expedition to
Lyme in 1644 and Fairfax's campaigns of 1645 ano" 1646, when
his eloquence is said to have had a marvellous effect in inspiring
the soldiers and winning over the people. At the conclusion
of the war, Peters, though greatly disliked by the Presbyterians
and the Scots, had attained great influence as leader of the
Independents. In his pamphlet " Last Report of the English
Wars " (1646) he urged religious toleration, an alliance with
foreign Protestants, and an active propagation of the gospel.
In the dispute between the army and the parliament he naturally
took the side of the former, and after the seizure of the king by
the army in June 1647 had interviews with Charles at Newmarket
and Windsor, in which he favourably impressed the latter, and
gave advice upon the best course to pursue. He performed
useful services in the second Civil War, procured guns for the
besiegers at Pembroke, raised troops in the midlands, and
arranged the surrender of the duke of Hamilton at Uttoxeter.
Though at the Restoration he denied any complicity in the
king's death, it is certain that in his sermons he justified and
supported the trial and sentence. In August he accompanied
Cromwell to Ireland, and was present at the fall of Wexford,

300

while later he assisted the campaign by superintending from
England the despatch to Cromwell of supplies and reinforce-
ments, and was himself destined by Cromwell for a regiment
of foot. In 1650 he was in South Wales, endeavouring to bring
over the people to the cause, and subsequently was present at
the battle of Worcester. At the conclusion of the war Peters
was appointed one of the preachers at Whitehall and became a
person of influence. Parliament had already voted him an
annuity of £200, and Laud's library or a portion of it had been
handed over to him in 1644. He was one of the committee of
twenty-one appointed to suggest legal reforms, and he published
his ideas on this subject, which included a register of wills and
land titles and the destruction afterwards of the ancient records,
in his tract, " Good Work for a Good Magistrate " (in 1651),
answered by R. Vaughan and Prynne. He strongly disapproved
of the war with Holland, and his interference brought upon
him some sharp reprimands. In July 1658 he was sent to
Dunkirk to provide apparently for the spiritual wants of the
garrison. He preached the funeral sermon on Cromwell, and
after the latter's death took little part in political events,
though strongly disapproving of the removal of Richard. He
met Monck at St Albans on the latter's march to London, but
met with no favour from the new powers, being expelled from
his lodgings at Whitehall in January 1660. On the nth of
May his arrest was ordered. On the i8th of June he was ex-
cepted from the Act of Indemnity and apprehended on the 2nd
of September at Southwark. He sent in a defence of himself
to the Lords, denying any share in the king's death. He was,
however, tried on the i3th of October and found guilty of high
treason. His execution took place at Charing Cross on the i6th
of October, when he behaved with great fortitude, and was
undismayed by the mangling of the body of John Cook, his
fellow sufferer, upon which he was forced to look. Before his
death he wrote " A Dying Father's Last Legacy " to his only
child, Elizabeth, in which he gave a narrative of his career.

His death was viewed with greater rejoicings than perhaps
attended that of any of the regicides, which is the more sur-
prising as Peters possessed many amiable qualities, and several
acts of kindness performed by him on behalf of individual
Royalists are recorded. But he had incurred great unpopularity
by his unrestrained speech and extreme activity in the cause.
He was a man, however, of a rough, coarse nature, without
tact or refinement, of strong animal spirits, undeterred by
difficulties which beset men of higher mental capacity, whose
energies often outran his discretion, intent upon the realities
of life and the practical side of religion. His conception of
religious controversy, that all differences could be avoided if
ministers could only pray together and live together, is highly
characteristic, and shows the largeness of his personal sym-
pathies and at the same time the limits of his intellectual
imagination. Peters married (i) Elizabeth, daughter of Thomas
Cooke of Pebmarsh in Essex and widow of Edmund Read,
and (2) Deliverance Sheffield, by whom he had one daughter,
Elizabeth.

PETERS, KARL (1856- ), German traveller in Africa,
one of the founders of German East Africa, was born at Neuhaus
on the Elbe on the 2yth of September 1856, the son of a Lutheran
clergyman. He studied at Gottingen, Tubingen and Berlin,
and in 1879 was awarded a gold medal by the Berlin University
for his Frieden zu Venedig. After visiting London to study
English principles of colonization, he returned to Berlin and
promoted the German Colonization Society (Deutsche Kolonial-
verein). In the autumn of 1884 he proceeded with two com-
panions to East Africa, and concluded in the name of his society
treaties with the chiefs of Useguha, Nguru, Usagara and Ukami.
Returning to Europe early in 1885, he formed the German East
Africa Company, which speedily obtained an imperial charter.
The story of this enterprise, the first step in the formation of a
German colony in East Africa, is told under AFRICA, § 5. In
1888 Peters undertook an expedition from the east coast of
Africa, avowedly for the relief of Emin Pasha. This expedition
was not sanctioned by the German government and was regarded

PETERS, K.— PETERSBURG

by the British authorities as a filibustering exploit. One of its
objects was to extend the sphere of German influence, and, reach- '
ing Uganda early in 1890, Peters concluded a treaty with the king
of that country in favour of Germany. He left Uganda hastily
on the approach of a representative of the British East Africa
Company, and on reaching Zanzibar learned that his treaty was
useless, as an agreement had been come to between Germany
and Great Britain whereby Uganda was left in the British sphere.
On his return to Germany Peters was received with great honours,
and in 1891 published an account of his expedition entitled
Die deutsche Emin Pasha Expedition, which was translated
into English. In 1891 he went out again to East Africa as
imperial high commissioner for the Kilimanjaro district, and
in 1892 was one of the commissioners for delimiting the Anglo-
German boundary in that region. In June 1892 accusations
were brought against him of excesses in his treatment of the
natives, and after three investigations had been held he was,
in 1897, deprived of his commission for " misuse of official
power." (He was regranted his title of imperial commissioner
in 1906.) During 1893-1895 Peters was employed in the colonial
office at Berlin. In 1896 he removed to London, where he
occupied himself in schemes for exploiting parts of Rhodesia
and Portuguese East Africa. In the interests of a company he
formed, Peters explored the Fura district and Macombe's
country on the Zambezi, where in 1899 he discovered ruins of
ancient cities and deserted gold mines. He returned in 1901
and gave an account of his explorations in The Eldorado of the
Ancients (1902). In 1905 he again visited the region between
the Zambezi and Sabi rivers.

Besides the books already mentioned and some smaller treatises
Peters published a philosophic work entitled Willenswelt und Welt-
•witte (1883), and a disquisition on early gold production entitled
Das goldene Ophir Salomos (1895), translated into English in 1898.

PETERSBURG, a city and port of entry of Virginia, U.S.A.,
on the Appomattox river, at the head of navigation, about
n m. from its mouth, and 22 m. S. of Richmond. Pop. (1890),
22,680; (1900), 21,810, (10,751 negroes); (1910), 24,127. It is
served by the Atlantic Coast Line, the Seaboard Air Line and the
Norfolk & Western railways. The river, which is here spanned
by two steel bridges and one frame bridge, is navigable to this
point for vessels of 8 ft. draught at mean high water, and has been
greatly improved by the Federal government, which in 1909
was engaged in deepening the whole channel to 12 ft. at mean
high water and in excavating at Petersburg a new channel into
which to deflect the river. In and about the city there is much
of historic and scenic interest. At Blandford, a suburban
hamlet, is the picturesque old Blandford church, erected about
1734. Petersburg has two public parks, and among its institu-
tions are a home for the sick (1886), an orphanage for girls and
another for negroes, the state central hospital for the insane
(negroes), the southern female college (non-sectarian, 1863),
the university school for boys, the Bishop Payne divinity
school (Protestant Episcopal) for negroes, and the Virginia
normal and industrial institute (opened in 1883), also for
negroes. There are two national cemeteries near Petersburg —
Poplar Grove (about 4 m. south), containing about 6200 graves,
and City Point (about 9 m. east), containing about 5100 graves;
and in Blandford cemetery there are about 30,000 graves of
Confederate dead. In this cemetery General William Phillips is
buried, and there is a monument to Captain McRae, commander
of the " Petersburg Volunteers," whose bravery in 1812-1813
prompted President Madison to call Petersburg the " Cockade
City." The falls above the city furnish abundant water-power,
and the city has various manufactures. The factory product
was valued at $5,890,574 in 1905, 11-3% more than in 1900;
in both 1900 and 1905 Petersburg ranked fourth among the
cities of the state in the value of factory products. From
Petersburg are shipped quantities of trunks and bags, peanuts,
tobacco and cotton. In 1909 the foreign trade, wholly imports,
was valued at $360,774. The city was formerly in Chesterfield,
Dinwiddie and Prince George counties, but is now independent
of county government.

PETERSBURG

301

An Indian village formerly stood on or near the site of the
present city, and Fort Henry was built here by the whites in
1645. Petersburg was founded in 1733 by Colonel William
Byrd (1674-1744) and Peter Jones, and was named (first Peter's
Point, and then Petersburg) in honour of the latter; in 1748 it
was incorporated as a town. On the 25th of April 1781 a
skirmish was fought in front of Petersburg between a British
force of about 3000 under General William Phillips (i73i?-i78i)
and about one-third of that number of American militia under
Baron Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben; the Ameiicans were
defeated, and the British occupied the town. In the following
month the British again entered Petersburg (General Phillips
dying here on the i3th), but they were soon dislodged by
Lafayette who shelled the town. General Winfield Scott was
born near Petersburg, and practised law here for two years
before he entered the army. Petersburg was chartered as a city
in 1850.

PETERSBURG CAMPAIGN (1864-65). The name of Peters-
burg is associated with operations in the American Civil War,
which formed the sequel of the Wilderness Campaign (q.v.)
and the last act in the struggle between the armies of Grant
and Lee for supremacy. Petersburg (see above) and Richmond,
Virginia, connected by rail and covered north, east and south by
forty miles of entrenchments, formed the salients of a vast
fortress, into which reinforcements and supplies could be poured
from the rear by means of the James Canal, the Virginia Central,
the Lynchburg, the Danville and the Weldon railroads — the
latter bringing up to Petersburg from Wilmington (225 m.
distant) the cargoes of blockade runners. Petersburg became
a strategic point as soon as Grant determined to carry the army
of the Potomac — defeated at Cold Harbor on the Chicka-
hominy (see WILDERNESS CAMPAIGN) — south of Richmond,
and, being joined by Butler's Army of the James (momentarily
checked in the Bermuda Hundred Peninsula by a small army
under Beauregard), to operate from the east, depending on
the James river, as his line of supply, while the policy of the
Confederate president was to employ Robert E. Lee's army to
protect his capital. Petersburg was nearer than Richmond
to the navigable part of the James River — City Point is only
10 m. distant — and the capture of Petersburg would involve
the fall of Richmond and the capitulation or flight of Lee's
army.

As early as the pth of June 1864, while the main armies were
still north of the James and Petersburg was garrisoned by a
brigade under General Wise, a Federal expedition from the Army
of the James approached the city. General Gillmore on the
City Point road discovered strong earthworks, and General
Kautz attacking on the Jerusalem Plank road experienced a
repulse: the total force of the Federals was 4500, and Wise's
brigade (2400) had been quickly reinforced from Beauregard's
central position at Bermuda Hundred. A week later a more
serious attempt was made to break through the defences, while
General Lee's main army was detained north of Richmond.
Grant detached the II. and XVIII. corps under Generals Smith
and Hancock, who were to unite and operate along the City Point
railroad and capture the outer line of works about 2 m. from
Petersburg while a demonstration was made along the Norfolk
railroad by cavalry under Kautz. On the 15th of June Smith
attacked and captured five redans before Hancock came up, and
when next day Burnside's corps (IX.) arrived and General
Meade assumed control of the three corps, he attacked again at
6 p.m. On the i7th of June Warren's (V.) corps arrived, and
Meade made a third assault with two corps (V., IX.). On the
i8th of June the attack was renewed with three corps (II., V.,
IX.) late in the afternoon, and the results of the four days'
fighting were so far satisfactory that ground was won which
could be entrenched and held against any sortie of the
Petersburg garrison. Probably on the i8th of June the town of
Petersburg might have been captured by Meade, for at this crisis
General Lee was in temporary eclipse. For four days Lee had
refused to credit any report to the effect that Grant was crossing
the James: his cavalry could not ascertain that the enemy in his

front at Malvern Hill (VI. corps and Wilson's cavalry division),
despite its menacing attitude towards Richmond, was only a
flank guard for a movement to the south.

It was late on the i7th of June when General Beauregard, who
had for three days valiantly held his main lines south of Richmond
with some 14,000 infantry against three Federal corps, succeeded
in convincing General Lee that the main army was again (as
in 1862 on the Chickahominy) in the wrong place at the wrong
time. But when at last the Confederate leader was aroused
to a sense of his danger he soon filled every road with divisions
marching to save Petersburg: they marched all night; they slept
in the trenches on arrival, and on the igth of June these rein-
forcements convincedGeneralMeade that his main attack between
the Appomattox river and the Jerusalem Plank noad was
delivered a day too late. At a cost of 10,000 casualties Meade
had gained half a mile of ground, but the Confederates in falling
•back had concentrated, and now that the new plan of operations
was exposed and the main bodies were again face to face the
power of defensive tactics reasserted itself.

Yet June was not to close without adding some 8000 men to
the Federal casualties, for in addition to daily losses by sharp-
shooting along the front, over 5000 men fell or were captured in
operations directed against the southern railroads. Grant had
resolved to deprive his enemy of these lines of supply: his plan
was to prolong his line of investment westward and construct
redoubts (such as Fort Davis, Fort Steadman and Fort Sedgwick)
as a continual menace to the Confederate garrison and a defence
against sorties, while his cavalry and portions of five corps
(II., V., VI., IX. and XVIII.) engaged in enterprises which it
was hoped would tempt General Lee to fight outside his works.
A decisive victory in the field, a successful assault on the defences
between Richmond and Petersburg, or the complete destruction
of the railroads, would precipitate disaster to the South, and of
these three methods the last would be the surest in its effects.
But such a method was necessarily slow. General Wilson's
cavalry (5500) destroyed 30 m. of the Lynchburg or South Side
railroad, and 30 m. of the Danville railroad, together with
Burkesville Junction and Ream's Station on the Weldon rail-
road; but Wilson was caught by the Confederate cavalry
100 m. from Petersburg and escaped only by destroying his
wagons and limbers and abandoning twelve guns. Even the
Virginia Central railroad could not be held by the Federals
after Sheridan with the main body of the cavalry had been
called back to White House on the Pamunkey to escort a great
convoy.

By the end of June the whole of the rival forces were concen-
trated about the Richmond-Petersburg defences, and General
A. P. Hill had already sallied out on the 2ist of June to drive the
II. corps from the Weldon railroad. Federal policy and Federal
strategy, surmounting the crisis of Cold Harbor, were, however,
at last in unison. Grant had a free hand in respect both of, his
dispositions and his resources in men and money, and had resolved
to use unsparingly the resources placed at his disposal. Early
in July Grant, however, found himself compelled to detach a
corps (VI.) to strengthen the garrison at Washington, for General
Early had frustrated Hunter's attempt against Lynchburg (see
SHENANDOAH VALLEY), driving Hunter into West Virginia, and
then, pushing down the Shenandoah and across the Potomac,
had arrived within a day's march of the Federal capital. This
operation checked Grant's enterprises about Petersburg and
restricted the Federal front to the ground east of the Weldon
railroad.

On the 25th of July Grant resolved to weaken the enemy on
his front by a demonstration north of the James, and accordingly
moved a corps (II.) and two cavalry divisions across the river
to Malvern Hill under cover of Foster's corps (X.). But Lee
possessed the inner line, and the Federal detachment found two
cavalry divisions in its front, and the Richmond defences had
been strengthened by three divisions of infantry. The expedi-
tion then returned to take part in a fresh enterprise, which
ended disastrously to the Federals. A Confederate redan faced
Burnside's IX. corps 100 yds. distant, and this strong work was

302

PETERSBURG

to be destroyed by mining operations. The mine was fired and
produced a crater 150 ft. long, 60 ft. wide and 25 ft. deep, into
which the Federals poured (see FORTIFICATION and SIEGECRAFT).
But the troops could be got no farther before the Confederate
counter-attack was upon them, and Burnside's corps lost 4300
men.

In August Sheridan was detached to operate against General
Early in the Shenandoah Valley, and in order to prevent Lee rein-
forcing Early another demonstration against Richmond was planned.
But Lee again strengthened his left and the result of the fighting was
a loss to the Federals of nearly 3000 men. Meanwhile another attack
on the Weldon railroad by Warren's corps was met by General
A. P. Hill on the 2Oth of August, and the possession of the railroad
cost the Federals 3000 men. A further attempt on this railroad by
Hancock's II. corps and Gregg's cavalry division at a point 3 m.
south of Ream's Station was foiled by A. P. Hill, now aided
by Hampton's two cavalry divisions, and the Federals here lost
2372 men and nine guns. The Confederates therefore still retained
possession of the railroad to a point within one day's hauling by
wagon to Petersburg. During September another Federal enter-
prise north of the James with two corps (X.and XVIII.) resulted in
the capture of Fort Harrison near Chaffin's Bluff, and when General
Lee reinforced his left and counter-attacked his troops were repulsed
with heavy loss. The Federals lost over 2000 men and failed in the
attempt to take Fort Gilmer, Confederate gunboats below Rich-
mond aiding in the defence. While this operation was in progress
on the Confederate left under General Grant's personal supervision
General Lee was apprised of attacks on his extreme right at Peebles
Farm by four divisions, which captured a Confederate redoubt
covering the junction of t\vo routes to the south-west. General
A. P. Hill prevented a further advance of the enehiy by a vigorous
counter-attack which caused Warren and Parke (IX.) a loss of 2000
men, of whom nearly three fourths allowed themselves to be captured ;
for the rants, since the losses of the May battles, had been swamped
with drafted and substitute recruits of poor quality and almost
insignificant training. The Federals had, however, by these opera-
tions pushed their entrenchments beyond the Weldon railroad
westward and established new works within a mile of the Con-
federate right. A minor engagement north of the James on the 7th
of October between the Confederates and troops of the Army of the
James was without result. At the end of the month, however,
General Grant resolved to make a serious effort to bring the South
Side railroad within his lines and deprive the enemy of this important
line of supply. Parke (IX.), Warren (V.) and Hancock (II.) took each
some 1 1 ,000 infantry with four days' rations on pack animals. Gregg's
cavalry (3000) were attached for the operation, and both Grant and
Meade accompanied the troops. General A. P. Hill encountered this
force with three divisions (14,000) and Hampton's cavalry (5500),
and he contrived to hold two corps with one division and attack
Hancock (II.) with his main body. The Federals were stopped
when 6 m. from the railway, and Hancock lost 1500 men at Hatcher's
Run on the 27th of October.

General Lee meanwhile had been called to Chaffin's Bluff, where
again Butler was demonstrating with the Army of the James (X. and
XVIII.) on the approaches to Richmond. But General Lon^street
signalized his return to duty with the Army of Northern Virginia
by driving Butler off with a
loss of over 1000 men (action
of Fair Oaks, Oct. 27). General
Warren in December con-
trived to evade A. P. Hill
and destroy the Weldon rail-
road at a point on the
Meherrin river 40 "m. from
Petersburg.

There seemed now little to
tie Lee to the lines he had so
painfully constructed, for his
army was without coffee, tea
or sugar, and though of foreign
meat they had 3J million
rations and of bread 2 J million
rations in reserve, the troops
lived chiefly on corn-bread.
A. P. Hill on the right held
on from Hatcher's Run to
Fort Gregg, whence Gordon
and Anderson prolonged to
the left as far as the Appo-
mattox River, and Long-
street continued the line
north wards along the Bermuda
front across the James as far
as White Oak Swamp (37 m.
in all). The winter was very
severe, and the continual

trenchiwork and outpost duty overtaxed the patriotism of Lee s
50,000 infantry and stimulated desertion. Supplies were brought
in by wagons, as the rolling stock on the railways was worn, and on
the 5th of February 1865 General Gregg moved out to the Boydton
Plank road to intercept the Confederate convoys. He was sup-
ported by Warren, while Humphreys's (II.) corps connected the
detachment with the left of the Federal entrenchments. Gregg
failed to locate the wagons, and General Lee, hearing of the expedi-
tion, sent out A. P. Hill and Gordon, who drove him back with a loss
of 1500 men. Sheridan, after driving Early from the Valley in
October, destroyed the railways about Staunton, Charlottesville,
Gordonsvillt arid Lynchburg, and even rendered the James Canal
useless as a line of supply.

Grant recalled Sheridan to the main army in March, and at the
end of the month prepared for a turning movement westward with
the object of drawing Lee out of his lines. General Lee had
anticipated such an attempt, and had resolved to abandon his lines
and unite with Johnston in North Carolina, but the roads were not

PETERSBURG

1864-5

Scale, 1:300,000

English Miles
10 ap 30 40

PETERSBURG

303

yet in a state for the movement of artillery and wagons, and it was
to gain time that he now ventured upon a bold offensive stroke —
a night attack upon a strong point in the Federal right called Fort
Stedman — the success of which might cause Grant to call in the
detachments on his left and so facilitate the proposed movement
of the Confederates towards Danville. General Gordon was selected
to conduct the operation and his corps was strongly reinforced for the
occasion. The opposing lines east of Petersburg were only 150 yds.,
and the sentries of each side 50 yds. apart. Gordon's men dashed
across the intervening space at 4.30 a. m. on the 25th March,
surprised the garrison and occupied Fort Stedman, but when day-
light broke and the Federal guns could be brought to bear the
fort was found to be untenable. Parke's corps (IX.) recaptured
the work at a cost of 1000 men, and Gordon fell back, leaving nearly
2000 men in the hands of the Federals. The encounter would have
proved a more desperate one if reinforcements on both sides had
arrived in time, but Gordon had cut the telegraph which connected
Fort Stedman with Grant's headquarters at City Point, and the
Confederate train service broke down and delayed the arrival from
Richmond of reinforcements for Gordon. Meanwhile, 6 m. west-
ward, Humphreys' corps (II.) attacked A. P. Hill's defences and
gained some local success, seizing the Confederate picket line between
the Weldon railroad and the Boydton Plank road, which was at
once occupied and strengthened by the Federals. The Federals

had resolved to attempt. Grant meanwhile had ordered Warren
to support Sheridan in an attack on Pickett at daybreak. Sheridan
advanced on the 1st of April and at 3 p.m. issued his orders for
attack, explaining verbally a diagram he had prepared for the use
of divisional commanders. Pickett held a front of 2 m. with
a division of cavalry on either flank and Rosser's cavalry guarding
the baggage behind Hatcher's Run, and when attacked at 4 p.m.
he was with Rosser i J m. in rear. Before Pickett was made
aware of a battle being in progress his left was destroyed.
General Lee seems to have made no arrangements to support Pickett
in this direction. Pickett's right was defended by w7 H. F. Lee
against the attack of Custer's cavalry division. The position was
finally carried by Sheridan's cavalry under Devin dismounting and
storming the entrenchments frontally, taking three guns and loo
prisoners. Warren's corps claimed to have captured a battery
and 3244 prisoners. Yet Sheridan was dissatisfied with Warren's
conduct of the battle and deprived him of his command. Pickett's
routed brigades were rallied at the South Side railroad and incor-
porated with General Anderson's command. But the Confederates
had lost White Oak road, and unless General Lee was capable of
a vigorous counterstroke on his extreme right it was evident he must
also lose the South Side railroad. Grant, fearing such an enterprise,
at once reinforced Sheridan and ordered Humphreys' corps (II.)
to attack in his front if necessary to prevent Lee moving troops

LEE'S RETREAT

Scale, nyta.

lost 2000 men and the Confederates perhaps twice as many on the
25th of March.

At this time Sherman visited Grant at City Point and proposed to
move at the end of ten days on Burkesville Junction and so cut off
Lee from Danville and Lynchburg; it was while Sherman was pre-
paring for this operation that Grant finished the campaign. Secure
behind his formidable entrenchments, Grant had no fear for his
base on the James river, and transferred large bodies of troops to
his left without Lee's knowledge. Sheridan was instructed on the
29th of March to gain the enemy's right and rear, moving by Din-
widdie Court-House and across Hatcher's Run. But the Confederates
were on the alert ; A. P. Hill extended his right, and Fitzhugh Lee's
cavalry was brought to Sutherland Station. Sheridan had already
encountered the cavalry divisions of W. H.F. Lee and Rpsseron the
south side of Stony Creek. Warren's corps, moving up the
Quaker road, met a force under R. H. Anderson and drove it
back to its works on White Oak road. Sheridan got into a
flat country of dense forest, tangled undergrowth, streams and
swamps, and the soil of clay and sand was impassable for wagons and
guns until he had corduroyed the route. On the 29th of March General
Lee perceived that the object of Grant was to seize the routes south
of the Appomattox river, by which a movement south-west
could be made to unite with Johnston's army, and he endeavoured
to cover these roads, including the South Side railway, without
losing his hold upon his works about Richmond and Petersburg,
but in such a contest it was evident that numbers must prevail.

Sheridan's cavalry had reached Five Forks on the White Oak
road on the 3ist of March, and on his right Humphreys and Warren
(II. and V.) held the Confederates to their works along Hatcher's
Run astride the Boydton Plank road; yet General Lee was able to
concentrate his three cavalry divisions, and supported them by
Pickett's five infantry brigades. Sheridan was attacked and driven
south as far as Dinwiddie Court-House; but Humphreys and
Warren held their ground (action of White Oak Ridge) at a cost
of 2000 men. Pickett and the cavalry fell back-to Five Forks during
the night and hastily entrenched, for he had been ordered by General
Lee to defend this position; since the Boydton Plank road could
no longer be held, the possession of White Oak road and the South
Side railway became necessary for the flank movement which Lee

westward, but Lee made no effort, and so Sheridan was free to,
operate farther in the direction of the enemy's right and rear, while
Humphreys held the enemy in his front. Sheridan remained in-
active for a few days, and Lee hoped still to gain time for the roads
to dry before evacuating his lines and removing his stores and
ammunition by wagons towards Lynchburg.

But a crisis was approaching. Sheridan's success at Five Forks
induced Grant to deliver a general assault on the 2nd of April. The
Confederate lines were bombarded all night, and on the 2nd of April
with Wright's corps (VI.), Grant attacked the weakest part of
Lee's line and broke through, losing noo men in fifteen minutes.
A. P. Hill was killed and his corps broke and was cut off from Peters-
burg. At the same time Parke's corps (IX.), on the right of the VI.,
attacked the eastern front near Fort Stedman but was repulsed by
General Gordon; then Humphreys' corps (II.) on the left attacked
a Confederate division under General Cook and forced it to retreat
to the South Side railroad, where at Sutherland Station a final
attack dispersed it. Wright, supported by General Ord (command-
ing the army of the James), afterwards won the strong redoubts called
Fort Whitworth and Fort Gregg, and thus in a day the Confederate
right had been destroyed from Five Forks to a point some two or
three miles west of the Weldon railroad; 10 m. of works had been
abandoned, and if Grant had been able to press his advantage at
once the campaign must have ended. But Grant was not aware
of the enemy s plight, and so resolved to wait until the morrow
before completing his victory.

Meanwhile Lee perceived that the hour had come at last when
Richmond must fall, and at 3 p.m. he had issued orders for the march
of the remains of his army to Lynchburg via Amelia Court-House,
a march which evidently must partake of the character of a forlorn
hope, hastily planned, ill prepared and undertaken by troops whom
the disasters and hardships of the past six months had weakened
physically and morally. Yet if General Lee had negotiated a peace
on the 2nd of April military history would have lost one of the finest
examples of the strategic pursuit. Lee's proposed movement
involved the transfer of the army and its baggage 100 m. on
bad roads across the front of an enemy, and nothing but mis-
chance could prevent the Federals intercepting Lee's columns by a
shorter route and seizing the South Side railroad, on which supplies

3°4

PETERSFIELD— PETER'S PENCE

were to be forwarded from Lynchburg to meet the retreating army
at Appomattox Station, Pamplin's Station or Farmville Station.
The Appomattox River must be crossed two or three times at its
bends. Various creeks and swamps must be bridged, and the bridges
destroyed after crossing. The wagons must move on separate
roads so as to be covered by the columns during marches and combats
and the infantry were to follow the artillery on the roads. Long-
street, Gordon and Mahone's division from Richmond all crossed
the Appomattox at Goode's Bridge. Ewell from Richmond crossed
the Appomattox by the Danville railroad bridge north of Goode's
Bridge. Anderson commanded the flank guard which moved south
of the Appomattox with Fitzhugh Lee's cavalry. Lee gained a
day's start by moving at 8 p.m., for Grant was making preparations
to attack the entrenchments next day (April 3), but the start
was lost in waiting for President Davis and the government to
escape from Richmond. Sheridan's cavalry'got in touch with Lee's
flank-guard early on the 3rd of April near Namozine Creek, and at
nightfall the Federal advance-guard was at Deep Creek. On the
4th of April Sheridan reached the Danville railroad at Jetersville,
and on the 5th of April, when Lee had halted at Amelia Court-House
on the railroad to get supplies, the Federals had three corps (II., V.,
VI.) in support of Sheridan 8 m. nearer than Lee to Sailor's Creek,
the point where he must again cross the Appomattox.

Interception was now a. fait accompli, though neither side suspected
it. Lee was unaware of the enemy's proximity, and Grant believed
that Lee would remain at Amelia Court-House, but Lee moved west,
crossing Flat Creek at sunset on the 5th of April, to the Lynchburg
railroad (Longstreet, marching all night, reached Rice's Station at
sunrise on the 6th of April), while the Federals moved northwards
on the same day to attack Lee at Amelia Court-House, and on
discovering Lee's evasion the three Federal corps effected a wheel to
the left and advanced on Deatonsville after bridging Flat Creek.
Meanwhile the Federal cavalry under H. E. Davies had located a con-
voy at Painesville, dispersed its escort (Gary's cavalry) and burned
the wagons, but had in turn been attacked by Fitzhugh Lee's cavalry
at Amelia Springs and driven back on the main body at Flat Creek.
Fitzhugh Lee had then marched to join Longstreet at Rice's Station.
The rearguard of Lee's army was Gordon's command, which was at
Amelia Springs after Ewell's command had passed through at
8 a.m. on the 6th of April. Lee's army stretched put for 15 m., and
when its advance-guard was at Rice's Station its rearguard was
still at Amelia Court-House. Rice's Station is 62 m. from Lynch-
burg. Here Longstreet waited all day for Anderson, Ewell and
Gordon to close up, and then at night he moved 8 m. to Farm-
ville Station (68 m. south-west of Richmond), where 80,000 rations
had been railed from Lynchburg ; then Longstreet crossed the Appo-
mattox, and on the 7th of April moved forward towards Lynchburg,
covered by Fitzhugh Lee's cavalry. Meanwhile the remainder of Lee s
army had been practically destroyed within a few miles of the point
where Longstreet had halted. Sheridan's cavalry and two corps
(II., VI.) had caught the commands of Anderson, Ewell and Gordon,
entangled with the trains of the army attempting the passage of
Sailor s Creek; and General Ord would even have attacked Long-
street (whom he had located late at night) had his march been
delayed.

Complete disorganization and demoralization seem to have taken
hold of the Confederates on this fatal day, and General Lee was
once more in eclipse. The Federal cavalry headed the column,
the infantry attacked it, and Ewell became the victim of tactical
envelopment after Anderson had been defeated and Gordon had
failed to save the trains of the army. Surrender or massacre being
the alternatives, Ewell surrendered, and here in fact the career
of the army of Northern Virginia ended, as Grant plainly saw, for
at 5.30 p.m. he addressed a demand to Lee for his capitulation.
But Lee clung to his diminished forces for another 48 hours. Long-
street in crossing at Farmville had burnt the bridges and thus
delayed Ord in pursuit; but Gordon and Mahone, who had crossed
at High Bridge (the railroad bridge), failed to check Humphreys'
corps (II.), and so were compelled to take up a position of defence
on the north bank until darkness enabled them to slip away. General
Lee was with this remnant of the army. Meanwhile Sheridan
with the cavalry and two corps (V., XX IV.) had hastened along the
South Side railroad, seizing the supplies waiting for Lee at Pamplin's
Station, and then moving on another 12 m. to Appomattox Station.
At nightfall he found that he was astride the enemy s line of operation,
which was also his line of supply, and so General Lee would be
compelled to give battle or capitulate on the morrow.

General Lee, quitting Farmville heights on the night of the 7th of
April changed the order of march during the next day, so that Gordon
(8000) was in the van and Longstreet (15,000) furnished the rear-
guard. Ewell's corps was now represented by 300 effectives.
The cavalry still numbered some 1600 sabres. Lee s column was
pursued along the Lynchburg Road by two Federal Corps (II., VI.),
which marched 26 m. in 18} hours, and at midnight halted within
3 m. of Longstreet, who had entrenched near Appomattox Court-
House, facing east and covering the road on which Gordon's corns
and the cavalry was to press forward to Lynchburg at daylight. But
Gordon on the morning of the 9th of April found Sheridan's cavalry
in his front, and in accordance with plans made overnight he com-
menced an attack, driving the Federals back until he encountered

at 10 a.m. two corps of infantry (V., XXIV.) under General Ord,
who had marched 29 m. in order to support Sheridan at the crisis;
and when at the same moment Longstreet was threatened by
Humphreys and Wright (II., VI.) the situation had arisen which
General Lee considered would justify surrender, an event which
had been anticipated on both sides as the result of the fighting
about Farmville on the 6th and 7th of April.

The closing operations from the 29th of March to the 9th of April
were all in favour of the Federals, but, nevertheless, the historian
counts their losses during this period as nearly 10,000 in the five
corps and cavalry which constituted General Grant's field army.
On the gth of April, at the Appomattox Court-House, the two
leaders exchanged formal documents by which 2862 officers and
25,494 enlisted men were paroled, all that remained in the field
of some 55,000 Confederates who were drawing rations on the 2Oth
of February as the army of Northern Virginia. (G. W. R.)

PETERSFIELD, a market town in the Petersfield parlia-
mentary division of Hampshire, England, 55 m. S.W. from
London by the London & South Western railway. Pop. of
urban district (1901), 3265. The church of St Peter retains
some ornate Norman work. The picturesque market-place
contains an equestrian statue ofj William III.

Ecclesiastically a chapelry of Buriton, Petersfield (Peterfelde)
owes its origin as a borough to the charter granted by William,
earl of Gloucester, in the reign of Henry II. and confirmed later
by his widow, Hawise. Petersfield is not mentioned in Domesday,
but it was probably then included in the manor of Mapledurham.
It was a mesne borough possessing by its first charter the
liberties and customs of Winchester together with a merchant
gild. These grants were confirmed by John in 1198 and in
1415 Henry V. in addition freed the burgesses from all tolls.
No charter of incorporation has been found. Gradually
privileges and rights other than those of a mesne borough
were usurped by the mayor and burgesses, but were recovered
by a suit brought against them by Thomas Hanbury, owner of
the borough, in 1611. A mayor continued to be elected until
1885. Petersfield was represented in parliament in 1307. No
return was then made until 1552-1553, from which date two
members were regularly returned. In 1832 the number was
reduced to one, and in 1885 the representation was merged in
that of the county. Three-day fairs at the feasts of St Peter
and St Andrew were granted in 1255. In 1892 the summer
fair then held on the loth of July was abolished. The autumn
fair now held on the 6th of October is for both business and
pleasure. The market, which dates from before 1373, formerly
held on Saturday, is now held on alternate Wednesdays. In
the 1 6th century Petersfield had important cloth and leather
manufactures.

PETER'S PENCE, ROME SCOT, or ROM-FEOH, a tax of a penny
on every hearth, formerly paid annually to the popes; now
represented by a voluntary contribution made by the devout
in Roman Catholic churches. Its date of origin is doubtful.
The first written evidence of it is contained in a letter of Canute
(1031) sent from Rome to the English clergy. At this time it
appears to have been levied on all families possessed of land
worth thirty pence yearly rental, out of which they paid one
penny. Matthew Paris says the tax was instituted by Offa,
king of Mercia (757-796) for the upkeep of the English school
and hostel at Rome. Layamon, however, declares that Ina,
king of Wessex (688-725), was the originator of the idea. At
the Norman Conquest it appears to have fallen into arrears for
a time, for William the Conqueror promised the pope in 1076
that it should be regularly paid. By a bull of Pope Adrian IV.
the tax was extended to Ireland. In 1213 Innocent III. com-
plained that the bishops kept 1000 marks of it, only forwarding
300 to Rome. In 1306 Clement V. exacted a penny from each
household instead of the £201, gs. at which the tax appears to
have been then fixed. The threat of withholding Peter's
pence proved more than once a useful weapon against recalci-
trant popes in the hands of English kings. Thus in 1366 and
for some years after it was refused on the ground of the pope's
obstinacy in withholding his consent to the statute of praemunire.
During the roth century the custom of Peter's pence was intro-
duced into Poland, Prussia and Scandinavia, and in the nth
century Gregory VII. attempted to exact it from France and

PETERWARDEIN— PETIS DE LA CROIX

305

Spain. The tax was fairly regularly paid by the English until
1 534, when it was abolished by Henry VIII.

PETERWARDEIN (Hung. Petenarad, Serv. Petrovaradin),
a royal free town and fortress of Hungary in the county of
Syrmia, Croatia-Slavonia; situated on a promontory formed
by a loop of the Danube, 62 m. N.W. of Belgrade by rail. Pop.
(1900), 5019. It is connected with Neusatz on the opposite
bank by a bridge of boats, a railway bridge and a steam ferry.
The fortifications consist of the upper fortress, on a lofty serpen-
tine rock rising abruptly from the plain on three sides, and of
the lower fortress at the northern base of the rock. The two
fortresses can accommodate a garrison of 10,000 men. In the
lower fortress is the town, with a military hospital, and an
arsenal containing trophies captured from the Turks. Peter-
wardein, the " Gibraltar of Hungary," is believed to represent
the Roman Acumincum, and received its present name from
Peter the Hermit, who here in 1096 marshalled the levies of the
first crusade. It was captured by the Turks in 1526 and retained
by them for 160 years. In 1716 it witnessed a signal defeat
inflicted on the Turks by Prince Eugene. During the revolu-
tionary struggles of 1848-49 the fortress was held by the
insurgents for a short time.

PETHERICK, JOHN (1813-1882), Welsh traveller in East
Central Africa, was born in Glamorganshire, and adopted the
profession of mining engineer. In 1845 he entered the service
of Mehemet Ali, and was employed in examining Upper Egypt,
Nubia, the Red Sea coast and Kordofan in an unsuccessful
search for coal. In 1848 Petherick left the Egyptian service
and established himself at El Obeid, the capital of Kordofan,
as a trader, dealing largely in gum arabic. He was at the same
time made British consular agent for the Sudan. In 1853 he
removed to Khartum and became an ivory trader. He travelled
extensively in the Bahr-el-Ghazal region, then almost unknown,
exploring the Jur, Yalo and other affluents of the Ghazal. In
1858 he penetrated to the Niam-Niam country. His additions
to the knowledge of natural history were considerable, among
his discoveries being the Cobus maria (Mrs Gray's waterbuck)
and the Balaeniceps rex (white-headed stork). Petherick
returned to England in 1859 where he made the acquaintance
of J. H. Speke, then arranging for his expedition to discover
the source of the Nile. While in England Petherick married, and
published an account of his travels. He returned to the Sudan
in 1 86 1, accompanied by his wife and with the rank of consul.
He was entrusted with a mission by the Royal Geographical
Society to convey to Gondokoro relief stores for Captains Speke
and Grant. Petherick got boats to Gondokoro in 1862, but
Speke and Grant had not arrived. Having arranged for a
native force to proceed south to get in touch with the absentees,
a task successfully accomplished, Mr and Mrs Petherick under-
took another journey in the Bahr-el-Ghazal, making important
collections of plants and fishes. They regained Gondokoro
(where one of their boats with stores was already stationed)
in February 1863, four days after the arrival of Speke and Grant,
who had meantime accepted the hospitality of Mr (afterwards
Sir) Samuel Baker. The charge that Petherick failed to meet
his engagement to those travellers is unsubstantiated. A
further charge that Petherick had countenanced and even taken
part in the slave trade was subsequently shown to have no foun-
dation (Petherick in fact had endeavoured to stop the traffic), but
it led Earl Russell, then secretary for foreign affairs, to abolish
the British consulate at Khartum (1864). In 1865 the Pethericks
returned to England, and in 1869 published Travels in Central
Africa and Explorations of the Western Nile Tributaries, in
which book are set out the details of the Speke controversy.
Petherick died in London, on the 1 5th of July 1882.

PETION DE VILLENEUVE, JERfiME (1756-1794), French
writer and politician, was the son of a procureur at Chartres.
He became an avocat in 1778, and at once began to try to make
a name in literature. His first printed work was an essay, Sur
les moyens de prevenir I' infanticide, which failed to gain the
prize for which it was composed, but pleased Brissot so much
that he printed it in vol. vii. of his Bibliotheque philosophique

des legislateurs. P6tion's next works, Les Lois duties, and
Essai sur le manage, in which he advocated the marriage of
priests, confirmed his position as a bold reformer, and when
the elections to the States-General took place in 1789 he was
elected a deputy to the Tiers Etat for Chartres. Both in the
assembly of the Tiers Etat and in the Constituent Assembly
Petion showed himself a radical leader. He supported Mirabeau
on the 23rd of June, attacked the queen on the sth of October,
and was elected president on the 4th of December 1790. On
the isth of June 1791 he was elected president of the criminal
tribunal of Paris. On the 2ist of June 1791 he was chosen one
of three commissioners appointed to bring back the king from
Varennes, and he has left a fatuous account of the journey. After
the last meeting of the assembly on the 3oth of September 1791
Robespierre and Petion were made the popular heroes and were
crowned by the populace with civic crowns. Petion received
a still further proof of the affection of the Parisians for himself
on the 1 6th of November 1791, when he was elected second
mayor of Paris in succession to Bailly. In his mayoralty he
exhibited clearly his republican tendency and his hatred of the
old monarchy, especially on the 2oth of June 1792, when he
allowed the mob to overrun the Tuileries and insult the royal
family. For neglecting to protect the Tuileries he was suspended
from his functions by the Directory of the department of the
Seine, but the leaders of the Legislative Assembly felt that
Petion's cause was theirs, and rescinded the suspension on the
1 3th of July. On the 3rd of August, at the head of the munici-
pality of Paris, Petion demanded the dethronement of the king.
He was elected to the Convention for Eure-et-Loir and became
its first president. L. P. Manuel had the folly to propose that
the president of the Assembly should have the same authority
as the president of the United States; his proposition was at
once rejected, but Petion got the nickname of " Roi Petion,"
which contributed to his fall. His jealousy of Robespierre
allied him to the Girondin party, with which he voted for the
king's death and for the appeal to the people. He was elected
in March 1793 to the first Committee of Public Safety; and he
attacked Robespierre, who had accused him of having known
and having kept secret Dumouriez's project of treason. His
popularity however had waned, and his name was among those
of the twenty-two Girondin deputies proscribed on the 2nd of
June. Petion was one of those who escaped to Caen and raised
the standard of provincial insurrection against the Convention;
and, when the Norman rising failed, he fled with M. E. Guadet,
F. A. Buzot, C. J. M. Barbaroux, J. B. Salle and Louvet de
Couvrai to the Gironde, where they were sheltered by a wig-
maker of Saint Emilion. At last, a month before Robespierre's
fall in June 1794, the escaped deputies felt themselves no longer
safe, and deserted their asylum; Louvet found his way to Paris,
Salle and Guadet to Bordeaux, where they were soon taken;
Barbaroux committed suicide; and the bodies of Potion and
Buzot, who also killed themselves, were found in a field, half-
eaten by wolves.

See Memoires inedits de Petion el memoires de Buzot et de Bar-
baroux, accompagnes de notes inedites de Buzot et de nombreux docu-
ments inedits sur Barbaroux, Buzot, Brissot, &c., precedes d'une
introduction par C. A. Dauban (Paris, 1866); (Euvres de Petion
(3 vols., 1792) ; F. A. Aulard, Les Orateurs de la Constituante (Paris,
1882).

PETIS DE LA CROIX, FRANCOIS (1653-1713), French
Orientalist, was born in Paris in 1653. He was son of the
Arabic interpreter of the French court, and inherited this office
at his father's death in 1695, afterwards transmitting it to his
own son, Alexandre Louis Marie, who also distinguished himself
in Oriental studies. At an early age he was sent by Colbert to
the East; during the ten years he spent in Syria, Persia and
Turkey he mastered Arabic, Persian and Turkish, and also
collected rich materials for future writings. He served a short
time as secretary to the French ambassador in Morocco, and
accompanied as interpreter the French forces sent against
Algiers, contributing to the satisfactory settlement of the treaty
of peace, which was drawn up by himself in Turkish and ratified
in 1684. He conducted the negotiations with Tunis and Tripoli

306

PETIT— PETITION

in 1685, and those with Morocco in 1687; and the zeal, tact
and linguistic knowledge he manifested in these and other
transactions with Eastern courts were at last rewarded in
1692 by his appointment to the Arabic chair in the College
Royal de France, which he filled until his death in 1713.

He published Conies turcs (Paris, 1707), and Les Mille et un jours
(5 vols., Paris, 1710-1712); an Armenian Dictionary and an Account
of Ethiopia. But the lasting monument of his literary fame is his
excellent French version of Sharaf-uddin 'AH Yazdi's Zafarnama
or History of Timur (completed 828 A.H.; A.D. 1425), which was
given to the world nine years after his death (4 vols., Paris, 1722;
Eng. trans, by J. Darby, London, 1723). This work, one of the
rare specimens of a fairly critical history Persia can boast of, was
compiled under the auspices of Mirza Ibrahim Sultan, the son of
Shah Rukh and grandson of the great Timur. The only error
committed by P6tis de la Croix in his otherwise very correct transla-
tion is that he erroneously ascribed the important share which
Ibrahim Sultan had in the Zafarnama to Timur himself.

PETIT, SIR DINSHAW MANECKJI, BART. (1823-1901),
Parsee philanthropist, was born on the 3oth of June 1823. As
broker to European firms he amassed a large fortune during
the period of speculation in Bombay at the time of the American
Civil War. In 1886 he became a member of the governor-
general's legislative council. He devoted his wealth to philan-
thropic objects, among the public and private charities which
he endowed being the Towers of Silence and fire temples of the
Parsees, a hospital for animals, a college for women, and the
Petit hospital. He was knighted in 1887, created a baronet
in 1890, and died in February 1901.

PETIT DE JULLEVILLE, LOUIS (1841-1900), French
scholar, was born in Paris on the i8th of July 1841. Educated
at the Ecole Normale Superieure, and at the French school at
Athens, he received his doctorate in literature in 1868. After
holding various posts as a teacher he became professor of French
medieval literature and of the history of the French language
in the university of Paris in 1886. He died on the 28th of
August 1900.

His most important works are: Histoire du theatre en France,
including Les My stores (2 vols., 1880); Les Comediens en France au
moyen dge (1885); La Comedie et les mceurs en France au may en
Age (1886); Repertoire du theatre comique en France au moyen age
(1886) ; and Le Theatre en France, histoire de la litterature dramatique
depuis ses origines jusqu'a nos jours (1889). Petit de Julleville
was also the general editor of the Histoire de_ la langue et de la
litterature franQaise (8 vols., 1896-1900), to which he himself con-
tributed some valuable chapters.

PETITION (Lat. for " seeking " or " praying "), a term
meaning generally a prayerful request, and in its more important
constitutional aspect an application for redress by a person
aggrieved to an authority capable of relieving him. It may be
made in the United Kingdom to the Crown or its officers, or to
either house of parliament, or in certain cases to courts of
justice.

Petitions to the Crown. — The right of petitioning the Crown
was recognized indirectly as early as Magna Carta in the famous
clause, Nulli vendemus, nulli negabimus aut differemus, rectum
vel justiliam (25 Edw. I. c. 29), and directly at various periods
later, e.g. in the articles of the Commons assented to by Henry
IV., by which the king was to assign two days in the week for
petitions (Rot. Parl. 8 Hen. IV., p. 585). The case of the seven
bishops in 1688 confirmed the right, and finally the Bill of Rights
in 1689 declared " that it is the right of the subjects to petition
the king, and all commitments and prosecutions for such petition-
ing are illegal." Petitions to the Crown appear to have been at
first for the redress of private and local grievances, or for remedies
which the courts of law could not grant (May, Parl. Pr., nth ed.,
522). As equity grew into a system, petitions of this kind not
seeking legislative remedies tended to become superseded by bills
in chancery. Statutes were originally drawn up by the judges
at the close of the session of parliament from the petitions of the
Commons and the answers of the Crown. Under this system of
drafting it was found that the tenor of the petition and answer
were not always stated correctly. To obviate this inconvenience
demands for legislation came in the reign of Henry VI. to be
drawn up in the form of bills which the Crown could accept or
reject, but could not alter (see Anson, Law and Custom of the

Constitution, 3rd. ed., vol. i. p. 241). In the same reign the
words " by authority of parliament " were added to the words of
enactment, and from the time of Henry VII. public legislation
has been by bill and not by petition. A relic of the old form of
statute founded upon petition still remains however in the
preamble of Appropriation Acts and other statutes creating a
charge upon the public revenue. It runs thus: " We, your
majesty's most dutiful and loyal subjects, the Commons of the
United Kingdom ... do most humbly beseech your majesty
that it may be enacted; and be it enacted," &c., from this point
following the enacting words common to all statutes. The
Crown may refer petitions presented to it to be adjudicated upon
by a delegated authority. This course is pursued in the case of
claims to peerages and offices of honour, which are referred to the
House of Lords, and by that house to its committee for privi-
leges, and in the case of petitions to the Crown in council, which
are usually referred to the judicial committee. The Crown may
delegate the power of receiving petitions in the first instance.

Petitions to Parliament. — Petitions to either house of the
legislature seem to have been later in origin than petitions
to the Crown. They are not referred to in the Bill of Rights, but
the right of petition is a convention of the constitution. Petitions
to the Lords or the whole parliament can be traced back to Henry
III. No petition to the Commons has been found earlier than
Richard II.; but from the time of Henry IV. petitions to the
Commons have been freely made. The political importance of
petitioning dates from about the reign of Charles I. The develop-
ment of the practice of petitioning had proceeded so far in the
reign of Charles II. as to lead to the passing in 1662 of an act
(13 Car. II. c. 5) against " tumultuous petitioning," which is
still on the statute book. It provides that no petition or address
shall be presented to the king or either house of parliament by
more than ten persons; nor shall any one procure above twenty
persons to consent or set their hands to any petition for alteration
of matters established by law in church or state, unless with the
previous order of three justices of the county, or the major part
of the grand jury. And in 1817 (57 Geo. III. c. 19, s. 23)
meetings within a mile from Westminster Hall for the purpose of
considering a petition to both houses or either house of parlia-
ment while either house is sitting were declared to be unlawful
assemblies. Up to 1688 petitions to either house usually dealt
only with some specific grievance. From that time dates the
present practice of petitioning with regard to general measures
of public policy. Petitions to the Houses of Lords or Commons
must be framed in the form prescribed by the standing orders,
must be properly superscribed, and must conclude with a prayer
(May, Parl. Pr., nth ed., 524, 525). They may be sent free by
post to members of either house if they fulfil certain conditions
as to weight, &c., (loc. cit. p. 531).

Petitions to the Commons must be in writing, must contain
none but genuine signatures, and must be free from disrespectful
language or imputations upon any tribunal or constituted authority.
They must be presented by a member of the house, except petitions
to the House of Commons from the corporation of London, which
may be presented at the bar by the sheriffs, and from the corpora-
tion of Dublin, which may be presented by the lord mayor. There
is no means of compelling a member to present a petition. The
rules as to petitions to the House of Lords are similar. The lord
who presents a petition is required to read it to see whether in form
and contents it is fit for presentation. In the Lords receivers and
triers of petitions from Great Britain and Ireland and from Gascony
and the lands and countries beyond the sea were appointed until
1886, though their functions had long been obsolete. Applications
for leave to bring before either house bills for private or local and
personal matters must under the standing orders of both houses
be made by petition ; and the same rule obtains as to applications
for leave to be heard in opposition to such bills.

See Clifford, History of Private Bill Legislation (1887); May,
Parl. Pr., (nth ed.), c. xxv.

Petitions to Courts of Justice. — Strictly speaking, these are an
indirect mode of petitioning the Crown, for in the theory of
English law the Crown is the fountain of justice. But it is more
convenient to treat them separately, as they now form a part of
the practice of the courts. Appeals to the House of Lords and
the privy council are prosecuted by petition of appeal. The

PETITTO PRINCIPII

307

original jurisdiction of the privy council to deal with petitions
is confined to proceedings under certain statutes, such as the
Endowed Schools Acts, the Public Schools Acts, the Universities
Acts and the Patents Acts. In most cases the petitions are
referred to the judicial committee of the council. Petitions may
be addressed to the lord chancellor in a few instances, e.g. for
the removal of coroners or county court judges. The House of
Lords at one time claimed original jurisdiction in civil and
criminal matters. As to civil matters the claim is abandoned;
as to criminal matters it is now limited to impeachment for
crime by the Commons on the trial for treason or felony of
persons having privilege of peerage.

The most important use of petitions in England is in the High
Court of Justice. In the chancery division petitions are presented
either as interlocutory proceedings in the course of an action, or as
original proceedings where no litigation exists — as being a more
speedy form of remedy than an action. The cases in which a peti-
tion is admissible and the procedure therein, are in the main regu-
lated by orders 52 and 55 of the rules of the supreme court. Evidence
in support of petitions is usually by affidavit. Petitions in the
course of an action are presented to the court in which the action
is brought. Examples of original petitions are those under the
Lands Clauses Acts, the Trustee Acts and the Companies Acts.
For many proceedings under these acts a simpler and cheaper
form of proceeding by summons has been substituted for that by
petition. The matters above-mentioned are usually dealt with by
the chancery division as successor of the court of chancery. Peti-
tions are also in use in other courts having equitable jurisdiction,
e.g. the chancery courts of the counties palatine of Lancaster and
Durham and the county courts as to cases falling within § 67 of
the County Courts Act 1888, and as to cases within county court
jurisdiction under the Settled Land Acts or the Guardianship of
Infants Act 1886 (County Court Rules, O. 38). In a few cases
petitions may be brought by way of appeal, e.g. under the Charitable
Trusts Act 1860. In the king's bench division the only use of
petitions appears to be to initiate proceedings in bankruptcy.
Leave to sue in formd pauperis used to be given on petition but is
now usually dealt with summarily. In the probate, &c., division
proceedings in matrimonial causes, &c., are begun by petition, but
the course of the proceedings closely resembles those of an ordinary
action.

Scotland. — In Scotland petitions in the Court of Session are either
original or in a pending action. Original petitions are presented
to one of the divisions of the inner house, unless they relate to
matters mentioned in 20 & 21 Viet. c. 56, s. 4, when they are brought
before the junior lord ordinary, or unless, by special statutory pro-
vision, they may be brought before any lord ordinary, as in the case
of petitions under the " Conjugal Rights (Scotland) Amendment
Act 1861," or the Trusts (Scotland) Act 1867. A petition and
complaint is a process of a quasi-criminal nature by which certain
matters of summary and extraordinary jurisdiction are brought
under the notice of the Court of Session. It lies against magistrates
and officers of the law for breach of duty against parties guilty
of contempt of court, &c. The concurrence of the lord advocate
is necessary to a petition and complaint (see Mackay, Court of
Session Practice, ii. 439).

Ireland. — The law of Ireland as to petitions is in substance the
same as that of England with certain differences of detail as to the
cases in which petitions may be made to courts of justice.

United States. — In the United States before the Civil War questions
arose as to the right of petitioning Congress, particularly with refer-
ence to petitions for the restriction of slavery which at that time
was contended to be a matter of state and not of federal concern
(see Cooley, Constitutional Limitations, 6th ed., 1890, 426). The
right of petitioning the United States government is now secured
by the first amendment to the United States constitution (ratified
in 1789-1791), which provides that " Congress shall make no law
. . . abridging . . . the right of the people peaceably to assemble
and to petition the government for a redress of grievances." In
the view of the Supreme Court this amendment " assumes the
existence of the right of the people to assemble for lawful purposes
and protects it against encroachment by Congress. The right was
not created by the amendment; neither was its continuance
guaranteed except as against congressional interference. For their
protection in its enjoyment, therefore, the people must look to the
states. The power for that purpose was originally placed there,
and has never been surrendered. The right of the people peaceably
to assemble for the purpose of petitioning Congress for a redress
of grievances, or for anything else connected with the powers or
duties of the national government is an attribute of national citizen-
ship, and as such under the protection of and guaranteed by the
United States. The very idea of a government republican in form
implies a right on the part of its citizens to meet peaceably for
consultation in respect to public affairs and to petition for a redress
of grievances " (U.S. v. Cruikshank, 1875; 92 U.S. 542, 552).

A Bill of Rights is incorporated in the constitutions of many
states of the Union, and is made part of the supreme law of

the states (see Hough, American Constitutions, ii. 571). Petitions
can be presented to the federal or state courts of justice under much
the same circumstances as in England. " It is a general rule in
such cases that an affidavit should be made that the facts therein
contained are true as far as known to the petitioner, and that those
facts which he states as knowing from others he believes to be true "
(Bouvier, Law Diet.).

British Possessions.— There is a right of petition to the king for
the review of decisions (in matters criminal or civil) of courts of
justice in the Channel Islands or Isle of Man, and in all other parts
of the empire outside the British islands and of British courts in
foreign countries. This right is cut down by imperial or colonial
legislation in the case of Canada and Australia, see Tarring, Law
Relating to Colonies (3rd ed., 1906) c. v.

The term Petition of Right, in English law, is used in two senses,
(i) It denotes the statute of 1625 (3 Car. I. c. i), a parliamentary
declaration of the liberties of the people. (2) It also and more
usually is employed to describe a mode of prosecuting a claim by
a subject against the Crown, said to owe its origin to Edward I.
Petition of right in this sense lies (a) to obtain restitution of real
or personal property of the subject which has found its way into
the hands of the Crown, or compensation if restitution cannot be
made; (6) to recover damages for breach of a contract made on
behalf of the Crown, whether the breach is due to the acts or the
omissions of servants of the Crown. Where the Crown is in
possession of property of the suppliant, and the title of the Crown
appears by record, as by inquest of office, the remedy is somewhat
different and is called monstrans de droit. Petition of right does
not lie in respect of engagements in the naval, military or civil
service of the Crown, which are as a general rule made " during
pleasure," nor for breach of public duty, e.g. failure to perform
treaty obligations, nor for trespass or negligence or other torts
by Crown servants. Where such acts are wrongful the remedy is
by action against the official as an individual and not in his
official capacity (Raleigh v. Goschen, 1898, L.R. i ch. 73).

The procedure on a petition of right is either at common law or
by statute. At common law the petition went through its earliest
stages in the chancery. It suggests such a right as controverts the
title of the Crown, and the Crown endorses upon the petition Soil
droit fait al partie. Thereupon a commission is issued to inquire
into the truth of the suggestion. After the return to the commission,
the attorney-general pleads or demurs, and the merits are then
determined as in actions between subject and subject. If the
right be determined against the Crown, judgment of amoveas manus
is given in favour of the suppliant. The Petition of Right Act
1860 (23 & 24 Viet. c. 34, extended to Ireland in 1873, 36 & 37
Viet. c. 69) preserves to the suppliant his right to proceed at common
law, but gives an alternative remedy. The procedure is regulated
by the act of 1860, and as to England also by rules made under
that act on the 1st of February 1862. The petition is left with the
secretary of state for the home department for the consideration
of his majesty, who if he thinks fit grants his fiat that right be done.
The fiat is sealed in the home office and issued to the suppliant
who files it in the central office of the High Court of Justice, and
a sealed copy is served upon the solicitor to the treasury, with a
demand for a plea or answer on behalf of the Crown. The subse-
quent proceedings including those as to disclosing relevant docu-
ments are assimilated as far as possible to those in an ordinary
action. A judgment in favour of the suppliant is equivalent to
a judgment of amoveas manus ouster le main. Costs are payable
to and by the Crown. A petition of right is usually tried in the
chancery or king's bench divisions; but where the subject-matter
of the petition arises out of the exercise of belligerent rights on
behalf of the Crown, or would be cognizable in a prize court if the
matter were in dispute between private persons, the suppliant may
at his option intitule his petition in the admiralty division, and the
lord chancellor may direct the prosecution in that division of peti-
tions of right under the act of 1860 even when they are not so
intituled (27 & 28 Viet. c. 25, s. 52).

The law as to petition of right applies to Ireland but not to
Scotland, and a right to present such a petition appears to exist
in colonies whose law is based on the common law of England.
But in many colonies legislation has been passed with respect to
suits against government which makes it unnecessary to resort to
a petition of right.

PETITIO PRINCIPII, or BEGGING THE QUESTION (Gr. rt> kv
anpavtiv, TO «£ apxys alreiaBai) , in logic, the fourth of
Aristotle's fallacies e£« TTJS Xe£ecus or extra dictionem. Strictly
this fallacy belongs to the language of disputation, when the
questioner seeks (petit) to get his adversary to admit the very
matter in question. Hence the word principium gives a wrong
impression, for the fallacy consists not in seeking for the

3o8

PETITOT— PETO

admission of a principle which will confute the particular pro-
position—a perfectly legitimate form of refutation — but in luring
the adversary into confessing the contradictory. In the ordinary
use, however, " begging the question " consists in assuming in
the premises the conclusion which it is desired to prove.

PETITOT, JEAN (1608-1691), French-Swiss enamel painter,
was born at Geneva, a member of a Burgundian family which had
fled from France on account of religious difficulties. His father,
Faulle, was a wood carver; his mother's name was Etienette
Royaume. Jean was the fourth son, and was apprenticed to a
jeweller goldsmith named Pierre Bordier, with whom he struck
up a close friendship. The two friends, dissatisfied with the
progress they made in Geneva, went into France, and after
working for a while with Toutin came to England with letters
of introduction to Turquet de Mayern, physician to Charles I.,
who presented them to the king, for whom they made a St
George for the badge of the order and carried out many com-
missions for portraits; amongst others preparing two large ones
representing Rachel de Ruvigny, countess of Southampton, now
at Chatsworth, and Mary Villiers, duchess of Richmond and
Lennox, dated 1643, at one time in the possession of the Crown
and now in the Pierpont Morgan collection. On the execution of
the king, Petitot left England for Paris with the royal household,
Bordier remaining in England and carrying out certain important
commissions for Cromwell and the parliament. On reaching
Paris, Petitot entered into partnership with a goldsmith, Jacques
Bordier, a cousin of Pierre, and it seems probable from recent
research in contemporary documents that the enamel portraits
attributed to Petitot were really the work of the two partners
collaborating, the actual drawing being the work of Petitot,
while for the enamel process Bordier was mainly responsible.
The two painters were given apartments in the Louvre, received
numerous commissions from Louis XIV., and painted portraits
of almost every person of importance in his brilliant court. The
friendship between the two lasted for thirty-five years, and was
only put an end to by Bordier's death. The enamellers rendered
special political services in France for the republic of Geneva,
and were practically regarded as the official representatives of
the republic, receiving warm thanks from the Syndics for their
diplomatic work. On the revocation of the Edict of Nantes,
1685, pressure was brought to bear upon Petitot that he should
change his religion. The king protected him as long as possible,
and when he was arrested, with his niece, Anne Bordier, sent
Bossuet, bishop of Meaux, to convince the old man of the error of
his ways. Eventually, in poor health and great despair, Petitot
placed his signature to an act of abjuration, and Louis XIV.,
unwilling to acknowledge the true reason for the imprison-
ment of Petitot and for his liberation, informed one of his sons,
who came to thank him for the pardon given to his father, that
he was willing to fall in for once with " the whim of an old man
who desired to be buried with his ancestors." In 1687 therefore
Petitot left Paris to return to Geneva, and, after a long and tedious
inquiry, was absolved by the consistory of the church of Geneva
from the crime of which they considered he had been guilty,
and received back to the Huguenot communion in the church of
St Gervais. In Geneva he received a very important com-
mission from John Sobieski, king of Poland, who required
portraits of himself and his queen. This was followed by number-
less other commissions which the painter carried out. He died
of paralysis on the 3rd of April 1691, while in the very act of
painting on the enamel a portrait of his faithful wife.

Petitot married in 165 r Marguerite Cuper, and Jacques
Bordier married in the same year her younger sister Anne
Madeleine. He had seventeen children, and for their benefit
wrote out a little octavo volume containing some genealogical
information, two delightful portraits, one of himself and one of
his wife, and many pages occupied with prayers, meditations
and religious advice. He also prepared a second manuscript
volume of prayers and meditations for the use of his family, and
from these two books and the records of the Huguenot societies
of France and England information has been obtained respecting
the painter and his family.

Of the works of Petitot the most important collection is in the
Jones Bequest at the Victoria and Albert Museum. There are
many in the Louvre, sixteen at Chantilly, seventeen at Windsor,
and others in the collections of Earl Beauchamp, the duke of Rut-
land, the duke of Richmond, the earl of Dartrey, Mr Alfred de
Rothschild and the late Baroness Burdett-Coutts. Amongst
Lord Dartrey's examples are portraits of Petitot and of his son,
and two of the wife of Jean Petitot the younger. A second portrait
of the artist belongs to the queen of Holland, and another is in the
collection of the late Mr Stroehlin of Geneva. In Mr Pierpont
Morgan's collection there are many exceedingly fine examples,
but especially three drawings on paper, the only three which
appear to have survived, and the large signed miniature of the
duchess of Richmond already mentioned, the largest work Petitot
ever executed save the one at Chatsworth.

See Pctitotet Bordier, by Ernest Stroehlin (Geneva, 1905) ; " Some
New Information respecting Jean Petitot," by G. C. Williamson,
Nineteenth Century and After (January 1908), pp. 98-110; the
privately printed Catalogue of the Collection of Mr J. Pierpont
Morgan, vol. iii. ; The History of Portrait Miniatures, by G. C.
Williamson, vol. ii. (London, 1904). (G. C. W.)

PETITOT, JEAN LOUIS (1652-*. 1730), French enamel
painter, was the eldest son of Jean Petitot (q.v.), and was
instructed in enamelling by his father. Some of his works so
closely resemble those of the elder Petitot that it is difficult to
distinguish between them, and he was really the only serious
rival his father ever had. He settled for a while in London,
where he remained till 1682, and painted many enamel portraits of
Charles II. In 1682 he removed to Paris, but in 1695 was back
again in London, where he remained until the time of his death.

His portrait by Mignard is in the museum at Geneva, and another
in enamel by himself in the collection of the earl of Dartrey, who
also owns two of his wife, Madeleine Bordier, whom he married
in 1683. Another portrait believed to represent him is in the col-
lection of Mr Pierpont Morgan. (G. C. W.)

PETITS-CHEVAUX (Fr. for " little horses" ), a gambling game
played with a mechanical device consisting of a board perforated
with a number of concentric circular slits, in which revolve, each
independently on its own axis, figures of jockeys on horseback,
distinguished by numbers or colours. The bystanders having
staked their money according to their choice on a board marked
in divisions for this purpose, the horses are started revolving
rapidly together by means of mechanism attached to the board,
and the horse which stops nearest a marked goal wins, every
player who has staked on that horse receiving so many times his
stake. Figures of railway trains and other objects sometimes
take the place of horses. In recent years there has been a ten-
dency to supplant the pelits chevaux at French resorts by the boule
or ball game, on the same principle of gambling; in this a ball
is rolled on a basin-shaped table so that it may eventually settle
in one of a number of shallow cups, each marked with a figure.

PETO, SIR SAMUEL MORTON, BART. (1800-1889), English
contractor, was born at Woking, Surrey, on the 4th of August
1809, and was at an early age apprenticed to his uncle, a London
builder, who on his death in 1830 bequeathed the business to
Peto and another nephew, Thomas Grissell. The partnership
between Peto and Grissell lasted till 1846, amongst the many
London buildings erected by the firm being the Reform Club, the
Lyceum and St James's theatres, and the Nelson column. Peto
afterwards entered into partnership with Edward Ladd Belts
(1815-1872), and between 1846 and 1872 Messrs Peto & Betts
carried out many large railway contracts at home and abroad,
notably the more important portions of the South-Eastern and
of the London Chatham & Dover lines, and, in conjunction
with Thomas Brassey, the Grand Trunk railway of Canada, and
the London Tilbury & Southend railway. In 1854-1855
Peto and Brassey constructed a railway in the Crimea between
Balaclava and the British entrenchments before Sebastopol,
charging the British government .only the actual out-of-pocket
expenses, and for his services in this matter Peto was in 1855 made
a baronet. Peto entered parliament as a Liberal in 1847, and,
with a few years' interval, continued there till 1868, when, his
firm having been compelled to suspend payment in the financial
crisis of 1866, he was forced to resign his seat, though both Mr
Disraeli and Mr Gladstone publicly eulogized his personal
character. He died on the i3th of November 1889.

PETOFI— PETRA

309

PETOFI, ALEXANDER (1823-1849), Hungarian lyric poet,
was born at Kis-K6roso, Pest county, on New Year's Day, 1823.
The family received its diploma of nobility from the emperor
Leopold in 1688, but the ultra-patriotic Alexander early changed
the old family name, Petrovics, which pointed to a Croatian
origin, into the purely Magyar form of Petofi. The lad's early
days were spent at Felegyhaz and Szabadszallas, the most
Hungarian parts of Hungary, where he got most of his early
education, including a good grounding in Latin. German he
learnt subsequently at Pesth, and French he taught himself.
He began writing verses in his twelfth year, while a student at the
Asz6d gymnasium, where he also displayed a strong predilection
for the stage, to the disgust of his rigorous father, who formally
disowned his son, early in 1839, for some trifling peccadillo, and
whose tyrannical temper became downright furious when a
series of misfortunes ruined him utterly in 1840. For the next
three years Petofi led the wretched life of a strolling player,
except for a brief interval when, to escape starvation, he enlisted
as a common soldier in an infantry regiment. During the greater
part of 1842 we find him a student at the Calvinist College at
Papa, where he made the acquaintance of young Jokai, and wrote
the poem " Borozo," which the great critic Bajza at once inserted
in the leading literary review, the Athenaeum (May 22, 1842). In
November of the same year the restless poet quitted Papa to
join another travelling troupe, playing on one occasion the Fool
in King Lear, and after wandering all over Hungary and suffering
incredible hardships, finally settled down at Pesth (1844), where
for a time he supported himself by all sorts of literary hack-work.
Nevertheless, in the midst of his worst privations he had read
voraciously, and was at this time profoundly influenced by the
dominant Romanticism of the day; while, through Tieck, he
learnt to know and value the works of Shakespeare. His first
volume of original poems was published in 1844 by the Society
Nemzeti Kor, through the influence of the poet Vorosmarty,
when every publisher had refused his MS., and the seventy-five
florins which he got for it had become a matter of life or death to
him. He now became a regular contributor to the leading papers
of Pesth, and was reconciled to his parents, whom he practically
supported for the rest of their lives out of his literary earnings.
His position, if not exactly brilliant, was now at least secure.
The little volume published by the Nemzeti Kor was followed by
the parody, A Helyseg Kalapdcsa (1844); the romantic epic
Jdnos Vitez (1844); Ciprislombok Etelke Sirjdrol, a collection of
passionate elegies over his lost love, Etelke Csapo (1845); Uti
Jegyzetek, an imitation of Heine's Reisebilder (1845); Szerelem
Gyongyei (1845); Felhok (1846); Szerelme es hdzassdga (1846),
and many other volumes. The first edition of his collected
poems appeared in 1847. Petofi was not yet twenty-five, and,
despite the protests of the classicists, who regarded him with
cold dislike, the best heads in Hungary, poets like Vorosmarty
and critics like Szemere, already paid him the homage due
to the prince of Magyar lyrical poets. The great public was
enthusiastic on the same side, and posterity, too, has placed him
among the immortals. Petofi is as simple and genuine a poet of
nature as Wordsworth or Christian Winther, and his erotics,
inspired throughout by a noble idealism, have all Byron's force
and fervour, though it is perhaps in his martial songs that
Petofi's essentially passionate and defiant genius asserts itself
most triumphantly. On the 8th of September 1847 Petofi married
Julia Szendrey, who bore him a son. When the revolutionary
war broke out, he espoused the tenets of the extreme democratic
faction with a heat and recklessness which estranged many of his
friends. He took an active part in the Transylvanian campaigns
of the heroic Bern; rose by sheer valour to the rank of major; was
slain at the battle of Segesvar (July 31, 1849), and his body,
which was never recovered, is supposed to have been buried in
the common grave of the fallen honveds in the churchyard of
Feheregyhaz. The first complete edition of Petofi's poems
appeared in 1874. The best critical edition is that of Haras,
1894. There are numerous indifferent German translations.

See Ferenczi, Petofi Eletraiza; Fischer, Petofi's Leben und
Werke. (R. N. B.)

PETOSKEY, a city and the county-seat of Emmet county,
Michigan, U.S.A., on Little Traverse Bay, an arm of Lake
Michigan, at the mouth of Bear Creek, in the north-west part of
the lower peninsula. Pop. (1890), 2872; (190x5), 5285, of whom
856 were foreign-born; (1904), 5186; (1910), 4778. It is served
by the Pere Marquette and the Grand Rapids & Indiana rail-
ways and by steamboat lines to Chicago, Detroit, Buffalo and
other lake ports. Bear Creek furnishes considerable water-power,
and among the manufactures are lumber, paper, leather and
foundry and machine-shop products. Petoskey was settled
about 1874, was incorporated as a village in 1879, was chartered
as a city in 1895, and in 1902 replaced Harbor Springs
as county-seat. It was named after an Ojibwa Indian chief.

PETRA (17 II«-pa= the rock), a ruined site, 3O°i9' N. and 35°
31' E., lying in a basin among the mountains which form the
eastern flank of Wadi el-'Araba, the great valley running from
the Dead Sea to the Gulf of 'Akaba. The descriptions of Strabo
(xvi. p. 779), Pliny (N.H. vi. 32) and other writers leave no
doubt as to the identity of this site with the famous capital of the
Nabataeans (q.v.) and the centre of their caravan trade. Walled
in by towering rocks and watered by a perennial stream, Petra
not only possessed the advantages of a fortress but controlled
the main commercial routes which passed through it to Gaza in
the west, to Bostra and Damascus in the north, to Elath and
Leuce Come on the Red Sea, and across the desert to the Persian
Gulf.

From the 'Araba travellers approach by a track which leads
round Jebel Harun (Mt Hor) and enters the plain of Petra from
the south; it is just possible to find a way in from the high plateau
on the north; but the most impressive entrance is from the east,
down a dark and narrow gorge, in places only 10 or 12 ft. wide,
called the Slk, i.e. the shaft, a split in the huge sandstone rocks
which serves as the waterway of the Wadi Musa. Near the end
of the defile stands the most elaborate of the ruins, el-Hazne or
" the Treasury of Pharaoh," not built but hewn out of the cliff;
a little farther on, at the foot of the mountain called en-Nejr,
comes the theatre, so placed as to bring the greatest number of
tombs within view; and at the point where the valley opens out
into the plain the site of the city is revealed with striking effect.
Almost enclosing it on three sides are rose-coloured mountain
walls, divided into groups by deep fissures, and lined with rock-
cut tombs in the form of towers. The stream of Wadi Musa crosses
the plain and disappears among the mountains opposite; on
either bank, where the ground is fairly level, the city was built,
covering a space of about ij sq. m. Among the ruins on the
south bank stand the fragments of a temple called Kasr Fir'aun
of late Roman date; just beyond this rises a rocky height which
is usually regarded as the acropolis.

A position of such natural strength must have been occupied
early, but we have no means of telling exactly when the history
of Petra began ; the evidence seems to show that the city was of
relatively late foundation, though a sanctuary (see below) may
have existed there from very ancient times. This part of the
country was assigned by tradition to the Horites, i.e. probably
" cave-dwellers," the predecessors of the Edomites (Gen. xiv. 6,
xxxvi. 20-30; Deut. ii. 12); the habits of the original natives may
have influenced the Nabataean custom of burying the dead and
offering worship in half -excavated caves.1 But that Petra itself
is mentioned in the Old Testament cannot be affirmed with
certainty; for though Petra is usually identified with Sela'2 which
also means " a rock," the reference in Judges i. 36; Isa. xvi. i,
xlii. 1 1 ; Obad. 3, is far from clear. 2 Kings xiv. 7 seems to be more
explicit; in the parallel passage, however, Sela' is understood
to mean simply " the rock" (2 Chr. xxv. 12, see LXX). Hence
many authorities doubt whether any town named Sela' is men-
tioned in the Old Testament.3 What, then, did the Semitic

1 Buhl, Gesch. der Edomiter (1893), p. 52.

2 E.g. by Driver, Deut. p. 38; Noldeke, Ency. Bibl. col. 1185;
Ed. Meyer, Die Israeliten u. ihre Nachbarstdmme, p. 357.

3 Buhl, p. 35 sqq., G. F. Moore, Judges, p. 55 seq., Oxford Hebr.
Lex. s. v. V^D; T. K. Cheyne, Ency. Bibl. s.v. Sela; A. Jeremias,
Das A. T. im Lichte d. alien Orients, p. 457.

310

PETRARCH

inhabitants call their city? Eusebius and Jerome (Onom. sacr.
286, 71. 145, 9; 228, 55. 287, 94), apparently on the authority of
Josephus (Ant. iv. 7, i; 4, 7), assert that Rekem was the native
name. But in the Aramaic versions Rekem is the name of
Kadesh; Josephus may have confused the two places. Some-
times the Aramaic versions give the form Rekem-Geya, which
recalls the name of the village El-ji, south-east of Petra; the
capital, however, would hardly be denned by the name of a
neighbouring village. The Semitic name of the city, if it was not
Sela', must remain unknown.1 The passage in Diodorus Siculus
(xix. 94-97) which describes the expeditions which Antigonus
sent against the Nabataeans in 312 B.C. is generally understood
to throw some light upon the history of Petra, though it must be
admitted that the petra referred to as a natural fortress and place
of refuge cannot be a proper name, and the description at any
rate implies that the town was not yet in existence. Briinnow
thinks that " the rock " in question was the sacred mountain
en-Nejr (above) ; but Buhl suggests a conspicuous height about
16 m. north of Petra, Shobak, the Mont-royal of the Crusaders.2
More satisfactory evidence of the date at which the earliest
Nabataean settlement began is to be obtained from an exami-
nation of the tombs. Two types may be distinguished broadly,
the Nabataean and the Graeco-Roman. The Nabataean type
starts from the simple pylon-tomb with a door set in a tower
crowned by a parapet ornament, in imitation of the front of a
dwelling-house; then, after passing through various stages, the
full Nabataean type is reached, retaining all the native features
and at the same time exhibiting characteristics which are partly
Egyptian and partly Greek. Of this type there exist close
parallels in the tomb-towers at el-Hejr in north Arabia, which
bear long Nabataean inscriptions,3 and so supply a date for the
corresponding monuments at Petra. Then comes a series of tomb-
fronts which terminate in a semicircular arch, a feature derived
from north Syria, and finally the elaborate facades, from which
all trace of native style has vanished, copied from the front of
a Roman temple. The exact dates of the stages in this develop-
ment cannot be fixed, for strangely enough few inscriptions of
any length have been found at Petra,4 perhaps because they have
perished with the stucco or cement which was used upon many of
the buildings. We have, then, as evidence for the earliest period,
the simple pylon- tombs, which belong to the pre-Hellenic age;
how far back in this stage the Nabataean settlement goes we
do no.t know, but not farther than the 6th century B.C. A
period follows in which the dominant civilization combines Greek,
Egyptian and Syrian elements, clearly pointing to the age of the
Ptolemies. Towards the close of the 2nd century B.C., when the
Ptolemaic and Seleucid kingdoms were equally depressed, the
Nabataean kingdom came to the front; under Aretas III.
Philhellene, c. 85-60 B.C., the royal coins begin; at this time
probably the theatre was excavated, and Petra must have
assumed the aspect of a Hellenistic city. In the long and pros-
perous reign of Aretas IV. Philopatris, 9 B.C.-A.D. 40, the fine
tombs of the el-Hejr type may be dated, perhaps also the great
High-place. Then the city became more and more Romanized.
In A.D. 106, when Cornelius Palma was governor of Syria,
"Arabia belonging to Petra,"6 was absorbed into the Roman
Empire, and the native dynasty came to an end. But the city
continued to flourish. It was visited in A.D. 131 by Hadrian, and
stamped Adriane Petra on its coins in gratitude for the emperor's
benefactions; the superb Hazne, probably a temple for the worship
of Isis, and the Der, which resembles the Hazne in design, belong
to this period. A century later, in the time of Alexander

1 Yakut gives the name Sal' to a fortress in Wadi Musa, Noldeke,
ZDMG. xxv. 259 seq. (1871).

2 Briinnow, Die Prov. Arabia, i. 190; Buhl, op. cit. p. 34.

3 CIS. ii. 197-226; Cooke, North-Semitic Inscriptions, 78-91, &c.

4 Four important Nabat. inscrr. have been found, of which
three are dated, viz. NSI. p. 250, n-CIS. ii. 349, l6th year of
Aretas III., i.e. B.C. 70, so also CIS. ii. 442; NSI. 94. and 95 = CIS.
ii. 350 and 354, the latter dated the 2gth year of Aretas IV., i.e.
A.D. 20. The other Nabat. inscrr. are mostly graffiti, scratched
on the rocks by visitors or worshippers at the holy places; CIS.

ii. 355-44.1. 444-464-

4 This is the meaning of Arabia Petraea. Dio Cass. Ixviii. 14.

Severus (A.D. 222-235), when the city was at the height of its
splendour, the issue of coinage comes to an end, and there is no
more building of sumptuous tombs, owing apparently to some
sudden catastrophe, such as an invasion by the neo-Persian
power under the Sassanid dynasty. Meanwhile as Palmyra
(ft. A.D. 130-270) grew in importance and attracted the
Arabian trade away from Petra, the latter declined; it seems,
however, to have lingered on as a religious centre; for we are
told by Epiphanius (c. A.D. 315-403) that in his time a feast was
held there on the 25th of December in honour of the virgin
Chaabou and her offspring Dusares (Haer. 51).

The chief god of Petra was Dhu-shara (Aoucrdprjs), i.e. the lord
or owner of Shara;* he was worshipped under the form of a black
rectangular stone, a sort of Petraean Ka'aba (Suidas Lex. s.v.
®e6s "A^s, and cf. Epiphan. above). Associated with Dhu-shara
was Allat, the chief goddess of the ancient Arabs. Sanctuary
chambers may be seen at various points in the site of Petra, and
many places of sacrifice open to the sky are met with among the
tombs, marked by remains of altars. But most eminent of all
was the great High-place which has recently been discovered on
en-Nejr (or Zibb 'atuf). It consists of a rock-hewn altar of
burnt-offering with a place for killing the victims beside it and
a shallow court, perhaps intended to hold water, in front: the
most complete specimen of an ancient Semitic sanctuary that is
known.' Not far off are two obelisks cut out of the solid rock
which has been removed to the level of their bases; these were
either idols of Dhu-shara and Allat, or more probably were
designed to mark the limits of the haram of the sanctuary.
West of the obelisks are three other places of sacrifice; and on
the rocks below worshippers have carved their names (CIS.
ii. 390-404). En-Nejr, with the theatre at its foot, must have
been the sacred mountain, the original sanctuary of Petra,
perhaps " the very high mountain of Arabia called Dusare
after the god Dusares " referred to by Steph. Byz. (s.v.
Aouadpij). Christianity found its way into Petra in early
times; Athanasius mentions a bishop of Petra (Herpuv 7-175
'Apa/3ias, ad Antioch. 10) named Asterius; at least one of
the tombs (the " tomb with the urn" ) was used as a church;
an inscription in red paint records its consecration " in the time
of the most holy bishop Jason" (A.D. 447). The Christianity of
Petra, as of north Arabia, was swept away by the Mahommedan
conquest in A.D. 629-632. Under the Latin kingdom Petra was
occupied by Baldwin I. and formed the second fief of the barony
of Krak with the title Chateau de la Valee de Moyse or Sela; it
remained in the hands of the Franks till 1189; fragments of the
Crusaders' citadel are still standing near the High-place on
en-Nejr.

The ruins of Petra were an object of curiosity in the middle ages
and were visited by the Sultan Bibars of Egypt towards the close
of the 1 3th century. The first European to describe them was
Burckhardt (1812). All former descriptions are now superseded
by the magnificent work of Briinnow and Domaszewski, Die Pro-
mncia Arabia (1904), who have minutely surveyed the whole site,
classified the tombs, and compiled the accounts of earlier investi-
gations; and by the independent researches of Dalman, Petra und
seine Felsheiligtumer (1908), and of Musil, Arabia Petraea (1907-1908).
The Corpus Inscr. Sent. ii. 305 sqq., should be consulted, and
the descriptions in Baedeker-Socin's Palestina (7th edition), and
Revue biblique for 1897, 1898, 1903. (G. A. C.*)

PETRARCH (1304-1374). Francesco Petrarca, the great
Italian poet and first true reviver of learning in medieval Europe,
was born at Arezzo on the 2oth of July 1304. His father
Petracco held a post of notary in the Florentine Rolls Court of
the Riformagioni; but, having espoused the same cause as Dante
during the quarrels of the Blacks and Whites, Petracco was
expelled from Florence by that decree of the 27th of January
1302 which condemned Dante to lifelong exile. With his wife he

6 The whole range in which Petra lies is called Jebel esh-Sharat,
but it is doubtful whether the name of the god was derived from
that of the mountain, see Ed. Meyer, loc. cit. p. 268 and Cooke,
N SI. p. 2 1 8.

7 First mentioned by E. L. Wilson (1891), rediscovered by
G. L. Robinson (1900), described by S. I. Curtis, P. E. F. Q. St.
1900), and Savignac, Rev. bibl. (1903); with full plan and photo-
graphs).

PETRARCH

took refuge in the Ghibelline township of Arezzo; and it was
here, on the very night when his father, in company with other
members of the White party, made an unsuccessful attempt to
enter Florence by force, the Francesco first saw the light. He
did not remain long in his birthplace. His mother, having
obtained permission to return from banishment, settled at
Incisa, a little village on the Arno above Florence, in February
1305. Here Petrarch spent seven years of boyhood, acquiring
that pure Tuscan idiom which afterwards he used with such
consummate mastery in ode and sonnet. Here too, in 1307, his
brother Gherardo was born. In 1312 Petracco set up a house
for his family at Pisa; but soon afterwards, finding no scope there
for the exercise of his profession as jurist, he removed them all in
1313 to Avignon. This was a step of no small importance for
the future poet-scholar. Avignon at that period still belonged
to Provence, and owned King Robert of Naples as sovereign.
But the popes had made it their residence after the insults offered
to Boniface VIII. at Anagni in 1303. Avignon was therefore
the centre of that varied society which the high pontiffs of
Christendom have ever gathered round them. Nowhere else
could the youth of genius who was destined to impress a cosmo-
politan stamp on medieval culture and to begin the modern era
have grown up under conditions more favourable to his task.
At Incisa and at Pisa he had learned his mother-tongue. At Car-
pentras, under the direction of Convennole of Prato, he studied
the humanities between the years 1315 and 1319. Avignon,
at a distance from the party strife and somewhat parochial
politics of the Italian commonwealths, impressed his mind
with an ideal of civility raised far above provincial prejudices.

Petrarch's real name according to Tuscan usage was Francesco
di Petracco. But he altered this patronymic, for the sake of
euphony, to Petrarca, proving by this slight change his emanci-
pation from usages which, had he dwelt at Florence, would most
probably have been imposed on him. Petracco, who was very
anxious that his eldest son should become an eminent jurist,
sent him at the age of fifteen to study law at Montpellier. Like
Ovid and many other poets, Petrarch telt no inclination for his
father's profession. His intellect, indeed, was not incapable
of understanding and admiring the majestic edifice of Roman
law; but he shrank with disgust from the illiberal technicalities
of practice. There is an authentic story of Petracco's flinging
the young student's books of poetry and rhetoric upon the fire,
but saving Virgil and Cicero half-burned from the flames at his
son's passionate entreaties. Notwithstanding Petrarch's firm
determination to make himself a scholar and a man of letters
rather than a lawyer, he so far submitted to his father's wishes
as to remove about the year 1323 to Bologna, which was then the
headquarters of juristic learning. There he stayed with his
brother Gherardo until 1326, when his father died, and he
returned to Avignon. Banishment and change of place had
already diminished Petracco's fortune, which was never large;
and a fraudulent administration of his estate after his death left
the two heirs in almost complete destitution. The most precious
remnant of Petrarch's inheritance was a MS. of Cicero. There
remained no course open for him but to take orders. This he
did at once on his arrival in Provence; and we have good reason
to believe that he advanced in due time to the rank of priest.
A great Roman noble and ecclesiastic, Giacomo Colonna, after-
wards bishop of Lombez, now befriended him, and Petrarch lived
for some years in partial dependence on this patron.

On the 6th of April 1327 happened the most famous event of
Petrarch's history. He saw Laura for the first time in the church
of St Clara at Avignon. Who Laura was remains uncertain still.
That she was the daughter of Audibert de Noves and the wife of
Hugh de Sade rests partly on tradition and partly on documents
which the abbe de Sade professed to have copied from originals
in the i8th century. Nothing is now extant to prove that, if
this lady really existed, she was the Laura of the Canzoniere,
while there are reasons for suspecting that the abbe was either
the fabricator of a romance flattering to his own family, or the
dupe of some previous impostor. We may, however, reject the
sceptical hypothesis that Laura was a mere figment of Petrarch's

fancy; and, if we accept her personal reality, the poems of her
lover demonstrate that she was a married woman with whom he
enjoyed a respectful and not very intimate friendship.

Petrarch's inner life after this date is mainly occupied with
the passion which he celebrated in his Italian poems, and with
the friendships which his Latin epistles dimly reveal to us.
Besides the bishop of Lombez he was now on terms of intimacy
with another member of the great Colonna family, the cardinal
Giovanni. A German, Ludwig, whom he called Socrates, and a
Roman, Lello, who received from him the classic name of Laellius,
were among his best-loved associates. Avignon was the chief
seat of his residence up to the year of 1333, when he became
restless and undertook his first long journey. On this occasion
he visited Paris, Ghent, Liege, Cologne, making the acquaintance
of learned men and copying the manuscripts of classical authors.
On his return to Avignon he engaged in public affairs, pleaded
the cause of the Scaligers in their lawsuit with the Rossi for the
lordship of Parma, and addressed two poetical epistles to Pope
Benedict XII. upon the restoration of the papal see to Rome.
His eloquence on behalf of the tyrants of Verona was successful.
It won him the friendship of their ambassador, Azzo di Correggio
— a fact which subsequently influenced his life in no small
measure. Not very long after these events Petrarch made his
first journey to Rome, a journey memorable from the account
which he has left us of the impression he received from its ruins.

It was some time in the year 1337 that he established himself
at Vaucluse and began that life of solitary study, heightened by
communion with nature in her loneliest and wildest moods, which
distinguished him in so remarkable a degree from the common
herd of medieval scholars. Here he spent his time partly among
books, meditating on Roman history, and preparing himself for
the Latin epic of Africa. In his hours of recreation he climbed
the hills or traced the Sorgues from its fountain under those tall
limestone cliffs, while odes and sonnets to Madonna Laura were
committed from his memory to paper. We may also refer many
of his most important treatises in prose, as well as a large portion
of his Latin correspondence, to the leisure he enjoyed in this
retreat. Some woman, unknown to us by name, made him the
father of a son, Giovanni, in the year 1337; and she was probably
the same who brought him a daughter, Francesca, in 1343.
Both children were afterwards legitimized by papal bulls.
Meanwhile his fame as a poet in the Latin and the vulgar tongues
steadily increased, until, when the first draughts of the Africa
began to circulate about the year 1339, it became manifest that
no one had a better right to the laurel crown than Petrarch. A
desire for glory was one of the most deeply-rooted passions of his
nature, and one of the points in which he most strikingly antici-
pated the humanistic scholars who succeeded him. It is not,
therefore, surprising to find that he exerted his influence in several
quarters with the view to obtaining the honours of a public
coronation. The result of his intrigues was that on a single day
in 1340, the ist of September, he received two invitations, from
the university of Paris and from King Robert of Naples respec-
tively. He chose to accept the latter, journeyed in February
1341 to Naples, was honourably entertained by the king, and,
after some formal disputations on matters touching the poet's
art, was sent with magnificent credentials to Rome. There, in
the month of April, Petrarch assumed the poet's crown upon the
Capitol from the hand of the Roman senator amid the plaudits of
the people and the patricians. The oration which he delivered
on this occasion was composed upon these words of Virgil: —
" Sed me Parnassi deserta per ardua dulcis
Raptat amor."

The ancient and the modern eras met together on the Capitol
at Petrarch's coronation, and a new stadium for the human spirit,
that which we are wont to style Renaissance, was opened.

With the coronation in Rome a fresh chapter in the biography
of Petrarch may be said to have begun. Henceforth he ranked
as a rhetorician and a poet of European celebrity, the guest of
princes, and the ambassador to royal courts. During the spring
months of 1341 his friend Azzo di Correggio had succeeded in
freeing Parma from subjugation to the Scaligers, and was laying

312

PETRARCH

the foundations of his own tyranny in that city. He invited
Petrarch to attend him when he made his triumphal entry at the
end of May; and from this time forward for a considerable
period Parma and Vaucluse were the two headquarters of the
poet. The one he called his Transalpine, the other his Cisalpine
Parnassus. The events of the next six years of his life, from May
1341 to May 1347, may be briefly recapitulated. He lost his old
friend the bishop of Lombez by death and his brother Gherardo
by the entrance of the latter into a Carthusian monastery.
Various small benefices were conferred upon him; and repeated
offers of a papal secretaryship, which would have raised him
to the highest dignities, were made and rejected. Petrarch
remained true to the instinct of his own vocation, and had no
intention of sacrificing his studies and his glory to ecclesiastical
ambition. In January 1343 his old friend and patron Robert,
king of Naples, died, and Petrarch was sent on an embassy from
the papal court to his successor Joan. The notices which he has
left us of Neapolitan society at this epoch are interesting, and, it
was now, perhaps, that he met Boccaccio for the first time. The
beginning of the year 1345 was marked by an event more
interesting in the scholar's eyes than any change in dynasties.
This was no less than a discovery at Verona of Cicero's Familiar
Letters. It is much to be regretted that Petrarch found the
precious MS. so late in life, when the style of his own epistles had
been already modelled upon that of Seneca and St Augustine.

In the month of May 1347 Cola di Rienzi accomplished that
extraordinary revolution which for a short space revived the
republic in Rome, and raised this enthusiast to titular equality
with kings. Petrarch, who in politics was no less visionary than
Rienzi, hailed the advent of a founder and deliverer in the
self-styled tribune. Without considering the impossibility of
restoring the majesty of ancient Rome, or the absurdity of
dignifying the medieval Roman rabble by the name of Populus
Romanus, he threw himself with passion into the republican
movement, and sacrificed his old friends of the Colonna family
to what he judged a patriotic duty.

Petrarch built himself a house at Parma in the autumn of 1347.
Here he hoped to pursue the tranquil avocations of a poet
honoured by men of the world and men of letters throughout
Europe, and of an idealistic politician, whose effusions on the
questions of the day were read with pleasure for their style.
But in the course of the next two years this agreeable prospect
was overclouded by a series of calamities. Laura died of the
plague on the 6th of April 1348. Francesco degli Albizzi,
Mainardo Accursio, Roberto de' Bardi, Sennuccio del Bene,
Luchino Visconti, the cardinal Giovanni Colonna and several
other friends followed to the grave in rapid succession. All of
these had been intimate acquaintances and correspondents of
the poet. Friendship with him was a passion; or, what is more
true perhaps, he needed friends for the maintenance of his
intellectual activity at the highest point of its effectiveness.
Therefore he felt the loss of these men acutely. We may say with
certainty that Laura's death, accompanied by that of so many
distinguished associates, was the turning-point in Petrarch's
inner life. He began to think of quitting the world, and pondered
a plan for establishing a kind of humanistic convent, where he
might dedicate himself, in the company of kindred spirits, to still
severer studies and a closer communion with God. Though
nothing came of this scheme, a marked change was henceforth
perceptible in Petrarch's literary compositions. The poems
written In Morte di Madonna Laura are graver and of more
religious tone. The prose works touch on retrospective topics or
deal with subjects of deep meditation. At the same time his
renown, continually spreading, opened to him ever fresh relations
with Italian despots. The noble houses of Gonzaga at Mantua,
at Carrara at Padua, of Este at Ferrara, of Malatesta at Rimini,
of Visconti at Milan, vied with Azzo di Correggio in entertaining
the illustrious man of letters. It was in vain that his correspon-
dents pointed out the discrepancy between his professed zeal for
Italian liberties, his recent enthusiasm for the Roman republic,
and this alliance with tyrants who were destroying the freedom
of the Lombard cities. Petrarch remained an incurable rhetori-

cian; and, while he. stigmatized the despots in his ode to Italy and
in his epistles to the emperor he accepted their hospitality.
They, on their part, seem to have understood his temperament,
and to have agreed to recognize his political theories as of no
practical importance. The tendency to honour men of letters
and to patronize the arts which distinguished Italian princes
throughout the Renaissance period first manifested itself in the
attitude assumed by Visconti and Carraresi to Petrarch.

When the jubilee of 1350 was proclaimed, Petrarch made a
pilgrimage to Rome, passing and returning through Florence,
where he established a firm friendship with Boccaccio. It has
been well remarked that, while all his other friendships are
shadowy and dim, this one alone stands out with clearness. Each
of the two friends had a distinguished personality. Each played
a foremost part in the revival of learning. Boccaccio carried his
admiration for Petrarch to the point of worship Petrarch repaid
him with sympathy, counsel in literary studies, and moral support
which helped to elevate and purify the younger poet's over-
sensuous nature. It was Boccaccio who in the spring of 1351
brought to Petrarch, then resident with the Carrara family at
Padua, an invitation from the seigniory of Florence to accept
the rectorship of their recently founded university. This was
accompanied by a diploma of restoration to his rights as citizen
and restitution of his patrimony. But, flattering as was the
offer, Petrarch declined it. He preferred his literary leisure at
Vaucluse, at Parma, in the courts of princes, to a post which
would have brought him into contact with jealous priors and
have reduced him to the position of the servant of a common-
wealth. Accordingly, we find him journeying again in 1351 to
Vaucluse, again refusing the office of papal secretary, again plan-
ning visionary reforms for the Roman people, and beginning that
curious fragment of an autobiography which is known as the Epistle
to Posterity. Early in 1353 he left Avignon for the last time, and
entered Lombardy by the pass of Mont Genevre, making his way
immediately to Milan. The archbishop Giovanni Visconti was
at this period virtually despot of Milan. He induced Petrarch,
who had long been a friend of the Visconti family, to establish
himself at his court, where he found employment for him as
ambassador and orator. The most memorable of his diplomatic
missions was to Venice in the autumn of 1353. Towards the
close of the long struggle between Genoa and the republic of St
Mark the Genoese entreated Giovanni Visconti to mediate on
their behalf with the Venetians. Petrarch was entrusted with
the office; and on the 8th of November he delivered a studied
oration before the doge Andrea Dandolo and the great council.
His eloquence had no effect; but the orator entered into relations
with the Venetian aristocracy which were afterwards extended
and confirmed. Meanwhile, Milan continued to be his place of
residence. After Giovanni's death he remained in the court of
Bernabo and Galeazzo Visconti, closing his eyes to their cruelties
and exactions, serving them as a diplomatist, making speeches
for them on ceremonial occasions, and partaking of the splendid
hospitality they offered to emperors and princes. It was in this
capacity of an independent man of letters, highly placed and
favoured at one of the most wealthy courts of Europe, that he
addressed epistles to the emperor Charles IV. upon the distracted
state of Italy, and entreated him to resume the old Ghibelline
policy of Imperial interference. Charles IV. passed through
Mantua in the autumn of 1354. There Petrarch made his
acquaintance, and, finding him a man unfit for any noble enter-
prise, declined attending him to Rome. When Charles returned
to Germany, after assuming the crowns in Rome and Milan,
Petrarch addressed a letter of vehement invective and reproach
to the emperor who was so negligent of the duties imposed on
him by his high office. This did not prevent the Visconti sending
him on an embassy to Charles in 1356. Petrarch found him
at Prague, and, after pleading the cause of his masters, was
despatched with honour and the diploma of count palatine. His
student's life at Milan was again interrupted in 1360 by a mission
on which Galeazzo Visconti sent him to King John of France.
The tyrants of Milan were aspiring to royal alliances; Gian
Galeazzo Visconti had been married to Isabella of France;

PETRARCH

Violante Visconti, a few years later, was wedded to the English
duke of Clarence. Petrarch was now commissioned to congratu-
late King John upon his liberation from captivity to England.
This duty performed, he returned to Milan, where in 1361 he
received news of the deaths of his son Giovanni and his old friend
Socrates. Both had been carried off by plague.

The remaining years of Petrarch's life, important as they were
for the furtherance of humanistic studies, may be briefly con-
densed. On the nth of May 1362 he settled at Padua, from the
neighbourhood of which he never moved again to any great
distance. The same year saw him at Venice, making a donation
of his library to the republic of St Mark. Here his friend
Boccaccio introduced to him the Greek teacher Leontius Pilatus.
Petrarch, who possessed a MS. of Homer and a portion of Plato,
never acquired the Greek language, although he attempted to
gain some little knowledge of it in his later years. Homer, he
said, was dumb to him, while he was deaf to Homer; and he could
only approach the Iliad in Boccaccio's rude Latin version. About
this period he saw his daughter Francesca happily married, and
undertook the education of a young scholar from Ravenna,
whose sudden disappearance from his household caused him the
deepest grief. This youth has been identified, but on insufficient
grounds, with that Giovanni Malpaghini of Ravenna who was
destined to form a most important link between Petrarch and
the humanists of the next age of culture. Gradually his oldest
friends dropped off. Azzo di Correggio died in 1362, and Laelius,
Simonides, Barbato, in the following year. His own death was
reported in 1365; but he survived another decade. Much of this
last stage of his life was occupied at Padua in a controversy with
the Averroists, whom he regarded as dangerous antagonists both
to sound religion and to sound culture. A curious treatise, which
grew in part out of this dispute and out of a previous duel
with physicians, was the book Upon his own Ignorance and that of
many others. At last, in 1369, tired with the bustle of a town so
big as Padua, he retired to Arqua, a village in Euganean hills,
where he continued his usual train of literary occupations,
employing several secretaries, and studying unremittingly. All
through these declining years his friendship with Boccaccio was
maintained and strengthened. It rested on a solid basis of
mutual affection and of common studies, the different tempera-
ments of the two scholars securing them against the disagree-
ments of rivalry or jealousy. One of Petrarch's last compositions
was a Latin version of Boccaccio's story of Griselda. On the i8th
of July 1374 his people found the old poet and scholar dead
among his books in the library of that little house which looks
across the hills and lowlands towards the Adriatic.

When we attempt to estimate Petrarch's position in the
history of modern culture, the first thing which strikes us is that
he was even less eminent as an Italian poet than as the founder
of Humanism, the inaugurator of the Renaissance in Italy.
What he achieved for the modern world was not merely to
bequeath to his Italian imitators masterpieces of lyrical art
unrivalled for perfection of workmanship, but also, and far more,
to open out for Europe a new sphere of mental activity. Stand-
ing within the threshold of the middle ages, he surveyed the
kingdom of the modern spirit, and, by his own inexhaustible
industry in the field of scholarship and study, he determined
what we call the revival of learning. By bringing the men of his
own generation into sympathetic contact with antiquity, he gave
a decisive impulse to that European movement which restored
freedom, self-consciousness, and the faculty of progress to the
human intellect. He was the first man to collect libraries, to
accumulate coins, to advocate the preservation of MSS. For
him the authors of the Greek and Latin world were living men —
more real, in fact, than those with whom he corresponded; and
the rhetorical epistles he addressed to Cicero, Seneca and Varro
prove that he dwelt with them on terms of sympathetic intimacy.
So far-reaching were the interests controlled by him in this
capacity of humanist that his achievement as an Italian lyrist
seems by comparison insignificant.

Petrarch's ideal of humanism was essentially a noble one.
He regarded the orator and the poet as teachers, bound to

complete themselves by education, and to exhibit to the world an
image of perfected personality in prose and verse of studied
beauty. Self-culture and self-effectuation seemed to him the
highest aims of man. Everything which contributed to the
formation of a free, impassioned, liberal individuality he regarded
as praiseworthy. Everything which retarded the attainment of
that end was contemptible in his eyes. The authors of antiquity,
the Holy Scriptures and the fathers of the Church were valued
by him as one common source of intellectual enlightenment.
Eminently religious, and orthodox in his convictions, he did not
seek to substitute a pagan for the Christian ideal. This was left
for the scholars of the isth and i6th centuries in Italy. At the
same time, the Latin orators, historians and poets were venerated
by him as depositories of a tradition only second in importance
to revelation. For him there was no schism between Rome and
Galilee, between classical genius and sacred inspiration. Though
the latter took the first rank in relation to man's eternal welfare,
the former was necessary for the perfection of his intellect and
the civilization of his manners. With this double ideal in view,
Petrarch poured scorn upon the French physicians and the Italian
Averroists for their illiberal philistinism, no less than for their
materialistic impiety. True to his conception of independent
intellectual activity, he abstained from a legal career, refused
important ecclesiastical office, and contented himself with paltry
benefices which implied no spiritual or administrative duties,
because he was resolved to follow the one purpose of his life —
self-culture. Whatever in literature revealed the hearts of men
was infinitely precious to him; and for this reason he professed
almost a cult for St Augustine. It was to Augustine, as to a
friend or a confessor, that he poured forth the secrets of his own
soul in the book De contemptu mundi.

In this effort to realize his truest self Petrarch was eminently
successful. Much as he effected by restoring to the world a sound
conception of learning, and by rousing that genuine love and
curiosity which led to the revival, he did even more by im-
pressing on the age his own full-formed and striking personality.
In all things he was original. Whether we regard him as a
priest who published poem after poem in praise of an adored
mistress, as a plebeian man of letters who conversed on equal
terms with kings and princes, as a solitary dedicated to the love
of nature, as an amateur diplomatist treating affairs of state with
pompous eloquence in missives sent to popes and emperors, or
again as a traveller eager for change of scene, ready to climb
mountains for the enjoyment of broad prospects over spreading
champaigns; in all these divers manifestations of his peculiar
genius we trace some contrast with the manners of the i4th
century, some emphatic anticipation of the i6th. The defects
of Petrarch's character were no less striking than its qualities,
and were indeed their complement and counterpart. That
vivid conception of intellectual and moral self-culture which
determined his ideal took the form in actual life of all-absorbing
egotism. He was not content with knowing himself to be
the leader of the age. He claimed autocracy, suffered
no rival near his throne, brooked no contradiction, demanded
unconditional submission to his will and judgment. Petrarch
was made up of contradictions. Praising solitude, playing the
hermit at Vaucluse, he only loved seclusion as a contrast to the
society of courts. While he penned dissertations on the futility of
fame and the burden of celebrity he was trimming his sails to
catch the breeze of popular applause. No one professed a more
austere morality, and few medieval writers indulged in cruder
satire on the female sex; yet he passed some years in the society
of a concubine, and his living masterpiece of art is the apotheosis
of chivalrous passion for a woman. These discords of an un-
decided nature displayed themselves in his political theories and
in his philosophy of conduct. In one mood he was fain to ape
the antique patriot; in another he affected the monastic saint.
He was clamorous for the freedom of the Roman people; yet at
one time he called upon the popes to re-establish themselves in
the Eternal City; at another he besought the emperor to make it
his headquarters; at a third he hailed in Rienzi the founder of
a new republic. He did not perceive that all these plans were

PETRARCH

incompatible. His relations to the Lombard nobles were equally
at variance with his professed patriotism; and, while still a
housemate of Visconti and Correggi, he kept on issuing invectives
against the tyrants who divided Italy. It would not be difficult
to multiply these antitheses in the character and the opinions of
this singular man. But it is more to the purpose to remark that
they were harmonized in a personality of potent and enduring
force.

The point to notice in this complex personality is that
Petrarch's ideal remained always literary. As philosopher, poli-
tician, historian, essayist, orator, he aimed at lucid and harmo-
nious expression — not, indeed, neglecting the importance of the
material he undertook to treat, but approaching his task in the
spirit of an artist rather than a thinker or a man of action. This
accounts for his bewildering versatility, and for his apparent
want of grasp on conditions of fact. Viewed in this light
Petrarch anticipated the Italian Renaissance in its weakness —
that philosophical superficiality, that tendency to ornate
rhetoric, that preoccupation with stylistic trifles, that want of
profound conviction and stern sincerity, which stamp its minor
literary products with the note of mediocrity. Had Petrarch
been possessed with a passion for some commanding principle in
politics, morality or science, instead of with the thirst for self-
glorification and the ideal of artistic culture, it is not wholly
impossible that Italian humanism might have assumed a manlier
and more conscientious tone. But this is not a question which
admits of discussion; for the conditions which made Petrarch
what he was were already potent in Italian society. He did but
express the spirit of the period he opened; and it may also be
added that his own ideal was higher and severer than that of the
illustrious humanists who followed him. •

As an author Petrarch must be considered from two points of
view — first as a writer of Latin verse and prose, secondly as an
Italian lyrist. In the former capacity he was speedily out-
stripped by more fortunate scholars. His eclogues and epistles
and the epic of Africa, on which he set such store, exhibit a
comparatively limited command of Latin metre. His treatises,
orations, and familiar letters, though remarkable for a prose style
which is eminently characteristic of the man, are not distinguished
by purity of diction. Much as he admired Cicero, it is clear that
he had not freed himself from current medieval Latinity. Seneca
and Augustine had been too much used by him as models of
composition. At the same time it will be conceded that he
possessed a copious vocabulary, a fine ear for cadence, and the
faculty of expressing every shade of thought or feeling. What he
lacked was that insight into the best classical masterpieces, that
command of the best classical diction, which is the product of
successive generations of scholarship. To attain to this,
Giovanni da Ravenna, Colluccio Salutato, Poggio and Filelfo
had to labour, before a Poliziano and a Bembo finally prepared
the path for an Erasmus. Had Petrarch been born at the close
of the isth instead of at the opening of the i4th century there is
no doubt that his Latinity would have been as pure, as versatile,
and as pointed as that of the witty stylist of Rotterdam.

With regard to his Italian poetry Petrarch occupies a very
different position. The Rime in Vita e Morte di Madonna Laura
cannot become obsolete, for perfect metrical form has here been
married to language of the choicest and the purest. It is true
that even in the Canzoniere, as Italians prefer to call that collec-
tion of lyrics, Petrarch is not devoid of faults belonging to his age,
and affectations which have imposed themselves with disastrous
effect through his authority upon the literature of Europe. He
appealed in his odes and sonnets to a restricted audience already
educated by the chivalrous love-poetry of Provence and by
Italian imitations of that style. He was not careful to exclude
the commonplaces of the school, nor anxious to finish a work of
art wholly free from fashionable graces and from contemporary
conceits. There is therefore a certain element of artificiality in
his treatment; and this, since it is easier to copy defects than
excellencies, has been perpetuated with wearisome monotony
by versifiers who chose him for their model. But, after making
due allowance for peculiarities, the abuse of which has brought

the name of Petrarchist into contempt, we can agree with Shelley
that the lyrics of the Canzoniere " are as spells which unseal the
inmost enchanted fountains of the delight which is the grief of
love." Much might be written about the peculiar position held
by Petrarch between the metaphysical lyrists of Tuscany and the
more realistic amorists of succeeding generations. True in this
respect also to his anticipation of the coming age, he was the first
Italian poet of love to free himself from allegory and mysticism.
Yet he was far from approaching the analysis of emotion with
the directness of a Heine or De Mussel. Though we believe in
the reality of Laura, we derive no clear conception either of her
person or her character. She is not so much a woman as woman
in the abstract; and perhaps on this very account the poems
written for her by her lover have been taken to the heart by
countless lovers who came after him. The method of his art is so
generalizing, while his feeling is so natural, that every man can
see himself reflected in the singer and his mistress shadowed forth
in Laura. The same criticism might be passed on Petrarch's
descriptions of nature. That he felt the beauties of nature keenly
is certain, and he frequently touches them with obvious appreci-
ation. Yet he has written nothing so characteristic of Vaucluse
as to be inapplicable to any solitude where there are woods and
water. The Canzoniere is therefore one long melodious monody
poured from the poet's soul, with the indefinite form of a beautiful
woman seated in a lovely landscape, a perpetual object of delight-
ful contemplation. This disengagement from local circumstance
without the sacrifice of emotional sincerity is a merit in Petrarch,
but it became a fault in his imitators. Lacking his intensity of
passion and his admirable faculty for seizing the most evanescent
shades of difference in feeling, they degenerated into colourless
and lifeless insipidities made insupportable by the frigid repeti-
tion of tropes and conceits which we are fain to pardon in the
master.

Petrarch did not distinguish himself by love-poetry alone in
the Italian language. His odes to Giacomo Colonna, to Cola di
Rienzi and to the princes of Italy display him in another light.
They exhibit the oratorical fervour, the pleader's eloquence in its
most perfect lustre, which Petrarch possessed in no less measure
than subjective passion. Modern literature has nothing nobler,
nothing more harmonious in the declamatory style than these
three patriotic effusions. Their spirit itself is epoch-making in
the history of Europe. Up to this point Italy had scarcely begun
to exist. There were Florentines and Lombards, Guelfs and
Ghibellines; but even Dante had scarcely conceived of Italy
as a nation, independent of the empire, inclusive of her several
component commonwealths. To the high conception of Italian
nationality, to the belief in that spiritual unity which underlay
her many discords and divisions, Petrarch attained partly through
his disengagement from civic and local partisanship, partly
through his large and liberal ideal of culture.

The materials for a life of Petrarch are afforded in abundance by
his letters, collected and prepared for publication under his own
eyes. These are divided into Familiar Correspondence, Correspond-
ence in Old Age, Divers Letters and Letters without a Title; to which
may be added the curious autobiographical fragment entitled the
Epistle to Posterity. Next in importance rank the epistles and
eclogues in Latin verse, the Italian poems and the rhetorical ad-
dresses to popes, emperors, Cola di Rienzi and some great men of
antiquity. For the comprehension of his character the treatise De
contemptu mundi, addressed to St Augustine and styled his Secret,
is invaluable. Without attempting a complete list of Petrarch's
works, it may be well to illustrate the extent of his erudition and
his activity as a writer by a brief enumeration of the most im-
portant. In the section belonging to moral philosophy, we find
De remediis utriusque fortunae, a treatise on human happiness
and unhappiness; De vita solitaria, a panegyric of solitude; De
olio religiosorum, a similar essay on monastic life, inspired by
a visit to his brother Gherardo in his convent near Marseilles. On
historical subjects the most considerable are Rerum memorandarum
libri, a miscellany from a student's commonplace-book, and De
viris illustribus, an epitome of the biographies of Roman worthies.
Three polemical works require mention : Contra cujusdam anonymi
Galli calumnias apologia. Contra medicum quendam invectivarum
libri, and De sm ipsius et multorum ignorantia — controversial
and sarcastic compositions, which grew out of Petrarch's quarrels
with the physicians of Avignon and the Averrpists of Padua. In
this connexion it might also be well to mention the remarkable

PETRE, SIR E.— PETREL

satires on the papal court, included in the Epistolae sine titulo.
Five public orations have been preserved, the most weighty of
which, in explanation of Petrarch's conception of literature, is the
speech delivered on the Capitol upon the occasion of his coronation.
Among his Latin poems Africa, an epic on Scipio Africanus, takes
the first place. Twelve Eclogues and three books of Epistles in
verse close the list. In Italian we possess the Canzoniere, which
includes odes and sonnets written for Laura during her lifetime,
those written for her after her death, and a miscellaneous section
containing the three patriotic odes and three famous poetical
invectives against the papal court. Besides these lyrical composi-
tions are the semi-epical or allegorical Trionfi — Triumphs of Love,
Chastity, Death, Fame, Time and Divinity, written in terza rima
of smooth and limpid quality. Though these Triumphs, as a
whole, are deficient in poetic inspiration, the second canto of the
Trionfo della morte, in which Petrarch describes a vision of his
dead love Laura, is justly famous for reserved passion and pathos
tempered to a tranquil harmony.

The complete bibliography of Petrarch forms a considerable
volume. Such a work was attempted by Domenico Rossetti
(Trieste, 1828). It will be enough here to mention the Basel edition
of 1581, in folio, as the basis for all subsequent editions of his
collected works. Among editions of the Canzoniere special mention
may be made of those of Marsand (Padua, 1820), Leopardi in Le
Monnier's collection, Mestica (1895), and Cardnui (1899). Nor
must Fracassetti's Italian version of the Letters (published in 5 vols.
by Le Monnier) be neglected. De Sade's Life of the poet (Amster-
dam, 1764-1767) marks an epoch in the history of his numerous
biographies; but this is in many important points untrustworthy,
and it has been superseded by Gustav Koerting's exhaustive
volume on Petrarcas Leben und Werke (Leipzig, 1878). Georg
Voigt's Wiederbelebung des classischen Alterthums (Berlin, 1859)
contains a well-digested estimate of Petrarch's relation to the
revival of learning. Meziere's Petrarqtie (1868) is a monograph of
merit. English readers may be referred to a little book on Petrarch
by Henry Reeve, and to vols. ii. and iv. of Symond's Renaissance
in Italy. See also Maud F. Jerrold, Francesco Petrarca, poet and
humanist (1909). (J. A. S.)

PETRE, SIR EDWARD (1631-1699), Jesuit confessor of King
James II. of England, was born in Paris. He was the son of Sir
Francis Petre, Bart., of Cranham, head of a junior branch of the
family of the Barons Petre, and his wife Elizabeth Gage,
daughter of Sir John Gage, both strong Roman Catholics. In
1649 he was sent for his education to the Jesuit College at St
Omer, and he entered the order under the name of Spencer in
1652, but did not receive the full orders till 1671. In 1679 he
succeeded his elder brother in the title and family estates. On
the accession of James II. in 1685 he was chosen as confessor by
the king, who looked upon him as " a resolute and undertaking
man." During the whole of the king's reign Petre was one of
his advisers who did the most to encourage him in the policy
which ended by producing the revolution of 1688. The king
contemplated making him archbishop of York, as the see was
then vacant, but the pope, Innocent XI., who was not friendly to
the order, would not grant a dispensation to hold it, and even
directed Petre's superiors to rebuke him for his excessive am-
bition. In 1687 he was made privy councillor. When the
revolution broke out Petre was compelled to flee disguised as a
woman. After his flight he had no further relations with
James II. After a visit to Rome, he became head of the Jesuit
College at St Omer in 1693, from whence he was transferred to
Walten in Flanders in 1697. He died on the i5th of May
1699. A younger brother Charles (1644-1712) was alsp a
member of the order.

PETRE, SIR WILLIAM (c. 1305-1572), English politician,
was a son of John Petre, a Devon man, and was educated at
Exeter College, Oxford, afterwards becoming a fellow of All
Souls' College. He entered the public service in early life, owing
his introduction therein doubtless to the fact that at Oxford
he had been tutor to Anne Boleyn's brother, George Boleyn,
Viscount Rochford, and began his official career by serving the
English government abroad. In 1536 he was made deputy, or
proctor, for the vicar-general, Thomas Cromwell, and as such he
presided over the convocation which met in June of this year.
In 1543 Petre was knighted and was appointed a secretary of
state; in 1545 he was sent as ambassador to the emperor
Charles V. A very politic man, he retained his position
under Edward VI. and also under Mary, forsaking the protector
Somerset at the right moment and winning Mary's goodwill by

favouring her marriage with Philip II. of Spain. He resigned
his secretaryship in 1557, but took some part in public business
under Elizabeth until his death at his residence, Ingatestone,
Essex, on the i3th of January 1572.

His son John Petre (1540-1613) was created Baron Petre of
Writtle in 1603. The 2nd baron was his son William (1575-
1637), whose grandson was William, the 4th baron (c. 1626-
1684). Denounced by Titus Gates as a papist, the last named
was arrested with other Roman Catholic noblemen in 1678 and
remained without trial in the Tower of London until his death.
His brother John (1629-1684) was the sth lord, and the latter's
nephew, Robert (1689-1713), was the 7th lord. It was Robert's
action in cutting a lock of hair from a lady's head which led Pope
to write his poem " The Rape of the Lock." The Petres have been
consistently attached to the Roman Catholic faith, William
Joseph, the i3th baron (1847-1893), being a priest of the Roman
church, and the barony is still (1911) in existence. One of the
ist baron's grandsons was William Petre (1602-1677), who trans-
lated the Flos sanctorum of Pedro de Ribadeneira as Lives of the
Saints (St Omer, 1699; London, 1730).

See Genealogical Collections illustrating the History of Roman
Catholic Families of England, vol. i., edited by J. J. Howard and
H. F. Burke.

PETREL, the general name of a group of birds (of which more
than 100 species are recognized), derived from the habit which
some of them possess of apparently walking on the surface of the
water as the apostle St Peter (of whose name the word is a
diminutive form) is recorded (Matt. xiv. 29) to have done. The
petrels, all of which are placed in the family Procellariidae, were
formerly associated with the Laridae (see GULL), but they are
now placed as the sole members of the suborder Tubinares (the
name denoting the characteristic tubular structure of their
nostrils) and of the order Procellariiformes (see BIRD). They are
subdivided into four groups or subfamilies: (i) Pelecanoidinae
(or Halodrominae), containing some three or four species known
as diving-petrels, with habits very different from others of the
family, and almost peculiar to high southern latitudes from Cape
Horn to New Zealand; (2) Procellariinae, or petrels proper (and
shearwaters); (3) Diomedeinae, or albatrosses (see MALLEMUCK);
and (4) Oceanitinae, containing small sooty-black birds of the
genera Cymodroma, Pealea, Pelagodroma, Garrodia and Oceaniles,
the distinctive nature of which was first recognized by Coues
in 1864.

Petrels are archaic oceanic forms, with great powers of flight,
dispersed throughout all the seas and oceans of the world, and
some species apparently never resort to land except for the pur-
pose of nidification, though nearly all are liable at times to be
driven ashore, and often very far inland, by gales of wind.1 It
would also seem that during the breeding-season many of them
are wholly nocturnal in their habits, passing the day in holes of
the ground, or in clefts of the rocks, in which they generally
nestle, the hen of each pair laying a single white egg, sparsely
speckled in a few species with fine reddish dots. Of those
species that frequent the North Atlantic, the common Storm-
Petrel, Procellaria pelagica, a little bird which has to the
ordinary eye rather the look of a Swift or Swallow, is the
" Mother Carey's chicken " of sailors, and is widely believed to be
the harbinger of bad weather; but seamen hardly discriminate
between this and others nearly resembling it in appearance, such
as Leach's or the Fork-tailed Petrel, Cymochorea leucorrhoa, a
rather larger but less common bird, and Wilson's Petrel, Ocean-
iles oceanicus, the type of the Family Oceanitidae mentioned
above, which is more common on the American side. But it is in
the Southern Ocean that Petrels most abound, both as species
and as individuals. The Cape-Pigeon or Pintado Petrel, Daption
capensis, is one that has long been well known to mariners and
other wayfarers on the great waters, while those who voyage to
or from Australia, whatever be the route they take, are

1 Thus Oestrelata haesitata, the Capped Petrel, a species whose
proper home seems to be Guadeloupe and some of the neighbouring
West-Indian Islands, has occurred in the State of New York, near
Boulogne, in Norfolk, and in Hungary (Ibis, 1884, p. 202).

316

PETRIE, G.— PETROLEUM

certain to meet with many more species, some, as Ossifraga
gigantea, as large as Albatrosses, and several of them called by
sailors by a variety of choice names, generally having reference
to the strong smell of musk emitted by the birds, among which
that of " Stink-pot " is not the most opprobrious. None of
the Petrels are endowed with any brilliant colouring — sooty-
black, grey of various tints (one of which is often called
" blue "), and white being the only hues the plumage exhibits.

The distribution of the several species of Petrels in the Southern
Ocean has been treated by A. Milne-Edwards in the Annales des
sciences naturelles for 1882 (6th series Zoologie, vol. xiii. art. 4, pp.
1-22). (A- N.)

PETRIE, GEORGE (1790-1866), Irish antiquary, was the son
of James Petrie, a native of Aberdeen, who had settled in Dublin
as a portrait and miniature painter. He was born in Dublin in
January 1790, and was educated as an artist. Besides attaining
considerable reputation as a painter of Irish landscape, he
devoted much time to the illustration of the antiquities of the
country. In 1828 he was appointed to conduct the antiquarian
and historical section of the ordnance survey of Ireland. In
1832 he became editor of the Dublin Penny Journal, a periodical
designed to disseminate information among the masses, to which
he contributed numerous articles on the history of the fine arts
in Ireland. Petrie may be regarded as the first scientific in-
vestigator of Irish archaeology, his contributions to which are
also in themselves of much importance. His Essay on Round
Towers, for which in 1830 he received the prize of the Irish
Academy, still ranks as a standard work. Among his other
contributions to Irish archaeology are his Essay on the Military
Architecture oj Ireland and his History and Antiquities of Tar a
Hill. He died on the 1 7th of January 1866.

See the Life and Labours in Art and Archaeology of George Petrie,
by William Stokes (1868).

PETRIE, WILLIAM MATTHEW FLINDERS (1833- ),
English egyptologist, was born at Charlton on the 3rd of June
1853, being the son of William Petrie, C.E. His mother was the
daughter of Captain Matthew Flinders, the Australian explorer.
He took an early interest in archaeological research, and between
1875 and 1880 was busily engaged in studying ancient British
remains at Stonehenge and elsewhere.; in 1880 he published his
book on Stonehenge, with an account of his theories on this
subject. He was also much interested in ancient weights and
measures, and in 1875 published a work on Inductive Metrology.
In 1881 he began a long series of important surveys and excava-
tions in Egypt, beginning with the pyramids at Giza, and follow-
ing up his work there by excavations at the great temple at Tanis
(1884), and discovering and exploring the long-lost Greek city of
Naucratis in the Delta (1885), and the towns of Am and Daphnae
(1886), where he found important remains of the time when they
were inhabited by the Pharaohs. Between 1888 and 1890 he
was at work in the Fayum, opening up Hawara, Kahun and
Lachish; and in 1891 he discovered the ancient temple at Medum.
Much of this work was done in connexion with the Palestine
Exploration Fund. By this time his reputation was estab-
lished. He published in 1893 his Ten Years' Diggings in Egypt,
was given the honorary degree of D.C.L. by Oxford, and was
appointed Edwards Professor of Egyptology at University
College, London. In 1894 he founded the Egyptian Research
Account, which in 1905 was reconstituted as the British School
of Archaeology in Egypt (not to be confused with the Egypt
Exploration Fund, founded 1892). Perhaps the most important
work which the School has accomplished has been the investi-
gation of the site of Memphis (<?.».)

The extent as well as the chronological order of Professor Petrie's
excavations may best be shown by a list of his works.

WORKS. — His chief general works on Egyptian subjects are,
Ten Years' Diggings in Egypt (1893); History of Egypt (1894—
1905); Egyptian Tales (1895); Religion and Conscience in Ancient
Egypt (1898); Syria and Egypt (1898); Royal Tombs of the First
Dynasty (1900); Royal Tombs of the Earliest Dynasties (1901);
Hyksos and Israelite Cities (1906) ; Religion of Ancient Egypt (1906) ;
Personal Religion in Egypt (1908). On particular sites, Pyramids
and Temples of Gizeh (1883); Tanis I. (1885); Nankratis I. (1886);
Hawara (1889); Kahun (1890); Illahun (1891); Medum (1892);

Tell el Amarna (1895); Koptos (1896); Nogada (1896); Six
Temples at Thebes (1897); Deshasheh (1897); Dendereh (1900);
Diospolis (1901); Abydos I. (1902); Abydos II. (1903); Ehnasya
[1904); Egyptians in Sinai and Researches in Sinai (1906); Gizeh
and Rifeh (1907); Athribis (1908); Memphis and Qurneh (1909).

PETRIOU (also called Cha-chang-sao) , a town and port of
Siam, in the division of Pachim, about 45 m. E. of Bangkok.
It is the centre of that part of southern Siam which is watered
by the Bang Pakong River. It is built on low-lying, swampy
ground, about 10 m. from the mouth of the above river. The
population is about 10,000, mixed Siamese and Chinese, the
latter slightly predominating. Rice-mills give employment to
a large number of indentured Chinese coolies, but the inhabi-
tants are chiefly engaged in agriculture. A railway connecting
with Bangkok was opened in the spring of 1908.

PETROLEA, a town and port of entry in Lambton county,
Ontario, Canada, situated 42 m. W. of London on Bear Creek,
an affluent of Sydenham River, and on the Grand Trunk and
Michigan Central railways. Pop. (1901), 4I3S- It is in the
midst of the oil region of Canada, and numerous wells in the
vicinity have an aggregate output of about 30,000,000 gallons
of crude oil per annum, much of which is refined in the town.

PETROLEUM (Lat. petra, rock, and oleum, oil), a term which,
in its widest sense, embraces the whole of the hydrocarbons,
gaseous, liquid and solid, occurring in nature (see BITUMEN).
Here the application of the term is limited to the liquid which
is so important an article of commerce, though references will
also be made to natural gas which accompanies petroleum.
Descriptions of the solid forms will be found in the articles on
asphalt or asphaltum, albertite, elaterite, gilsonite, hatchettite
and ozokerite. Particulars of the shales which yield oil on
destructive distillation are given in the article on paraffin.

Ancient History. — Petroleum was collected for use in the most
remote ages of which we have any records. Herodotus de-
scribes the oil pits near Ardericca (near Babylon), and the pitch
spring of Zacynthus (Zante), whilst Strabo, Dioscorides and
Pliny mention the use of the oil of Agrigentum, in Sicily, for
illumination, and Plutarch refers to the petroleum found near
Ecbatana (Kerkuk). The ancient records of China and Japan
are said to contain many allusions to the use of natural gas
for lighting and heating. Petroleum (" burning water ") was
known in Japan in the 7th century, whilst in Europe the gas
springs of the north of Italy led to the adoption in 1226 by the
municipality of Salsomaggiore of a salamander surrounded by
flames as its emblem. Marco Polo refers to the oil springs of
Baku towards the end of the i3th century; the medicinal proper-
ties of the oil of Tegernsee in Bavaria gave it the name of " St
Quirinus's Oil " in 1436; the oil of Pechelbronn, Elsass, was dis-
covered in 1498, and the " earthbalsam " of Galicia was known
in 1506. The earliest mention of American petroleum occurs
in Sir Walter Raleigh's account of the Trinidad pitch-lake in
1595; whilst thirty-seven years later, the account of a visit of
a Franciscan, Joseph de la Roche d'Allion, to the oil springs of
New York was published in Sagard's Histoire du Canada. In
the 1 7th century, Thomas Shirley brought the natural gas of
Wigan, in Shropshire, to the notice of the Royal Society. In
1 7 24 Hermann Boernaave referred to the oleum terrae of Burma,
and "Barbados tar" was then well known as a medicinal agent.
A Russian traveller, Peter Kalm, in his work on America,
published in 1748, showed on a map the oil springs of Pennsyl-
vania, and about the same time Raicevich referred to the
" liquid bitumen " of Rumania.

Modern Development and Industrial Progress. — The first
commercial exploitation of importance appears to have been the
distillation of the oil at Alfreton in Derbyshire by James Young,
who patented his process for the manufacture of paraffin in
1850. In 1853 and 1854 patents for the preparation of this
substance from petroleum were obtained by Warren de la Rue,
and the process was applied to the " Rangoon oil " brought to
Great Britain from Yenangyaung in Upper Burma. The active
growth of the petroleum industry of the United States began
in 1859, though in the early part of the century the petroleum
of Lake Seneca, N.Y., was used as an embrocation under the

PETROLEUM

3*7

name of "Seneca oil," and the "American Medicinal Oil"
of Kentucky was largely sold after its discovery in 1829. The
Pennsylvania Rock Oil Company was formed in 1854, but its
operations were unsuccessful, and in 1858 certain of the mem-
bers founded the Seneca Oil Company, under whose direction
E. L. Drake started a well on Oil Creek, Pennsylvania. After
drilling had been carried to a depth of 69 feet, on the 28th of
August 1859, the tools suddenly dropped into a crevice, and on
the following day the well was found to have " struck oil."
This well yielded 25 barrels a day for some time, but at the end
of the year the output was at the rate of 15 barrels. The pro-
duction of crude petroleum in the United States was officially
reported to have been 2000 barrels in 1859, 4,215,0x30 barrels
in 1869, 19,914,146 barrels in 1879, 35,163,513 barrels in 1889,
57,084,428 barrels in 1899, and 126,493,936 barrels in 1906.
From Oil Creek, development spread first over the eastern
United States and then became general, subsequently embracing
Canada (1862), recently discovered fields being those of Illinois,
Alberta and California (44,854,737 barrels in 1908).

For about 10 years Pennsylvania was the one great oil pro-
ducer of the world, but since 1870 the industry has spread all
over the globe. From the time of the completion on the Baku
field of the first flowing well (which was unmanageable and
resulted in the loss of the greater part of the oil), Russia has
ranked second in the list of producing countries, whilst Galicia
and Rumania became prominent in 1878 and 1880 respectively.
Sumatra, Java and Borneo, where active development began
in 1883, 1886 and 1896, bid fair to rank before long among the
chief sources of the oil supplies of the world. Similarly, Burma,
where the Burmah Oil Company have, since 1890, rapidly
extended their operations, is rising to a position of importance.
Oil fields are being continually opened up in other parts of the
world, and whilst America still maintains her position as the
largest petroleum producer, the world's supplies are now being
derived from a steadily increasing number of centres.

Physical and Chemical Properties. — Although our information
respecting the chemical composition of petroleum has been
almost entirely gained since the middle of the i8th century, a
considerable amount of empirical knowledge of the substance
was possessed by chemists at an earlier date, and there was much
speculation as to its origin. In his Sylva syharum (1627),
Francis Bacon states that " the original concretion of bitumen
is a mixture of a fiery and watery substance," and observes
that flame " attracts " the naphtha of Babylon " afar off."
P. J. Macquer (1764), T. O. Bergman (1784) Charles Hatchett
(1798) and others also expressed views with regard to the
constitution and origin of bitumens. Of these early writers,
Hatchett is the most explicit, the various bituminous substances
being by him classified and defined. Jacob Joseph Winterl,
in 1788, appears to have been the first to examine petroleum
chemically, but the earliest systematic investigation was that
carried out by Professor B. Silliman, Jun., in 1855, who then
reported upon the results which he had obtained with the
" rock oil or petroleum " of Venango county, Pennsylvania.
This report has become a classic in the literature of petroleum.

The physical properties of petroleum vary greatly. The
colour ranges from pale yellow through red and brown to black
or greenish, while by reflected light it is, in the majority of cases,
of a green hue. The specific gravity of crude petroleum appears
to range from -771 to 1-06, and the flash point from below o°
to 37o°F. Viscosity increases with density, but oils of the same
density often vary greatly; the coefficient of expansion, on the
other hand, varies inversely with the density, but bears no
simple relation to the change of fluidity of the oil under the
influence of heat, this being most marked in oils of paraffin
base. The calorific power of Baku oil appears to be highest,
wliile this oil is poorest in solid hydrocarbons, of which the
American petroleums contain moderate quantities, and the
Upper Burma oils the largest amount. The boiling point, being
determined by the character of the constituents of the oil,
necessarily varies greatly in different oils, as do the amounts of
distillate obtained from them at specified temperatures.

Even prior to the discovery of petroleum in commercial
quantities, a number of chemists had made determinations of
the chemical composition of several different varieties, and these
investigations, supplemented by those of a later date, show that
petroleum consists of about 84% by weight of carbon with 12%
of hydrogen, and varying proportions of sulphur, nitrogen and
oxygen. The principal elements are found in various combina-
tions, the hydrocarbons of the Pennsylvania oils being mainly
paraffins (q.v.), while those of Caucasian petroleum belong for
the most part to the naphthenes, isomeric with the olefines (g.v.).

Paraffins are found in all crude oils, and olefines in varying
proportions in the majority, while acetylene has been found in
Baku oil; members of the benzene group and its derivatives,
notably benzene and toluene, occur in all petroleums. Naph-
thenes are the chief components of some oils, as already indicated,
and occur in varying quantities in many others. Certain crude
oils have also been found to contain camphenes, naphthalene
and other aromatic hydrocarbons. It is found that transparent
oils under the influence of light absorb oxygen, becoming deeper
in colour and opalescent, while strong acidity and a penetrating
odour are developed, these changes being due to the formation
of various acid and phenylated compounds, which are also
occasionally found in fresh oils. The residues from petroleum
distillation have been shown to contain very dense solids and
liquids of high specific gravity, having a large proportion of
carbon and possessed of remarkable fluorescent properties.

Natural gas is found to consist mainly of the lower paraffins,
with varying quantities of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide,
hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen, in some cases also sulphuretted
hydrogen and possibly ammonia. This mixture dissolves in
petroleum, escaping when the oil is stored, and conversely it
invariably carries a certain amount of water and oil, which is
deposited on compression.

Occurrence. — Bitumen is, in its various forms, one of the most
widely-distributed of substances, occurring in strata of every
geological age, from the lowest Archean rocks to those now in
process of deposition, and in greater or less quantity throughout
both hemispheres, from Spitzbergen to New Zealand, and from
California to Japan. The occurrence of commercially valuable
petroleum is, however, comparatively limited, hitherto exploited
deposits being confined to rocks younger than the Cambrian and
older than the Quaternary, while the majority of developed oil-
fields have been discovered north of the equator.

The main requisites for a productive oil or gas field are a porous
reservoir and an impervious cover. Thus, while the mineral may
be formed in a stratum other than that in which it is found, though
in many cases it is indigenous to it, for the formation of a natural
reservoir of the fluid (whether liquid or gas) it is necessary that
there should be a suitable porous rock to contain it. Such a rock
is typically exemplified by a coarse-grained sandstone or con-
glomerate, while a limestone may be naturally porous, or, like
the Trenton limestone of Ohio and Indiana, rendered so by its
conversion into dolomite and the consequent production of cavities
due to shrinkage — a change occurring only in the purer limestones.
Similarly it is necessary, in view of the hydrostatical relations of
water and mineral oils, and the volatile character of the latter,
that the porous stratum should be protected from water and air
by an overlying shale or other impervious deposit. Water, often
saline or sulphurous, is also found in these porous rocks and re-
places the oil as the latter is withdrawn.

In addition to these two necessary factors, structural conditions
play an important part in determining the accumulation of oil
and gas. The main supplies have been obtained from strata
unbroken and comparatively undisturbed, but the occurrence
of anticlinal or terrace structure, however slightly marked or limited
in extent, exerts a powerful influence on the creation of reservoirs
of petroleum. These tectonic arches often extend for long dis-
tances with great regularity, but are frequently crossed by sub-
sidiary anticlines, which themselves play a not unimportant part
in the aggregation of the oil. Owing to difference of density the
oil and water in the anticlines separate into two layers, the upper
consisting of oil which fills the anticlines, while the water remains
in the synclines. Any gas which may be present rises to the summits
of the anticlines. When the slow folding of the strata is accom-
panied by a gradual local descent, a modified or " arrested "
anticlinal structure, known as a " terrace " is produced, the up-
heaving action at that part being sufficient only to arrest the descent
which would otherwise occur. The terraces may thus be regarded
as flat and extended anticlines. They need not be horizontal,
and sometimes have a dip of a few feet per mile, as in the case of
the Ohio and Indiana oil fields, where the amount varies from

3i8

PETROLEUM

one to ten feet. These slight differences in level, however, are
found to have a most powerful effect in the direction already
mentioned.

It is evident that accurate knowledge of the character and
structure of the rock-formations in petroliferou^ territories is of
the greatest importance in enabling the expert to select favourable
sites for drilling operations; hence on well-conducted petroleum-
properties it is now customary to note the character 4nd thickness
of the strata perforated by the drill, so that a complete section
may be prepared from the recorded data. In some cases the depths
are stated with reference to sea-level, instead of being taken from
the surface, thus greatly facilitating the utilization of the records.

Oil and gas are often met with in drilled wells under great pressure,
which is highest as a rule in the deepest wells. The closed pressure
in the Trenton limestone in Ohio and Indiana is about 200— 300 Ib.
per sq. in., although a much higher pressure has been registered
in many wells. The gas wells of Pennsylvania indicate about
double the pressure of those drilled in the Trenton limestone,
600-800 Ib. not being unusual, and even 1000 Ib having been
recorded. The extremely high pressure under which oil is met
with in wells drilled in some parts of the Russian oil fields is a matter
of common knowledge, and a fountain or spouting well resulting
therefrom is one of the " sights " of the country. A famous fountain
in the Grozny! oil field in' the northern Caucasus, which began to
flow in August 1895, was estimated to have thrown up during the
first three days 1,200,000 poods (over 4,500,000 gallons, or about
18,500 tons) of oil a day. It flowed continuously, though in
gradually diminishing quantity, for fifteen months; afterwards
the flow became intermittent. In April 1897 there was still an
occasional outburst of oil and gas.

Three theories have been propounded to account for this
pressure : —

1. That it results from the weight of the overlying strata.

2. That it is due to water-pressure, as in artesian wells (" hydro-
static " or " artesian " theory).

3. That it is caused by the compressed condition of the gradually
accumulating gas.

Of these the first has been proved untenable, and while in some
instances (e.g. certain wells in Ohio), the second has held good,
the third appears to be the most widely applicable.

The conditions of formation and accumulation of petroleum
point to the fact that the principal oil fields of the world are merely
reservoirs, which will become exhausted in the course of years, as
in the case of the decreasing yield of certain of the American fields.
But new deposits are continually being exploited, and there may
be others as yet unknown, which would entirely alter any view
that might be expressed at the present time in regard to the probable
duration of the world's supply of oil and gas.

As already stated, every one of the great geological systems
appears to have produced some form of bitumen, and in the follow-
ing table an attempt has been made to classify on this basis the
various localities in which petroleum or natural gas has been found
in large or small quantities: —

Recent. — Lancashire (Down Holland Moss), Holland, Sweden,
Sardinia, Kaluga (Russia), Red Sea, Mediterranean.

Pleistocene. — Schleswig-Holstein, Minnesota, Illinois, Louisiana.

Pliocene. — Spain, Italy, Albania, Croatia, Hungary, Hesse,
Hanover, Transcaspia, Algeria, Florida, Alabama, California,
Mexico, Peru, Victoria, New Zealand.

Miocene. — France, Switzerland, Spain, Italy, Sicily, Greece,
Rumania, Turkey-in-Europe, Styria, Slavonia, Hungary, Transyl-
vania, Galicia, Lower Austria, Wurttemberg, Brandenberg, West
Prussia, Crimea, Kuban, Terek, Kutais, Tiflis, Elizabetpol, Siberia,
Transcaspia, Mesopotamia, Persia, Assam, Burma, Anam, Japan,
Philippine Islands, Borneo, Sumatra, Java, Algeria, Egypt, British
Columbia, Alaska, Washington, California, Colorado, Texas,
Louisiana, Barbados, Trinidad, Venezuela, Peru, South Australia,
Victoria, New Zealand.

Oligocene. — France, Spain, Greece, Rumania, Hungary, Transyl-
vania, Galicia, Bavaria, Elsass, Rhenish Bavaria, Hesse, Saxony,
Crimea, Daghestan, Tiflis, Baku, Alaska, California, Florida.

Eocene. — Devonshire (retinasphalt), France, Spain, Italy, Asia
Minor, Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Rumania, Dalmatia,
Istria, Hungary, Transylvania, Galicia, Moravia, Bavaria, Elsass,
Kutais, Armenia, Persia, Baluchistan, Afghanistan, Punjab,
Assam, Sumatra, Algeria, Egypt, Maryland, Colorado, Utah,
Nevada, California, Louisiana, Texas, Cuba, Colombia, Brazil.

Cretaceous. — Holland, France, Switzerland, Spain, Italy, Sicily,
Greece, Hungary, Silesia, Moravia, Westphalia, Brunswick, Hanover,
Schleswig-Holstein, (German) Silesia, Poland, Kutais, Uralsk,
Turkestan, Armenia, Syria, Arabia, Persia, Tunis, Egypt, West
Africa, British Columbia, Alberta, Assiniboia, Athabasca, Manitoba,
New Jersey, _South Dakota, Washington, Montana, Oklahoma,
Utah, Wyoming, Colorado, California, New Mexico, Arkansas,
Texas, Louisiana, Mexico, Hayti, Trinidad, Colombia, Argentina [?],
New Zealand.

Neocomian. — Sussex, France, Switzerland, Spain, Hungary,
Transylvania, _Bukowina, Galicia, Hesse, Baden, Hanover, Bruns-
wick, California, Texas, Mexico, Bolivia, Argentina.

Jurassic. — Yorkshire, Somerset, Buckingham, France, Switzer-

land, Spain, Italy, Lower Austria, Baden, Elsass, Hesse, Hanover,
Brunswick, Sizran, Tiflis, Siberia, Persia, Madagascar, Alaska,
Wyoming, Colorado, Mexico, Argentina.

Triassic. — Yorkshire, Staffordshire, France, Portugal, Spain,
Italy, Montenegro, Upper Austria, Tyrol, Bavaria, Wurttemberg,
Baden, Elsass, Lothringen, Rhenish Bavaria, Rhenish Prussia,
Hanover, Brunswick, Sweden, Spitzbergen, Punjab, China, Trans-
vaal, Cape Colony, Connecticut, New Jersey, Virginia, North Caro-
lina, Wyoming, Argentina, New South Wales, Queensland.

Permian. — -Yorkshire, Denbigh, Moravia, Bohemia, Baden,
Saxony, Vologda, Afa, Kazan, Simbirsk, Samara, Kansas, Wyoming,
Oklahoma, Texas (Permo-Carboniferous).

Carboniferous. — Scotland, North of England, and Midlands,
Wales, France, Belgium, Carniola, Moravia, Elsass, Saxony, Perm,
Sizran, China, Cape Colony, Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, Pennsyl-
vania, West Virginia, Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa,
Missouri, Tennessee, Kentucky, Alabama, Kansas, Arkansas,
Colorado, Oklahoma, Tasmania, Victoria (Permo-Carboniferous),
West Australia (Permo-Carboniferous).

Devonian. — Scotland, Devonshire, Spain, Hanover, Archangel,
Vitebsk, Athabasca, Mackenzie, Ontario, puebec, New Brunswick,
Newfoundland, New York, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Ohio,
Michigan, Wisconsin, Kentucky.

Silurian. — Shropshire, Wales, Bohemia, Sweden, Esthonia,
Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec, Newfoundland, New York, Pennsyl-
vania [?], Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, Minnesota, Tennessee,
Kentucky, Georgia, Alabama, Oklahoma, New Mexico, New
Caledonia.

Cambrian. — Shropshire, New York.
Archean. — France, Norway, Sweden, Ontario.
In this list, while certain occurrences in rocks of undetermined
age in little-known regions have been omitted, many of those
included are of merely academic interest, and a still larger number
indicate fields supplying at present only local needs. All have been
arranged in geographical order without reference to productive
capacity or importance. It should be pointed out that the deposits
which have been hitherto of chief commercial importance occur
in the old rocks (Carboniferous to Silurian) on the one hand, and
in the comparatively new Tertiary formations on the other, the
intermediate periods yielding but little or at any rate far less
abundantly.

Origin. — The question of the origin of petroleum (and natural
gas), though for the first half of the igth century of little more
than academic interest, has engaged the attention of naturalists
and others for over a hundred years. As early as 1804, Humboldt
expressed the opinion that petroleum was produced by distillation
from deep-seated strata, and Karl Reichenbach in 1834, suggested
that it was derived from the action of heat on the turpentine of
pine-trees, whilst Brunet, in 1838, adumbrated a similar theory of
origin on the ground of certain laboratory experiments. The
theories propounded may be divided into two groups, namely, those
ascribing to petroleum an inorganic origin, and those which regard
it as the result of the decomposition of organic matter.

M. P. E. Berthelot was the first to suggest, in 1866, after con-
ducting a series of experiments, that mineral oil was produced
by purely chemical action, similar to that employed in the manu
facture of acetylene. Other theories of a like nature were brought
forward by various chemists, Mendeleeff, for example, ascribing
the formation of petroleum to the action of water at high tempera-
tures on iron carbide in the interior of the earth.

On the other hand, an overwhelming and increasing majority ol
those who have studied the natural conditions under which petroleum
occurs are of opinion that it is of organic origin. The earlier sup-
porters of the organic theory held that it was a product of the natural
distillation of coal or carbonaceous matter; but though in a few
instances volcanic intrusions appear to have converted coal or
allied substances into oil, it seems that terrestrial vegetation does
not generally give rise to petroleum. Among those who have
considered that it is derived from the decomposition of both animal
and vegetable marine organisms may be mentioned J. P. Lesley,
E. Orton and S. F. Peckham, but others have held that it is of
exclusively animal origin, a view supported by such occurrences
as those in the orthoceratities of the Trenton limestone, and by the
experiments of C. Engler, who obtained a liquid like crude petroleum
by the distillation of menhaden (fish) oil. Similarly there is a
difference of opinion as to the conditions under which the organisms
have been mineralized, some holding that the process has taken
place at a high temperature and under great pressure; but the
lack of practical evidence in nature in support of these views has
led many to conclude that petroleum, like coal, has been formed
at moderate temperatures, and under pressures varying with the
depth of the containing rocks. This view is supported by the fact
that petroleum is found on the Sardinian and Swedish coasts as
a product of the decomposition of seaweed, heated only by the sun,
and under atmospheric pressure.

Consideration of the evidence leads us to the conclusion that,
at least in commercially valuable deposits, mineral oil has generally
been formed by the decomposition of marine organisms, in some
cases animal, in others vegetable, in others both, under practically
normal conditions of temperature and pressure.

PETROLEUM

Extraction (Technically termed Production.) — The earliest system
adopted for the collection of petroleum appears to have consisted in
skimming the oil from the surface of the water upon
which it had accumulated, and Professor Lesley states
•*•* that at Paint Creek, in Johnson county, Kentucky,
a Mr George and others were in the habit of collecting oil from the
sands, " by making shallow canals 100 or 200 ft. long, with an up-
right board and a reservoir at one end, from which they obtained
as much as 200 barrels per year by stirring the sands with a pole."
It is said that at Echigo in Japan, old wells, supposed to have been
dug several hundred years ago, are existent, and that a Japanese
history — called Kokushiriyaku, states that " burning water was
obtained in Echigo about A.D. 615.

The petroleum industry in the United States may be considered
to date from the year 1859, when the first well avowedly drilled
for the production of oil was completed by E. L. Drake.
The united -pne present method of drilling has been evolved from
States. tne artes;an wen system previously adopted for obtain-
ing brine and water. The drilling of petroleum wells is carried on
by individuals or companies, either on lands owned by them, or
on properties whose owners grant leases, usually on condition that
a certain number of wells shall be sunk within a stated period,
and that a portion of the oil obtained (usually from one-tenth to
one-fourth) shall be appropriated as royalty to the lessor. Such
leases are often transferred at a larger royalty, especially after the
territory has been proved productive. The " wild-cat " wells,
sunk by speculators on untested territory or on lands which had not
previously proved productive, played an important part in the
earlier mapping out of the petroleum fields. To discourage the
sinking of wells on land immediately adjoining productive territory,
it has been usual to drill along the borders of the land as far as
practicable, in order to first obtain the oil which might otherwise
be raised by others; and on account of the small area often con-
trolled by the operator, the number of wells drilled has frequently
been far in excess of the number which might reasonably be
sunk. Experience has proved that in some of the oil fields of the
United States one well to five acres is as close as they should be
drilled.

After the selection of the site, the first operation consists in the

erection of the rig. The chief portion of this rig is the derrick,

which consists of four strong uprights or legs held in

' position by ties and braces, and resting on strong

Derrick. wooden sills, which are preferred, as a foundation, to
masonry. For drilling the deeper wells, the derrick, on account
of the length of the " string " of drilling tools, is usually at least
70 ft. high, about 20 ft. wide at the base, and 4 ft. wide at the sum-
mit. The whole derrick is set up by keys, no mortices or tenons
being used, and thus the complete rig may be readily taken down
and set up on a new site. The samson-post, which supports the
walking beam, and the jack-posts, are dove-tailed and keyed into
the sills. The samson-post is placed flush with one side of the
main sill, the band-wheel jack-post being flush with the other
side, so that the walking-beam, which imparts motion to the
string of tools, works parallel with the main sill.

The boiler generally used is of the locomotive type and is usually
stationary, though sometimes a portable form is preferred. It is
either set in the first instance at some distance from the engine and
well, or is subsequently removed sufficiently far away before the
drill enters the oil-bearing formation, and until the oil and gas
are under control, in order to minimize the risk of fire. A large
boiler frequently supplies the engines of several wells. The engine,
which is provided with reversing gear, is of 12 or 15 horse-power
and motion is communicated through a belt to the band-wheel,
which operates the walking-beam by means of a crank. The
throttle-valve is opened or closed by turning a grooved vertical
pulley by means of an endless cord, called the telegraph, passing
round another pulley fixed upon the " headache-post," and is thus
under the control of the driller working in the derrick. The head-
ache-post is a vertical wooden beam placed on the main sill directly
below the walking-beam, to receive the weight of the latter in case
of breakage of connexions. The position of the reversing link is
altered by means of a cord, passing over two pulleys, fixed re-
spectively in the engine-house and on the derrick. At one end of
the band-wheel shaft is the bull-rope pulley, and upon the other
end is a crank having six holes to receive a movable wrist-pin, the
length of stroke of the walking-beam being thus adjusted. The
revolution of the bull-wheels is checked by the use of a powerful
hand-brake.

The band-wheel communicates motion to the walking-beam,
while drilling is in progress, through the crank and a connecting-
rod known as the pitman; to the bull-wheels, while the tools are
being raised, by the bull-rope; and to the sand-pump_ reel, by a
friction pulley, while the sand-pump is being used. It is therefore
necessary that the machinery should be so arranged that the con-
nexions may be rapidly made and broken. The sand-pump reel
is set in motion by pressing a lever, the reel being then brought
into contact with the face of the band-wheel. The sand-pump
descends by gravitation, and its fall is checked by pressing back
the lever, so as to throw the reel against a post which serves as
a brake.

The drilling tools are suspended by an untarred manila rope,
2 in. in diameter, passing from the bull-wheel shaft over a grooved
wheel known as the crown-pulley, at the summit of the
derrick. The string of drilling tools consists of two ~L g
parts separated, by an appliance known as the jars. Tools,
This piece of apparatus was introduced by William Morris in 1831,
and consists of a long double link with closely-fitting jaws which,
however, slide freely up and down. It may be compared to a
couple of elongated and flattened links of chain. The links are
about 30 in. long and are interposed between the heavy iron auger-
stem carrying the bit and the upper rod, known as the sinker-bar.
Their principal use is to give a sharp jar to the drill on the up-
stroke so that the bit is dislodged if it has become jammed in the
rock. In addition to the appliances mentioned the tools comprise
reamers to enlarge the bore of the well, the winged-substitute
which is fitted above the bit to prevent it from glancing off, and
above the round reamer to keep it in place, a temper-screw with
clamps and wrenches. Sand-pumps and bailers are also required
to remove detritus, water and oil from the bore-hole.

The action of the jars and temper-screw has been described by
John F. Carll as follows: " Suppose the tools to have been just
run to the bottom of the well, the jars closed and the cable slack.
The men now take hold of the bull-wheels and draw up the slack
until the sinker-bar rises, the ' play ' of the jars allowing it to
come up 13 in. without disturbing the auger-stem. When the jars
come together they slack back about 4 in., and the cable is in position
to be clamped in the temper-screw. If now the vertical movement
of the walking-beam be 24 in., when it starts on the up-stroke the
sinker-bar rises 4 in., and the cross-heads come together with a
smart blow, then the auger-stem is picked up and lifted 20 in.
On the down-stroke, the auger-stem falls 20 in., while the sinker-
bar goes down 24 in. to telescope the jars for the next blow coming
up. A skilful driller never allows his jars to strike on the down-
stroke, they are only used to jar down when the tools stick on some
obstruction in the well before reaching the bottom, and in fishing
operations. An unskilful workman sometimes ' loses the jar ' and
works for hours without accomplishing anything. The tools may
be standing at the bottom while he is playing with the slack of
the cable or they may be swinging all the time several feet from the
bottom. As the jar works off, or grows more feeble, by reason of
the downward advance of the drill, it is ' tempered ' to the proper
strength by letting down the temper-screw to give the jars more
play. The temper-screw forms the connecting link between the
walking-beam and cable, and it is ' let out ' gradually to regulate
the play of the jars as fast as the drill penetrates. When its whole
length is run down, the rope clamps play very near the well-mouth.
The tools are then withdrawn, the well is sand-pumped, and pre-
parations are made for the next ' run." "

The ordinary sand-pump or bailer, consists of a plain cylinder
of light galvanized iron with a bail at the top and a stem-valve at
the bottom. It is usually about 6 ft. in length but is sometimes
as much as 15 or 20 ft., and as its valve-stem projects downwards
beyond the bottom, it empties itself when rested upon the bottom
of the waste-trough.

The operation of drilling is frequently interrupted by the occur-
rence of an accident, which necessitates the use of fishing tools.
If the fishing operation is unsuccessful the well has to be abandoned,
often after months of labour, unless it is found possible to drill
past the tools which have been lost. In readiness for a fracture
of the drilling tools or of the cable, special appliances known as
fishing tools are provided. These are so numerous and varied
in form that a description would be impossible within the scope
of this article. The fishing tools are generally attached to the
cable, and are used with portions of the ordinary string of tools,
but some are fitted to pump-rods or tubing, and others to special
rods.

The drilling of a well is commonly carried out under contract,
the producer erecting the derrick and providing the engine and boiler
while the drilling contractor finds the tools, and is
responsible for accidents or failure to complete the ^11
well. The drilling " crew " consists of two drillers
and two tool-dressers, working in pairs in two " tours " (noon to
midnight and midnight to noon).

The earlier wells in Pennsylvania consisted of three sections,
the first formed of surface clays and gravels, the second of stratified
rocks containing water, and the third of stratified rocks, including
the oil-sands, usually free from water. The conductor, which was
a wooden casing of somewhat greater internal diameter than the
maximum bore of the well, passed through the first of these divisions,
and casing was used in the second to prevent percolation of water
into the oil-bearing portion. In later wells the conductor has been
replaced with an 8-in. wrought-iron drive-pipe, terminating in a
steel shoe, which is driven to the bed-rock, and a 7f-in. hole is
drilled below it to the base of the lowest water-bearing stratum.
The bore is then reduced to Ijf-in., and a bevelled shoulder being
made in the rock, a 5f-in. casing, having a collar to fit water-tight
on the bevel shoulder, is inserted. The well is then completed
with a 5i in. bit. As the water is shut off before the portion of
the well below the water-bearing strata is bored the remainder of
the drilling is conducted with only sufficient water in the well to

320

PETROLEUM

Rotary
System.

admit of sand-pumping. The drill is thus allowed to fall freely,
instead of being partly upheld by the buoyancy of the water, as in
earlier wells.

Wells in Pennsylvania now range in depth from 300 ft. to 3700 ft.
Four strings of iron casing are usually employed, having the follow-
ing diameters: 10 in., 8J in., 6\ in. and 5 in., the lengths of tube
forming the casing being screwed together. Contractors will often
undertake to drill wells of moderate depth at 90 cents to $i per foot,
but the cost of a deep well may amount to as much as $7000.

The rotary system of drilling which is in general use in the oil-
fields of the coastal plain of Texas is a modification of that invented
by Fauvelle in 1845, and used in the early years of the
industry in some of the oil-producing countries of
Europe. It is one of the most rapid and economical
which can be employed in soft formations, but where hard rock
is encountered it is almost useless. The principle of this system
consists essentially in the use of rotating hollow drilling rods or
casing, to which is attached the drilling-bit and through which a
continuous stream of water, under a pressure of 40 to 100 ft. per
sq. in., is forced.

The yield of petroleum wells varies within very wide limits, and
the relative importance of the different producing districts is also
Yield of constantly changing. I. C. White, state geologist of
Wells. West Virginia, estimates that in fairly good producing
sand a cubic foot of rock contains from 6 to 12 pints
of oil. He assumes that in what is considered a good producing
district the amount of petroleum which can be obtained from a
cubic foot of rock would not be more than a gallon, and that the
average thickness of the oil-bearing rock would not exceed 5 ft.
Taking these figures as a basis, the total yield of oil from an acre
of petroliferous territory would be a little over 5000 barrels of
42 U.S. gallons.

A flow of oil may often be induced in a well which would otherwise
require to be pumped, by preventing the escape of gas which issues
with the oil, and causing its pressure to raise the oil. The device
employed for this purpose is known as the waler-packer, and
consists in its simplest form of an india-rubber ring, which is applied
between the tubing and the well-casing, so that upon compression
it makes a tight joint. The gas thus confined in the oil-chamber
forces the oil up the tubing.

For pumping a well a valved working-barrel with valved sucker
is attached to the lower end of the tubing, a perforated " anchor "
being placed below. The sucker carries a series of three or four
leather cups, which are pressed against the inner surface of the
working barrel by the weight of the column of oil. The sucker
is connected by a string of sucker-rods with the walking-
beam. There is usually fixed above the sucker a short iron valve-
rod, with a device known as a rivet-catcher to prevent damage
to the pump by the dropping of rivets from the pump-rods.

On the completion of drilling, or when the production is found
to decrease, it is usual to torpedo the well to increase the flow.
,The explosive employed is generally nitroglycerin,
' and the amount used has been increased from the
original 4 to 6 quarts to 60, 80, 100 and even 200 quarts.
It is placed in tin canisters of about 3J to 5 in. in diameter and
about 10 ft. in length. The canisters have conical bottoms and
fit one in the other. They are consecutively filled with nitro-
glycerin, and are lowered to the bottom of the well, one after the
other, by a cord wound upon a reel, until the required number
have been inserted. Formerly the upper end of the highest canister
was fitted with a " firing-head," consisting of a circular plate of
iron, slightly smaller than the bore of the well, and having attached
to its underside a vertical rod or pin carrying a percussion cap.
The cap rested on the bottom qf a small iron cylinder containing
nitroglycerin. To explode the charge an iron weight, known
as a go-devil, was dropped into the well, and striking the disk
exploded the cap and fired the torpedo. Now, however, a miniature
torpedo known as a go-devil squib, holding about a quart of nitro-
glycerin, and having a firing-head similar to that already described,
is almost invariably employed. The disk is dispensed with, and
the percussion cap is exploded by the impact of a leaden weight
running on a cord. The squib is lowered after the torpedo, and,
when exploded by the descent of the weight, fires the charge. It
must be borne in mind that although the explosion may increase
the production for a time, it is by no means certain that the
actual output of a well is increased in all such cases, though from
some wells there would be no production without the use of the
torpedo.

The petroleum industry in Canada is mainly concentrated
in the district of Petrolea, Ontario. On account of the small
Drilling in depth of the wells, and the tenacious nature of the
Canada. principal strata bored through, the Canadian method
of drilling differs from the Pennsylvanian or American
system in the following particulars: —

1. The use of slender wooden boring-rods instead of a cable.

2. The employment of a simple auger instead of a spudding-bit.

3. The adoption of a diffeient arrangement for transmitting
motion.

4. The use of a lighter set of drilling tools.

Although petroleum wells in Russia have not the depth of many

Torpedoing
Well*.

of those in the United States, the disturbed character of the strata,
with consequent liability to caving, and the occurrence of hard
concretions, render drilling a lengthy and expensive rjrmia /„
operation. It is usual to begin by making an excava- RUSSI,.
tion 8 ft. in diameter and 24 ft. in depth, and lining the
sides of this with wood or brick. The initial diameter of the well
drilled from the bottom of this pit is in some instances as much as
36 in., bore-holes of the larger size being preferred, as they are less
liable to become choked, and admit of the use of larger bailers for
raising the oil.

The drilling of wells of large size requires the use of heavy tools
and of very strong appliances generally. The system usually
adopted is a modification of the Canadian system already described,
the boring rods being, however, of iron instead of wood, but the
cable system has also to some extent been used. For the ordinary
2-in. plain-laid manila cable a wire rope has in some cases been
successfully substituted.

Rivetted iron casing, made of ^-in. plate, is employed, and is
constantly lowered so as to follow the drill closely, in order to
prevent caving. Within recent years, owing to the initiative of
Colonel English, a method of raising oil by the agency of com-
pressed air has been introduced into the Baku oil-fields.

In Gahcia the Canadian system is nearly exclusively adopted.
In some instances under-reaming is found necessary. This consists
in the use of an expanding reamer by means of which
the well may be drilled to a diameter admitting of the
casing descending freely, which obviously could not be
accomplished with an ordinary bit introduced through the casing.
Of late years the under-reamer has been largely superseded by the
eccentric bit.

The Davis calyx drill has also been employed for petroleum
drilling. This apparatus may be described as a steel-pointed core-
drill. The bit or cutter consists of a cylindrical Tlle calyx
metallic shell, the lower end of which is made, by a nrm
process of gulleting, into a series of sharp teeth, which are
set in and out alternately. The outward set of teeth drill the hole
large enough to permit the drilling apparatus to descend freely, and
the teeth set inwardly pare down the core to such a diameter as will
admit of the body of the cutter passing over it without seizing.
The calyx is a long tube, or a series of connected tubes, situated
above the core barrel, to which it is equal in diameter.

In conclusion it may be stated that the two systems of drilling
for petroleum with which by far the largest amount of work has
been, and is being done, are the American or rope comparison
system, and the Canadian or rod system. The former ol systems
is not only employed in the United States, but is in use
in Upper Burma, Java, Rumania and elsewhere. The latter was
introduced by Canadians into Galicia and, with certain modifi-
cations, has hitherto been found to be the best for that country.
A form of the rod system is used in the Russian oil-fields, but
owing to the large diameter of the wells the appliances differ from
those employed elsewhere.

The wells from which the supplies of natural gas are obtained in
the United States are drilled and cased in the same manner as the
oil wells.

Transport and Storage. — In the early days of the petroleum
industry the oil was transported in the most primitive manner.
Thus, in Upper Burma, it was conveyed in earthenware vessels
from the wells to the river bank, where it was poured into the holds
of boats. It is interesting to find that a rude pipe-line formerly
existed in this field for conveying the crude oil from the wells to the
river; this was made of bamboos, but it is said that the loss by
leakage was so great as to lead to its immediate abandonment on
completion. In Russia, until 1875, the crude oil was carried in
barrels on Persian carts known as " arbas." These have two
wheels of 8J to 9 ft. in diameter, the body carrying one barrel,
while another is slung beneath the axle. In America, crude
petroleum was at first transported in iron-hooped barrels, holding
from 40 to 42 American gallons, which were carried by teamsters
to Oil Creek and the Allegheny River, where they were loaded on
boats, these being floated down stream whenever sufficient water
was- present — a method leading to much loss by collision and
grounding. Bulk barges were soon introduced on the larger rivers,
but the use of these was partially rendered unnecessary by the
introduction of railways, when the oil was at first transported in
barrels on freight cars, but later in tank-cars. These at first con-
sisted of an ordinary truck on which were placed two wooden
tub-like tanks, each holding about 2000 gallons ; they were replaced
in 1871 by the modern type of tank-car, constructed with a hori-
zontal cylindrical tank of boiler plate.

The means of transporting petroleum in bulk commonly used at
the present day is the pipe-line system, the history of which dates
from 1860. In that year S. D. Karns suggested laying a 6-in.
pipe from Burning Springs to Parkersburg, West Virginia, a distance
of 36 m.; but his proposal was never carried into effect. Two
years later, however, L. Hutchinson of New York, laid a short line
from the Tarr Farm wells to the refinery, which passed over a hill,
the oil being moved on the syphon principle, and a year later con-
structed another three miles long to the railway. These attempts
were, however, unsuccessful, on account of the excessive leakage

PETROLEUM

321

at the joints of the pipes. With the adoption of carefully fitted
screw-joints in 1865 the pipe line gradually came into general use,
until in 189.1 the lines owned by the various transit companies of
Pennsylvania amounted in length to 25,000 m.

The pumps employed to force the oil through the pipes were
at first of the single-cylinder or " donkey " type, but these were
found to cause excessive wear — a defect remedied by the use of
the Worthington pump now generally adopted. The engines used
on the main 6-in. lines are of 600 to 800 h.p., while those on the
small-diameter local lines range from 25 to 30 h.p.

Tanks of various types are employed in storing the oil, those at
the wells being circular and usually made of wood, with a content
of 250 barrels and upwards. Laige tanks of boiler-plate are used
to receive the oil as it comes through the pipe-lines. Those adopted
by the National Transit Company are 90 ft. in diameter and 30 ft.
high, with slightly conical wooden roofs covered with sheet iron;
their capacity is 35,000 barrels, and they are placed upon the
carefully levelled ground without any foundation.

Kerosene is transported in bulk by various means; specially
constructed steel tank barges are used on the waterways of the
United States, tank-cars on the railroads, and tank-wagons on the
roads. The barrels employed in the transport of petroleum pro-
ducts are made of well-seasoned white-oak staves bound by six or
eight iron hoops. They ate coated internally with glue, and painted
in the well-known colours, blue staves and white heads. The
tins largely used for kerosene are made by machinery and contain
5 American gallons. They are hermetically sealed for transport.

In Canada, means of transport similar to those already described
are employed, but the reservoirs for storage often consist of excava-
tions in the soft Erie clay of the oil district, the sides of which are
supported by planks.

The primitive methods originally in use in the Russian oil-fields
have already been described; but these were long ago supeiseded
by pipe-lines, while a great deal of oil is carried by tank steamers
on the Caspian to the mouth of the Volga where it is transferred
to barges and thence at Tzaritzin to railway tank-cars. The
American type of storage-tank is generally employed, in conjunction
with clay-lined reservoirs.

Natural gas is largely used in the United States, and for some
time, owing to defective methods of storage, delivery and con-
sumption, great waste occurred. The improvements introduced
in 1890 and 1891. whereby this state of affairs was put an end to,
consisted in the introduction of the principle of supply by meter,
and the adoption of a comprehensive system of reducing the initial
pressure of the gas, so as to diminish loss by leakage. For the
latter purpose, Westinghouse gas-regulators are employed, the
positions of the regulators being so chosen as to equalize the
pressure throughout the service. The gas is distributed to the
consumer from the wells in wrought-iron pipes, ranging in diameter
from 20 in. down to 2 in. Riveted wrought-iron pipes 3 ft. in
diameter are also used. The initial pressure is sometimes as high
as 400 Ib to the sq. in., but usually ranges from 200 to 300 Ib.
The most common method of distribution in cities and towns is
by a series of pipes from 12 in. down to 2 in. in diameter, usually
carrying a pressure of about 4 oz. to the sq. in. To these pipes the
service-pipes leading into the houses of the consumers are connected.

Refining of Petroleum. — The distillation of petroleum, especially
of such as was intended for medicinal use, was regularly
carried on in the i8th century, and earlier. V. I. Ragozin states
in his work on the petroleum industry that Johann Lerche,
who visited the Caspian district in 1735, found that the crude
Caucasian oil required to be distilled to render it satisfactorily
combustible, and that, when distilled, it yielded a bright yellow
oil resembling a spirit, which readily ignited. As early as 1823 the
brothers Dubinin erected a refinery in the village of Mosdok, and in
1846 applied to Prince Woronzoff for a subsidy for extending the
use of petroleum-distillates in the Caucasus. In their application,
which was unsuccessful, they stated that they had taught the Don
Cossacks to " change black naphtha into white," and showed by
a drawing, pieseryed in the archives cf the Caucasian government,
how this was achieved. They used an iron still, set in brickwork,
and from a working charge of forty " buckets " of crude petroleum
obtained a yield of sixteen buckets of " white naphtha." The
top of the still had a removable head, connected with a condenser
consisting of a copper worm in a barrel of water. The " white
naphtha ' was sold at Nijni Novgorod without further treatment.

Some of the more viscous crude oils obtained in the United
States are employed as lubricants under the name of " natural
oils," either without any treatment or after clarification by subsi-
dence and filtration through animal charcoal. Others are deprived
of a part of their more volatile constituents by spontaneous
evaporation, or by distillation, in vacua or otherwise, at the lowest
possible temperature. Such are known as " reduced oils."

In most petroleum-producing countries, however, and particu-
larly where the product is abundant, the crude oil is fractionally
distilled, so as to separate it into petroleum spirit of various grades,
burning oils, gas oils, lubricating oils, and (if the crude oil yields
that product) paraffin. The distillates obtained are usually purified
by treatment, successively, with sulphuric acid and solution of
caustic soda, followed by washing with water.

XVT. rr

Crude petroleum was experimentally distilled in the United States
in 1833 by Prof. Silliman (d. 1864), and the refining of petroleum
in that country may be said to date from about the year 1855,
when Samuel M. Kier fitted up a small refinery with a five-barrel
still, for the treatment of the oil obtained from his father's salt-
wells. At this period the supply of the raw material was insuf-
ficient to admit of any important development in the industry, and
before the drilling of artesian wells for petroleum was initiated
by Drake the " coal-oil " or shale-oil industry had assumed con-
siderable proportions in the United States. Two large refineries,
one on Newtown Creek, Long Island, and another in South Brooklyn,
also on Long Island, were in successful operation when the abundant
pi eduction of petroleum, which immediately followed the completion
of the Drake well, placed at the disposal of the refiner a material
which could be worked more profitably than bituminous shale.
The existing refineries were accordingly altered so as to adapt
them for the refining of petroleum; but in the manufacture of
burning oil from petroleum the small stills which had been in use
in the distillation of shale-oil were at first employed.

In the earlier refineries the stills, the capacity of which varied
from 25 to 80 barrels, usually consisted of a vertical cylinder,
constructed of cast- or wrought-iron, with a boiler-plate bottom and
a cast-iron dome, on which the " goose-neck " was bolted. The
charge was distilled almost to dryness, though the operation was
not carried far enough to cause the residue to " coke." The
operation was, however, completely revolutionized in the United
States by the introduction of the " cracking process," and by the
division of the distillation into two parts, one consisting in the
removal of the more volatile constituents of the oil, and the other
in the distillation (which is usually conducted in separate stills)
of the residues from the first distillation, for the production of
lubricating oils and paraffin.

Various arrangements have been proposed and patented for the
continuous distillation of petroleum, in which crude oil is supplied
to a range of stills as. fast as the distillates pass off. The system is
largely employed in Russia, and its use has been frequently attempted
in the United States, but the results have not been satisfactory, on
account, it_ is said, of the much greater quantity of dissolved gas
contained in the American oil, the larger proportion of kerosene
which such oil yields, and the less fluid character of the residue.

In the United States a horizontal cylindrical still is usually
employed in the distillation of the spirit and kerosene, but what
is known as the " cheese-box " still has also been largely used.
American stills of the former type are constructed of wrought-iron
or steel, and are about 30 ft. in length by 12 ft. 6 in. in diameter,
with a dome about 3 ft. in diameter, furnished with a vapour-pipe
15 in. in diameter. The charge for such a still is about 600 barrels.
The stills were formerly completely bricked in, so that the vapours
should be kept fully heated until they escaped to the condenser,
but since the introduction of the " cracking process," the upper
part has usually been left exposed to the air. The cheese-box still
has a vertical cylindrical body, which may be as much as 30 ft. in
diameter and 9 ft. in depth, connected by means of three vertical
pipes with a vapour-chest furnished with a large number, frequently
as many as forty, of 3-in. discharge-pipes arranged in parallel lines.

The stills employed in Russia and Galicia are usually smaller
than those already described.

The " cracking " process, whereby a considerable quantity of
the oil which is _ intermediate between kerosene and lubricating
oil is converted into hydrocarbons of lower specific gravity and
boiling-point suitable for illuminating purposes, is one of great
scientific and technical interest. It is generally understood that the
products of fractional distillation, even in the laboratory, are not
identical with the hydrocarbons present in the crude oil, but are
in part produced by the action of heat upon them. This was
plainly stated by Professor Silliman in the earliest stages of develop-
ment of the American petroleum industry. An important paper
bearing on the subject was published in 1871, by T. E. Thorpe
and J. Young, as a preliminary note on their experiments on the
action of heat under pressure on solid paraffin. They found that
the paraffin was thus converted, with the evolution of but little
gas, into hydrocarbons which were liquid at ordinary temperatures.
In an experiment on 3500 grams of paraffin pioduced from shale
(melting point 44'5° C.) they obtained nearly 4 litres of liquid hydro-
carbons, which they subjected to fractional distillation, and on
examining the fraction distilling below 100° C., they found it to
consist mainly of defines. The hydrocarbon C»H<2, for example,
might be resolved into CsHn+CuHjo, or CeHu+Ci4Ha, or
CyHie+QsHiK, &c., the general equation of the decomposition
being —

C»H2n+.2 (paraffin) ^C^pH^^+t (paraffin) +Cj>H2p (olefine).

The product actually obtained is a mixture of several paraffins
and several olefines.

The cracking process practically consists in distilling the oils
at a temperature higher than the normal boiling point of the con-
stituents which it is desired to decompose. This may be brought
about by a distillation under pressure, or by allowing the condensed
distillate to fall into the highly heated residue in the still. The
result of this treatment is that the comparatively heavy oils

322

PETROLEUM

undergo dissociation, as shown by the experiments of Thorpe and
Young, into specifically lighter hydrocarbons of lower boiling points,
and the yield of kerosene from ordinary crude petroleum may thus
be greatly increased. A large number of arrangements for carrying
out the cracking process have been proposed and patented, probably

Young

hydrocarbon __ f , __

being conducted in a vessel having a loaded valve or a partially
closed stop-cock, through which the confined vapour escapes under
any desired pressure. Under such conditions, distillation takes
place at higher temperatures than the normal boiling-points of the
constituent hydrocarbons of the oil, and a partial cracking results.
The process patented by Dewar and Redwood in 1889 consists
in the use of a suitable still and condenser in free communication
with each other — i.e. without any valve between them; — the space
in the still and condenser not occupied by liquid being charged
with air, carbon dioxide or other gas, under the required pressure,
and the condenser being provided with a regulated outlet for con-
densed liquid. An objectionable feature of the system of allowing
the vapour to escape from the still to the condenser through a
loaded valve, viz: the irregularity of the distillation, is thus
removed, and the benefits of regular vaporization and condensation
under high pressure are obtained. In the American petroleum
refineries it is found that sufficient cracking can be produced by
slow distillation in stills of which the upper part is sufficiently cool
to allow of the condensation of the vapours of the less volatile
hydrocarbons, the condensed liquid thus falling back into the
heated body of oil.

In the earlier stages of the development of the manufacture
of mineral lubricating oils, the residues were distilled in cast-iron
stills, and the lubricating properties of the products thus obtained
were injured by overheating. The modern practice is to employ
horizontal cylindrical wrought-iron or steel stills, and to introduce
steam into the oil. The steam is superheated and may thus be
heated to any desired temperature without increase of pressure,
which would be liable to damage the still. The steam operates
by carrying the vapours away to the condenser as fast as they are
generated, the injury to the products resulting from their remaining
in contact with the highly-heated surface of the still being thus
prevented.

In order to separate the distillate into various fractions, and to
remove as much of it as possible free from condensed steam, it is
now usual to employ condensing appliances of special form with
outlets for running off the different fractions.

The process of distillation of lubricating oils under reduced
atmospheric pressure is now in very general use, especially for
obtaining the heavier products. The vapours from the still pass
through a condenser into a receiver, which is in communication
with the exhauster.

The products obtained by the distillation of petroleum are not
in a marketable condition, but require chemical treatment to remove
acid and other bodies which impart a dark colour as well as an
unpleasant odour to the liquid, and in the case of lamp-oils, reduce
the power of rising in the wick by capillary attraction.

At the inception of the industry kerosene came into the market
as a dark yellow or reddish-coloured liquid, and in the first instance,
the removal of colour was attempted by treatment with soda lye
and lime solution. It was, however, found that after the oil so
purified had been burned in a lamp, for a short time, the wick became
encrusted, and the oil failed to rise properly. Eichler, of Baku,
is stated to have been the first to introduce, in Russia, the use of
sulphuric acid, followed by that of soda lye, and his process is in
universal use at the present time. The rationale of this treatment
is not fully understood, but the action appears to consist in the
separation or decomposition of the aromatic hydrocarbons, fatty
and other acids, phenols, tarry bodies, &c., which lower the quality
of the oil, the sulphuric acid removing some, while the caustic soda
takes out the remainder, and neutralizes the acid which has been
left in the oil. This treatment with acid and alkali is usually
effected by agitation with compressed air. Oils which contain
sulphur-compounds are subjected to a special process of refining
in which cupric oxide or litharge is employed as a desulphurizing
agent.

Testing. — A large number of physical and chemical tests are
applied both to crude petroleum and to the products manufactured
therefrom. The industry is conducted upon a basis of recognized
standards of quality, and testing is necessary in the interests of
both refiner and consumer, as wejl as compulsory in connexion with
the various statutory and municipal regulations.

In the routine examination of crude petroleum it is customary
to determine the specific gravity, and the amount of water and
earthy matter in suspension; the oil is also frequently subjected
to a process of fractional distillation in order to ascertain whether
there has been any addition of distilled products or residue.
Petroleum spirit is tested for specific gravity, range of boiling-
points, and results of fractional distillation. To illuminating oil
or kerosene a series of tests is applied in order that the colour,
odour, specific gravity and flash-point or fire-test may be recorded.
In the testing of mineral lubricating oils the viscosity, flash-point,

" cold-test," and specific gravity are the characters of chief im-
portance. Fuel oil is submitted to certain of the foregoing tests and
in addition the calorimetric value is determined. Paraffin wax is
tested for melting-point (or setting-point), and the semi-refined
product is further examined to ascertain the percentage of oil,
water and dirt present.

In civilized countries provision is made by law for the testing of
the flash-point or fire-test of lamp-oil (illuminating oil or kerosene),
the method of testing and the minimum limit of flash-point or
fire-test being prescribed (see below, Legislation).

The earliest form of testing instrument employed for this purpose
was that of Giuseppe Tagliabue of New York, which consists of a
glass cup placed in a copper water bath heated by a spirit lamp. The
cup is filled with the oil to be tested, a thermometer placed in it
and heat applied, the temperatures being noted at which, on passing
a lighted splinter of wood over the surface of the oil, a flash occurs,
and after further heating, the oil ignites. The first temperature
is known as the flash-point, the second as the " fire-test." Such
an apparatus, in which the oil-cup is uncovered, is known as an
open-test instrument. In Saybolt's Electric Tester (1879) ignition
is effected by a spark from an induction-coil passing between
platinum points placed at a fixed distance above the oil.

Before long, however, it was found that the open-cup tests
(though they are employed in the United States and elsewhere at
the present time) were often very untrustworthy. Accordingly
Keates proposed the substitution of a closed cup in 1871, but his
suggestions were not adopted. In 1875 Sir Frederick Abel, at
the request of the British Government, began to investigate the
matter, and in August 1879 the " Abel test " was legalized. This
apparatus has an oil-cup consisting of a cylindrical brass or gun-
metal vessel, the cover of which is provided with three rectangular
holes which may be closed and opened by means of a perforated
slide moving in grooves; the movement of the slide causes a small
oscillating colza- or rape-oil lamp to be tilted so that the flame
(of specified size) is brought just below the surface of the lid. The
oil-cup is supported in a bath or heating-vessel, consisting of two
flat-bottomed copper cylinders, to contain water, heated by a spirit
lamp, and provided with an air-space between the water-vessel and
the oil-cup. Thermometers are placed in both oil-cup and water-
bath, the temperature of the latter being raised to 130° at the
commencement of the test, while the oil is put in at about 60° F.
Testing is begun when the temperature reaches 66° by slowly drawing
the slide open and reclosing it, the speed being regulated by the
swing of a pendulum supplied with the instrument. It has been
found that variations in barometric pressure affect the flash-point
and accordingly corrections have to be made in obtaining strictly
comparative results at different pressures. The Abel-Pensky
instrument, used in India and in Germany, differs only in being
provided with a clockwork arrangement for moving the slide.
Numerous other forms of open-test and close-test instruments
have from time to time been devised, some of which are in use
in the United States and in other countries.

It is still customary to determine the open flash-point and fire-
test of lubricating oils, but the close flash-point is also usually ascer-
tained, a modification of the Abel or Abel-Pensky apparatus, known
as the Pensky-Martens, having been devised for the purpose. This
instrument is so constructed that the higher temperature needed
can be readily applied, and it is fitted with a stirrer to equalize
the heating of the contents of the oil-cup.

For the testing of the viscosity of lubricating oils the Boverton
Redwood standardized viscometer is generally employed in Great
Britain. By means of this instrument the time occupied in the flow
of a measured quantity of the oil through a small orifice at a given
temperature is measured.

Uses. — Petroleum has very long been known as a source of
light and heat, while the use of crude oil for the treatment of
wounds and cutaneous affections, and as a lubricant, was even
more general and led to the raw material being an article of
commerce at a still earlier date. For pharmaceutical purposes
crude petroleum is no longer generally used by civilized races,
though the product vaseline is largely employed in this way,
and emulsions of petroleum have been administered internally
in various pectoral complaints ; while the volatile product
termed rhigolene has been largely used as a local anaesthetic.

For illuminating purposes, the most extensively-used product
is kerosene, but both the more and the less volatile portions of
petroleum are employed in suitable lamps. Petroleum products
are also largely utilized in gas manufacture for, (i) the production
of " air-gas," (2) the manufacture of oil-gas, and (3) the enrich-
ment of coal-gas. For heating purposes, the stoves employed
are practically kerosene lamps of suitable construction, though
gasoline is used as a domestic fuel in the United States. The
use of petroleum as liquid fuel is dealt with under FUEL, as is
the employment of its products in motors, which has greatly

PETROLOGY

323

increased the demand for petroleum spirit. Petroleum has
largely superseded other oils, and is still gaining ground, as a
lubricant for machinery and railway rolling-stock, either alone
or in admixture with fixed oils. The more viscous descriptions
of mineral oils have also been found suitable for use in the
Elmore process of ore-concentration by oil.

Legislation. — Since the inception of the petroleum industry, most
civilized countries have prescribed by law a test of flash-point or
inflammability, designed in most cases primarily to afford a
definition of oils for lighting purposes which may be safely stored
without the adoption of special precautions. In the United
Kingdom the limit has, for the purpose in question, been fixed by
the legislature at 73° F., by the Abel-test," which is the equivalent
of the former standard of 100° F. by the " open-test. While
the subject of the testing of petroleum for legislative purposes has
been investigated in Great Britain by committees of both branches
of the legislature, with a view to change in the law, the standard
has never been raised, since such a course would tend to reduce the
available supply and thus lead to increase in price or deterioration
in quality. Moreover the- chief object of the Petroleum Acts passed
in the United Kingdom has hitherto been to regulate storage, and
it has always been possible to obtain oils either of higher or lower
flash-point, when such are preferred, irrespective of the legal
standard, in addition to which it may be asserted that in a properly
constructed lamp used with reasonable care the ordinary oil of
commerce is a safe illuminant. The more recent legislation with
regard to " petroleum spirit " relates mainly to the quantity which
may be stored for use on " light locomotives."

The more important local authorities throughout the country
have made regulations under the powers conferred upon them by
the Petroleum Acts, with the object of regulating the " keeping,
sale, conveyance and hawking " of petroleum products having a
flash-point below 73° F., and the Port of London authority, together
with other water-way and harbour authorities in the United King-
dom, have their own by-laws relating to the navigation of vessels
carrying such petroleum.

In other countries the flash-point standards differ considerably,
as do the storage regulations. In France, the standard is 35° C.
(Granier tester, equivalent to 98° F.), and according to their flash-
point, liquid hydrocarbons are divided into two classes (below and
above 35° C.), considered differently in regard to quantities storable
and other regulations. In Germany, the law prescribes a close-test
of 21° C., equal to about 70° F., whilst in Russia the standard is
28° C., equal to 84-4.° F., by the close-test; in both these countries
the weights of petroleum which may be stored in specified buildings
are determined by law. In the United States, various methods
of testing and various minimum standards have been adopted.
In Pennsylvania, the prescribed limit is a "fire-test" of Iio" F.,
equivalent to about 70° F., close-test, while in the State of New
York it is 100° F., close- test.

See Sir Boverton Redwood's Petroleum and its Products (and ed.,
London, 1906) ; A. Beeby Thompson, Petroleum Mining (1910) ; L. C.
Tassart, Exploitation du Petrole (1908) ; C. Engler and H. Hofer, Das
Erdol, 5 vols. (1909 seq.); A. B. Thompson, The Oil Fields of Russia
(1908) ; and J. D. Henry, Oil Fields of the Empire (1910). (B. R.)

PETROLOGY, the science of rocks (Gr. Trlrpos), the branch
of geology which is concerned with the investigation of the
composition, structure and history of the rock masses which
make up the accessible portions of the earth's crust. Rocks
have been defined as " aggregates of minerals." They are the
units with which the geologist deals in investigating the structure
of a district. Some varieties cover enormous areas and are
among the commonest and most familiar objects of nature.
Granite, sandstone, clay, limestone, slate often form whole
provinces and build up lofty mountains. Such unconsolidated
materials as sand, gravel, clay, soil are justly included among
rocks as being mineral masses which play an important r&le in
field geology. Other rock species are of rare occurrence and
may be known in only one or two localities in distant parts of
the earth's surface. Nearly all rocks consist of minerals,
whether in a crystalline or non-crystalline state, but the insoluble
and imperishable parts of tlie skeletons of animals and plants
may constitute a considerable portion of rocks, as for example,
coral limestone, lignite beds and chalk.

Treatment of the Subject. — In this paragraph the subject matter
of the science of petrology is briefly surveyed ; the object is to point
out the headings under which particular subjects are treated
(there is a separate article on the terms printed in italics). General
questions as to the nature, origin and classification of rocks and the
methods of examination are discussed in the present article;
mineralogy comprises similar matter respecting the component
minerals; metamorphism , metasomatism, pneumatolysis and the

formation of concretions are agencies which effect rocks and modify
them. Three classes of rocks are recognized: the igneous, sedimen-
tary and metamorphic. The plutonic, or deep-seated rocks, which
cooled far below the surface, and occur as batholites, bosses, laccolites,
and veins, include the great classes granite, syenite, diorite, gabbro
and peridotite; related to the granites are aplite, greisen, pegmatite,
schorl rock and micropegmatite; to the syenites, borolanite, monzonite,
nepheline-syenite and ijolite; to the diorites, aphanite, napoleonite
and tonalite; to the gabbros, pyroxenite and theralite, and to
peridotites, picrite and serpentine. The hypabyssal intrusive rocks,
occurring as sills, veins, dikes, necks, &c., are represented by por-
phyry and porphyrite (including bostonite, felsite and quartz-por-
phyry), diabase and lamprpphyre; some pitchstones belong to this
group and contain crystallites and spherulites. The volcanic rocks,
found typically as lava flows, include rhyolite and obsidian (with
sometimes perlite), trachyte and phonolite (and leucitophyre which
is treated under leucite), andesite and docile, basalt (with the related
dokrite, variolite and tachylyte), nephelinite and tephrite. Among
sedimentary rocks we recognize a volcanic group (including tuff,
agglomerate and some kinds of pumice); an arenaceous series such
as sand (some with glauconite) , sandstone, quartzite, greywacke and
gravel; an argillaceous group including clay, firebrick, phyllite, laterite,
shale and slate; a calcareous series with chalk, limestone (often
forming stalactites and stalagmites), dolomite and marls or argillaceous
limestones (flint occurs as nodules in chalk) ; the natural phosphates
may be mentioned here. The metamorphic rocks are commonly
gneisses and schists (including mica-schist) ; other types are amphibo-
lite, charnockite, eclogite, eptdiorite, epidosite, granulite, itacolumite,
horn/els, mylonite and the scapolite rocks.

Composition. — Only the commonest minerals are of impor-
tance as rock formers. Their number is small, not exceeding a
hundred in all, and much less than this if we do not reckon the
subdivisions into which the commoner species are broken up.
The vast majority of the rocks which we see around us every
day consist of quartz, felspar, mica, chlorite, kaolin, calcite, epi-
dote, olivine, augite, hornblende, magnetite, haematite, limonite
and a few other minerals. Each of these has a recognized
position in the economy of nature. A main determining factor
is the chemical composition of the mass, for a certain mineral
can be formed only when the necessary elements are present
in the rock. Calcite is commonest in limestones, as these consist
essentially of carbonate of lime; quartz in sandstones and in
certain igneous rocks which contain a high percentage of silica.
Other factors are of equal importance in determining the natural
association or paragenesis of rock-making minerals, principally
the mode of origin of the rock and the stages through which it
has passed in attaining its present condition. Two rock masses
may have very much the same bulk composition and yet consist
of entirely different assemblages of minerals. The tendency is
always for those compounds to be formed which are stable under
the conditions under which the rock mass originated. A granite
arises by the consolidation of a molten magma (a fused rock
mass; Gr. fj.ayfj.a, from fj.6.ffativ, to knead) at high temperatures
and great pressures and its component minerals are such as are
formed in such circumstances. Exposed to moisture, carbonic
acid and other subaerial agents at the ordinary temperatures
of the earth's surface, some of these original minerals, such as
quartz and white mica are permanent and remain unaffected;
others " weather " or decay and are replaced by new combina-
tions. The felspar passes into kaolin, muscovite and quartz,
and if any black mica (biotite) has been present it yields chlorite,
epidote, rutile and other substances. These changes are accom-
panied by disintegration, and the rock falls into a loose, inco-
herent, earthy mass which may be regarded as a sand or soil.
The materials thus formed may be washed away and deposited
as a sandstone or grit. The structure of the original rock is
now replaced by a new one; the mineralogical constitution is
profoundly altered; but the bulk chemical composition may
not be very different. The sedimentary rock may again undergo
a metamorphosis. If penetrated by igneous rocks it may be
recrystallized or, if subjected to enormous pressures with heat
and movement, such as attend the building of folded mountain
chains, it may be converted into a gneiss not very different
in mineralogical composition though radically different in
structure to the granite which was its original state.

Structure. — The two factors above enumerated, namely the
chemical and mineral composition of rocks, are scarcely of greater

324

PETROLOGY

importance than their structure, or the relations of the parts
of which they consist to one another. Regarded from this
standpoint rocks may be divided into the crystalline and the
fragmental. Inorganic matter, if free to take that physical
state in which it is most stable, always tends to
jfr^i. ' ' crystallize. Crystalline rock masses have con-
solidated from solution or from fusion. The vast
majority of igneous rocks belong to this group and the degree
of perfection in which they have attained the crystalline state
depends primarily on the conditions under which they solidified.
Such rocks as granite, which have cooled very slowly and under
great pressures, have completely crystallized, but many lavas
were poured out at the surface and cooled very rapidly; in this
latter group a small amount of non-crystalline or glassy matter
is frequent. Other crystalline rocks such as rock-salt, gypsum
and anhydrite have been deposited from solution in water,
mostly owing to evaporation on exposure to the air. Still
another group, which includes the marbles, mica-schists and
quartzites, are recrystallized, that is to say, they were at first
fragmental rocks, like limestone, clay and sandstone and have
never been in a molten condition nor entirely in solution. Certain
agencies however, acting on them, have effaced their primitive
structures, and induced crystallization, This is a kind of
metamorphism.

The fragmental structure needs little explanation; wherever
rocks disintegrate fragments are produced which are suitable
for the formation of new rocks of this group. The
original materials may be organic (shells, corals,
plants) or vitreous (volcanic glasses) or crystalline
(granite, marble, &c.); the pulverizing agent may be frost, rain,
running water, or the steam explosions which shatter the lava
within a volcanic crater and produce the fragmental rocks
known as volcanic ash, tuffs and agglomerates. The materials
may be loose and incoherent (sand, clay, gravel) or compacted
by pressure and the deposit of cementing substances by percolat-
ing water (sandstone, shale, conglomerate). The grains of
which fragmental rocks are composed may be coarse or fine,
fresh or decayed, uniform or diverse in their composition; the
one feature which gives unity to the class is the fact that they
are all derived from pre-existing rocks or organisms. Because
they are made up of broken pieces these rocks are often said to
be " clastic."

Origin of Rocks. — The study of the structure of rocks evidently
leads us to another method of regarding them, which is more
fundamental than those enumerated above, as the structure
depends on the mode of origin. Rocks are divided into three
great classes, the Igneous, the Sedimentary and the Metamorphic.
The igneous (Lat. ignis, fire) rocks have all consoli-
dated from a state of fusion. Some of them are
crystalline or " massive "; others are fragmental.
The massive igneous rocks include a few which,1 are nearly com-
pletely vitreous, and still more which contain a small amount
of amorphous matter, but the majority are completely crystal-
lized. Among the best known examples are obsidian, pumice,
basalt, trachyte, granite, diorite. The fragmental igneous
rocks consist of volcanic ashes more or less firmly compacted.
The sedimentary rocks form a second group; they
have all been laid down as deposits on the earth's
surface subject to the conditions of temperature,
moisture and pressure which obtain there. They include
fragmental and crystalline varieties. The former consist of
the ddbris of pre-existing rocks, accumulated in seas, lakes or
dry land and more or less indurated by pressure and cementing
substances. Gravel, sand and clay, conglomerate, sandstone,
shale are well-known examples. Many of them are fossiliferous
as they contain fragments of organisms. Some are very largely
made up of remains of animals or plants, more or less altered by
mineralization. These are sometimes placed into a special
group as rocks of organic origin; limestone, peat and coal are
typical of this class. The crystalline sediments are such as
rock-salt and gypsum, deposits of saline lakes or isolated
portions of the sea. They were formed under conditions

unfavourable to life and hence rarely contain fossils. The
metamorphic rocks are known to be almost entirely altered
igneous or sedimentary masses. Metamorphism
consists in the destruction of the original structures
and the development of new minerals. The chemical
composition of the rocks however suffers little change. The
rock becomes as a rule more crystalline; but all stages in the
process may be found and in a metamorphosed sediment, e.g. a
sandstone, remains of the original sand grains and primary
fragmental structure may be observed, although extensive
recrystallization has taken place. The agencies which produce
metamorphism are high temperatures, pressure, interstitial
moisture and in many cases movement. The effects of high
temperatures are seen best in the rocks surrounding great out-
crops of intrusive granite, for they have been baked and crystal-
lized by the heat of the igneous rock (thermo-metamorphism).
In folded mountain chains where the strata have been greatly
compressed and their particles have been forced to move over
one another a different type of metamorphism prevails (regional
or dynamic metamorphism).

Methods of Investigation. — The macroscopic (Gr. /joxpfc, large)
characters of rocks, those visible in hand-specimens without
the aid of the microscope, are very varied and
difficult to describe accurately and fully. The
geologist in the field depends principally on them
and on a few rough chemical and physical tests; and to the
practical engineer, architect and quarry-master they are all-
important. Although frequently insufficient in themselves to
determine the true nature of a rock, they usually serve for a
preliminary classification and often give all the information
which is really needed. With a small bottle of acid to test for
carbonate of lime, a knife to ascertain the hardness of rocks
and minerals, and a pocket lens to magnify their structure, the
field geologist is rarely at a loss to what group a rock belongs.
The fine grained species are often indeterminable in this way,
and the minute mineral components of all rocks can usually be
ascertained only by microscopic examination. But it is easy
to see that a sandstone or grit consists of more or less rounded,
waterworn sand-grains and if it contains dull, weathered
particles of felspar, shining scales of mica or small crystals of
calcite these also rarely escape observation. Shales and clay
rocks generally are soft, fine grained, often laminated and not
infrequently contain minute organisms or fragments of plants.
Limestones are easily marked with a knife-blade, effervesce
readily with weak cold acid and often contain entire or broken
shells or other fossils. The crystalline nature of a granite or
basalt is obvious at a glance, and while the former contains white
or pink felspar, clear vitreous quartz and glancing flakes of mica,
the other will show yellow-green olivine, black augite and grey
striated plagioclase.

But when dealing with unfamiliar types or with rocks so fine
grained that their component minerals cannot be determined
with the aid of a lens, the geologist is obliged to have
recourse to more delicate and searching methods of characters.
investigation. With the aid of the blowpipe (to
test the fusibility of detached crystals), the goniometer, the
magnet, the magnifying glass and the specific gravity balance,
the earlier travellers attained surprisingly accurate results.
Examples of these may be found in the works of von Buch,
Scrope, Darwin and many others. About the end of the i8th
century, Dolomieu examined crushed rock powders under the
microscope and Cordier in 1815 crushed, levigated and investi-
gated the finer ground-mass of igneous rocks. His researches
are models of scrupulous accuracy, and he was able to announce
that they consisted essentially of such minerals as felspar,
augite, iron ores and volcanic glass, and did not differ in nature
from the coarser grained rocks. Nicol, whose name is associated
with the discovery of the Nicol's prism, seems to have been the
first to prepare thin slices of mineral substances, and his methods
were applied by Witham (1831) to the study of plant petri-
factions. This method, of such far-reaching importance in
petrology, was not at once made use of for the systematic

PETROLOGY

325

investigation of rocks, and it was not till 1858 that Sorby
pointed out its value. Meanwhile the optical study of sections
of crystals had been advanced by Sir David Brewster and other
physicists and mineralogists and it only remained to apply
their methods to the minerals visible in rock sections. Very
rapid progress was made and the names of Zirkel, Allport,
Vogelsang, Schuster, Rosenbusch, Bertrand, Fouque and L6vy
are among those of the most active pioneers in the new field of
research. To such importance have microscopical methods
attained that textbooks of petrology at the present time are very
largely devoted to a description of the appearances presented
by the minerals of rocks as studied in transparent micro-sections.

A good rock-section should be about one-thousandth of an inch
in thickness, and is by no means very difficult to make. A thin
_., splinter of the rock, about as large as a halfpenny may

be taken ; it should be as fresh as possible and free from
obvious cracks. By grinding on a plate of planed steel or cast
iron with a little fine carborundum it is soon rendered flat on one side
and is then transferred to a sheet of plate glass and smoothed with
the very finest emery till all minute pits and roughnesses are removed
and the surface is a uniform plane. The rock-chip is then washed,
and placed on a copper or iron plate which is heated by a spirit or
gas lamp. A microscopic glass slip is also warmed on this plate
with a drop of viscous natural Canada balsam on its surface. The
more volatile ingredients of the balsam are dispelled by the heat,
and when that is accomplished the smooth, dry, warm rock is pressed
firmly into contact with the glass plate so that the film of balsam
intervening may be as thin as possible and free from air-bubbles.
The preparation is allowed to cool and then the rock chip is again
ground down as before, first with carborundum and, when it becomes
transparent, with fine emery till the desired thickness is obtained.
It is then cleaned, again heated with a little more balsam, and
covered with a cover glass. The labour of grinding the first surface
may be avoided by cutting off a smooth slice with an iron disk armed
with crushed diamond powder. A second application of the slitter
after the first face is smoothed and cemented to the glass will in
expert hands leave a rock-section so thin as to be already transparent.
In this way the preparation of a section may require only twenty
minutes.

The microscope employed is usually one which is provided with a
rotating stage beneath which there is a polarizer, while above the
... objective or the eyepiece an analyser is mounted ; alter-

scope. na(jve]y tne stage may be fixed and the polarizing and
analysing prisms may be capable of simultaneous rotation by means
of toothed wheels and a connecting-rod. If ordinary light and not
polarized light is desired, both prisms may be withdrawn from the
axis of the instrument; if the polarizer only is inserted the light
transmitted is plane polarized; with both prisms in position the
slide is viewed between " crossed nicols." A microscopic rock-
section in ordinary light if a suitable magnification (say 30) be
employed is seen to consist of grains or crystals varying in colour,
Ch racte s'ze an(^ snaPe- Some minerals are colourless and trans-
' . parent (quartz, calcite, felspar, muscovite, &c.), others
' are yellow or brown (rutile, tourmaline, biotite) , green
(diopside, hornblende, chlorite), blue (glaucophane), pink (garnet),
&c. The same mineral may present a variety of colours, in the
same or different rocks, and these colours may be arranged in
zones parallel to the surfaces of the crystals. Thus tourmaline
may be brown, yellow, pink, blue, green, violet, grey or colourless,
but every mineral has one or more characteristic, because most
common tints. The shapes of the crystals determine in a
general way the outlines of the sections of them presented on
the slides. If the mineral has one or more good cleavages they
will be indicated by systems of cracks (see PI. III.). The refrac-
tive index is also clearly shown by the appearance of the sections,
which are rough, with well-defined borders if they have a much
stronger refraction than the medium in which they are mounted.
Some minerals decompose readily and become turbid and semi-
transparent (e.g. felspar) ; others remain always perfectly fresh and
clear (e.g. quartz), others yield characteristic secondary products
(such as green chlorite after biotite). The inclusions in the crystals
are of great interest ; one mineral may enclose another, or may con-
tain spaces occupied by glass, by fluids or by gases.

Lastly the structure of the rock, that is to say, the relation of its
components to one another, is usually clearly indicated, whether it
be fragmental or massive ; the presence of glassy matter
in contradistinction to a completely crystalline or
" holo-crystalline " condition; the nature and origin of
organic fragments; banding, foliation or lamination; the pumiceous
or porous structure of many lavas; these and many other characters,
though often not visible in the hand specimens of a rock, are rendered
obvious by the examination of a microscopic section. Many refined
methods of observation may be introduced, such as the measurement
of the size of the elements of the rock by the help of micrometers;
their relative proportions by means of a glass plate ruled in small
squares; the angles between cleavages or faces seen in section by
the use of the rotating graduated stage, and the estimation of the

Micro-
Structure.

refractive index of the mineral by comparison with those of different
mounting media.

Further information is obtained by inserting the polarizer and
rotating the section. The light vibrates now only in one plane, and
in passing through doubly refracting crystals in the _.
slide is, speaking generally, broken up into two rays,
which vibrate at right angles to one another. In many '
coloured minerals such as biotite, hornblende, tourmaline, chlorite,
these two rays have different colours, and when a section con-
taining any of these minerals is rotated the change of colour is
often very striking. This property, known as " pleochroism " (Gr.
v\tiav, more; xpis, colour), is of great value in the determination of
rock-making minerals. It is often especially intense in small spots
which surround minute enclosures of other minerals, such as zircon
and epidote; these are known as " pleochroic halos."

If the analyser be now inserted in such a position that it is crossed
relatively to the polarizer the field of view will be dark where there
are no minerals, or where the light passes through isotro-
pic substances such as glass, liquids and cubic crystals.
All other crystalline bodies, being doubly refracting,
will appear bright in some position as the stage is rotated. The
only exception to this rule is provided by sections which are
perpendicular to the optic axes of birefringent crystals; these
remain dark or nearly dark during a whole rotation, and as will
be seen later, their investigation is of special importance. The
doubly refracting mineral sections, however, will in all cases
appear black in certain positions as the stage is .... „,.
rotated. They are said to be "extinguished" when *
this takes place. If we note these positions we may measure
the angle between them and any cleavages, faces or other
structures of the crystal by means of the rotating stage. These
angles are characteristic of the system to which the mineral belongs
and often of the mineral species itself (see CRYSTALLOGRAPHY).
To facilitate measurement of extinction angles various kinds of
eyepieces have been devised, some having a stauroscopic calcite
plate, others with two or four plates of quartz cemented together;
these are often found to give more exact results than are obtained
by observing merely the position in which the mineral section is most
completely dark between crossed nicols.

The mineral sections when not extinguished are not only bright
but are coloured and the colours they show depend on several factors,
the most important of which is the strength of the double refraction.
If all the sections are of the same thickness as is nearly true of well-
made slides, the minerals with strongest double refraction yield
the highest polarization colours. The order in which the colours
are arranged is that known as Newton's scale, the lowest being
dark grey, then grey, white, yellow, orange, red, purple, blue and
so on. The difference between the refractive indexes of the ordinary
and the extraordinary ray in quartz is -009, and in a rock-section
about ^iy of an inch thick this mineral gives grey and white
polarization tints; nepheline with weaker double refraction gives
dark grey; augite on the other hand will give red and blue, while
calcite with still stronger double refraction will appear pinkish or
greenish white. AH sections of the same mineral, however, will not
have the same colour; it was stated above that sections perpendicular
to an optic axis will be nearly black, and, in general, the more nearly
any section approaches this direction the lower its polarization
colours will be. By taking the average, or the highest colour
given by any mineral, the relative value of its double refraction can
be estimated ; or if the thickness of the section be precisely known
the difference between the two refractive indexes can be ascertained.
If the slides be thick the colours will be on the whole higher than in
thin slides.

It is often important to find out whether of the two axes of elas-
ticity (or vibration traces) in the section is that of greater elasticity
(or lesser refractive index). The quartz wedge or selenite plate
enables us to do this. Suppose a doubly refracting mineral section
so placed that it is "extinguished "; if now it is rotated through
45° it will be brightly illuminated. If the quartz wedge be passed
across it so that the long axis of the wedge is parallel to the axis
of elasticity in the section the polarization colours will rise or fall.
If they rise the axes of greater elasticity in the two minerals are
parallel ; if they sink the axis of greater elasticity in the one is parallel
to that of lesser elasticity in the other. In the latter case by pushing
the wedge sufficiently far complete darkness or compensation will
result. Selenite wedges, selenite plates, mica wedges and mica
plates are also used for this purpose. A quartz wedge also may be
calibrated by determining the amount of double refraction in all
parts of its length. If now it be used to produce compensation
or complete extinction in any doubly refracting mineral section, we
can ascertain what is the strength of the double refraction of the
section because it is obviously equal and opposite to that of a known
part of the quartz wedge.

A further refinement of microscopic methods consists of the use
of strongly convergent polarized light (konoscopic methods). This
is obtained by a wide angled achromatic condenser above the polar-
izer, and a high power microscopic objective. Those sections are
most useful which are perpendicular to an optic axis, and conse-
quently remain dark on rotation. If they belong to uniaxial crystals
they show a dark cross or convergent light between crossed nicols,

326

PETROLOGY

the bars of which remain parallel to the'wires in the field of the eye-
piece. Sections perpendicular to an optic axis of a biaxial mineral
under the same conditions show a dark bar which on rotation
becomes curved to a hyperbolic shape. If the section is perpendicu-
lar to a " bisectrix " (see CRYSTALLOGRAPHY) a black cross is seen
which on rotation opens out to form two hyperbolas, the apices of
which are turned towards one another. The optic axes emerge at
the apices of the hyperbolas and may be surrounded by coloured
rings, though owing to the thinness of minerals in rock sections
these are only seen when the double refraction of the mineral is
strong. The distance between the axes as seen in the field of the
microscope depends partly on the axial angle of the crystal and
partly on the numerical aperture of the objective. If it is measured
by means of an eye-piece micrometer, the optic axial angle of the
mineral can be found by a simple calculation. The quartz wedge,
quarter mica plate or selenite plate permit the determination of the
positive or negative character of the crystal by the changes in the
colour or shape of the figures observed in the field. These operations
are precisely similar to those employed by the mineralogist in the
examination of plates cut from crystals. It is sufficient to point
out that the petrological microscope in its modern development is
an optical instrument of great precision, enabling us to determine
physical constants of crystallized substances as well as serving to
produce magnified images like the ordinary microscope. A great
variety of accessory apparatus has been devised to fit it for these
special uses.

The separation of the ingredients of a crushed rock powder
from one to another in order to obtain pure samples suitable
Separation f°r analysis is also extensively practised. It may
ofcompo- be effected by means of a powerful electro-magnet
nents. the strength of which can be regulated as desired.
A weak magnetic field will attract magnetite, then haematite
and other ores of iron. Silicates containing iron will follow
in definite order and biotite, enstatite, augite, hornblende,
garnet and similar ferro-magnesian minerals may be succes-
sively abstracted; at last only the colourless, non-magnetic
compounds, such as muscovite, calcite, quartz and felspar, will
remain. Chemical methods also are useful. A weak acid will
dissolve calcite from a crushed limestone, leaving only dolomite,
silicates or quartz. Hydrofluoric acid will attack felspar before
quartz, and if employed with great caution will dissolve these
and any glassy material in a rock powder before dissolving
augite or hypersthene. Methods of separation by specific
gravity have a still wider application. The simplest of these
is levigation (Lat. leoigare, to make smooth, levis) or treatment
by a current of water; it is extensively employed in the mechanical
analysis of soils and in the treatment of ores, but is not so
successful with rocks, as their components do not as a rule
differ very greatly in specific gravity.

Fluids are used which do not attack the majority of the rock-
making minerals and at the same time have a high specific gravity.
Solutions of potassium mercuric iodide (sp. gr. 3-196), cadmium
borotungstate (sp. gr. 3-30), methlyene iodide (sp. gr. 3-32), bromo-
form (sp. gr. 2-86), or acetylene bromide (sp.gr. 3-00) are the prin-
cipal media employed. They may be diluted (with water, benzene,
&c.) to any desired extent and again concentrated by evaporation.
If the rock be a granite consisting of biotite (sp. gr. 3-1), muscovite
(sp. gr. 2-85), quartz (sp. gr. 2-65), oligoclase (sp. gr. 2-64) and
orthoclase (sp. gr. 2-56) the crushed minerals will all float in
methylene iodide; on gradual dilution with benzene they will be
precipitated in the order given above. Although simple in theory
these methods are tedious in practice, especially as it is common
for one rock-making mineral to enclose another. But expert
handling of fresh and suitable rocks yields excellent results and much
purer powders may be obtained by this means than by any other.

Although rocks are now studied principally in microscopic
sections the investigation of fine crushed rock powders, which
Bxmmlaa- was the first branch of microscopic petrology to
tionofKock receive attention, is by no means discontinued.
Powder*. -pne modern optical methods are perfectly applicable
to transparent mineral fragments of any kind. Minerals
are almost as easily determined in powder as in section, but
it is otherwise with rocks, as the structure or relation of the
components to one another, which is an element of great im-
portance in the study of the history and classification of rocks,
is almost completely destroyed by grinding them to powder.

In addition to naked-eye and microscopic investigations
chemical methods of research are of the greatest practical
utility to the petrographer. The crushed and separated
powders, obtained by the processes described above, may be

analysed and thus the chemical composition of the minerals
in the rock determined qualitatively or quantitatively. The
chemical testing of microscopic sections and minute

. * i i » j- .1 ' • • Chemical

grams by the help of the microscope is a very Analysis.
elegant and valuable means of discriminating between
the mineral components of fine-grained rocks. Thus the
presence of apatite in rock-sections is established by covering
a bare rock-section with solution of ammonium moiybdate;
a turbid yellow precipitate forms over the crystals of the mineral
in question (indicating the presence of phosphates). Many
silicates are insoluble in acids and cannot be tested in this way,
but others are partly dissolved, leaving a film of gelatinous
silica which can be stained with colouring matters such as the
aniline dyes (nepheline, analcite, zeolites, &c.).

Complete chemical analyses of rocks are also widely made use of
and are of the first importance, especially when new species are under
description. Rock analysis has of late years (largely under the
influence of the chemical laboratory of the United States Geological
Survey) reached a high pitch of refinement and complexity. As
many as twenty or twenty-five components may be determined, but
for practical purposes a knowledge of the relative proportions of
silica, alumina, ferrous and ferric oxides, magnesia, lime, potash,
soda and water will carry us a long way in determining the position
to which a rock is to be assigned in any of the conventional classifica-
tions. A chemica} analysis is in itself usually sufficient to indicate
whether a rock is igneous or sedimentary and in either case to show
with considerable accuracy to what subdivision of these classes it
belongs. In the case of metamorphic rocks it often establishes
whether the original mass was a sediment or of volcanic origin.

The specific gravity of rocks is determined in the usual way by
means of the balance and the pycnometer. It is greatest in those
rocks which contain most magnesia, iron and heavy Specific
metals; jeast in rocks rich in alkalis, silica and water. gravity
It diminishes with weathering, and generally those rocks
which are highly crystalline have higher specific gravities than those
which are wholly or partly vitreous when both have the same
chemical composition. The specific gravity of the commoner rocks
ranges from about 2-5 to 3-2.

The above methods of investigation, naked eye, physical,
microscopical, chemical, may be grouped together as analytical
in contradistinction to the synthetic investigation
of rocks, which proceeds by experimental work to
reproduce different rock types and in this way to
elucidate their origin and explain their structures. la many
cases no experiment is necessary. Every stage in the origin of
clays, sands and gravels can be seen in process around us, but
where these have been converted into coherent shales, sand-
stones and conglomerates, and still more where they have
experienced some degree of metamorphism, there are many
obscure points about their history upon which experiment may
yet throw light. Up to the present time these investigations
have been almost entirely confined to the attempt to reproduce
igneous rocks by fusion of mixtures of crushed minerals or of
chemicals in specially contrived furnaces. The earliest researches
of this sort are of those of Faujas St Fond and of de Saussure,
but Sir James Hall really laid the foundations of this branch
of petrology. He showed (1798) that the whinstones (diabases)
of Edinburgh ware fusible and if rapidly cooled yielded black
vitreous masses closely resembling natural pitchstones and
obsidians; if cooled more slowly they consolidated as crystalline
rocks not unlike the whinstones themselves and containing
olivine, augite and felspar (the essential minerals of these rocks).
Many years later Daubree, Delesse and others carried on similar
experiments, but the first notable advance was made in 1878,
when Fouque and L6vy began their researches

They succeeded in producing such rocks as porphyrite, leucite-
tephrite, basalt and dolerite, and obtained also various structural
modifications well known in igneous rocks, e.g. the porphyritic and
the ophitic (Gr. &<j>is, serpent). Incidentally they showed that
while many basic rocks (basalts, &c.) could be perfectly imitated in
the laboratory, the acid rocks could not, and advanced the explana-
tion that for the crystallization of the latter the gases never absent
in natural rock magmas were indispensable mineralizing agents.
It has subsequently been proved that steam, or such volatile sub-
stances as certain borates, molybdates, chlorides, fluorides, assist
in the formation of orthoclase, quartz and mica (the minerals of
granite). Sir James Hall also made the first contribution to the
experimental study of metamorphic rocks by converting chalk

PETROLOGY

PlATE I.

J

FIG.

i.— BANDED OBSIDIAN, KIRGHIZ

(X2S).

The rock consists of alternate bands of
brown and colourless glass which have been

FIG. 2.— FLUIDAL RHYOLITE,
HUNGARY (x 15).

In the centre are crystals of felspar, rather
turbid through weathering.

The matrix is

arranged in stripes by the fluxion movement partly glassy, partly felsitic, and shows the

of the viscous mass before solidification, effects of streaming movements with eddies

The glass is rendered granular by very minute behind the felspar crystals,
crystals.

FIG. 3.— OBSIDIAN, MEXICO (x 15).

This rock has a damascened pattern owing
to the irregular mingling of streams of brown
and of colourless glass. It is nearly quite
free from minute crystals.

FIG. 4— PERLITIC OBSIDIAN, TOKAI,
HUNGARY ( x 15).

The clear glassy rock is traversed by a large
number of cracks, some long and straight,
while others are nearly circular. These are
rendered more distinct by the deposit of thin
films of secondary limonite in them. The
cracks are due to contraction on cooling.

FIG. 7— SPHERULITIC RHYOLITE,
HLINIK, HUNGARY (X 10).

The white, angular patches are crystals of
quartz and of sanidine felspar. Between
them there is a yellowish glass showing
circular areas with a well-defined radiate
fibrous structure (spherulites).

XXI. 326.

FIG. 5.— PERLITIC PITCHSTONE,
MEISSEN, GERMANY (x 15).

The perlitic, rounded cracks are very
clearly seen, because the rock is decomposing
and becoming slightly opaque along them.
At the top there is a corroded crystal of felspar,
showing cleavage, with large circular en-
closures of brownish glass.

d

FIG. 6.— OBSIDIAN, ICELAND (x 17).

In the clear glassy base there are rounded
yellow spots (spherulites) arranged in fluxion
streams.

FIG. 8.— SPHERULITIC FELSITE,
ARRAN, SCOTLAND (x 10).

The round spherulites of this rock are
large and sometimes composite; their radiate
structure is obvious. This is a devitrified
pitchstone, no longer glassy but finely crystal-
line, and at the centres of the spherulites there
are spaces occupied by a secondary deposit of
quartz.

FIG. 9— PORPHYRITIC AND FLUIDAL
RHYOLITE, HUNGARY (x 12).

The ground -mass is partly glassy, partly
felsitic, and shows fluxion-banding. The
large quartz is a double hexagonal pyramid,
but its edges and corners are rounded by
corrosion and large irregular areas of glass
penetrate to its centre.

PLATE II.

PETROLOGY

FIG. i.— PORPHYRITIC PITCHSTONE,
SCUIR OF EIGG, SCOTLAND ( xio).

A large porphyritic felspar crystal is seen
lying in a pale-brown glassy base and con-
taining many glass inclusions of irregular
shape. The felspar, in one margin especially,
shows corroded outlines.

FIG. 2.— TRACHYTE, OROTAVA, TENE-
RIFFE (x 12).

There are larger porphyritic felspars of the
first generation, and smaller ones of later
origin composing part of the ground-mass,
which also contains a considerable amount of
yellow vitreous material.

FIG. 3.— TRACHYTE, PERLENHARDT,
GERMANY (x 10).

In this rock there are porphyritic crystals
of felspar and of dark brown biotite (nearly
black in the photograph), with a few of green
augite and magnetite. The ground-mass is
finely crystalline.

FIG. 4.— GRANITE RUBISLAW, ABER-
DEEN (x 10).

This is a non-porphyritic, holocrystaHine
rock. Among its components the crystals
of dark mica are conspicuous, and with them
occur also a few plates of white mica, with
perfect cleavage. The slightly turbid or
granular substance is felspar, a little de-
composed, and the large clear spaces are
crystals of quartz.

FIG. 5.— HORNBLENDE-GRANITE,
DALBEATTIE, SCOTLAND (x 15).

The dark crystal with fine parallel lines of
cleavage is biotite; the others, with two less
perfect cleavages, are hornblende. At the
top there is a long rod-shaped grain of sphene.
The granular-looking substance is felspar, and
the quartz, as usual, is clear and transparent.

FIG. 6.— GRAPHIC GRANITE, BODEN-
MAIS, BAVARIA (X 10).

This rock consists of angular patches of
clear quartz scattered through a striated dull
matrix of felspar. The different quartz areas
have all the same optical orientation, as if
they were parts of a single crystal.

FIG. 7.— LUXULLIANITE, LUXULYAN,
CORNWALL (x 15).

In this variety of tourmaline-granite there
are many blue needles of tourmaline, grouped
in stellate clusters which are embedded in a
matrix of clear quartz. These pointed
needles diverge from the surfaces of larger
grains of tourmaline.

FIG. 8.— GRANOPHYRE, BRAEMAR,
SCOTLAND (X37).

This photograph is taken between crossed
nicols to show the graphic structure of the
ground-mass, similar to that of Fig. 6, but on
a much finer scale. The quartz towards the
centre of the field appears as white, angular
areas, embedded in a grey matrix of felspar,
and each mineral reacts in a uniform fashion
to polarized light over an area of moderate
extent.

FIG. 9.— DIORITE, HODRITCH, HUN-
GARY (x 10).

The dark crystals are green hornblende,
and show the outlines which are characteristic
of that mineral. The cloudy grey substance
between them is felspar in a somewhat
weathered state.

PETROLOGY

327

into marble by heating it in a closed gun-barrel, which prevented the
escape of the carbonic acid at high temperatures. Adams and
Nicholson have carried this a stage farther by subjecting marble
to great pressure in hydraulic presses and have shown how the
foliated structures, frequent in natural marbles, may be produced
artificially.

Rock Classification. — The three great classes of rocks above
enumerated — the igneous, the sedimentary and the metamorphic
— are subdivided into man;' eroups which to a small extent
resemble the genera and species under which the naturalist
classifies the members of the animal kingdom. There are,
however, no hard and fast boundaries between allied rocks.
By increase or diminution in the proportions of their constituent
minerals they pass by every gradation into one another; the
distinctive structures also of one kind of rock may often be
traced gradually merging into those of another. Hence the
definitions adopted in establishing rock nomenclature merely
correspond to selected points (more or less arbitrary) in a con-
tinuously graduated series. This is frequently urged as a
reason for reducing rock classification to its simplest possible
terms, and using only a few generalized rock designations. But
it is clear that many apparently trivial differences tend regularly
to recur, and have a real significance, and so long as any variation
can be shown to be of this nature it deserves recognition.

The igneous rocks (crystalline and fragmental) form a well-defined
group, differing in origin from all others. The crystalline or massive
varieties may occur in two different ways; the lavas have
Igneous been poured out at the surface and have consolidated
Rocks. after ejection, under] conditions which are fairly well
understood, seeing that they may be examined at active volcanoes
in many parts of the world ; the intrusive rocks, on the other hand,
have been injected from below into cracks and fissures in the strata
and have cooled there beneath masses which conceal them from view
till exposed by denudation at a subsequent period. The members
of these two groups differ in many respects from one another, so
that it is often possible to assign a rock to one or other of them on
mere superficial inspection. The lavas (or effusive rocks), having
cooled rapidly in contact with the air, are mostly finely crystalline
or have at least fine-grained ground-mass representing
Lavas or tnat part of tne viscous semi-crystalline lava flow which
Effusive was stij| liquid at the moment of eruption. At this
Types. time they were exposed only to atmospheric pressure, and
the steam and other gases, which they contained in great quantity,
were free to escape; many important modifications arise from this,
the most striking being the frequent presence of numerous steam
cavities (vesicular structure) often drawn out to elongated shapes
subsequently filled up with minerals by infiltration (amygdaloidal
structure). As crystallization was going on while the mass was
still creeping forward over the surface of the earth, the latest
formed minerals (in the ground-mass) are commonly arranged in
subparallel winding lines following the direction of movement
(fluxion or fluidal structure) (see PI. I. figs. 2 and 9, PI. II. fig. 2), and
the larger early minerals which had previously crystallized may show
the same arrangement. Most lavas have fallen considerably below
their original temperatures before they are emitted. In their
behaviour they present a close analogy to hot solutions of salts
in water, which, when they approach the saturation temperature,
first deposit a crop of large, well-formed crystals (labile stage) and
subsequently precipitate clouds of smaller less perfect crystalline
particles (metastable stage). In igneous rocks the first generation
of crystals generally forms before the lava has emerged to the surface,
that is to say, during the ascent from the subterranean depths to the
crater of the volcano. It has frequently been verified by observation
that freshly emitted lavas contain large crystals borne along in a
molten, liquid mass. The large, well-formed, early crystals are
said tobeporphyritic(Pl.III. figs. 1,2,3); the smaller crystals of the
surrounding matrix or ground-mass belong to the post-effusion stage.
More rarely lavas are completely fused at the moment of ejection ;
they may then cool to form a non-porphyritic, finely crystalline rock,
or if more rapidly chilled may in large part be non-crystalline or
glassy (vitreous rocks such as obsidian, tachylyte, pitchstone (PI. I.
figs, i, 4, 5). A common feature of glassy rocks is the presence of
rounded bodies (spherulites : Gr. o-^oipa, ball), consisting of fine diver-
gent fibres radiating from a centre (PI. I. figs. 7, 8); they consist of
imperfect crystals of felspar, mixed with quartz or tridymite; similar
bodies are often produced artificialjy in glasses which are allowed to
cool slowly. Rarely these spherulites are hollow or consist of con-
centric shells with spaces between (lithophysae : Gr. X£0os, stone;
<t>v6a, bellows). Perlitic structure, also common in glasses, consists
in the presence of concentric rounded cracks owing to contraction
on cooling (see PERUTE).

The phenocrysts (Gr. <t>alvtiv, to show; Kp{«rra\\ov, crystal) or por-
phyritic minerals are not only larger than those of the ground-
mass. As the matrix was still liquid when they formed they were
free to take perfect crystalline shapes, not being interfered with by

the pressure of adjacent crystals. They seem to have grown rapidly,
as they are often filled with enclosures of glassy or finely crystalline
material like that of the ground-mass (PI. II. fig. I). Microscopic
examination of the phenocrysts often reveals that they have had a
complex history. Very frequently they show successive layers
of different composition, indicated by variations in colour or other
optical properties; thus augite may be green at the centre and various
shades of brown outside this; or may be pale green centrally and
darker green with strong pleochroism (aegirine) at the periphery.
In the felspars the centre is usually more basic and richer in lime
than the surrounding faces, and successive zones may often be noted,
each less basic than those which lie within it. Phenocrysts of quartz
(and of other minerals), instead of sharp, perfect crystalline faces,
may show rounded corroded surfaces (PI. I. fig. 9), with the points
blunted and irregular tongue-like projections of the matrix into the
substance of the crystal. It is clear that after the mineral had
crystallized it was partly again dissolved or corroded at some period
before the matrix solidified. Corroded phenocrysts of biotite and
hornblende are very common in some lavas; they are surrounded
by black rims of magnetite mixed with pale green augite. The
hornblende or biotite substance has proved unstable at a certain
stage of consolidation and has been replaced by a paramorph of
augite and magnetite which may be partially or completely sub-
stituted for the original crystal but still retains its characteristic
outlines.

Let us now consider the characteristics of a typical deep-seated
rock like granite or diorite. (PI. II. figs. 4, 5,9). That these are
igneous is proved by the manner in which they have
burst through the superincumbent strata, filling the
cracks with ramifying veins; that they were at a very ~
high temperature is equally clear from the changes which yp^
they have induced in the rocks in contact with them. But as their
heat could dissipate only very slowly, because of the masses which
covered them, complete crystallization has taken place and no
vitreous rapidly chilled matter is present. As they have had time
to come to rest before crystallizing they are not fluidal. Their
contained gases have not been able to escape through the thick layer
of strata beneath which they were injected, and may often be ob-
served occupying cavities in the minerals, or have occasioned many
important modifications in the crystallization of the rock. Because
their crystals are of approximately equal size these rocks are said to
be granular ; there is typically no distinction between a first generation
of large well-shaped crystals and a fine-grained ground-mass. Their
minerals have formed, however, in a definite order, and each has had
a period of crystallization which maybe very distinct or may have
coincided with or overlapped the period of formation of some of the
other ingredients. The earlier have originated at a time when
most of the rock was still liquid and are more or less perfect ; the later
are less regular in shape because they were compelled to occupy
the interspaces left between the already formed crystals (PI. II.
figs- 5. 9)- The former are said to be idiomorphic (or automorphic),
the latter are anidiomorphic (allotriomorphic, xenomorphic).1
There are also many other characteristics which serve to distinguish
the members of these two groups. Orthoclase, for example, is the
typical felspar of granite, while its modification sanidine occurs in
lavas of similar composition. The same distinction holds between
elaeolite and nepheline. Leucite is common in lavas, very rare in
plutonic rocks. Muscovite is confined to the intrusives. These
differences show the influence of the physical conditions under
which consolidation takes place.

There is a certain class of intrusive rocks which have risen
upwards towards the surface, but have failed to reach it, and have
solidified in fissures as dikes and intrusive sills at no
great depth. To this type the name intrusive (or hyp-'°trus'reor
abyssal) is often given in distinction to the plutonic (or J?pa\
abyssal) which formed at greater depths. As might yp^
be expected, they show structures intermediate between those of
the effusive and the plutonic rocks. They are very commonly por-
phyritic, not rarely vitreous, and sometimes even vesicular. In fact
many of them are indistinguishable petrologically from lavas of
similar composition.

The attempt to form a special group of hypabyssal (intrusive and
dike) rocks has met with much criticism and opposition. Such a
group certainly cannot rank as equally important and equally well
characterized with the plutonic and the effusive. But there are
many kinds of rock which are not found to occur normally in any
other manner. As examples we may cite the lamprophyres, the
aplites and the porphyrites. These never occur as lava flows or as
great plutonic bosses; if magmas of the same composition as these
rocks occur in either of these ways they consolidate with different
assemblages of minerals and different structures.

In subdividing the plutonic, the hypabyssal and the effusive
rocks, the principle is followed of grouping those
together which resemble one another m mineral con-s"°a"
stitution and in chemical composition. In a broad a
sense these two properties are interdependent. _

1 Idiomorphic, having its own characteristic form, Gr. tSios,
belonging to one's self, (airrh ), nofxtrff (form); allotriomorphic, from
Gr. AXX6rp«>s, belonging to another (&XXos) , a stranger (Jiwtt).

PETROLOGY

The commoner rock constituents are nearly all oxides; chlorine,
sulphur and fluorine are the only important exceptions to this and

their total amount in any rock is usually much less than
•J* i%. F. W. Clarke has calculated that a little more

than 47 % of the earth's crust consists of oxygen. It
occurs principally in combination as oxides, of which the chief
are silica, alumina, iron oxides, lime, magnesia, potash and soda.
The silica functions principally as an acid, forming silicates, and [all
the commonest minerals of igneous rocks are of this nature. From
a computation based on 1672 analyses of all kinds of rocks Clarke
arrived at the following as the average percentage composition:

SiO2 = 597i> Al2O3 = i5-4i, Fe2O8 = 2-63, FeO = 3-S2. MgO = 4'36.
CaO=4-90, Na2O = 3-55, K2O = 2-8o, H20 = 1-52, TiOa = o-6o, P2O6 =
0-22, total 99-22%. All the other constituents occur only in very
small quantities, usually much less than I %.

These oxides do not combine in a haphazard
way. The potash and soda, for example, with a
sufficient amount of alumina and silica, combine to
produce felspars. In some cases they may take
other forms, such as nepheline, leucite and mus-
covite, but in the great majority of instances they
are found as felspar. The phosphoric acid with
lime forms apatite. The titanium dioxide with
ferrous oxide gives rise to ilmenite. Part of the
lime forms lime felspar. Magnesia and iron oxides
with silica crystallize as olivine or enstatite, or with
alumina and lime form the complex ferro-magnesian
silicates of which the pyroxenes, amphiboles and
biotites are the chief. Any excess of silica above
what is required to neutralize the bases will
separate out as quartz; excess of alumina crystal-
lizes as corundum. These must be regarded only as
general tendencies, which are modified by physical
conditions in a manner not as yet understood.
It is possible by inspection of a rock analysis to
say approximately what minerals the rock will contain, but there
are numerous exceptions to any rule which can be laid down.

Hence we may say that except in acid or siliceous rocks containing
66% of silica and over, quartz will not be abundant. In basic
Ml ral rocks (containing 60% silica or less) it is rare and
Ma- acc|dental. If magnesia and iron be above the average
tlon while silica is low olivine may be expected; where silica

is present in greater quantity other ferro-magnesian
minerals, such as augite, hornblende, enstatite or biotite, occur
rather than olivine. Unless potash is high and silica relatively
low leucite will not be present, for leucite does not occur with
free quartz. Nepheline, likewise, is usually found in rocks with
much soda and comparatively little silica. With high alkalis
soda-bearing pyroxenes and amphiboles may be present. The
lower the percentage of silica and the alkalis the greater is the
prevalence of lime felspar as contracted with soda or potash
felspar. Clarke has calculated the relative abundance of the
principal rock-forming minerals with the following results: Apatite
= 0-6, titanium minerals = 1-5, quartz = 12-0, felspars = 59-5,
biotite = 3-8, hornblende and pyroxene = 1 6- 8, total = 94-2%.
This, however, can only be a rough approximation. The other
determining factor, namely the physical conditions attending con-
solidation, plays on the whole a smaller part, yet is by no means
negligible, as a few instances will prove. There are certain minerals
which are practically confined to deep-seated intrusive rocks, e.g.
microcline, muscovite, diallage. Leucite is very rare in plutonic
masses; many minerals have special peculiarities in microscopic
character according to whether they crystallized in depth or near
the surface, e.g. hypersthene, orthoclase, quartz. There are some
curious instances of rocks having the same chemical composition
but consisting of entirely different minerals, e.g. the hornblendite of
Gran, in Norway, containing only hornblende, has the same com-
position as some of the camptonites of the same locality which con-
tain felspar and hornblende of a different variety. In this connexion
we may repeat what has been said above about the corrosion of
porphyritic minerals in igneous rocks. In rhyolites and trachytes
early crystals of hornblende and biotite may be found in great
numbers partially converted into augite and magnetite. The horn-
blende and biotite were stable under the pressures and other con-
ditions which obtained below the surface, but unstable at higher
levels. In the ground-mass of these rocks augite is almost universally
present. But the plutonic representatives of the same magma,
granite and syenite contain biotite and hornblende far more commonly
than augite.

Those rocks which contain most silica and on crystallizing yield

free quartz are erected into a group generally designated the " acid "

Add rocks. Those again which contain least silica and most

.--././.magnesia and iron, so that quartz is absent while olivine

• nicrmtiQiaic. tl . . - * . 111*11 I-M

and Basic is . usually abundant, form the basic group. The
igneous " intermediate " rocks include those which are character-
Kocks. i26^ by tne general absence of both quartz and olivine.
An important subdivision of these contains a very high
percentage of alkalis, especially soda, and consequently has minerals
such as nepheline and leucite not common in other rocks. It is
often separated from the others as the " alkali " or " soda " rocks,

and there is a corresponding series of basic rocks. Lastly a small
sub-group rich in olivine and without felspar has been called the
" ultrabasic " rocks. They have very low percentages of silica but
much iron and magnesia.

Except these last practically all rocks contain felspars or fels-
pathoid minerals. In the acid rocks the common felspars are ortho-
clase, with perthite, microcline, oligoclase, all having much silica
and alkalis. In the basic rocks labradorite, anorthite and bytownite
prevail, being rich in lime and poor in silica, potash and soda.
Augite is the commonest ferro-magnesian of the basic rocks, but
biotite and hornblende are on the whole more frequent in the acid.

The rocks which contain leucite or nepheline, either partly or
wholly replacing felspar are not included in this table. They are
essentially of intermediate or of basic character. We might in con-
sequence regard them as varieties of syenite, diorite, gabbro, &c.,

Acid.

Intermediate.

Basic.

Ultrabasic.

Quartz

Little or no Quartz.

Commonest
Minerals.

Orthoclase
(and Oligo-
clase), Mica,

No Quartz
Plagioclase
Augite,

No Felspar
Augite,
Hornblende,

Orthoclase
Hornblende,

Plagioclase
Hornblende,

Hornblende,

Augite,

Augite,

Olivine.

Olivine.

Augite.

Biotite.

Biotite.

Plutonic or~|

Abyssal}-

Granite.

Syenite.

Diorite.

Gabbro.

Peridotite.

type.

Intrusive orT
Hypabys- >
sal type.

Quartz-
porphyry.

Orthoclase-
porphyry.

Porphyrite.

Dolerite.

Picrite.

Lavas or]

E ff usi ve >•
type. J

Rhyolite,
Obsidian.

Trachyte.

Andesite.

Basalt.

Limburgite.

in which felspathoid minerals occur, and indeed there are many
transitions between syenites cf ordinary type and nepheline — or
leucite — syenite, and between gabbro or dolerite and theralite or
essexite. But as many minerals develop in these " alkali " rocks
which are uncommon elsewhere, it is convenient in a purely formal
classification like that which is outlined here to treat the whole
assemblage as a distinct series.

Nepheline and Leucite-bearing Rocks.

Commonest
Minerals.

Alkali Felspar,
Nepheline or Leu-
cite, Augite.Horn-
blende, Biotite.

Soda Lime Felspar
Nepheline or Leu-
cite.Augite, Horn-
blende (Olivine).

Nepheline or
Leucite, Augite,
Hornblende,
Olivine.

Plutonic \
type. {
Intrusive 1
type. 5
Effusive )
type or [
Lavas. )

Nepheline-syenite.
Leucite-syenite.
Nepheline-
porphyry.

Phonolite,
Leucitophyre.

Essexite and
Theralite.

Tephrite and
Basanite.

Ijolite and
Missourite.

Nepheline-
basalt.
Leucite-basalt

This classification is based essentially on the mineralogical constitu-
tion of the igneous rocks. Any chemical distinctions between
the different groups, though implied, are relegated to a subordinate
position. It is admittedly artificial but it has grown up with the
growth of the science and is still adopted as the basis on which
more minute subdivisions are erected. The subdivisions are by no
means of equal value. The syenites, for example, and the perido-
tites, are far less important than the granites, diorites and gabbros.
Moreover, the effusive andesites do not always correspond to the
plutonic diorites but partly also to the gabbros. As the different
kinds of rock, regarded as aggregates of minerals, pass gradually
into one another, transitional types are very common and are often
so important as to receive special names. The quartz-syenites and
nordmarkites may be interposed between granite and syenite, the
tonalites and adamellites between granite and diorite, the monzon-
ites between syenite and diorite, norites and hyperites between
diorite and gabbro, and so on.

There is of course a large number of recognized rock species not
included in the tables given. These are of two kinds, either belong-
ing to groups which are subdivisions of those enumerated (bearing
the same relation to them that species do to genera) or rare and
exceptional rocks that do not fall within any of the main subdivisions
proposed. The question may be asked — When is a rock entitled
to be recognized as belonging to a distinct species or variety and
deserving a name for itself? It must, first of all, be proved to
occur in considerable quantity at some locality, or better still at
a series of localities or to have been produced from different magmas
at more than one period of the earth's history. In other words, it
must not be a mere anomaly. Moreover, it should have a dis-
tinctive mineral constitution, differing from other rocks, or some-
thing individual in the characters of its minerals or of its structures.
It is often surprising how peculiar types of rock, believed at first

PETROLOGY

329

to be unique, turn up with identical features in widely scattered
regions, alnoite, for example, occurs in Norway, Scotland, Montreal,
British Columbia, New York and Brazil, tinguaite in Scotland,
Norway, Brazil, Montana, Portugal, &c. This indicates that
underlying all the variations in mineralogical, structural and
chemical properties there are definite relationships which tend to
repeat themselves, producing the same types whenever the same
conditions are present.

Although in former years the view was widely current, especially
in Germany, that igneous rocks belonging to different geological
epochs should receive different names, it is now admitted on all
sides that this cannot be upheld.

In 1902 a group of American petrographers brought forward
a proposal to discard all existing classifications of igneous rocks
and to substitute for them a " quantitative " classification based
on chemical analysis. They showed how vague and often un-
scientific was much of the existing terminology and argued that as
the chemical composition of an igneous rock was its most funda-
mental characteristic it should be elevated to prime position.
Geological occurrence, structure, mineralogical constitution, the
hitherto accepted criteria for the discrimination of rock species
were relegated to the background. The completed rock analysis
is first to be interpreted in terms of the rock-forming minerals
which might be expected to be formed when the magma crystallizes,
e.g. quartz felspars of various kinds, olivine, akermannite, fels-
pathoids, magnetite, corundum and so on, and the rocks are divided
into groups strictly according to the relative proportion of these
minerals to one another. There is no need here to describe the
minutia of the process adopted as the authors have stated them
very clearly in their treatise (Quantitative Classification of Igneous
Rocks, Chicago, 1902), and there is no indication that even in the
United States it will ever displace the older classifications.

We can often observe in a series of eruptives belonging to one
period and a restricted area certain features which distinguish
Con- them as a whole more or less completely from other

saagulalty. similar assemblages. Such groups are often said to
' be consanguineous, and to characterize a definite
" petrological province. " Excellent examples of this are furnished
by the Devonian igneous rocks of southern Norway as described by
Brogger, the Tertiary rocks of the Hebrides (Harker), the Italian
lavas studied by H. S. Washington. On a larger scale the volcanoes
which girdle the Pacific (Andes, Cordillera, Japan, &c.), and those
which occur on the volcanic islands of the Atlantic, show the same
phenomena. Each of these groups has been formed presumably
from a single deep-seated magma or source of supply and during
a period which while necessarily prolonged was not of vast duration
in a geological sense.

On the other hand, each of the great suites of eruptive rocks
which constitute such a petrological province embraces a great
Differentia- range °f types. Prolonged eruptions have in a few
tloa. cases a somewhat monotonous character, owing to the

predominance of one kind of rock. Thus the lavas of
the Hawaiian Islands are mostly basaltic, as are those of Oregon,
Washington and the Deccan, all of which form geological masses
of enormous magnitude. But it is more usual to find basalts,
andesites, trachytes, dacites and many other rocks occurring in
a single eruptive complex. The process by which a magma splits
up into a variety of partial products is known as " differentiation."
Its importance from the standpoint of theoretical petrology is very
great, but as yet no adequate explanation of it has been offered.
Differentiation may show itself in two ways. In the first type
the successive emissions from a volcanic focus may differ consider-
ably from one another. Thus in the Pentland Hills, near Edinburgh,
the lavas which are of lower Devonian age, were first basaltic,
then andesitic, trachytic and dacitic, and finally rhyolitic, and this
succession was repeated a second time. Yet they all must have
come from the same focus, or at any rate from a group of foci
very closely connected with one another. Occasionally it is found
that the earlier lavas are of intermediate character and that basic
alternate with acid during the later stages of the volcanic history.

Not less interesting are those cases in which a single body of
rock has in consolidation yielded a variety of petrographical types
often widely divergent. This is best shown by great plutonic
bosses which may be regarded as having once been vast subterranean
spaces filled with a nearly homogeneous liquid magma. Cooling
took place gradually from the outer surfaces where the igneous
rock was in contact with the surrounding strata. The resultant
laccolite (Gr. XOKKOS, pit, crater, XWos, stone), stock or boss, may
be a few hundred yards or many miles in diameter and often
contains a great diversity of crystalline rocks. Thus peridotite,
gabbro, diorite, tonalite and granite, are often associated, usually
in such a way that the more basic are the first-formed and lie nearest
the external surfaces of the mass. The reverse sequence occurs
occasionally, the edges being highly acid while the central parts
consist of more basic rocks. Sometimes the later phases pene-
trate into and vein the earlier; evidently there has been some
movement due to temporary increase of pressure when part of the
laccolite was solid and part still in a liquid state. This links these
phenomena with those above described where successive emissions
of different character have proceeded outwards from the focus.

According to modern views two explanations of these facts art
possible. Some geologists hold that the different rock facies
found in association are often due to local absorption of surrounding
rocks by the molten magma (" assimilation ). Effects of this
kind are to be expected, and have been clearly proved in many
places. There is, however, a general reluctance to admit that they
are of great importance. The nature and succession of the rock
species do not as a rule show any relation to the sedimentary or
other materials which may be supposed to have been dissolved;
and where solution is known to have gone on the products are
usually of abnormal character and easily distinguishable from the
common rock types.

Hence it is generally supposed that differentiation is to be
ascribed to some physical or chemical processes which lead to the
splitting up of a magma into dissimilar portions, each of which
consolidates as a distinct kind of rock. Two factors can be selected
as probably most potent. One important factor is cooling and
another is crystallization. According to physico-chemical laws the
least soluble substances will tend to diffuse towards the cooling
surfaces (Ludwig-Sorets's principle). This is in accordance with
the majority of the observed facts and is probably a vera causa of
differentiation, though what its potency may be is uncertain. As a
rock solidifies the minerals which crystallize follow one another in
a more or less well-defined order, the most basic (according to
Rosenbusch's law) being first to separate out. That in a general
way the peripheral portions of a laccolite consist mainly o? those
early basic minerals suggests that the sequence of crystallization
helps largely in determining the succession (and consequently the
distribution of rock species in a plutonic complex). Gravity also
may play apart, for it is proved that in a solution at rest the heaviest
components will be concentrated towards the base. This must,
however, be of secondary importance as in laccolites the top portions
often consist of more basic and heavier varieties of rock than the
centres. It has also been argued that the earliest minerals being
heaviest and in any case denser than the fused magma around
them, will tend to sink by their own weight and to be congregated
near the bottom of the mass. Electric currents, magnetic attraction
and convection currents have also been called in to account for the
phenomena observed. Magmas have also been compared to liquids
which, when they cool, split up into portions no longer completely
soluble in one another (liquation hypothesis). Each of these partial
magmas may dissolve a portion of the others and as the temperature
falls and the conditions change a range of liquids differing in
composition may be supposed to arise.

All igneous magmas contain dissolved gases (steam, carbonic
acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, chlorine, fluorine, boric acid, &c.).
Of these water is the principal, and was formerly believed to have
percolated downwards from the earth's surface to the heated rocks
below, but is now generally admitted to be an integral part of the
magma. Many peculiarities of the structure of the plutonic rocks
as contrasted with the lavas may reasonably be accounted for by
the operation of these gases, which were unable to escape as the
deep-seated masses slowly cooled, while they were promptly given
up by the superficial effusions. The acid plutonic or Intrusive rocks
have never been reproduced by laboratory experiments, and the
only successful attempts to obtain their minerals artificially have
been those in which special provision was made for the retention
of the " mineralizing " gases in the crucibles or sealed tubes employed.
These gases often do not enter into the composition of the rock-
forming minerals, for most of these are free from water, carbonic
acid, &c. Hence as crystallization goes on the residual liquor
must contain an ever-increasing proportion of volatile constituents.
It is conceivable that in the final stages the still uncrystallized
part of the magma has more resemblance to a solution of mineral
matter in superheated steam than to a dry igneous fusion. Quartz,
for example, is the last mineral to form in a granite. It bears
much of the stamp of the quartz which we know has been deposited
from aqueous solution in veins, &c. It is at the same time the most
infusible of all the common minerals of rocks. Its late formation
shows that in this case it arose at comparatively low temperatures
and points clearly to the special importance of the gases of the
magma as determining the sequence of crystallization.

When solidification is nearly complete the gases can no longer
be retained in the rock and make their escape through fissures
towards the surface. They are powerful agents in attacking the
minerals of the rocks which they traverse, and instances of their
operation are found in the kaolinization of granites, tourmaliniza-
tion and formation of greisen, deposit of quartz veins, stanniferous
and auriferous veins, apatite veins, and the group of changes
known as propylitization.1 These " pneumatolytic " (Gr. icvtvua,
spirit, vapour, \<>eu>, to loose, dissolve) processes are of the first
importance in the genesis of many ore deposits. They are a real
part of the history of the magma itself and constitute the terminal
phases of the volcanic sequence.

The complicated succession from basic (or ultrabasic) to acid
types exemplified in the history of many magmas is reflected with

1 The term " propylite " (Gr. irptnrv\ov, a gateway) was given
by Richthofen to a volcanic rock which is supposed to have marked
a new epoch in volcanic geology (see ANDESITE).

330

PETROLOGY

astonishing completeness in the history of individual products.

In each class of rock crystallization follows a definite course. The

first minerals to separate belong to a group known

c TtfTa as t*ie m'nor accessories; this includes zircon, apatite,

sphene. iron oxides; then follow in order olivine, augite,

hornblende, biotite, plagioclase, felspar (beginning with

the varieties most rich in lime and ending with those which contain

most soda), orthoclase, microcline and quartz (with micropegmatite).

Many exceptions to this rule are known; the same mineral may

crystallize at two different periods ; two or more minerals may

crystallize simultaneously or the stages in which they form may

overlap. But the succession above given holds in the vast majority

of cases. Expressed in this way: the more basic minerals precede

the less basic; it is known as Rosenbusch s law.

Types of Structure. — In some rocks there seems to be little tendency
for the minerals to envelop one another. This is true of many
gabbros, aplites and granites (PI. Ill, fig. 7). The grains then lie
side by side, with the faces of the latter moulded on or adapted to
the more perfect crystalline outlines of the earlier. More commonly
some closer relationship exists between them. When the smaller
idiomorphic crystals of the first-formed are scattered irregularly
through the larger and less perfect crystals of later origin, the
structure is said to be poikllitic (Gr. irowiXos, many-
coloured, mottled). A variety of this, known as ophitic
(PL III, fig. 6), is very characteristic of many dolerites and diabases,
in which large plates of augite enclose many small laths of plagio-
clase felspar. Biotite and hornblende frequently enclose felspar
ophitically; less commonly iron oxides and sphene do so. In peri-
dotites the " lustre-mottled " structure arises from pyroxene or
hornblende enveloping olivine in the same manner (PI. Ill, fig. 8).
In these cases no crystallographic relation exists between the two
minerals (enclosing and enclosed).

But often the surrounding mineral has been laid down on the
surface of the other in such a way that they have certain crystalline
Parallel faces or axes parallel to one another. This is known
Growths. as " parallel growth." It is best seen in zoned crystals
of plagioclase felspar, which may range in composition
from anorthite to oligoclase, the more acid layers being deposited
regularly on the surfaces of the more basic. Biotite and muscovite,
hornblende and augite, enstatite and diallage, epidote and orthite,
very frequently are associated in this way.

When two minerals crystallize simultaneously, they may be
intergrown in " graphic " fashion. The best example is quartz
_, .. and orthoclase occurring together as micropegmatite
(PI. II, figs. 6 and 8). The quartz forms angular
growths. Patches in the felspar, which though separated have
the same crystalline orientation and one position of
extinction, while the felspar on its part behaves in the same way.
Two porous crystals thus interpenetrate but the scattered parts of
each mineral maintain their connexion with the others. There
may be also a definite relation between the crystalline axes of the
two crystals, though this is not known in all cases. Augite also
occurs in graphic intergrpwth with hornblende, olivine and felspar;
and hornblende, cordierite, epidote and biotite in graphic inter-
growth with quartz.

Physical Chemistry of Igneous Rocks. — The great advances that
have been made in recent years in our knowledge of physical
chemistry have very important bearings on petrological investiga-
tions. Especially in the study of the genesis of igneous rocks we
anticipate that by this means much light will be thrown on problems
which are now very obscure and a complete revolution in our ideas
of the conditions which affect crystallization may yet be the con-
sequence. Already many important results have been gleaned.
As yet little work of an exact and quantitative nature has been
done on actual rocks or on mixtures resembling them in composition,
but at the Carnegie Institution in Washington, an elaborate series
of experiments in the synthesis of minerals and the properties of
mixtures of these is being carried on, with all the refinements
which modern science can suggest. The work of Doelter and of
Vogt may also be mentioned in this connexion. At the same time
the mathematical theory of the physical processes involved has
received much attention, and serves both to direct and to elucidate
the experimental work. '

A fused mixture of two minerals may be regarded as a solution
of one on the other. If such a solution be cooled down, crystalliza-
tion will generally set in and if the two components be
independent (or do not form mixed crystals) one of
' them may be expected to start crystallizing. On further
cooling, more of this mineral will separate out till at last a residue
is left which contains the two components in definite proportions.
This mixture, which is known as the eutectic mixture, has the lowest
melting-point of any which can be formed from these minerals.
If heat be still abstracted the eutectic will consolidate as a whole;
its two mineral components will crystallize simultaneously. At
any giyen pressure the composition of the eutectic mixture in such
a case is always the same.

Similarly, if there be three independent components (none of
which forms mixed crystals with the others), according to their
relative amounts and to the composition of the eutectic mixture
one will begin to crystallize; then another will make its appearance

in solid form, and when the excess of these has been removed, the
ternary eutectic (that mixture of the three which has the lowest
melting-point) will be produced and crystallization of all three
components will go on simultaneously.

These processes have without doubt a very close analogy to
the formation of igneous rocks. Thus in certain felsites or por-
phyries which may be considered as being essentially mixtures of
quartz and felspar, a certain amount of quartz has crystallized out
at an early period in the form of well-shaped porphyritic crystals,
and thereafter the remainder of the rock has solidified as a very
fine-grained, cryptocrystalline or sometimes micrographic ground-
mass which consists of quartz and felspar in intimate intermixture.
The latter closely resembles a eutectic, and chemical studies have
proved that within somewhat narrow limits the composition of
these felsitic ground-masses is constant.

But the comparison must not be pushed too far, as there are
always other components than quartz and felspar (apatite, zircon,
biotite and iron oxides being the most common), and in rocks of
this type the gases dissolved in the magma play a very important
part. As crystallization goes on, these gases are set free and their
pressure must increase to some extent. Moreover, the felspar is
not one mineral but two or perhaps three, there being always soda
felspar and potash felspar and usually also a small amount of lime
felspar in these porphyries.

In a typical basic rock the conditions are even more complex.
A dolerite, for example, usually contains, as its last products of
crystallization, pyroxene and felspar. Of these the latter consists
of three distinct species, the former of an unknown number; and in
each case they can form mixed crystals, to a greater or less extent
with one another. From these considerations it will be clear that the
properties of solutions of two or three independent components, do
not necessarily explain the process of crystallization in any igneous
rock.

Very frequently in porphyries not only quartz but felspar also
is present in large well-formed early crystals. Similarly in basalts,
augite and felspar may appear both as phenocrysts and as com-
ponents of the ground-mass. As an explanation of this it has been
suggested that supersaturation has taken place. We may suppose
that the augite which was in excess of the proportion necessary to
form the felspar-augite, eutectic mixture, first separated out. When
the remaining solution reached the eutectic composition the felspar
did not at once start crystallizing, perhaps because nuclei are
necessary to initiate crystal-growth and these were not at hand;
augite went on crystallizing while felspar lagged behind. Then
felspar began and as the mixture was now supersaturated with that
mineral a considerable amount of it was rapidly thrown out of the
solution. At the same time there would be a tendency for part of
the augite, already crystallized, to be dissolved and its crystals
would be corroded, losing their sharp and perfect edges, as is often
observed in rocks of this group. When the necessary adjustments
had been made the eutectic mixture would be established and
thereafter the two minerals would consolidate simultaneously (or
nearly so) till crystallization was complete.

There is a good deal of evidence to show that supersaturation
is not unimportant in igneous magmas. The frequency with which
they form glasses proves that under certain conditions the molten
rocks are highly viscous. Much will depend also on the presence,
accidental or otherwise, of nuclei on which a mineral substance
can be deposited. It is known that minerals differ in their tendency
to crystallize, some doing so very readily while others are slow and
backward. The rate at which crystallization goes on depends on
many factors, and there are remarkable differences in this respect
between minerals.

On the other hand, there is plenty of evidence to show that
supersaturation, though probably one of the causes, is not the prin-
cipal cause of the appearance of more than one mineral in two
generations of crystals. In some of the quartz-porphyries, for
example, there are phenocrysts not only of quartz and felspar but
also of micropegmatite. These prove that quartz and felspar were
not crystallizing successively or alternately but simultaneously.

The great majority of the minerals found in igneous rocks are not
of simple composition, but are mixtures of various elementary
minerals in very different proportions. This enormously compli-
cates the theoretical problems of consolidation. It has been found,
for example, that in the case of three minerals — one of which is
independent, while the two others can form mixed crystals — there
is a large number of possible sequences; and, what is very important,
one mineral may separate out entirely at an early stage, or its
crystallization may be interrupted and not continuous. The
ternary eutectic, which is produced by a mixture of three independent
minerals, may not in such a case be the last substance to crystallize,
and may not be present at all. This is very much in accordance
with the observed facts of petrology; for usually in a rock there is
one mineral which indubitably was the last of all to finish crystal-
lizing and contained no appreciable quantity of the others.

As yet we know little about such important questions as the
composition of the eutectic mixtures of rock-minerals, their latent
heat of fusion, specific heats, mutual solubilities, inversion tempera-
tures, &c. Until we are in possession of a large body of accurate
information on such points as these the theoretical treatment of

PETROLOGY

the processes involved in the formation of igneous rocks cannot be
successfully handled. But every day sees an increase in the amount
of data available, and encourages us to believe that sooner or later
some of the simpler igneous rocks at any rate will be completely
explicable on physico-chemical principles.

Rock masses of igneous origin have no sooner consolidated than
they begin to change. The gases with which the magma is charged

are slowly dissipated, lava-flows cften remain hot and

steaming for many years. These gases attack the com-
vo n c ponents of the rock and deposit new minerals in cavities

and fissures. The beautiful zeolites, so well known to
collectors of minerals, are largely of this origin. Even before
these " post-volcanic " processes have ceased atmospheric decom-
position begins. Rain, frost, carbonic acid, oxygen and other
agents operate continuously, and do not cease till the whole mass
has crumbled down and most of its ingredients have been resolved
into new products. In the classification of rocks these secondary
changes are generally considered unessential; rocks are classified
and described as if they were ideally fresh, though this is rarely
the case in nature.

Epigenitic change (secondary processes) may be arranged under

a number of headings, each of which is typical of a group of rocks

.or rock-forming minerals, though usually more than

ary one of these alterations will be found in progress in the

same rock. Silicification, the replacement of the minerals
by crystalline or crypto-crystalline silica, is most common in acid
rocks, such as rhyolite, but is also found in serpentine, &c. Kaolini-
zation is the decomposition of the felspars, which are the commonest
minerals of igneous rocks, into kaolin (along with quartz, muscovite,
&c.); it is best shown by granites and syenites. Serpentinization
is the alteration of olivine to serpentine (with magnetite); it is
typical of peridotites, but occurs in most of the basic rocks. In
uralitization secondary hornblende replaces augite; this occurs
very generally in diabases; chloritization is the alteration of augite
(biotite or hornblende) to chlorite, and is seen in many diabases,
diorites and greenstones. Epidotization occurs also in rocks of
this group, and consists in the development of epidote from biotite,
hornblende, augite or plagioclase felspar.

The sedimentary rocks, which constitute the second great group,
have many points in common that distinguish them from the
igneous and the metamorphic. They have all originated on
the surface of the earth, and at the period of their formation
were exposed only to the temperature of the air and to atmo-
spheric pressure (or the pressures which exist at the bottoms of
seas and lakes) . Their minerals are in most cases not susceptible
to change when exposed to moist air or sea, and many of them
are hydrated (chlorite, micas, &c.), or oxidized (iron ores), or
contain carbonic acid (calcite, dolomite). The extent, however,
to which this is the case depends largely on the rapidity with
which they have accumulated; coarse rocks quickly piled up
often consist of materials only partly weathered. When
crystalline, the sedimentary rocks are usually soluble at low
temperatures. The members of this group occur in beds or
strata, hence they are often known as the stratified rocks; the
upper beds are always of later formation than those which
underlie them, except (as may happen when great disturbance
has taken place) the whole series is inverted or overturned.
Many of the stratified rocks have been formed by the agency of
moving water (rivers, currents, &c.) and are grouped together
as " aqueous " rocks; others have been deposited by the wind
in deserts, on sandy beaches, &c. (these are " aeolian ").
Others are the remains of animals or of plants, modified by the
action of time, pressure and percolating water. Lastly, we find
beds of crystalline nature, such as rock-salt and gypsum, which
have been formed by the desiccation of saline waters; other
crystalline stratified rocks, such as dolomite and many bedded
iron-stones, are replacement products due to the introduction
of mineral matter in solution, which replaced the original rock
mass partially or wholly.

When the rocks exposed at the earth's surface give way before
the attack of the agencies of denudation, they crumble down and
are resolved into two parts. One of these consists of solid material
(sand, clay and angular debris) insoluble in carbonated waters;
the other part is dissolved and washed away. The undissolved
residues, when they finally come to rest, form clastic sedimentary
rocks (sandstone, conglomerate, shale, &c.). The dissolved por-
tions are partly transferred to the sea, where they help to increase
its store of salts, and may again be precipitated as crystalline
sedimentary rocks; but they are also made use of by plants and
by animals to form their skeletal and vital tissues. From this
latter portion the rocks of organic origin are built up. These

may also contain certain ingredients derived from the atmosphere
(nitrogen, carbon in coals, &c.).

We have thus three types of sediments of distinct origin, which
may be named the clastic (or fragmental), the.crystalline and the
organic.

The clastic materials may accumulate in situ, and then differ
chiefly in their disintegrated and weathered state from the parent
rock masses on which they rest. The best example of „. ,fc
these are the soils, but in elevated regions angular broken
rock often covers large areas. More usually they are transported
by wind or water, and become sorted out according to their size
and density. The coarsest debris comes first to rest and is least
worn and weathered; it includes screes, gravels, coarse sands, &c.,
and consolidates as conglomerates, breccias and pebbly grits. The
bedding of these rocks is rudimentary and imperfect, and as each
bed is traced along its outcrop it frequently changes its character
with the strata on which it rests. The most finely divided sediment
travels farthest, and is laid down in thin uniform sheets of wide
extent. It is known as mud and clay; around the shores of our
continents, at distances of a hundred miles and more from land, great
sheets of mud are spread over the ocean floors. This mud contains
minute particles of quartz and of felspar, but consists essentially
of finely divided scaly minerals, which by their small size and flat
shape tend to remain suspended in water for a very long time.
Chlorite, white micas and kaolin are the best examples of this class
of substances. Wind action is even more effective than water in
separating and removing these fine particles. They to a very large
extent escape mechanical attrition, because they are transported in
suspension and are not swept along the ground or the bottom of the
sea; hence they are mostly angular. Fragments of intermediate
magnitudes (from rfo of an inch to 5 of an inch) are classed as
sands. They consist largely of quartz, because it does not weather
into scaly minerals like felspar, and having but a poor cleavage
does not split up into flakes like mica or chlorite. These quartz
grains have been rolled along and are usually rounded and worn
(PI. IV., fig. i). More or less of garnet felspar, tourmaline, zircon,
rutile, &c., are mixed with the quartz, because these are hard
minerals not readily decomposed.

The mechanical sorting by the transporting agencies is usually
somewhat incomplete, and mixed types of sediment result, such as
gravels containing sand, or clays with coarser arenaceous particles.
Moreover, successive layers of deposit may not always be entirely
similar, and alternations of varying composition may follow one
another in thin laminae: e.g. laminae of arenaceous material in beds
of clay and shale. Organic matter is frequently mingled with the
finer-grained sediments.

These three types have been named the psephitic (or pebbly;
Gr. jfiWws, pebble); psammitic (or sandy, Gr. ^d/i/jos, sand), and
pelitic (or muddy: Gr. mjXAs, mud).

Two groups of clastic sediments deserve special treatment.
The pyroclastic (Gr. irOp, fire, and xXaoris, broken) rocks of volcanic
origin, consist mostly of broken pieces of lava (bombs, ash, &c.)
(PI. IV. fig. 2), and only accidentally contain other rocks or fossils.
They are stratified, and may be coarse or fine, but are usually much
less perfectly sorted out, according to their fineness, than ordinary
aqueous or aeolian deposits. The glacial clays (boulder clays),
representing the ground moraines of ancient glacievs and ice sheets,
are characterized by the very variable size of their ingredients and
the striated, blunted sub-angular form of the larger rock frag-
ments. In them stratification is exceptional and fossils are very
rare.

The crystalline sedimentary rocks have been deposited from solu-
tion in water. The commonest types, such as rock-salt, gypsum,
anhydrite, carnallite, are known to have arisen by the c ....
evaporation of enclosed saline lakes exposed to a dry
atmosphere. They occur usually in beds with layers of red clay and
marl; some limestones have been formed by calcareous waters
containing carbonate of lime dissolved in an excess of carbonic
acid; with the escape of the volatile gas the mineral matter is pre-
cipitated (sinters, Sprudelstein, &c.). Heated waters on cooling
may yield up part of their dissolved mineral substances; thus sili-
ceous sinters are produced around geysers and hot springs in many
parts of the world. There seems no reason to separate from these
the veinstones which fill the fissures by which these waters rise to
the surface. They differ from those above enumerated in being
more perfectly crystallized and in having no definite stratification,
but only a banding parallel to the more or less vertical walls of the
fissure. Another subdivision of this class of rocks is due to recrystal-
lization or crystalline replacement of pre-existing sediments. Thus
limestones are dolomitized or converted into ironstones, flints and
cherts, by percolating waters which remove the lime salts and
substitute for them compounds of iron, magnesia, silicon, and so on.
This may be considered a kind of metamorphism ; it is generally
known as metasomatism (q.v.).

The rocks of organic origin may be due to animals or plants.
They are of great importance, as limestones and coals belong to
this group. They are the most fossiliferous of all _
rocks; but clastic sediments are often rich in fossils
though crystalline sediments rarely are. They may be sub-
divided, according to their dominant components, into calcareous,

332

PETROLOGY

carbonaceous, siliceous, ferruginous, and so on. The calcareous
organic rocks may consist principally of foraminifera, crinoids,
corals, brachiopoda, mollusca, polyzoa, &c. Most of them, however!
contain a mixture of organisms. By crystallization and metaso-
matic changes they often lose their organic structures ; metamorphism
of any kind has the same effect. The carbonaceous rocks are
essentially plant deposits; they include peat, lignite and coal.
The siliceous organic rocks include radiolarian and diatom oozes;
in the older formations they occur as radiolarian cherts. Flint
nodules owe their silica to disseminated fossils of this nature which
have been dissolved and redeposited by concretionary action.
Some kinds of siliceous sinter may be produced by organisms in-
habiting hot silicated waters. Calcareous oolites in the same way
may have arisen through the agency of minute plants. Bog iron
ores also may_ be of organic rather than of merely chemical origin.
The phosphatic rocks so extensively sought after as sources of fertil-
izing agents for use in agriculture are for the most part of organic
origin, since they owe their substance to the remains of certain
varieties of animals which secrete a phosphatic skeleton; but most
of them no longer show organic structures but have been converted
into nodular or concretionary forms.

All sediments are at first in an incoherent condition (e.g. sands,
clays and gravels, beds of shells, &c.), and in this state they may
Cemeata- remam f°r an indefinite period. Millions of years have
elapsed since some of the early Tertiary strata gathered
on the ocean floor, yet they are quite friable {e.g. the
London Clay) and differ little from many recent accumulations.
There are few exceptions, however, to the rule that with increasing
age sedimentary rocks become more and more indurated, and
the older they are the more likely it is that they will have
the firm consistency generally implied in the term " rock." The
pressure of newer sediments on underlying masses is apparently
one cause of this change, though not in itself a very powerful
one. More efficiency is generally ascribed to the action of
percolating water, which takes up certain soluble materials and
redeposits them in pores and cavities. This operation is probably
accelerated by the increased pressure produced by superincumbent
masses, and to some extent also by the rise of temperature which
inevitably takes place in rocks buried to some depth beneath
the surface. The rise of temperature, however, is never very
great; we know more than one instance of sedimentary deposits
which have been buried beneath four or five miles of similar strata
(e.g. parts of the Old Red Sandstone), yet no perceptible difference
in condition can be made out between beds of similar composi-
tion at the top of the series and near its base. The redeposited
cementing material is most commonly calcareous or siliceous.
Limestones, which were originally a loose accumulation of shells,
corals, &c., become compacted into firm rock in this manner; and
the process often takes place with surprising ease, as for example
in the deeper parts of coral reefs, or even in wind-blown masses of
shelly sand exposed merely to the action of rain. The cementing
substance may be regularly deposited in crystalline continuity on
the original grains, where these were crystalline; and even in sand-
stones (such as Kentish Rag) a crystalline matrix of calcite often
envelopes the sand grains. The change of aragonite to calcite and of
calcite to dolomite, by forming new crystalline masses in the
jnterior of the rock, usually also accelerates consolidation. Silica
is less easily soluble in ordinary waters, but even this ingredient
of rocks is dissolved and redeposited with great frequency. Many
sandstones are held together by an infinitesimal amount of colloid
or cryptocrystalline silica; when freshly dug from the quarry they
are soft and easily trimmed, but after exposure to the air for some
time they become much harder, as their siliceous cement sets and
passes into a rigid condition. Others contain fine scales of kaolin
or of mica. Argillaceous materials may be compacted by mere
pressure, like graphite and other scaly minerals. Oxides and
carbonates of iron play a large part in many sedimentary rocks and
are especially important as colouring matters. The red sands and
Coloration ''n16510"68' f°r example, which are so abundant, contain
' small amounts of ferric oxide (haematite), which in a
finely divided state gives a red hue of all rocks in which it is

C resent. Limonite, on the other hand, makes rocks yellow or
rown; oxides of manganese, asphalt and other carbonaceous
substances are the cause of the black colour of many sediments.
Bluish tints result sometimes from the presence of phosphates or of
fluorspar; while green is most frequently seen in rocks which contain
glauconite or chlorite.

Metamorphic Rocks. — The metamorphic rocks, which form the
third great subdivision, are even more varied than the igneous
and the sedimentary. They include representatives of nearly
all kinds of the other two classes, their common characteristic
being that they have all undergone considerable alterations in
structure or in mineral composition. The agencies of meta-
morphism (q.v.) are of two kinds — thermal and regional. In the
former case contact with intrusive igneous masses, such as
granite, laccolites or dikes, have indurated and recrystallized
the original rock. In the second case the actions are more

complex and less clearly understood; it is evident that pressure
and interstitial movement have had a powerful influence,
possibly assisted by rise of temperature. In thermal or contact
alteration the rocks are baked, indurated, and often in large
measure recrystallized. In regional metamorphism recrystal-
lization also goes on, but the final products are usually schists
and gneisses. It is as a rule not difficult to distinguish the
two classes of metamorphic rocks at a glance, and they may
conveniently be considered separately.

When a rock is contact altered by an igneous intrusion it very
frequently becomes harder, more crystalline and more lustrous,
owing to the development of many small crystals in its
mass. Many altered rocks of this type were formerly rhern">-
called hornstones, and the term hornfelses (Ger. me<ara<"-
Hornfels) is often used by geologists to signify those pnlsm-
fine grained, compact, crystalline products of thermal metamor-
phism. A shale becomes a dark argillaceous hornfels, full of tiny
plates of brownish biotite; a marl or impure limestone changes to
a grey, yellow or greenish lime-silicate-hornfels, tough and splintery,
with abundance of augite, garnet, wollastonite and other minerals
in which lime is an important component. A diabase or andesite
becomes a diabase hornfels or andesite hornfels with a large
development of new hornblende and biotite and a partial recrystal-
lization of the original felspar. A chert or fiint becomes a finely
crystalline quartz rock; sandstones lose their clastic structure and
are converted into a mosaic of small close-fitting grains of quartz.

If the rock was originally banded or foliated (as, for example, a
laminated sandstone or a foliated calc-schist) this character may not
be obliterated, and a banded hornfels is the product ; fossils even may
have their shapes preserved, though entirely recrystallized, and in
many contact altered lavas the steam cavities are still visible, though
their contents have usually entered into new combinations to form
minerals which were not originally present. The minute structures,
however, disappear, often completely, if the thermal alteration is very
profound; thus small grains of quartz in a shale are lost or blend
with the surrounding particles of clay, and the fine ground-mass of
lavas is entirely reconstructed.

By recrystallization in this manner peculiar rocks of very distinct
types are often produced. Thus shales may pass into cordierite
rocks, or may show large crystals of andalusite (and chiastolite,
PI. IV., fig. 9), staurolite, garnet, kyanite and sillimanite. A consider-
able amount of mica (both muscovite and biotite) is simultaneously
formed, and the resulting product has a close resemblance to many
kinds of schist. Limestones, if pure, are often turned into coarsely
crystalline marbles (PI. IV., fig. 4); but if there was an admixture
of clay or sand in the original rock such minerals as garnet, epidote,
idocrase, wollastonite, will be present. Sandstones when greatly
heated may change into coarse quartzites composed of large clear
grains of quartz. These more intense stages of alteration are not
so commonly seen in igneous rocks, possibly because their minerals,
being formed at high temperatures, are not so easily transformed or
recrystallized.

In a few cases rocks are fused and in the dark glassy product
minute crystals of spinel, sillimanite and cordierite may separate
out. _ Shales are occasionally thus altered by basalt dikes, and fels-
pathic sandstones may be completely vitrified. Similar changes
may be induced in shales by the burning of coal seams or even by
an ordinary furnace.

There is also a tendency for interfusion of the igneous with the
sedimentary rock. Granites may absorb fragments of shale or
pieces of basalt. In that case hybrid rocks arise which have not
the characters of normal igneous or sedimentary rocks. Such effects
are scarce and are usually easily recognized. Sometimes an invading
granite magma permeates the rocks around, filling their joints
and planes of bedding, &c., with threads of quartz and felspar.
This is very exceptional, but instances of it are known and it may
take place on a large scale.

The other type of metamorphism is often said to be regional;
sometimes it is called dynamic, but these terms have not strictly
the same connotation. It may be said as a rule to make
the rock more crystalline and at the same time to give
it a foliated, schistose or gneissic structure. This latter
consists in a definite arrangement ot the minerals, so that
such as are platy or prismatic (e.g. mica and hornblende, which are
very common in these rocks) have their longest axes arranged parallel
:o one another. For that reason many of these rocks split readily
n one direction (schists). The minerals also tend to aggregate
n bands; thus there are seams of quartz and of mica in a mica schist,
very thin, but consisting essentially of one mineral. These seams
are called folia (leaflets), and though never very pure or very persis-
tent they give the rock a streaked or banded character when they
are seen edgewise (PI. IV. figs. 6, 7, 8). Along the folia composed of
:he soft or fissile minerals the rocks will sever most readily, and the
Teshly split specimen will appear to be faced or coated with this
nineral; for example, a piece of mica schist looked at face wise might
36 supposed to consist entirely of shining scales of mica. On the
edge of the specimen, however, the v/hite folia of granular quartz

PETROLOGY

FIG. i.— PHONOLITE, TEPLITZER
SCHLOSSBERG, BOHEMIA (x 12).

The large white crystal is felspar, the
smaller ones are nepheline having six-sided
and four-sided sections. The dark mineral
in the ground-mass is aegirine.

FIG. 2.— LEUCITOPHYRE, RIEDEN,
EIFFEL, GERMANY (x 15).

A porphyritic clear crystal of leucite lies
near the centre of the field; towards the
margins are nosean crystals with clear centres
and broad black edges. The black spots are
aegirine and aegirine-augite, and in the
ground-mass small prisms of white nepheline
may be seen.

FIG. 3.— LEUCITE-BASANITE.VESUVIUS

(x8).

The rounded central crystal is leucite,
showing zones of inclusions and well-marked
cracks; below it is a dark-brown augite, and
olivine occurs near the bottom of the field.
There are numerous rectangular white sections
of plagioclase felspar. The dark ground-
mass is partly vitreous.

FIG. 4.-HYPERSTHENE-ANDESITE,
ALWYN, CHEVIOTS, ENGLAND
(x 10).

A porphyritic rock with phenocrysts of
white plagioclase felspar and of pale-brown
augite and hypersthene in a fine ground-mass,
partly glassy.

FIG. 5— OLIVINE-BASALT, CRAIG-
LOCKHART, EDINBURGH, SCOTLAND
(x 10).

Two large crystals of augite above and
below, and of olivine (right and left) lie in a
crystalline ground-mass of plagioclase fel-
spar, augite, and magnetite. The olivine has
been altered to fibrous green serpentine, and
the pseudomorphs show traces of the original
cleavage cracks.

FIG. 6.— OPHITIC OLIVINE-DOLERITE,
DUN FION, ARRAN, SCOTLAND.

The white mineral is plagioclase felspar,
which penetrates a large dark crystal of
augite in ophitic manner. At the bottom of
the field there are a few grains of olivine,
colourless, but with strongly marked cracks.

FIG. 7.— OLIVINE-GABBRO, VOLPERS-
DORF, SILESIA (x 10).

Felspar occurs towards the edges of the
field and surrounds a cluster of diallage (with
strong, dark, parallel lamination) and of oli-
vine (covered with a black network of second-
ary magnetite).

XXI. 332.

FIG. 8.— PERIDOTITE, ELBA (x 10).

The rounded crystals are olivine, weathering
as usual to magnetite and serpentine along its
cracks and borders. The dark interstitial
substance is enstatite weathered to bastite.

FIG. 9.— SERPENTINE, COLMONELL,
AYRSHIRE, SCOTLAND (x 12).

In this rock the process of serrjentinization,
seen in the previous figure, is complete.
No olivine remains, but a meshwork of
magnetite indicates the position of the cracks
in the original crystals. The cloudy, dark
streak above the centre is bastite replacing
primary enstatite.

PETROLOGY

FIG. i.— PEBBLY GRIT, BANFF. SCOT-
LAND (X 12).

The white pebbles are quartz with irregular
cracks and streaks of fluid inclusions. The
matrix is a dark, semi-opaque mixture of clay
and small sand-grains.

FIG. 2— VOLCANIC TUFF, ARTHUR'S
SEAT, EDINBURGH (x8).

A fragmental volcanic rock with small
lapilli of basalt; these are vesicular and
contain little felspar crystals. Broken fel-
spars also lie scattered through the rock.

FIG. 3.— CRINOIDAL LIMESTONE (CAR-
BONIFEROUS), CLIFTON, NEAR
BATH, ENGLAND (x 10).

The oolitic grains are round or oval, with
concentric zoning; in their interior there is
sometimes a shell fragment or other nucleus.
The interstitial matrix is clear, granular,
crystalline calcite. The rock contains frag-
ments of echinoderms, brachiopods, and other
fossils.

FIG. 4.— MARBLE, CARRARA, ITALY

(x 8).

A section of well-known statuary marble
which consists entirely of calcite in small
irregular crystals closely fitted together.

FIG. 5.— OOLITIC CHERT (CAMBRIAN),
SUTHERLANDSHIRE, SCOTLAND

(x 15)-

This has been once an oolitic limestone, but
the calcite has been entirely replaced by silica
with perfect preservation of the oolitic
structure.

FIG. 6.— MYLONITE DURNESS,
SUTHERLANDSHIRE (x 8).

This well-banded rock was once a crystalline
gneiss which has been greatly crushed by
earth-movements, and has been ground down
into a fine aggregate of quartz, felspar, and
mica. The banding is due to internal flow
under great pressure.

FIG. 7.— SLATE, WADEBRIDGE, CORN-
WALL (x 20).

A fine-grained clay rock with small clear
spots of quartz and minute scales of mica,
chlorite, &c. The parallel arrangement of the
latter is the cause of cleavage. Obscure dark
lines cut across the rock and indicate the
development of a secondary cross-cleavage or
slip-cleavage.

FIG. 8.— MICA-SCHIST, BLAIR-ATHOLL,
PERTHSHIRE, SCOTLAND (X32).

A clay rock like the preceding one, but more
metamorphic and coarsely crystalline. The
clear spots are quartz and the bladed mineral
between them is brown and white mica
(biotite and muscovite).

FIG. 9.— CHIASTOLITE-SLATE,
SKIDDAW, CUMBERLAND (x 17).

A cjay rock affected by contact meta-
morphism attended bv the production of
needles of chiastolite, which have in transverse
section a diamond-shape with dark enclosures
at their centres and a dark cross radiating to
their corners.

PETRONEL— PETRONIUS

333

will be visible. In gneisses these alternating folia are thicker and
less regular than in schists; they are often lenticular, dying put
rapidly. Gneisses also, as a rule, contain more felspar than schists
do, and they are tougher and less fissile. Contortion or crumpling
(PI. IV. fig. 6) of the foliation is by no means uncommon, and then
the splitting faces are undulose or puckered. The origin of schistosity
or foliation is not perfectly understood, but it is clear that in many
cases it is due to pressure, acting in a direction perpendicular to the
banding, and to interstitial movement or internal flow arranging
the mineral particles while they are crystallizing.

Rocks which were originally sedimentary and rocks which were
undoubtedly igneous are converted into schists and gneisses, and if
originally of similar composition they may be very difficult to dis-
tinguish from one another if the metamorphism has been great.
A quartz- porphyry, for example, and a fine felspathic sandstone,
may both be converted into a grey or pink mica-schist. Usually,
however, we may distinguish between sedimentary and igneous
schists and gneisses. Often the metamorphism is progressive, and
if the whole district occupied by these rocks be searched traces of
bedding, of clastic structure, unconformability or other evidence
may be obtained showing that we are dealing with a group of altered
sediments. In other cases intrusive junctions, chilled edges, con-
tact alteration or porphyritic structure may prove that in its original
condition a metamorphic gneiss was an igneous rock. The last
appeal is often to the chemist, for there are certain rock types which
occur only as sediments, while others are found only among igneous
masses, and, however advanced the metamorphism may be, it rarely
modifies the chemical composition of the mass very greatly. Such
rocks, for example, as limestones, calc-schists, dolomites, quartzites
and aluminous shales have very definite chemical characters which
distinguish them even when completely recrystallized.

The schists and gneisses are classified according to the minerals
they consist of, and this depends principally on their chemical
composition. We have, for example, a group of metamorphic
limestones, marbles, calc-schists and cipolins, with crystalline
dolomites; many of these contain silicates such as mica, tremolite,
diopside, scapolite, quartz and felspar. They are derived from
calcareous sediments of different degrees of purity. Another group
is rich in quartz (quartzites, quartz schists and quartzose gneisses),
with variable amounts of white and black mica, garnet, felspar,
zoisite and hornblende. These were once sandstones and arenaceous
rocks. The graphitic schists may readily be believed to represent
sediments once containing coaly matter or plant remains; there
are also schistose ironstones (haematite-schists), but metamorphic
beds of salt or gypsum are exceedingly uncommon. Among schists
of igneous origin we may mention the silky calc-schists, the foliated
serpentines (once ultrabasic masses rich in plivine), and the white
mica-schists, porphyroids and banded halleflintas, which have been
derived from rhyolites, quartz-porphyries and acid tuffs. The
majority of mica-schists, however, are altered clays and shales, and
pass into the normal sedimentary rocks through various types of
phyllite and mica-slates. They are among the most common meta-
morphic rocks; some of them are graphitic and others calcareous.
The diversity in appearance and composition is very great, but they
form a well-defined group not difficult to recognize, from the abun-
dance of black and white micas and their thin, foliated, schistose
character. As a special subgroup we have the andalusite-, stauro-
lite-, kyanite- and sillimanite-scnists, together with the cordierite-
gneisses, which usually make their appearance in the vicinity of
gneissose granites, and have presumably been affected by contact
alteration. The more coarsely foliated gneisses are almost as
frequent as the mica-schists, and present a great variety of types
differing in composition and in appearance. They contain quartz,
one or more varieties of felspar, and usually mica hornblende or
augite, often garnet, iron oxides, &c. Hence in composition they
resemble granite, differing principally in their foliated structure.
Many of them have " augen " or large elliptical crystals, mostly
felspar but sometimes quartz, which are the crushed remains of
porphyritic minerals; the foliation of the matrix winds around these
augen, closing in on each side. Most of these augen gneisses are
metamorphic granites, but sometimes a conglomerate bed simulates
a gneiss of this kind rather closely. There are other gneisses, which
were derived from felspathic sandstones, grits, arkoses and sedi-
ments of that order; they mostly contain biotite and muscovite,
but the hornblende and pyroxene gneisses are usually igneous rocks
allied in composition to the hornblende-granites and quartz-diorites.
The metamorphic forms of dolerite, basalt and the basic igneous
rocks generally have a distinctive facies as their pyroxene and olivine
are replaced by dark green hornblende, with often epidpte, garnet
and biotite. These rocks have a well developed foliation, as the
prismatic hornblendes lie side by side in parallel arrangement. The
majority of amphibolites, hornblende-schists, foliated epidiorites
and green schists belong to this group. Where they are least
altered they pass through chloritic schists into sheared diabases,
flaser gabbros and other rocks in which remains of the original
igneous minerals and structures occur in greater or less profusion.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Most text-books of geology treat of petrology in
more or less detail (see GEOLOGY: § Bibliography). Elementary
books on petrology include F. H. Hatch, Petrology (5th ed., London,
1909); L. V. Pirsson, Rocks and Rock-minerals (New York, 1908);

J. D. Dana, Handbook of Mineralogy and Petrography (i2th ed.,
New York, 1908); A. Harker, Petrology for Students (4th ed.,
Cambridge, 1908); G. A. J. Cole, Aids to Practical Geology
(6th ed., London, 1909). For rock minerals consult J. P. Iddings,
Rock Minerals (New York, 1906); A. Johannsen, Determination
of Rock-forming Minerals (New York, 1908); E. Hussak and
t. G. Smith, Determination of Rock-forming Minerals (2nd ed.,
New York, 1893) ; N. H. and A. N. Winchell, Optical Mineralogy
(New York, 1909). On the classification and origin of rocks
see A. Harker, Natural History of Igneous Rocks (London, 1909);
J. P. Iddings, Igneous Rocks, (New York, 1909); Cross, Iddings,
Washington and Pirsson, Quantitative Classification of Igneous
Rocks (Chicago, 1902); C. Van Hise, Metamorphism (Washington,
1904); A. P. Merrill, Rocks, Rock-weathering and Soils (London,
1897); C. Doelter, Pe.trogenesis (Brunswick, 1906); J. H. L. Vogt,
Silikatschmelzlosungen (Christiania, 1903); F. Fouque' and A.
Michel L6vy, Synthese des mineraux et des roches (Paris, 1882).
The principal authorities on the analysis and chemical composition
of rocks are J. Roth, Beitrdge zur Petrographie (Berlin, 1873-1884);
A. Osann, Beitrdge zur chemischen Petrographie (Stuttgart, 1903);
H. S. Washington, Manual of the Chemical Analysis of Rocks (New
York, 1904) and Chemical Analyses of Igneous Rocks (Washington,
1904); F. W. Clarke, Analyses of Rocks (Washington, 1904); Max
Dittrich, Anleitung zur Gesteinsanalyse (Leipzig, 1905) ; W. F. Hille-

brand, Analysis of Silicate and Carbonate Rocks (Washington, 1907).

The great systematic treatises on Petrology are F. Zirkel,
Lehrbuch der Petrographie (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1894, 3 vols.) ; H. Rosen-
busch, Mikroskopische Physiographie (4th ed., Stuttgart, 1909, 2 vols.)

Useful German handbooks include: E. Weinschenk, Polarisations-
mikroskop, Gesteinsbildendc Mineralien and Gesteinskunde (2nd ed.,
Freiburg, 1907, &c.); R. Reinisch, Petrographisches Praktikum (2nd
ed., Berlin, 1907); H. Rosenbusch, Elemente der Gesteinslehre (3rd
ed., Stuttgart, 1909); A. Grubenmann, Die krystallinen Schiefer
(Berlin, 1907) ; F. Loewisson Lessing, Petrographisches Lexikon
(1893 and 1898, also a Fr. ed., 1901); F. Rinne, Praktische Gesteins-
kunde (2nd ed., Hanover, 1905).

The principal French works are E. Jannettaz, Les Roches (3rd
ed., Paris, 1900) ; F. Fouque' and A. Michel Levy, Mineralogie
micrographique (Paris, 1 879) ; A. Michel Levy and A. Lacrpix, Les
Mineraux des roches (Paris, 1 888) ; A. Lacroix, Mineralogie de la
France (L, II., Paris, 1893); and Les Enclaves des roches truptives
(Macon, 1893).

British petrography is the subject of a special work by J. J. H.
Teall (London, 1888). Much information about rocks is contained

Neues Jahrbuch fur Mineralogie (Stuttgart), Journal of Geology
(Chicago), &c. (J. S. F.)

PETRONEL, a i6th or I7th century fire-arm, defined by
R. Barret (Theorike and Practike of Modern Warres, 1598) as
a " horseman's peece." It was the fire-arm which developed
on the one hand into the pistol and on the other into the carbine.
The name (Fr. petrinel for poitrinal) was given to the weapon
either because it was fired with the butt resting against the chest
(poitrine, Lat. pectus) or because it was carried slung from a belt
across the chest.

PETRONIUS (G. (P)1 Petronius Arbiter), Roman writer of
the Neronian age. His own work, the Salirae, tells us nothing
directly of his fortunes, position, or even century. Some lines
of Sidonius Apollinaris refer to him and are often taken to imply
that he lived and wrote at Marseilles. If, however, we accept
the identification of this author with the Petronius of Tacitus,
Nero's courtier, we must suppose either that Marseilles was his
birthplace or, as is more likely, that Sidonius refers to the novel
itself and that its scene was partly laid at Marseilles. The chief
personages of the story are evidently strangers in the towns
of southern Italy where we find them. Their Greek-sounding
names (Encolpius, Ascyltos, Giton, &c.) and literary training
accord with the characteristics of the old Greek colony in the ist
century A.D. The high position among Latin writers ascribed
by Sidonius to Petronius, and the mention of him beside
Menanderby Macrobius, when compared with the absolute silence
of Quintilian, Juvenal and Martial, seem adverse to the opinion
that the Satirae was a work of the age of Nero. But Quintih'an
was concerned with writers who could be turned to use in the

1 The MSS. of the Salirae give no praenomen. Tacitus's Petronius
is Gaius, though the elder Pliny and Plutarch call him Titus. The
name Arbiter, given him by later writers, is not an ordinary cog-
nomen; it may have been bestowed on him by contemporaries
from the fact that his judgment was regarded as the criterion of
good taste.

334

PETRONIUS

education of an orator. The silence of Juvenal and Martial
may be accidental or it is possible that a work so abnormal in
form and substance was more highly prized by later generations
than by the author's contemporaries.

A comparison of the impression the book gives us of the
character and genius of its author with the elaborate picture
of the courtier in Tacitus certainly suggests the identity of the
two. Tacitus, it is true, mentions no important work as the
composition of his C. Petronius; such a work as the Satirae he
may have regarded as beneath that dignity of history which he
so proudly realized. The care he gives to Petronius's portrait
perhaps shows that the man enjoyed greater notoriety than was
due merely to the part he played in history. " He spent his
days in sleep, his nights in attending to his official duties or in
amusement, by his dissolute life he had become as famous as
other men by a life of energy, and he was regarded as no ordinary
profligate, but as an accomplished voluptuary. His reckless
freedom of speech, being regarded as frankness, procured him
popularity. Yet during his provincial governorship, and later
when he held the office of consul, he had shown vigour and
capacity for affairs. Afterwards returning to his life of vicious
indulgence, he became one of the chosen circle of Nero's intimates,
and was looked upon as an absolute authority on questions of
taste (arbiter eleganliae) in connexion with the science of luxurious
living."1 Tacitus goes on to say that this excited the jealousy
of Tigellinus, an accusation followed, and Petronius committed
suicide in a way that was in keeping with his life and character.
He selected the slow process of opening veins and having them
bound up again, whilst he conversed on light and trifling topics
with his friends. He then dined luxuriously, slept for some
time, and, so far from adopting the common practice of flattering
Nero or Tigellinus in his will, wrote and sent under seal to Nero
a document which professed to give, with the names of his
partners, a detailed account of the abominations which that
emperor had practised.

A fact confirmatory of the general truth of this graphic
portrait is added by the elder Pliny, who mentions that just
before his death he destroyed a valuable murrhine vase to
prevent its falling into the imperial hands. Do the traits of
this picture agree with that impression of himself which the
author of the Satirae has left upon his work ? That we possess
therein part of the document sent to Nero is an impossible
theory. Our fragments profess to be extracts from the
fifteenth and sixteenth books of the Satirae: Petronius could
not have composed one-tenth even of what we have in the time
in which he is said to have composed his memorial to Nero.
We may be sure too that the latter was very frank in its language,
and treated Nero with far greater severity than the Banquet
treats Trimalchio. On the other hand, it is clear that the creator
of Trimalchio, Encolpius and Giton had the experience, the
inclinations and the literary gifts which would enable him to
describe with forcible mockery the debaucheries of Nero. And
the impression of his personality does in another respect corre-
spond closely with the Petronius of the Annals — in the union
of immoral sensualism with a rich vein of cynical humour and
admirable taste.

The style of the work, where it does not purposely reproduce
the solecisms and colloquialisms of the vulgar rich, is of the
purest Latin of the Silver age.2 Nor would there be any point
in the verses on the capture of Troy and the Civil War at any

1 Ann. xvi. 18.

2 The false taste in literature and expression fostered by the
declamationes is condemned by both Persius and Petronius on the
same grounds. Cf. too Pers. i. 121, hoc ego apertum, hoc ridere meum,
tarn nil, nulla tibi uendo Iliade with Sat. 52, meum intellegere nulla
pecunia uendo; Pers. ii. 9, O si ebulliat patruus, praeclarum funus, et
o si sub rastro crepet argenti miki seria with Sat. 88, Alius donum
promittit, si propinquum divitem extulerit, alius si thesaurum effoderit
and 42, homo animam ebulliit; Pers. iv. 26, arat . . . quantum non
milvus oberral with Sat. 3j,fundos habet qua milvi volant. Both use
the rare word ba.ro. Animam ebullire occurs in Seneca's Apocolo-
cyntosis, and the verbal resemblances illustrate perhaps rather the
common use by both writers of the vulgar style. Cf . for resemblances
to the style of the younger Seneca and the date of the work in general,
Studer, Rh. Mus. (1843).

other era than that in which Nero's Troica and Lucan's Pharsalia
were fashionable poems. The reciting poet indeed is a feature
of a later age also, as we learn from Martial and Juvenal. But we
know from Tacitus that the luxury of the table, so conspicuous in
Trimalchio's Banquet, fell out of fashion after Nero (Ann. 3. 55).
Of the work itself there have been preserved 141 sections of a
narrative, in the main consecutive, although interrupted by
frequent gaps. The name Satirae, given in the best MSS.,
implies that it belongs to the type to which Varro, imitating
the Greek Menippus, had given the character of a medley of
prose and verse composition. But the string of fictitious narra-
tive by which the medley is held together is something quite
new in Roman literature. This careless prodigal was so happily
inspired in his devices for amusing himself as to introduce to
Rome and thereby transmit to modern times the novel based
on the ordinary experience of contemporary life3 — the pre-
cursor of such novels as Gil Blas-a.nd Roderick Random. There
is no evidence of the existence of a regular plot in the fragments,
but we find one central figure, Encolpius, who professes to narrate
his adventures and describe all that he saw and heard, whilst
allowing various other personages to exhibit their peculiarities
and express their opinions dramatically.

The fragment opens with the appearance of the hero, Encolpius,
who seems to be an itinerant lecturer travelling with a companion
named Ascyltos and a boy Giton, in a portico of a Greek town,
in Campania. An admirable lecture on the false taste in literature,
resulting from the prevailing system of education, is replied to by a
rival declaimer, Agamemno, who shifts the blame from the teachers
to the parents. The central personages of the story next go through
a series of questionable adventures, in the course of which they are
involved in a charge of robbery. A day or two after they are present
at a dinner given by a freedman of enormous wealth, Trimalchio,
who entertained with ostentatious and grotesque extravagance
a number of men of his own rank but less prosperous. We listen to
the ordinary talk of the guests about their neighbours, about the
weather, about the hard times, about the public games, about the
education of their children. We recognize in an extravagant form
the same kind of vulgarity and pretension which the satirist of all
times delights to expose in the illiterate and ostentatious millionaires
of the age. Next day Encolpius separates from his companions
in a fit of jealousy, and, after two or three days' sulking and brooding
on his revenge, enters a picture gallery, where he meets with an old
poet, who, after talking sensibly on the decay of art and the inferior-
ity of the painters of the age to the old masters, proceeds to illustrate
a picture of the capture of Troy by some verses on that theme. This
ends in those who are walking in the adjoining colonnade driving
him out with stones. The scene is next on board ship, where
Encolpius finds he has fallen into the hands of some old enemies.
They are shipwrecked, and Encolpius, Giton and the old poet get
to shore in the neighbourhood of Crotona, where, as the inhabitants
are notorious fortune-hunters, the adventurers set up as men of
fortune. The fragment ends with a new set of questionable adven-
tures, in which prominent parts are played by a beautiful enchantress
named Circe, a priestess of Priapus, and a certain matron who leaves
them her heirs, but attaches a condition to the inheritance which
even Encolpius might have shrunk from fulfilling.4 If we can sup-
pose the author of this work to have been animated by any other
motive than the desire to amuse himself, it might be that of convinc-
ing himself that the world in general was as bad as he was himself.
Juvenal and Swift are justly regarded as among the very greatest
of satirists, and their estimate of human nature is perhaps nearly
as unfavourable as that of Petronius; but their attitude towards
human degradation is not one of complacent amusement; their
realism is the realism of disgust, not, like that of Petronius, a realism
of sympathy. Martial does not gloat over the vices of which he
writes with cynical frankness. He is perfectly aware that they are
vices, and that the reproach of them is the worst that can be cast
on any one. And, further, Martial, with all his faults, is, in his
affections, his tastes, his relations to others, essentially human,
friendly, generous, true. There is perhaps not a single sentence
in Petronius which implies any knowledge of or sympathy with
the existence of affection, conscience or honour, or even the most
elementary goodness of heart.

8 For the whole question of possible predecessors and Petronius's
relation to the extant Greek romances see W. Schmid, " Der grie-
chische Roman " in Jahrbiicher fur das klass. Altertum, &c. (1904).
One would certainly have expected the realistic tendency which
appears in the New Comedy, the Characters of Theophrastus and
the Mimes, to have borne this fruit before the first century of our
era.— (W. C. Su.)

4 Omnes qui in testamento meo legata habent praeter libertos
meos, hac conditione percipient quae dedi, si corpus meum in partes
conciderint et astante populo comederint (141).

PETROPAVLOVSK— PETRUCCI

335

The work has reached us in so fragmentary and mutilated a shape
that we may of course altogether have missed the key to it; it may
have been intended by its author to be a sustained satire, written in
a vein of reserved and powerful irony, of the type realized in our
modern Jonathan Wild or Barry Lyndon. Otherwise we must admit
that, in the entire divorce of intellectual power and insight from any
element of right human feeling, the work is an exceptional pheno-
menon in literature. For, as a work of original power, of humorous
representation, of literary invention and art, the fragment deseryes
all the admiration which it has received. We recognize the arbiter
eleganliae in the admirable sense of the remarks scattered through
it on education, on art, on poetry and on eloquence. There is a true
feeling of nature in the description of a grove of plane-trees, cypresses
and pines:

" Has inter ludebat aquis errantibus amnis

Spumeus et querulo vexabat rore lapillos."

And some of the shorter pieces anticipate the terseness and
elegance of Martial. The long fragment on the Civil War does
not seem to be written so much with the view of parodying as of
entering into rivalry with the poem of Lucan. In the epigram
extemporized by Trimalchio late on in the banquet:
" Quod non expectes, ex transverse fit —
Et supra nos Fortuna negotia curat,
Quare da nobis vina Falerna, puer,"

we have probably a more deliberate parody of the style of verses
produced by the illiterate aspirants to be in the fashion of the day.
We might conjecture that the chief gift to which Petronius owed
his social and his literary success was that of humorous mimicry.
In Trimalchio and his various guests, in the old poet, in the culti-
vated, depraved and moody Encolpius, in the Chrysis, Quartilla,
Polyaenis, &c., we recognize in living examples the play of those
various appetites, passions and tendencies which satirists deal with
as abstract qualities. Another gift he possesses in a high degree,
which must have availed him in society as well as in literatute — the
gift of story-telling ; and some of the stories which first appear in the
Satirae — e.g. that of the Matron of Ephesus — have enjoyed a great
reputation in later times. His style, too, is that of an excellent
talker, who could have discussed questions of taste and literature
with the most cultivated men of any time as well as amused the most
dissolute society of any time in their most reckless revels. One
phrase of his is often quoted by many who have never come upon
it in its original context, " Horatii curiosa felicitas."

AUTHORITIES. — Until about 1650 only part of the Banquet of
Trimalchio, with the other fragments of the work, was known.
The best MS. of this type is a Leiden MS., a copy by Scaliger of one
which seems to have belonged to Cujacius. Marinus Statilius
(see, however, Ellis, Journal of Philology, 12, p. 266) discovered at
Trau in Dalmatia a MS. containing the whole Banquet, which was
first published at Padua in 1664.

The important editions are (i) with explanatory notes: Burmann
(Amsterdam, 1743, with Heinsius's notes), and, of the Cena only,
Friedlander (Leipzig, 2nd ed., 1906) and Lowe (Cambridge, 1904);
(2) with critical notes: Biicheler (Berlin, 1862, 4th ed., 1904).
Translations into German in Friedlander's edition (Cena only),
into French by de Guerle (complete, in Garnier's Bibliotheque) ,
into English in Lowe's edition (Cena only) and Bohn's series (com-
plete). Lexicon to Petronius by Segebade and Lommatsch (Leip-
zig, 1898). Criticism, &c., in Haley, " Quaestt. Petron." (Harvard
Studies, 1891); Collignon, Etude sur Petrone (Paris, 1892); Emile
Thomas, L'Envers de la societe romaine d'apres Petrone (Paris, 1 892) ;
H\rze\,Der Dialog, ii. (Leipzig, 1895) ; Tyrrell, , Latin Poetry (London,
1895); Norden, Antike Kunstprosa i. (Leipzig, 1898); Henderson,
Life and Principals of the Emperor Nero (London, 1903) ; Dill, Roman
Society from Nero to MarcusAurelius(London,iC)O5) ; and the various
histories of Roman literature (especially Schanz, §§ 395 j>qq.).

S. ; W.

(W. Y. S.

C. Su.).

PETROPAVLOVSK, a town of West Siberia, in the govern-
ment of Akmolinsk, on the right bank of the Ishim river, and
on the great Siberian highway, 170 m. by rail W. of Omsk. The
population, 7850 in 1865, was 21,706 in 1900, of whom one-third
were Mahommedan Kirghiz. The town carries on an active
trade in cattle, furs, tea, wool, skins, cottons, woollen stuffs,
corn, metals, metallic wares and spirits. The small fort of
Petropavlovsk was founded in 1752, and was the military centre
of the Ishim line of fortifications.

PETROPAVLOVSK is also the name of a Russian seaport in Kam-
chatka, on the eastern shore of the Bay of Avacha, in 53° N. and 158°
44' E. Its harbour, one of the best on the Pacific, is little used, and
the town consists merely of a few huts with some 400 inhabitants.
Its naval institutions were transferred to Nikolayevsk after the
attack of the Anglo French fleet in 1854.

PETROPOLIS, a city of the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil,
in an elevated valley of the Serra de Estrella, 2634 ft. above
sea-level and 27 m. N. of the city of Rio de Janeiro, with which
it is connected by a combined railway and steamship line, and

also by a longer railway line. Pop. of the municipality (1900),
20,331, a large percentage being summer residents, as the
census was taken late in December; (1902, municipal census),
18,373. Petropolis is served by the Principe do Grao Par!
railway, now a part of the Leopoldina system , which connects
with Rio de Janeiro and Nictheroy on the coast, and with the
station of Entre Rios on the Central of Brazil railway. Its
altitude gives the city a cool invigorating climate, making it
a favourite summer residence for the well-to-do classes of Rio.
The rainfall is abundant, and especially so in summer (December
to March) when the humidity is extreme. Vegetation is luxu-
riant and comprises a great variety of tropical and sub-tropical
species. The city is built in a large, irregularly shaped basin
formed by streams which converge to form the Piabanha river,
a tributary of the Parahyba do Sul. Among the public
buildings are the old imperial palace, a modern summer resi-
dence of the national executive and a municipal hall. Although
Petropolis is not a commercial centre, its water-power and cool
climate are making it an important manufacturing town.
Among the products are cotton fabrics and garments, beer,
and Camembert and Brie cheeses.

Petropolis was founded in 1845 by Julius Frederick Koler
under the auspices of the emperor of Brazil, Dom Pedro II.,
on lands purchased by his father, Dom Pedro I., in 1822. The
place was previously known as Corrego Secco, which Dr George
Gardner described in 1837 as " a small, miserable village."
The first emperor planned to establish there a German colony,
but the plan was not realized until 1845, when about 2700
colonists from Germany were located there. Its growth was
slow, but the choice of the place by the emperor as a summer
residence drew thither many of the wealthy residents of the
capital. The Maua railway was opened to the foot of the serra
(Raiz da Serra) in 1854, and the macadamized road up the
serra to the town in 1856. The mountain section of the railway,
on the Riggenbach system, was completed in 1883. Petropolis
has since become the summer residence of the diplomatic
corps and of the higher officials of the Federal government, and
was the capital of the state of Rio de Janeiro from 1893 to 1903.

PETROVSK, a seaport of Russia in Transcaucasia, on the
Caspian Sea, in the province of Daghestan, 180 m. by rail
E. of Vladikavkaz, and 235 m. N.W. from Baku. Pop. 9806.
The town has become the port of embarcation for Krasnovodsk,
the Transcaspian territory, and the Central Asian khanates.
There are naphtha wells; and the hot sulphur baths at Ak-gol
and Taiga, close by, attract many visitors in summer.

PETROVSK, a town of eastern Russia, in the government
of Saratov, on the Medvyeditsa, a tributary of the Don, 60 m.
N.W. of the town of Saratov. Pop. (1864), 10,128; (1897),
13,212. It was founded by Peter the Great in 1698 as a
defence against the Kuban Tatars. Its industrial establishments
include distilleries, tanneries, tallow and brickworks.

PETROZAVODSK, a town and episcopal see of Russia,
capital of the government of Olonets, on the west shore of Lake
Onega, 190 m. N.E. of St Petersburg. Pop. (1865), 11,027;
(1897), 12,521. Two cathedrals, built towards the end of the
1 8th century, a mining school, an ecclesiastical seminary and
a government cannon-foundry are the chief public buildings
and institutions. Peter the Great founded ironworks here in
1703, but they continued in operation only twenty-four years.
The cannon-foundry was instituted in 1774. Petrozavodsk
became the capital of the government of Olonets in 1802.

PETRUCCI, PANDOLFO (d. 1512), tyrant of Siena, spent the
greater part of his youth in exile, on account of the civil strife by
which his native town of Siena was torn; but on the triumph of
the party of the Noveschi (those who supported the Council of
Nine) in 1487 he was able to return home. On the death of his
brother Giacopo, one of the most powerful men in the city,
Pandolfo succeeded to all the latter's offices and emoluments
(1497), thus becoming in fact if not in name master of Siena. By
his marriage with Aurelia, daughter of Nicola Borghese, another
very influential citizen, he still further strengthened his authority.
But he soon began to abuse his power by selling public offices to

336

PETRUS AUREOLUS— PETTY

the highest bidders, or conferring them on his followers. A plot
was made to murder him, but he discovered the conspiracy in
time, and his own father-in-law, who had been leader of the
movement, was put to death. In 1498 he prevented the out-
break of war with Florence over the possession of Montepulciano,
which had been a bone of contention between the two cities for
over a hundred years. His attitude towards Cesare Borgia was
exceedingly astute; at first he assisted him, and obtained from
him with the favour of the French king the cession of Piombino;
but having subsequently aroused the suspicions of Borgia, the
latter attempted to suppress Petrucci by inviting him to the fatal
meeting of SenigaUia. The Sienese tyrant, however, did not
fall into the trap, and although Borgia in 1502 obliged him to
quit Siena, he returned two months later, more powerful than
before. Petrucci supported Pisa in the war against Florence, but
eventually, through the intervention of the pope and of the king
of Spain, he made peace with the latter city, to which he gave
back Montepulciano in 1512. As a reward for this action
Pope Julius II. created his nephew cardinal. During his last
days Petrucci abdicated his authority in favour of his son
Borghese. He died at San Quirico di Osenna on the 2ist of
May 1512.

See Pecci, Memorie storico-critiche di Siena (Siena, 1755) ; U. G.
Mondolfo, P. Petrucci signore di Siena (Siena, 1899).

PETRUS AUREOLDS (ORIOL), scholastic philosopher and
monk of the Franciscan order, lived in the latter half of the i3th
century, and died in Paris in 1321 just after his appointment as
archbishop of Aix. He was one of the first to attack the
realist doctrines of Duns Scotus, and is interesting mainly as the
precursor of William of Occam in his revival of Nominalism. His
ability earned for him the titles of Doctor Facundus and Doctor
Abundans.

PETTENKOFEN, AUGUST VON (1821-1889), Austrian painter,
born in Vienna, was brought up on his father's estate in Galicia.
Having decided to give up the military career on which he had
started, he devoted himself to painting, taking for his subjects
the simple scenes of the life on the dreary Puszta. His paintings
are treasured for their fine qualities of colour, and for the
sincerity with which the artist sets before us the uneventful
melancholy life of Hungarian peasants and gipsies — without any
theatrical pathos or forced humour. He was the inventor of the
Pettenkofen box, an appliance for dissolving and redistributing
cracked or discoloured varnish without friction or the dangerous
use of chemicals. He died in Vienna in 1889.

PETTENKOFER, MAX JOSEPH VON (1818-1901), Bavarian
chemist and hygienist, was born on the 3rd of December 1818
at Lichtenheim, near Neuburg. He was a nephew of Franz
Xaver Pettenkofer (1783-1850), who from 1823 was surgeon and
apothecary to the Bavarian court and was the author of some
chemical investigations on the vegetable alkaloids. He studied
pharmacy and medicine at Munich, where he graduated M.D. in
1843, and after working under Liebig at Giessen was appointed
chemist to the Munich mint in 1845. Two years later he was
chosen extraordinary professor of chemistry in the medical
faculty, in 1853 he received the ordinary professorship, and in
1865 he became also professor of hygiene. In 1894 he retired
from active work, and on the xoth of February 1901 he shot him-
self in a fit of depression at his home on the Starnberger See, near
Munich. In his earlier years he devoted himself to chemistry,
both theoretical and applied, publishing papers on the prepara-
tion of gold and platinum, numerical relations between the atomic
weights of analogous elements, the formation of aventurine
glass, the manufacture of illuminating gas from wood, the preser-
vation of oil-paintings, &c. The reaction known by his name for
the detection of bile acids was published in 1844. In his widely
used method for the quantitative determination of carbonic acid
the gaseous mixture is shaken up with baryta or lime water of
known strength and the change in alkalinity ascertained by means
of oxalic acid. But his name is most familiar in connexion with
his work in practical hygiene, as an apostle of good water, fresh
air and proper sewage disposal. His attention was drawn to this
subject about 1850 by the unhealthy condition of Munich.

Pettenkofer gave vigorous expression to his views on hygiene and
disease in numerous books and papers; he was an editor of the
Zeitschrift fur Biologic from 1865 to 1882, and of the Archiv fur
Hygiene from 1883 to 1894.

PETTICOAT, an underskirt, as part of a woman's dress. The
petticoat, i.e. " petty-coat " or small coat, was originally a short
garment for the upper part of the body worn under an outer
dress; in the Promptorium parvulorum the Latin equivalent is
tunicula. It was both a man's and a woman's garment, and was
in the first case worn as a small coat under the doublet,
and by women apparently as a kind of chemise. It was,
however, early applied to the skirt worn by women hanging
from the waist, whether as the principal lower garment or as
an underskirt. In the middle of the I7th century the wide
breeches with heavy lace or embroidered ends worn by men
were known as " petticoat breeches," a term also applied to the
loose canvas or oilskin overalls worn by fishermen.

PETTIE, JOHN (1839-1893), Scottish painter, was born in
Edinburgh on the I7th of March 1839, the son of Alexander
and Alison Pettie. In 1852 the family removed to East
Linton, Haddingtonshire, and a portrait by the lad of the
village carrier and his donkey overcame his father's objections
to art as a career for his son. When sixteen he entered the
Trustees' Academy in Edinburgh, working under Robert Scott
Lauder with W. Q. Orchardson, J. MacWhirter, W. M'Taggart,
Peter Graham, Tom Graham and G. P. Chalmers. His first
exhibits at the Royal Scottish Academy were " A Scene from
the Fortunes of Nigel " — one of the many subjects for which
he sought inspiration in the novels of Sir Walter Scott — and
two portraits in 1858, followed in 1859 by " The Prison Pet."
To the Royal Academy in 1860 he sent "The Armourers ";
and the success of this work and of " What d'ye Lack,
Madam ? " in the following year, encouraged him to settle in
London (1862), where he joined Orchardson. In 1866 he was
elected an Associate of the Royal Academy, and in 1874 received
full academical honours in succession to Sir Edwin Landseer.
His diploma picture was " Jacobites, 1745." Pettie was a hard
and rapid worker, and, in his best days, a colourist of a high
order and a brilliant executant. In his early days he produced
a certain amount of book illustration. His connexion with
Good Words began in 1861, and was continued till 1864. With
J. MacWhirter he illustrated The Postman's Bag (Strahan,
1862), and Wordsworth's Poetry for the Young (Strahan, 1863).
His principal paintings, in addition to those already mentioned,
are " Cromwell's Saints " (1862); " The Trio " (1863); " George
Fox refusing to take the Oath " (1864); " A Drumhead Court-
martial "(1865); "The Arrest for Witchcraft " (1866); "Treason"
(1867, now in the Mappin Art Gallery, Sheffield); " Tussle with a
Highland Smuggler " (1868); " The Sally " (1870); " Terms to
the Besieged " (1872); " The Flag of Truce " (1873); " Ho! Ho !
Old Noll" and "A State Secret" (1874); "A Sword and Dagger
Fight" (1877); " The Death Warrant " (1879); " Monmouthand
James II."(i882); " The Vigil " (1884, in the Chantrey Collec-
tion, National Gallery of British Art); " Challenged " (1885);
" The Chieftain's Candlesticks " (1886); " Two Strings to Her
Bow " (1887); " The Traitor " and " Sir Charles Wyndham as
David Garrick " (1888); and " The Ultimatum " and " Bonnie
Prince Charlie " (1892). Pettie died at Hastings on the 2ist
of February 1893. In 1894 a selection of his work was included
in the Winter Exhibition of the Royal Academy. His portrait
by himself is in the Tate Gallery.

John Pettie, R.A. (London, 1908), by his nephew Martin Hardie,
gives the story of his life, a catalogue of his pictures, and fifty
reproductions in colours.

PETTY, SIR WILLIAM (1623-1687), English statistician and
political economist, born on the 26th of May 1623, was the son
of a clothier at Romsey in Hampshire, and received his early
education at the grammar school there. About the age of
fifteen he went to Caen (Normandy), taking with him a little
stock of merchandise, on which he traded, and so maintained
himself whilst learning French, improving himself in Latin and
Greek, and studying mathematics and other sciences. On his
return to England he seems to have had for a short time a place

PETTY-OFFICER— PETWORTH

337

in the royal navy. He went abroad again in 1643, and remained
for three years in France and the Netherlands, pursuing his
studies. In Paris he read Vesalius with Hobbes, who was then
preparing his Tractatus opticus, and it is said that Petty drew
the diagrams for him. In 1647 Petty obtained a patent for the
invention of double writing, i.e. a copying machine. In politics
he espoused the side of the parliament. His first publication
was a letter to Samuel Hartlib in 1648, entitled Advice for the
Advancement of some Particular Parts of Learning, the object
of which was to recommend such a change in education as would
give it a more practical character. In the same year he took
up his residence at Oxford, where he was made deputy professor
of anatomy, and where he gave instruction in that science and
in chemistry. In 1649 he obtained the degree of doctor of physic,
and was soon after elected a fellow of Brasenose College. He
gained some notoriety in 1650 by restoring to life a woman who
had been hanged for infanticide. In 1651 he was made professor
of anatomy at Oxford, and also became professor of music at
Gresham College. In 1652 he went to Ireland, having been
appointed physician to the army in that country. In 1654,
observing that the admeasurement and division of the lands
forfeited in 1641 and granted to the soldiers had been " most
inefficiently and absurdly managed," he entered into a contract
to execute a fresh survey, which he completed in thirteen
months.1 By this he gained £9000, and part of the money he
invested profitably in the purchase of soldiers' debentures. He
thus became possessor of so large a domain in the county of
Kerry that, according to John Aubrey, he could behold from
Mt Mangerton 50,000 acres of his own land. He set up iron-
works in that neighbourhood, opened lead-mines and marble-
quarries, established a pilchard fishery, and commenced a trade
in timber. Besides the office of commissioner of distribution
of the lands he had surveyed, he held that of secretary to the
lord-lieutenant, Henry Cromwell, and was also during two years
clerk of the council. In January 1658 he was elected to Richard
Cromwell's parliament as member for West Looe in Cornwall.
After the Restoration he returned to England and was favourably
received and knighted by Charles II., who was " much pleased
with his ingenious discourses," and who, it is said, intended to
create him earl of Kilmore. He obtained from the king a new
patent constituting him surveyor-general of Ireland. In 1663 he
attracted much notice by the success of his invention of a double-
bottomed ship, which twice made the passage between Dublin
and Holyhead, but was afterwards lost in a violent storm. He
was one of the first members of the Royal Society, and sat on
its council. He died in London on the i6th of December 1687,
and was buried in the church of his native place. His will, a
curious and characteristic document, is printed in Chalmers's
Biographical Dictionary.

His widow, Elizabeth (d. 1708), daughter of Sir Hardress
Waller (1604-1666), the Irish Cromwellian soldier and regicide,
was created Baroness Shelburne by James II. in 1688; and her
two sons were successively created earls of Shelburne, but on
their death without issue the Petty estates passed to their
sister, Anne, and after her marriage to the ist earl of Kerry the
Shelburne title was revived in her son's favour (see under
LANSDOWNE, ist MARQUESS).

Petty's Irish survey was based on a collection of social data
which entitles him to be considered a real pioneer in the science
of comparative statistics. He was also one of the first in whom
we find a tendency to a view of industrial phenomena which was
at variance with the then dominant mercantilist ideas, and he
exhibits a statesmanlike sense of the elements in which the
strength of a nation really consists. Roscher names him as
having, along with Locke and Dudley North, raised the English
school to the highest point it attained before the time of Hume.

1 The survey executed by Petty was, somewhat whimsically,
called the " Down Survey," because the results were set down in
maps; it is called by that name in Petty's will. He left in MS. a
full account of the proceedings in connexion with it, which was
edited by Sir Thomas A. Larcom for the Irish Archaeological
Society in 1851. The maps, some of which were injured by a fire
in 1711, are preserved in the Public Record Office, Dublin.

His Treatise of Taxes and Contributions contains a clear state-
ment of the doctrine that price depends on the labour necessary
for production. Petty is much concerned to discover a fixed
unit of value, and he thinks he has found it in the necessary
sustenance of a man for a day. He understands the cheapening
effect of the division of labour. He states correctly the notion of
" natural and true " rent as the remainder of the produce of land
after payment of the cost of production; but he seems to have no
idea of the " law of diminishing returns." He has much that
is just on the subject of money: he sees that there may be an
excess of it as well as a deficiency, and regards the prohibition
of its exportation as contrary to sound policy. But he errs in
attributing the fall of the rate of interest which takes place in the
progress of industry to the increase in the quantity of money.
He protested against the fetters imposed on the trade of Ireland,
and advocated a union of that country with Great Britain.
Whilst the general tendency in his day was to represent England
as in a state of progressive decline — an opinion put forward
particularly in the tract entitled Britannia languens — Petty
declared her resources and prospects to be not inferior to those
of France.

A complete list of his works is given in the Athenae oxonienses.
The most important are: the Treatise of Taxes and Contributions
(1662, 1667 and 1685); Political Arithmetic, presented in MS. to
Charles II., but, because it contained matter likely to be offensive
to France, kept unpublished till 1691, when it was edited by Petty's
son Charles; Quantulumcunque, or a Tract concerning Money (1682);
Observations upon the Dublin Bills ofj Mortality in 1681 and the State
of that City (1683); Essay concerning the Multiplication of Mankind
( 1 686) ; Political A natomy of Ireland (i 69 1 ) . Several papers appeared
in the Philosophical Transactions. See Economic Writings of Sir
William Petty, ed. C. H. Hull (2 vols., 1899).

PETTY-OFFICER, the title in the navy of a large number of
minor (Fr. petit, small) officers, of less than commissioned or
warrant rank — such as the master-at-arms, sailmaker, caulker,
armourer, cook, &c. They were originally named, and removable,
by the captain.

PETUNIA, in botany, a genus of plants belonging to the
natural order Solanaceae and containing about 16 species, chiefly
South American (southern Brazil and Argentina). The garden
forms are derived from the white-flowered P. nyctaginiflora and
the violet- or purple-flowered P. violacea. The varieties of
petunia, especially the double forms, make admirable specimens
for pot culture.

Named or specially fine varieties are propagated by cuttings
taken from stock plants kept through the winter on a dry warm
shelf, and moved into a brisk moist heat in early spring; the young
shoots are planted in pans or pots filled with sandy soil, and, aided
by a brisk bottom heat, strike root in a few days. They are then
potted singly into thumb-pots, and when once established are
gradually hardened off, and afterwards repotted as required. The
shoots should be topped to make bushy plants, and their tops may
be utilized as cuttings. The single varieties are raised from seeds
sown in light sandy soil in heat, in the early spring, and very slightly
covered. The plants need to be pricked out or potted off as soon as
large enough to handle. Good strains of seeds supply plants suitable
for bedding; but, as they do not reproduce themselves exactly, any
sorts particularly required must be propagated, like the double
ones, from cuttings.

PETWORTH, a market town in the Horsham parliamentary
division of Sussex, England, 55 m. S.S.W. from London by
the London, Brighton & South Coast railway. Pop. (1901),
2503. The church of St Mary is Perpendicular, and contains
numerous memorials of members of the Percy family and others.
Petworth House, situated in a beautiful park, dates from the
i8th century, and contains a magnificent collection of pictures.
At Bignor in the neighbourhood are remains of an important and
splendidly adorned Roman villa.

The first mention of Petworth (Peartingawyrth, Peteorde,
Puetewird, Pedewurde, Putteworth, Pytteworth, Petteworth)
occurs in a grant by Eardwulf, king of Northumbria, to St Peter's
Church, about 791. In the time of Edward the Confessor Petworth
was an allodial manor held by his queen Edith, and in 1086 Robert
Fitz-Tetbald held it of Roger Montgomery, earl of Shrewsbury.
It then included a church and a mill, and was rated at nine hides.
Through Queen Adelisa, Petworth came first into the hands of

PEUTINGER— PEWTER

her steward, Reginald de Wyndsor, and was afterwards given
to her brother Josceline, who held it of the honour of Arundel.
Josceline married Agnes de Percy and assumed the surname of
Percy. The honour and manor of Petworth followed the descent
of this family until 1708. In 1377 Henry Percy was created earl
of Northumberland. The only daughter of the last earl married
Charles, duke of Somerset, in 1682, and Petworth descended
through their daughter Catherine to the earls of Egremont. The
adopted son of the third earl was created Baron Leconfield in

1859.

PEUTINGER KONRAD (1465-1547), German humanist and
antiquarian, was born at Augsburg. In 1497 he was town clerk
of his native place, and was on intimate terms with the emperor
Maximilian. He was one of the first to publish Roman inscrip-
tions, and his name remains associated with the famous Tabula
peutingeriana (see MAP), a map of the military roads of the
western Roman Empire, which was discovered by Konrad Celtes,
who handed it over to Peutinger for publication. Peutinger also
edited the Historia Gothorum of Jordanes, and the Historia
gentis Langobardorum of Paulus Diaconus.

The Tabula peutingeriana was first published as a whole by
F. de Scheyb (1753); later editions by E. Desjardins (1869-
1874) and C. Miller (1888); see also E. Paulus, Erkldrung der Peu-
tinger Tafel (1867); and Teuffel-Schwabe, Hist, of Roman Literature
(Eng. trans., 1900).

PEVENSEY, a village in the Eastbourne parliamentary
division of Sussex, England, 65 m. S.S.E. from London by the
London, Brighton & South Coast railway. Pop. (1901),
468. The village is a member of the Cinque Ports, but the sea
has receded a mile from it in historic times. The outer wall,
with solid towers, of the celebrated castle, is of Roman construc-
tion, and originally enclosed a complete oval; it is generally
considered to have enclosed the strong town of Anderida. Within
rise the fine ruins, principally of the i3th century, but in part
Norman, of the castle proper, with a keep and four massive
round towers. The church of St Nicholas, close to the castle,
shows beautiful Early English work. It has been supposed that
Pevensey was the scene of the landing of Caesar in 55 B.C., but the
question is disputed.

The name of Pevensey (Paevenisel, Pevensel, Pevenes, Pemsey)
first occurs in a grant of land there by the south Saxon Duke
Berthuald to the abbey of St Denis in 795. In later Saxon times,
at least by the reign of Edward the Confessor, it was a royal
borough and had a harbour and a market. Its early importance
was due to its fencible port. It was the landing place of William
the Norman on his way to conquer, and was the caput of the rape
of Pevensey, which was granted by William to the earl of Mortain
and subsequently became the Honour of the Eagle. Some time
before the reign of Edward I. the town of Pevensey was made
a member of Hastings and shared the liberties of the Cinque
Ports, but apart from them it possesses no charter. It was
governed by a bailiff and twelve jurats, elected annually, until
by an act of 1883 it ceased to exist as a borough. Its seal
dates apparently from the reign of Henry III. The gradual
decline of Pevensey was complete in the isth century and
was caused by the recession of the sea and consequent loss of the
harbour.

PEW (Mid. Eng. puwe, through O. Fr. puya, pui, mod. puy,
in the sense of hill, cf. appuyer, to lean against; from Lat. podium,
a high place, balcony; Gr. TTOOI.OV, pedestal, iroOs, foot), a term,
in its most usual meaning, for a fixed seat in a church, usually
enclosed, slightly raised from the floors, and composed of wood
framing, mostly with ornamented ends. Some bench ends are
certainly of Decorated character, and some have been considered
to be of the Early English period. They are sometimes of plain
oak board, zj to 3 in. thick, chamfered, and with a necking
and finial generally called a poppy head; others are plainly
panelled with bold cappings; in others the panels are ornamented
with tracery or with the linen pattern, and sometimes wkh
running foliages. The large pews with high enclosures, curtains,
&c., known familiarly as " horse-boxes," and common in English
parish churches during the i8th and early part of the igth
centuries, have nearly all been cleared away. The parish church

of Whitby, in Yorkshire, is perhaps the best surviving example of
an unaltered interior.

The Latin word podium was particularly applied to a balcony
or parapet next to the arena in the Roman theatre where the emperor
and other distinguished persons sat. According to Du Cange
(Glossarium, s.v. podium), it is found in medieval Latin for a
bench (subsellium) for the minor canons at a church in Lyons (1343),
and also for a kneeling stool in a monastic church. The word
" pew " in English was often used for a stall for the minister, for a
reading desk, or for a pulpit. The floor space of the nave and tran-
septs of medieval churches was usually open, mats being sometimes
provided for kneeling, and if any fixed seats were provided these
would be for the patrons of the church or for distinguished people.
Some enclosed seats, however, seem to have been reserved for women,
as is seen in Piers Plowman, ch. vii. 144, " Among wyves and wodewes
ich am ywoned sitte yparroked in puwes." They did not come into
general use till the middle of the 15th or beginning of the l6th
century (see Gasquet, Parish Life in Medieval England, (1906, pp. 62
and 133). Over the few seats thus allotted dispute arose and
attempts were made to appropriate them. Thus the constitutions
for the synod of Exeter, drawn up by Bishop Peter Quivel in 1287,
forbid any one " to claim any sitting in the church as his own. . . .
Whoever first comes to pray, let him take what place he wishes in
which to pray."

At common law all seats in a parish church are for the common
use of all the parishioners, and every parishioner has a right to a
seat without paying for it. The disposition of the seats is in the
discretion of the churchwardens acting for the ordinary for the
purpose of orderly arrangement (as to the exercise of this dis-
cretion see Reynolds v. Monckton, 1841, 2 M. & R. 384), and this
can be exercised in cases where all the seats are free (Asher v.
Calcraft, 1887, 18 Q.B.D. 607). The right to a seat does not
belong to a non-parishioner. As against the assignment and
disposition of seats by the ordinary, acting through the church-
wardens, two kinds of appropriation can be set up (a) by the
grant of a faculty by the ordinary, and (6) by prescription, based
on the presumption of a lost faculty. Such faculties are rarely
granted now; they were formerly common; the grant was to a
man and his family " so long as they remain inhabitants of a
certain house in the parish "; the words " of a certain house " are
now usually omitted. The claim to a pew by prescription must
be in respect of a house in the parish; the right is subject to the
burden of repairing the pew; it is not an easement, nor does the
Prescription Act 1832 apply to it (see for the whole subject of a
claim by prescription Phillips v. Halliday, 1891, A.C. 228). The
letting of pews in parish churches became common in the i6th
century, but there are some earlier instances of the use, for
example at St Ewens, Bristol, in 1455 {Churchwardens' Accounts,
Sir J. Maclean, Trans. Bristol and Gloucester Archaeol. Assoc., vol.
xv., 1890-1891). The taking of pew rents in parish churches is
illegal (Lord Stowell, in Walter v. Gunner, 1798, 3 Hag. Consist.
817); but under the various Church Building Acts seats may be
let and rents charged to pay the salary of the minister, &c.

See A. Heales, History and Law of Church Seats and Pews (1872);
Phillimore, Eccles. Law (1896), ii. 1424 seq.

PEWTER, a general name used to denote a number of alloys
of varfous metals in diverse proportions, the sole common feature
of which lies in the fact that tin is always the chief constituent.
The etymology of the word is doubtful, but it is probably an
English modification of spelter, which was adopted with more or
less local alteration by the continental European nations, who
at an early period were eager purchasers of the ware, becoming
peauler in Dutch, peutre, peaulre or piautre in French, peltro in
Italian and peltre in Spanish. Roman pewter, the oldest known,
which has been disinterred at various places in England and
elsewhere, was composed of tin and lead alone, for the occasional
traces of iron are believed to be accidental, in proportions which,
though varying considerably, group themselves around two
definite formulae, one containing 71-5 parts of tin to 27-8 of
lead, the other 78-2 of tin to 21-7 of lead, or one libra of tin to
45 and 3 unciae of lead respectively. On the European continent
in the middle ages, some ten centuries later than the supposed
date of the Roman pewter found in Britain, when we first get
definite records of the composition of pewter, lead remained
the chief, if not the only secondary ingredient. In 1437 the
pewterers of Montpelier added 4 parts of lead to 96 of tin,

PEZENAS— PFAFF

339

when making dishes and porringers 10 parts of lead to 90 of
tin for salt-cellars and ewers; those of Limoges used 4 parts of
lead to 100 of tin; at Nuremberg in 1576 it was ordained that
not more than i ft of lead should be mixed with every 10 ft
of tin; in France during the i8th century a limit of 15% of
lead was imposed, while at the present time 16-5% with a margin
of 1-5 for errors is regarded as safe for the storage of wine and
consequently legal.

In England the earliest known ordinances for the regulation
of the craft were drawn up in 1348 and received the approval
of the mayor and aldermen. From them we learn that for
rounded vessels lead might be mixed with the tin in the pro-
portion of 26 ft to each hundredweight, though this quantity
appears to have been found excessive, since in 1351 a pewterer
was punished because his alloy contained more than 16 ft
to the hundredweight, unless this be a clerical error in the
contemporary records of the Pewterers' Company. Articles
made of this material were to be known as " vessels of tyn for
ever " but the alloy soon came to be known as " ley." Another
formula, however, authorized in the same document, would
appear to have been at that time an exclusively English secret,
to which was presumably due the universal recognition of the
superiority of the island wares which is so notable a fact in the
history of pewter. It was known as " fyne peauter " and used
for dishes, saucers, platters, chargers, and for all " things that
they make square," such as cruets, chrismatories, &c., which
owing either to the rough usage they would be submitted to, or
to the sharpness of their angles, called for greater toughness in
the material. The recipe for this alloy as originally propounded
was as much brass to the tin " as it wol receiuve of his nature,"
but the lack of precision in this perhaps rendered it difficult to
distinguish accidental variations from deliberate adulteration,
and in 1474-1475 it was resolved that 26 ft of brass must
be mixed with every hundredweight of tin. The penalties for
infringement of the rules were severe and frequently enforced,
but in spite of them alterations and improvements crept in.
The chief and perhaps the earliest of these was the addition of a
certain proportion of bismuth, or as it was then called " tin
glass." When this was first used is not recorded, but by 1561
it was accepted as a matter of course; in 1630 a maker " was
found in fault for not sufficiently tempering his metal with tin
glass "; and in 1653 it was ordered that 3 Ib weight of tin
glass at least must be mixed with every 1000 ft of tin. Anti-
mony was subsequently introduced — though there is no mention
of it in the records of the Pewterers' Company — sometimes
alone as in tin and temper (1-6 to 150 parts) and trifle (17 parts
to 83 of tin), sometimes with other metals as in hard metal
(96 parts of tin, 8 of antimony and 2 of copper), a mixture
very closely resembling that still used under the name of " Brit-
annia metal," and in plate pewter (100 parts of tin, 8 of antimony,
4 of copper and 4 of bismuth). The wares were originally fash-
ioned in two ways, by hammering or by casting, and the workers
in each were strictly differentiated, the former, who worked in
fine pewter, being known as Sadware men, the latter who used
" ley " as Hollow-ware men. A third class, known as Triflers,
from the alloy they were limited to, probably at first only manu-
factured such small articles of domestic use or ornament as did
not definitely fall under either of the other headings, but from an
authorized list of wares, drawn up by a committee of Triflers in
1612, it is clear that the barrier between them and the Hollow-
ware men had been largely broken down. Another method of
working pewter which seems to have been introduced later, and
never followed to any great extent, was spinning, by which the
vessel was shaped in a mould on a wheel by the mere pressure of a
blunt tool, the softness of the metal allowing of its flowing
sufficiently for this purpose.

Pewter first appears in history in 1074, when a synod at Rouen
permitted its use as a substitute for gold or silver in church vessels,
a concession accepted also at Winchester two years later, again
withdrawn in 1175, but once more tacitly adopted some twenty
years after. The records of its domestic use commence with the
caldrons employed for boiling the meat at the coronation of

Edward I. in 1274, though we gather that the trade was even
then flourishing in Paris and Bruges, whence during the following
century it extended to Augsburg, Nuremberg, Poitiers, Mons and
other continental centres. Confined at first to the more wealthy
classes, we can trace as time goes on its extension lower and
lower in the social scale, until at the end of the 1 7th century its
use was almost universal. Thenceforward its vogue steadily
declined. The growing cheapness of glass and chinaware and the
invention of more showy metals brought upon it by degrees the
fatal stigma of vulgarity, until with very few exceptions its
manufacture entirely ceased.

Artistically, pewter was at its best when its makers were least
conscious of the art revealed in it, thinking more of the durability
and appropriateness to purpose of their wares than of their
decorative qualities. Though intentionally ornamental vessels
may be found earlier, it was not until the iSth century that
the pewterers set themselves to slavishly copying the designs
and methods of the silversmiths, whether suitable to their
material or not, and thereby undoubtedly hastened their own
downfall.

Of recent years pewter has taken its place among the articles
sought after by collectors, and its cost has so materially and
rapidly increased that the manufacture of vessels, guaranteed
of course genuinely antique, bids fair to become once more
a paying industry. Unfortunately the various enactments
compelling each maker to stamp his ware with a definite touch-
mark seem at all times to have been very generally evaded or
ignored, and experience alone is therefore the only safe guide
to distinguishing new from old.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.— History of the Worshipful Company of Pewterers
of the City of London, by Charles Welch (London, 1902) ; Pewter Plate,
by R. J. L. Masse (London, 1904); Scottish Pewter Ware and Pew-
terers, by L. Ingleby Wood (Morton, Edinburgh, n.d.); Old Pewter,
by Malcolm Bell (Newnes, London, n.d.); Les Metaux dans I'anti-
quile et au moyen age. L'Etain, by Germain Bapst (Paris, 1884);
Dictionnaire de I'ameublement et de la decoration, by Henri Havard;
Histoire du mobilier, by Albert Jacquemart (Paris, 1877); " Analysis
of Roman Pewter," by W. Gowland, Archaeologia, vol. Ivi. (1898);
Pewter Marks and Old Pewter Ware: Domestic and Ecclesiastical,
by Christopher A. Markham (1909). (M. BE.)

PEZENAS, a town of southern France, in the department of
Herault 33 m. W.S.W. of Montpellier on the southern railway.
Pop. (1906), 6432. The commerce in cognac, spirits and wines
is so important that the prices current for these at the weekly
sales are registered throughout the wine marts of France and
Europe. There is a handsome monument to Moliere, who lived
at Pezenas several years and produced his first plays there in 1655
and 1656. A gateway (isth century) and old mansion of the
1 5th and i6th centuries are of interest.

Pezenas (Piscennae) was founded by the Gauls. In the
loth century it became the capital of a countship subsequently
held by important families including those of Montmorency,
Conde and Conti. In the i7th century the town was on several
occasions the meeting place of the estates of Languedoc.

PFAFF, JOHANN FRIEDRICH (1765-1825), German mathe-
matician, was born on the 22nd of December 1765 at Stuttgart.
He received his early education at the Carlsschule, where he met
F. Schiller, his lifelong friend. His mathematical capacity was
early noticed; he pursued his studies at Gottingen under Abraham
Gotthelf Kastner (1719-1800), and in 1787 he went to Berlin and
studied practical astronomy under J. E. Bode. In 1788 Pfaff
became professor of mathematics in Helmstedt, and so continued
until that university was abolished in 1810. From that time till
his death on the 2ist of April 1825 he held the chair of mathe-
matics at HaUe. Pfaff's researches bore chiefly on the theory of
series, to which he applied the methods of the so-called combina-
torial school of German mathematicians, and on the solution of
differential equations. His two principal works are Disquisitiones
analytical maxime ad calculum integralem et doctrinam serierum
pertinentes (410., vol. i., Helmstadt, 1797) and " Methodus
generalis, aequationes differentiarum particularum, necnon
aequationes differentiales vulgares, utrasque primi ordinis inter
quotcumque variabiles, complete integrand! " in Abh. d. Bcrl.
Acad. (1814-1815). The former work contains Pfaff's discussion

340

PFALZBURG— PFORTA

of a certain differential equation which generally bears his
name, but which had originally been treated in a less complete
manner by L. Euler (see DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS). The latter
work contains an important addition to the theory of partial
differential equations as it had been left by J. L. Lagrange.

His brother, JOHANN WILHELM ANDREAS PFAFF (1774-1835),
was professor of pure and applied mathematics successively at
Dorpat, Nuremberg, Wurzburg and Erlangen. Another brother,
CHRISTIAN HEINRICH PFAFF (1773-1852), graduated in medicine
at Stuttgart in 1793, and from 1801 till his death was professor
of medicine, physics and chemistry at the university of Kiel.

PFALZBURG, a town of Germany, in the imperial province of
Alsace-Lorraine, lies high on the west slopes of the Vosges, 25 m.
N.W. of Strassburg by rail. Pop. (1905), 3716. It contains an
Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, a synagogue and a
teachers' seminary. Its industries include the manufacture of
gloves, straw hats and liqueurs, and also quarrying.

The principality of Pfalzburg, of which this town was the
capital, originally a part of Luxemburg, afterwards belonged in
turn to the bishop of Metz, the bishop of Strassburg and the
duke of Lorraine, and passed into the possession of France in
1 66 1. The town was of importance as commanding the passes
of the Vosges, and was strongly fortified by Vauban in 1680.
The works resisted the Allies in 1814 and 1815, and the Germans
for four months in 1870, but they were taken on the i2th of
December of that year. They have since been razed.

PFEIFFER, FRANZ (1815-1868), German scholar, was born at
Bettlach near Soleure on the 27th of February 1815. After
studying at the university of Munich he went to Stuttgart,
where in 1846 he became librarian to the royal library. In
1856 Pfeiffer founded the Germania, a quarterly periodical
devoted to German antiquarian research. In 1857, having
established his fame as one of the foremost authorities on
German medieval literature and philology, he was appointed
professor of these subjects at the university of Vienna; and in
1860 was made a member of the Imperial Academy of Sciences.
He died at Vienna on the 2gth of May 1868.

Among the many writings edited by him may be mentioned the
Surinam und Josaphat of Rudolf von Ems (1843), the Edelstein of
Ulrich Boner (1844), Die deutschen Mystiker des 14. Jahrhunderts
(1845-1857; new ed., 1906), the Btich der Natur of Konrad von
Megenberg, a 14th-century writer (1861), Die Predigten des Berthold
von Regensburg (1862), and the poems of Walther von der Vogel-
weide (1864; 6th ed. by K. Bartsch, 1880). Of his independent
writings the most important are Zur deutschen Literaturgeschichte,
Vber Wesen und Bildung der hofischen Sprache in mittelhochdeutscher
Zeit, Der Dichter des Nibelungenliedes, Forschung und Kritik auf
dem Gebiete des deutschen Altertums, and Altdeutsches ffbungsbuch.
A biographical sketch by Karl Bartsch is in Uhlands Briefwechsel
mil Freiherrn von Lassberg, edited by Franz Pfeiffer (1870).

PFEIFFER, IDA LAURA (1797-1858), Austrian traveller,
daughter of a merchant named Reyer, was born at Vienna on
the i4th of October 1797. In 1820 she married Dr Pfeiffer, a
lawyer of Lemberg, who subsequently incurred official persecu-
tion and was reduced to poverty. In her later life Mme
Pfeiffer devoted her limited means to travel. In 1842 she visited
Palestine and Egypt, and published an account of her journey in
Reise einer Wienerin in das Heilige Land (Vienna, 1843). In 1845
she set out to Scandinavia and Iceland, describing her tour in
two volumes, Reise nach dem skandinavischen Norden und der
Insel Island (Pest, 1846). In 1846 she started on a journey round
the world, visiting Brazil, Chile and other countries of South
America, Tahiti, China, India, Persia, Asia Minor and Greece,
and reaching home in 1848. The results were published in
Eine Frauenfahrt urn die Welt (Vienna, 1850). In 1851 she went
to England and thence to South Africa, intending to penetrate
into the interior; this proved impracticable, but she proceeded
to the Malay Archipelago, spending eighteen months in the
Sunda Islands and the Moluccas. After a visit to Australia,
Madame Pfeiffer proceeded to California, Oregon, Peru, Ecuador,
New Granada, the Missiones Territory, and north again to the
Great Lakes, reaching home in 1854. Her narrative, Meine
zweile Weltreise, was published at Vienna in 1856. In May of the
same year she set out to explore Madagascar, where at first she

was cordially received by the queen. But she unwittingly
allowed herself to be involved in a plot to overthrow the govern-
ment, and was expelled the country. She died at Vienna on
the 27th of October 1858.

The Reise nach Madagascar was issued in 1861 (Vienna), with a
biography by her son.

PFLEIDERER, OTTO (1839-1908), German Protestant theo-
logian, was born at Stetten near Cannstadt in Wiirttemberg
on the ist of September 1839. From 1857 to 1861 he studied at
Tubingen under F. C. Baur; and afterwards in England and
Scotland. He then entered the ministry, became repetent at
Tubingen, and for a short time held a pastorate at Heilbronn
(1868). In 1870 he became chief pastor and superintendent at
Jena and soon afterwards professor ordinarius of theology, but
in 1875 he was called to the chair of systematic theology at
Berlin, having made his name by a series of articles on New Testa-
ment criticism and Johannine and Pauline theology, which
appeared in Adolf Hilgenfeld's Zeitschrift fur wissenschafttiche
Theologie, and by his Der Paulinismus, published in 1873 (2nd
ed., 1890; Eng. trans., Paulinism: a Contribution to the History of
Primitive Christian Theology, 2 vols., 1873, &c.). Das Urchris-
tenlum, seine Schriften und Lehren, in geschichtlichem Zusam-
menhang beschrieben was published in 1878 and considerably
enlarged for a second edition in 1902 (Eng. trans., 1906). In
1890 appeared The Development of Theology since Kant, and its
Progress in Great Britain since 1823, which was written for
publication in England. A more elaborate work was his
Religionsphilosophie auf geschichtlichen Grundlage (1878; 2nd ed.,
enlarged, 1883-1884; Eng. trans., from 2nd German ed., The
Philosophy of Religion on the Basis of its History, 4 vols., 1886-
1888). " The Influence of the Apostle Paul on the Development
of Christianity " was the title of a course of Hibbert Lectures
given in London in 1885. In 1894 he delivered the Gifford
Lectures at Edinburgh, the subject being " The Philosophy and
Development of Religion." His later publications included:
The Early Christian Conception of Christ (1905), Die Entstehung
des Christentums ( 1 905 ; Eng. trans. , 1 906) , Religion und Religionen
(1906; Eng. trans., 1907), and Die Entwicklung des Christentums
(1907). He died on the i8th of July 1908, at Gross Lichterfelde,
near Berlin. In New Testament criticism Pfleiderer belonged
to the critical school which grew out of the impulse given by
F. C. Baur. But, like other modern German theologians, he
showed a greater disposition to compromise. All his work shows
a judicial tone of mind, and is remarkable for the charm of its
style.

Pfleiderer's younger brother EDMUND (1842-1902) dis-
tinguished himself both in philosophy and theology. He too
entered the ministry (1864) and during the Franco-German
War served as army chaplain, an experience described in his
Erlebnisse eines Feldgeistlichen (1890). He was afterwards
appointed professor ordinarius of philosophy at Kiel (1873),
and in 1878 he was elected to the philosophical chair at
Tubingen. He published works on Leibnitz, empiricism and
scepticism in Hume's philosophy, modern pessimism, Kantic
criticism, English philosophy, Heraclitus of Ephesus and many
other subjects.

PFORTA, or SCHULPFORTA, formerly a Cistercian monastery
dating from 1140, and now a celebrated German public school.
It is in the Prussian province of Saxony, on the Saale, 2 m.
S.W. of Naumburg. The remains of the monastery include the
i3th century Gothic church, recently restored, the Romanesque
chapel (i2th century) and other buildings now used as dormi-
tories, lecture rooms, &c. There is also the Furstenhaus, built in
TS73- Schulpforta was one of the three Fiirstenschulen founded
in 1543 by Maurice duke, and later elector, of Saxony, the two
others being at Grimma and at Meissen. The property of the
dissolved monastery provided a good revenue for the new educa-
tional foundation,which now amounts to about £15,000 a year.
Free education is provided for 140 boys, the total number of
pupils being 185. After being in the possession of Saxony, Pforta
passed to Prussia in 1815, and since this date the school has been
entirely reorganized.

PFORZHEIM— PHAEDRUS

341

PFORZHEIM, a town of Germany, in the grand duchy of
Baden, at the confluence of the Nagold and the Enz, on the
northern margin of the Black Forest, 19 m. S.E. of Karlsruhe by
rail, and at the junction of lines to Wildbad and Ettlingen.
Pop. (1895), 33,345 ; (1905), 59>395) most of whom are Protestants.
Its most interesting buildings are the old palace of the margraves
of Baden, and the Schlosskirche, the latter an edifice of the
I2th-isth centuries, containing the tombs and monuments of
the margraves. Pforzheim is the chief centre in Germany for
the manufacture of gold and silver ornaments and jewelry, an
industry which gives employment to about 22,000 hands,
besides which there are iron and copper works, and manu-
factures of chemicals, paper, leather, machinery, &c. A brisk
trade is maintained in timber, cattle and agricultural produce.

Pforzheim (Porta Hercyniae) is of Roman origin. From about
1300 to 1565 it was the seat of the margraves of Baden. It was
taken by the troops of the Catholic League in 1624, and was
destroyed by the French in 1689. The story of the 400 citizens
of Pforzheim who sacrificed themselves for their prince after
the battle of Wimpfen in May 1622 has been relegated by
modern historical research to the domain of legend.

See Coste, Die 400 Pforzheimer (1879) ; Brombacher, Der Tod der
400 Pforzheimer (Pforzheim, 1886); Stolz, Geschichte der Stadt
Pforzheim (Pforzheim, 1901).

PHAEDO, Greek philosopher, founder of the Elian school, was
a native of Elis, born in the last years of the sth century B.C. In
the war of 401-400 between Sparta and Elis he was taken
prisoner and became a slave in Athens, where his beauty brought
him notoriety. He became a pupil of Socrates, who conceived
a warm affection for him. It appears that he was intimate with
Cebes and Plato, and he gave his name to one of Plato's dialogues.
Athenaeus relates, however, that he resolutely declined responsi-
bility for any of the views with which Plato credits him, and that
the relations between him and Plato were the reverse of friendly.
Aeschines also wrote a dialogue called Phaedo. Shortly after
the death of Socrates Phaedo returned to Elis, where his disciples
included Anchipylus, Moschus and Pleistanus, who succeeded
him. Subsequently Menedemus and Asclepiades transferred
the school to Eretria, where it was known as the Eretrian school
and is frequently identified (e.g. by Cicero) with the Megarians.
The doctrines of Phaedo are not known, nor is it possible to
infer them from the Platonic dialogue. His writings, none of
which are preserved, were in the form of dialogues. As to their
authenticity nothing is known, in spite of an attempt at selection
by Panaetius (Diog. Laert. ii. 64), who maintains that the
Zopyrus and the Simon are genuine. Seneca has preserved one
of his dicta (Epist. 94. 41), namely that one method of acquiring
virtue is to frequent the society of good men.

See Wilamowitz, Hermes, xiv. 189 seq.

PHAEDRA, in Greek legend, daughter of Minos and Pasiphae.
With her sister Ariadne she was carried off by Theseus to Athens,
and became his wife. On the way to Eleusis she met Hippolytus,
son of Theseus by a former wife (Hippolyte, queen of the Ama-
zons, or her sister Antiope), and fell in love with him. Finding
her advances rejected, she hanged herself, leaving behind a
letter in which she accused Hippolytus of having made dis-
honourable proposals. The same story, in the main, is told of
Bellerophon and Anteia. It formed the subject of tragedies by
Sophocles, Euripides (two, one of which is extant), Seneca and
Racine.

PHAEDRUS, Roman fabulist, was by birth a Macedonian and
lived in the reigns of Augustus, Tiberius, Gaius and Claudius.
According to his own statement (prologue to book iii.), not
perhaps to be taken too literally, he was born on the Pierian
Mountain, but he seems to have been brought at an early age to
Italy, for he mentions that he read a verse of Ennius as a boy at
school. According to the heading of the chief MS. he was a
slave and was freed by Augustus. He incurred the wrath of
Sejanus, the powerful minister of Tiberius, by some supposed
allusions in his fables, and was brought to trial and punished.
We learn this from the prologue to the third book, which is
dedicated to Eutychus, who has been identified with the famous

charioteer and favourite of Gaius. The fourth book is dedicated
to Particulo, who seems to have dabbled in literature. The dates
of their publication are unknown, but Seneca, writing between
A.D. 41 and 43 (Consol. ad Polyb. 27), knows nothing of Phaedrus,
and it is probable that he had published nothing then. His work
shows little or no originality; he simply versified in iambic
trimeters the fables current in his day under the name of "Aesop,"
interspersing them with anecdotes drawn from daily life, history
and mythology. He tells his fable and draws the moral with
businesslike directness and simplicity; his language is terse and
clear, but thoroughly prosaic, though it occasionally attains a
dignity bordering on eloquence. His Latin is correct, and,
except for an excessive and peculiar use of abstract words,
shows hardly anything that might not have been written in the
Augustan age. From a literar-y point of view Phaedrus is
inferior to Babrius, and to his own imitator, La Fontaine; he
lacks the quiet picturesqueness and pathos of the former, and
the exuberant vivacity and humour of the latter. Though he
frequently refers to the envy and detraction which pursued him,
Phaedrus seems to have attracted little attention in antiquity.
He is mentioned by Martial (iii. 20, 5), who imitated some of his
verses, and by Avianus. Prudentius must have read him, for
he imitates one of his lines (Prud. Cath. vii. 115; cf. Phaedrus,
iv. 6, 10).

The first edition of the five books of Phaedrus was published
by Pithou at Troyes in 1596 from a manuscript now in the possession
of the marquis of Rosanbo. In the beginning of the I Sth century
there was discovered at Parma a MS. of Perotti (1430-1480), arch-
bishop of Siponto, containing sixty-four fables of Phaedrus, of which
some thirty were new. These new fables were first published at
Naples by Cassitto in 1808, and afterwards (much more correctly)
by Jannelli in 1809. Both editions were superseded by the dis-
covery of a much better preserved MS. of Perotti in the Vatican,
published by Angelo Mai in 1831. For some time the authenticity of
these new fables was disputed, but they are now generally accepted,
and with justice, as genuine fables of Phaedrus. They do not form
a sixth book, for we know from Avianus that Phaedrus wrote five
books only, but it is impossible to assign them to their original
places in the five books. They are usually printed as an appendix.

In the middle ages Phaedrus exercised a considerable influence
through the prose versions of his fables which were current, though
his own works and even his name were forgotten. Of these prose
versions the oldest existing seems to be that known as the " Anony-
mus Nilanti," so called because first edited by Nilant at Leiden
in 1709 from a MS. of the I3th century. It approaches the text of
Phaedrus so closely that it was probably made directly from it.
Of the sixty-seven fables which it contains thirty are derived from
lost fables of Phaedrus. But the largest and most influential
of the prose versions of Phaedrus is that which bears the name of
Romulus. It contains eighty-three fables, is as old as the loth
century, and seems to have been based on a still earlier prose version,
which, under the name of " Aesop," and addressed to one Rufus,
may have been made in the Carolingian period or even earlier.
About this Romulus nothing is known. The collection of fables
in the Weissenburg (now Wolfenbuttel) MS. is based on the same
version as Romulus. These three prose versions contain in all
one hundred distinct fables, of which fifty-six are derived from the
existing and the remaining forty-four presumably from lost fables
of Phaedrus. Some scholars, as Burmann, Dressier and L. Muller,
have tried to restore these lost fables by versifying the prose versions.

The collection bearing the name of Romulus became the source
from which, during the second half of the middle ages, almost all
the collections of Latin fables in prose and verse were wholly or
partially drawn. A 12th-century version of the first three books
of Romulus in elegiac verse enjoyed a wide popularity, even into the
Renaissance. Its author (generally referred to since the edition
of NeVelet in 1610 as the " Anonymus Neveleti ") was long unknown,
but Hervieux has shown grounds for identifying him with Walther
of England, chaplain to Henry II. and afterwards archbishop of
Palermo.

Another version of Romulus in Latin elegiacs was made by Alex-
ander Neckam, born at St Albans in 1157. Amongst the collections
partly derived from Romulus the most famous is probably that m
French verse by Marie de France. About 1200 a collection of fables
in Latin prose, based partly on Romulus, was made by the Cistercian
monk Odo of Sherrington ; they have a strong medieval and clerical
tinge. In 1370 Gerard of Minden wrote a poetical version of Romulus
in Low German.

Since Pithou's edition in 1596 Phaedrus has been often edited and
translated ; among the editions may be mentioned those of Burmann
(1718 and 1727), Bentley (1726), Schwabe (1806), Berger de Xivrey
(1830), Orelli (1832), Eyssenhardt (1867), L. Muller (1877), Rica
(1885), and above all that of L. Havet (Paris, 1895). For the

342

PHAER— PHAGOCYTOSIS

medieval versions of Phaedrus and their derivatives see L. Roth, in
Philologus, i. 523 seq. ; E. Grosse, in Jahrb. f. class. Philol., cv.
(1872); and especially the learned work of Hervieux, Les Fabulistes
latins depuis le siecle d'Auguste jusqu'a la fin du moyen Age (Paris,
1884), who gives the Latin texts of all the medieval imitators (direct
and indirect) of Phaedrus, some of them being published for the
first time. (J. P. P.)

PHAER (or PHAYER), THOMAS (15107-1560), English trans-
lator of Virgil, was educated at Oxford and at Lincoln's Inn. He
published in 1535 Nalura brevium, and in 1543 Newe Boke of
Presidents. He says on the title-page of his version of the
Aeneid that he was " solicitor to the king and queen's majesties,
attending their honourable council in the marches of Wales."
He settled at Kilgarran in Pembrokeshire, and combined the
study of medicine with his legal practice. He wrote several
medical works, and was admitted M.D. of Oxford in 1559. He
contributed to Sackville's Mirrour for Magistrates, "Howe
Owen Glendower, being seduced by false prophecies, toke upon
him to be Prince of Wales." In 1558 appeared The Seven First
Bookes of the Eneidos of Virgil converted into English Meter. He
had completed two more books in April 1560 and had begun the
tenth, but he died in the autumn of that year, leaving his task
incomplete. The translation was finished by Thomas Twyne in
1584. Phaer's translation, which was in rhymed fourteen-
syllabled lines, was greatly admired by his contemporaries, and
he deserves credit as the first to attempt a complete version,
the earlier renderings of Surrey and Gawain Douglas being
fragmentary although of greater poetic value.

PHAETHON (Gr. <t>ai9uv, shining, radiant), in Greek mytho-
logy, the son of Helios the sun-god, and the nymph Clymene.
He persuaded his father to let him drive the chariot of the sun
across the sky, but he lost control of the horses, and driving too
near the earth scorched it. To save the world from utter
destruction Zeus killed Phaethon with a thunderbolt. He fell
to earth at the mouth of the Eridanus, a river of northern Europe
(identified in later times with the Po), on the banks of which his
weeping sisters, the Heliades, were transformed into poplars
and their tears into amber. This part of the legend points
to the mouth of the Oder or Vistula, where amber abounds.
Phaethon was the subject of a drama of the same name by
Euripides, of which some fragments remain, and of a lost tragedy
of Aeschylus (Heliades); the story is most fully told in the
Metamorphoses of Ovid (i. 75o-ii. 366 and Nonnus, Dionysiaca,
xxxviii). Phaethon has been identified with the sun himself
and with the morning star (Phosphorus). In the former
case the legend is supposed to represent the sun sinking
in the west in a blaze of light. His identification with the
morning star is supported by Hyginus (Astron. ii. 42), where it
is stated that the morning (and evening) star was the son of
Cephalus and Eos (the father and mother of Phaethon according
to Hesiod, Theog. 984-986). The fall of Phaethon is a favourite
subject, especially on sarcophagus reliefs, as indicating the
transitoriness of human life.

See G. Knaack, " Quaestipnes Phaethonteae," in Philologische
Untersuchungen (1885); F. Wieseler, Phaethon (1857); Wilamowitz-
Mollendorff and C. Robert in Hermes, xviii. (1883); Frazer's
Pausanias, ii. 59 ; S. Reinach, Revue de I'hist. desreligions, Iviii. (1908).

PHAGOCYTOSIS (Gr. <t>aytiv, to eat, devour, and K(JTOS,
cell). Many cells of the body possess the property of engulfing
particles, a character to be associated with their power of
performing amoeboid movement. This property is termed
phagocytosis. Primarily this phagocytic power was simply the
means by which the cell took within its cell body food particles
which were ultimately digested and assimilated. In the higher
organisms, however, this property has been developed for different
purposes, and in pathology at the present day a meaning wider
than that above given is often included in the term. The
particle having been taken into the cell, one of three things may
happen, (i) The particle may consist of digestible material, in
which case the cell secretes a digestive fluid, a food vacuole is
formed, the particle is gradually dissolved by the secretion and
the products absorbed into the cell substance. (2) The particle
may be indigestible, in which case it is retained within the cell

body for a time and ultimately discharged. The particle
englobed may comprise almost any material, but if it is to serve
as a food it must be of animal or vegetable origin. At the time
of ingestion it may be dead or living. In the case in which it is
living the organism is first killed and then digested, or (3) the
organism may prove resistant, in which case it may multiply
and finally destroy the cell, when a number of organisms are set
free. This is one of the means by which, in the higher organisms,
a local infection may become distributed through the organism.
The digestion effected within a cell is fermentative in character.
Thus a proteolytic ferment has been prepared from the bodies of
amoebae — the ferment possessing fairly active properties both
in acid, neutral or alkaline media, but especially in the latter.

In studying the process of phagocytosis generally much infor-
mation may be gained as to its general characters by the study of
the processes of intracellular digestion in the simpler Inverte-
brates, a study largely extended by Metchnikoff and his co-
workers in the elaboration of Metchnikoff' s view of the nature of
immunity. Thus, to take an instance from the sponges. Food
substances, in the form of minute organisms, which have
penetrated the pores of the sponge are seized by the ciliated or
amoeboid cells lining those spaces, and are then killed and
digested. In this case also the process of digestion is proved
to be fermentative. It is readily understandable that we should
find such cells on the external surface of an organism or on the
surface lining the alimentary tract, particularly in the latter
position. But in addition there are many cells within the body
in which phagocytic power is retained and markedly developed.
Such cells may be fixed or wandering cells. They are employed
for removing foreign material or debris which may occur within
a tissue. For instance, as the result of an injury, inflammatory
process, &c., cells and other structures of a tissue may be
destroyed. One of the processes of repair consists in the removal
of the resulting debris, which is effected by phagocytes. A
similar process is seen with red blood corpuscles which may have
escaped into a tissue through rupture of capillaries. Foreign
particles accidentally gaining admission to a tissue are in many
cases removed in a similar manner, e.g. soot particles which have
passed through the respiratory surface are then largely removed
by phagocytes and carried to the bronchial lymphatic glands.
Very commonly living organisms effect an entrance through
wound surfaces, the alimentary surface, &c., and one of the
processes employed for their destruction and removal is that of
phagocytosis.

As an illustration of the removal of foreign red blood corpuscles
we may take the experiments of Metchnikoff in which a small
drop of defibrinated blood of the goose was injected under
the skin of a snail. The corpuscles quickly spread through
the haemolymph of the snail, which by itself, however,
effects no change in them. At the end of several hours exami-
nation shows that the leucocytes of the snail have englobed a
large number of the red corpuscles. The following day intact
corpuscles can still be found in the haemolymph, but the major
number have already been devoured by the leucocytes. When
taken up by a phagocyte the red corpuscle becomes round and
its wall permeable. A vacuole is formed around the .corpuscle,
in which dissolved haemoglobin can be seen; a part of this
haemoglobin also passes into the nucleus of the red corpuscle,
proving that it too has been profoundly altered. Many of the
nuclei are discharged. After some time the only parts of the
corpuscle remaining are pieces of the nucleus and the peripheral
layer of the corpuscle. Frequently the phagocytes, after having
devoured one or several red corpuscles, themselves become a prey
to their fellows. Analogous changes are observed in the tissues
of a mammal when blood which has been extravasated is being
removed, e.g. after a bruise. The first effect of the haemorrhage
is an exudative inflammation, during which leucocytes arrive in
large numbers and engulf the corpuscles. In the process of
digestion which follows the haemoglobin is altered and new
pigments formed from it. In mammals this pigment is dark red
or brownish, in the pigeon it is green. Finally the corpuscles
are completely digested. Analogous phenomena may be observed

PHALANGER

343

in connexion with the removal of cell debris resulting from any
injury. Numbers of phagocytes may be found at work in this
direction, for instance in the pus formed within an aseptic
abscess. Hence we may regard the phagocytes as acting as the
scavengers of the tissues.

In the instances we have been dealing with the phagocytes
are chiefly of the class of wandering cells and are brought to the
seat of their activity by the blood. In examining any tissue
where the process is going on it is seen that the phagocytes have
accumulated there in large numbers. They have been attracted
to the damaged area. The mechanism which effects this attrac-
tion is a chemical one — chemiotaxis. At the seat of the change
chemical substances are produced which act upon the phagocytes,
causing them to migrate towards the source — positive chemio-
taxis. Apparently the material dissolving from cell debris can
act in this manner. Thus if a capillary tube filled with a tissue
extract be inserted under the skin of an animal, within a short
time it will be found to be surrounded with numbers of leuco-
cytes, which may also have encroached into the tube itself.
As in other instances of chemiotaxis the same chemical stimulus
in a higher concentration may repel the cells — negative chemio-
taxis. Instances of this are especially frequent in relation to
micro-organisms and phagocytes, to which we may now turn.

That phagocytes can paralyse, kill and digest many micro-
organisms is the main fact in Metchnikoff's theory of the nature
of immunity. The reaction may be readily studied by injecting
a small quantity of a fluid culture of some mildly pathogenic
organism into the peritoneal cavity of an animal, and in the course
of an hour or so examining a smear from the surface of the
omentum, when an abundance of phagocytes enclosing the organ-
ism in different stages of digestion will be found. Or we may
adopt Leishman's method, in which a few drops of human blood
are diluted with saline solution and centrifuged. The layer of
white corpuscles is pipetted off, suspended in serum, and a
minute drop of a suspension of a pathogenic organism is added.
The preparation is then incubated at 37° C. for a quarter of an
hour. Upon examining a drop of this mixture a number of
bacteria are found within the phagocytes. Thus this attack and
destruction of bacteria by phagocytes may take place within the
body or by cells removed from the body. Whether or no a
phagocyte can engulf bacteria is dependent upon a number of
factors — partly specific properties of the phagocyte, partly
factors varying with the constitution of the body serum. Thus
Wright and Douglas, employing Leishman's method, have proved
that leucocytes do not take up bacteria freely unless the serum
in which they are suspended contain opsonins. They found, for
example, that leucocytes taken from a patient suffering from a
pyococci infection if suspended in normal human serum take
up the cocci abundantly, whereas if the same leucocytes are
suspended under similar conditions in the patient's own serum
the reaction may be almost absent. Further, leucocytes taken
from a normal individual and suspended in the patient's serum
are practically inactive, while the same phagocytes in normal
serum are very active. Exactly how the substance in the serum
acts is undecided, but it has been proved that there are in serum
substances which become fixed to bacteria and which render them
an easier prey to the phagocytes. This specific opsonin is used up
when the bacteria are added to the serum, so that if the bacteria
are subsequently removed the serum is no longer active. There
is evidence too that there is a multiplicity of opsonins. As to the
origin of the opsonins we have no certain evidence. It is sug-
gested that they are a secretion from the leucocytes themselves
and that it is an evidence of another and preliminary mode of
attack possessed by the leucocyte, viz. the discharge of a secre-
tion from the cell which is to damage or paralyse the bacterium
and thus enable the phagocyte to engulf it.

The mechanism of destruction of a bacterium once it has been
taken up by a phagocyte is probably, just as in the instance of
dead cellular material, one of intracellular digestion. The
bacterium before being engulfed is probably inert in most
instances, though it may yet prove too strong for the phagocyte.
The next stage we can trace is the formation of a vacuole around

the organism, or, if the latter be large, around a part of the
organism, and the part thus surrounded quickly shows signs of
destruction. For instance, its staining reactions become weaker.
When a part only of the organism is surrounded by a vacuole
the part thus surrounded soon ceases to stain, while the remain-
ing part stains normally, and we thus have a marked contrast
evidencing the two stages.

In the next place we must ask which are the cells possessing
phagocytic powers ? Leaving apart the cells lining the alimentary
tract (because we know practically nothing of their power in this
respect) a number of free cells possess amoeboid properties as
well as also a number of fixed cells. These latter are attached to
certain spots of a tissue, but are capable of throwing out processes
which can seize upon particles of foreign matter or even upon
certain elements of the same organism. Of this category
Metchnikoff distinguishes the nerve cells, the large cells of the
spleen pulp and of lymph glands, certain endothelial cells, the
neuroglia cells, and perhaps certain cells of connective tissues.
All these elements can under certain conditions act as phago-
cytes, and with the exception of the nerve cells all are of meso-
blastic origin. Those of greater importance on account of their
greater activity in this respect are the large splenic and lymph
cells, the neuroglia cells and certain endothelial cells. With
regard to the wandering cells Metchnikoff considers that some are
certainly non-phagocytic, for instance the lymphocytes. Accord-
ing to Metchnikoff it is only when these cells become older and
have developed a nucleus rich in chromatin and an abundant cell
body that these cells develop phagocytic properties. This is
the large hyaline leucocyte. The polymorphonuclear and the
eosinophil leucocyte are both phagocytes. Metchnikoff there-
fore divides the phagocytes into two classes — the microphages,
comprising the polymorphonuclear and the eosinophil cell, and
the macrophages, containing the large hyaline cell, the cell of the
splenic pulp, the endothelial cell and the neuroglia cell. From
further observation of these cells he concludes that the micro-
phages are chiefly concerned in opposing the micro-organisms of
acute infections, whereas the macrophages are chiefly concerned
in combating chronic infections. It is the macrophage also
which is concerned in removing cell debris, e.g. red corpuscles
from a haemorrhage or the red corpuscles of another animal which
may have been introduced experimentally.

Metchnikoff and his co-workers have shown that the two
principal groups of leucocytes are generally spread throughout
the vertebrates. Thus instances of each kind are found even in
the lamprey, though here their staining properties are feebler;
also cells which show but small differences from the analogous
cells of mammals are found in the alligator. (T. G. BE.)

PHALANGER, a book-name applied to the more typical
representatives of the group of diprotodont marsupial mammals,
including the cuscuses of trie Moluccas and Celebes, and the so-
called opossums of Australia, and thus collectively the whole-
family Phalangeridae. (See MARSUPIALIA.)

Phalangers generally are small or medium-sized woolly-
coated marsupials, with long, powerful, and often prehensile
tails, large claws, and opposable nailless first hind toes. They
seem in the day to be dull and sleepy, but are alert at night.
They live mostly upon fruits, leaves and blossoms, although a few
feed habitually upon insects, and all relish, in confinement, an
occasional bird or other small animal. Several possess flying-
membranes stretched between their fore and hind limbs, by the
help of which they can make long and sustained leaps through
the air, like flying-squirrels; but the possession of these flying-
membranes does not seem to be any indication of special affinity,
the characters of the skull and teeth sharply dividing the flying
forms and uniting them with other species of the non-flying
groups. The skull (see fig. i) is, as a rule, broad and flattened,
with the posterior part swollen out laterally owing to the
numerous air-cells situated in the substance of the squamosal
bones. The dental formula is very variable, especially as regards
the premolars, of which some at least in each genus are reduced
to functionless rudiments, and may even vary in number on the
two sides of the jaw of the same individual. The incisors are

344

PHALANGER

always f, the lower one very large and inclined forwards, and
the canines normally }, of which the inferior is always minute,
and in one genus generally absent. The molars number either
f or f . All the species here discussed are included in the
sub-family Phalangerinae, of which the distinctive features, as
well as those of the family Phalangeridae, are referred to under
MARSUPIALIA.

The most generalized representatives of the group appear to be
the ring-tailed phalangers, constituting the genus Pseudochirus,
which is common to Australia, Tasmania and New Guinea, and

FIG. i. — Skull of Grey Cuscus (Phalanger orientalis).

includes at least half a score of species. The dentition is generally
»'. f, c. J, p.+m. $, but one upper incisor and the canine may be
wanting. The crowns of the molars show a crescentickStructure,
but they are said to retain the three primitive cusps, which are
fused in the other genera. The prehensile tail has its tip naked
for a short distance, and the whole of the terminal third and the
under surface of the remainder short-haired, the tip being generally
white. The hair is thick and woolly, and generally yellowish-olive
in colour. These phalangers are the ring-tailed opossums of the
Australians. From this genus is apparently derived the taguan
flying-squirrel, or flying-phalanger (Petauroides volans), which
ranges from Queensland to Victoria, and is the largest of the flying
group. Its dentition is essentially similar to that of Pseudochirus,
although there is one pair less of cheek-teeth, and the bushy tail is
naked and prehensile at the tip. Reverting to the non-flying species,
we have Gymnobelideus leadbeateri, a small animal from Victoria
representing a genus by itself, with the same dental formula as
Pseudochirus, but cheek-teeth of a different type, the ears naked
(instead of hairy) behind, glands on the chest and between the ears,
and the tail long and evenly bushy to the tip. From this are
evidently derived the flying-phaiangers — flying-squirrels — of the
genus Petaurus, which differ merely in the possession of a para-
chute, and are represented by several species, ranging from
Australia (exclusive of Tasmania) to the Aru Islands, New Guinea,
and New Ireland. Of the yellow-bellied species, P. australis,
the habits are described by J. Gould as follows: " This animal is
common in all the brushes of New South Wales, particularly those
which stretch along the coast from Port Philip to Moreton Bay.
In these vast forests trees of one kind or another are perpetually
flowering, and thus offer a never-failing supply of the blossoms
upon which it feeds; the flowers of the various kinds of gums, some
of which are of great magnitude, are the principal favourites. Like
the rest of the genus, it is nocturnal in its habits, dwelling in holes
and in the spouts of the larger branches during the day, and dis-
playing the greatest activity at night while running over the small
leafy branches, frequently even to their very extremities, in search of
insects and the honey of the newly opened blossoms. Its structure
being ill adapted for terrestrial habits, it seldom descends to the
ground except for the purpose of passing to a tree too distant to be
attained by springing from the one it wishes to leave. The tops of
the trees are traversed by this animal with as much ease as the
most level ground is by such as are destined for terra firma. If
chased or forced to flight it ascends to the highest branch and
performs the most enormous leaps, sweeping from tree to tree with
wonderful address; a slight elevation gives its body an impetus
which with the expansion of its membrane enables it to pass to a
considerable distance, always ascending a little at the extremity of
the leap; by this ascent the animal is prevented from receiving
the shock which it would otherwise sustain."

A second species, P. sciureus, in some ways one of the most
beautiful of all mammals, is shown in fig. 2.

A precisely similar relationship exists between the tiny feather-
tailed phalanger, Distoechurus pennatus, of New Guinea, and the
equally minute pigmy flying-phalanger or flying-mouse, Acrobates
pygmaeus, of Queensland, New South Wales and Victoria; both
being characterized by the hairs of the tail forming a vane on each
side, as well as by tufts of long hairs at the base of the thinly-

haired ears. There are six pairs of cheek-teeth, of which the last
three are small and rounded, with blunted cusps, while the anterior
teeth are sharp and of insectivorous type. The pigmy flying-
phalanger feeds on honey from flowers and insects.

To some extent intermediate in structure between Acrobates
and Petaurus, although without a parachute, are the beautiful little
dormouse-phalangers, as typified by Dromicia nana, which range
from Western Australia and Tasmania to New Guinea. They
appear to be a generalized type, which has died out where they have
come into competition with the more specialized forms. Although
unable to fly they are exceedingly active, and take long leaps from
bough to bough ; externally they are characterized by their dormouse-

FIG. 2. — Squirrel Flying-Phalanger (Petaurus sciureus).

like form, large, thin, and nearly naked ears, without tufts inside
or at the base, sharp and rudimentary front claws and long sharp
hind ones, and mouse-like tail, which is furry at the base, then
scaly, and naked and prehensile at the tip. There may be either
six or seven pairs of cheek-teeth, of which the hinder carry four
small smooth cusps, and the first upper incisor is much longer than
the other two. The striped phalangers (Dactylopstia) are larger
animals, of the approximate size of a squirrel, easily recognized by
the longitudinal yellow and black striping of the fur, and the slender
and elongated fourth front toe. The typical D. trivirgata is
common to north Australia and New Guinea, but D. palpator,
which has the fourth toe still more elongated, is exclusively Papuan.
They have seven pairs of cheek-teeth, of which the four last are
oblong and four-cusped ; and the first lower incisor is longer than in
any other phalanger. They apparently feed on both leaves and
grubs, probably extracting the latter from crannies with the elon-
gated toe. The tail is more or less bare on the under side of the
tip.

The last group of the sub-family is represented firstly by the
cuscuses, or cususes (Phalanger), which are arboreal animals of the
approximate size of cats, and range from the Solomon Islands
through New Guinea and the Moluccas to Celebes, being, in fact,
the only Old World marsupials found westwards of New Guinea.
Externally they are characterized by their thick woolly fur, short
or medium ears, which are hairy outside, and sometimes inside as
well, by the naked and striated soles of the feet, and the long and
markedly prehensile tail, of which the basal half is furred like the
body, and the terminal half entirely naked. The number of cheek-
teeth varies, owing to the frequent absence of some of the front
ones, but there are generally seven pairs, of which the last four carry
crescents internally and cusps externally. About ten species are
known, of which the grey cuscus (P. orientalis) of Amboyna and
Timor was discovered about 300 years ago, and was thus the first
known Old World marsupial. In the spotted cuscus (P. maculatus)
the males are marked with orange and white, while the females are
uniformly greyish. Cuscuses are sleepy animals, feeding mainly
on leaves, but also devouring birds and small mammals.

Nearly allied to the cuscuses are the typical Australian phalangers,
or opossums, forming the genus Trichosurus, They differ from
the cuscuses, among other features, by the thick and non-tapering
tail being covered with bushy hair up to the extreme tip, which is
naked, as is a narrow line along the middle of the terminal third

PHALANX— PHALTAN

345

(or rather more) of the lower surface, by the presence of a gland
on the chest, and by the soles of the hind feet being hairy. In the
skull the upper canine is separated from the outermost incisor,
instead of close to it as in the cuscuses (fig. l). The best-known
species is the brush-tailed phalanger, or brush-tailed opossum
(T. vulpecula'), of Australia, an animal of the size of a small fox,
represented in Tasmania by the brown phalanger (7". vulpecula
fuliginosus). The short-eared phalanger (T. canina) represents the
group in Southern Queensland and New South Wales. The dental
formula in both is i. f , c. J, *. |, m. f. These animals are wholly
arboreal and mainly nocturnal in their habits; and it is these which
form the chief game in " opossum-shooting " among the gum-trees
by moonlight.

The long-snouted phalanger is referred to under MARSUPIALIA.

(R. L.*)

PHALANX (Gr. <t>a\ay!;, of unknown origin), the name, in
Greek history of the arrangement of heavy-armed infantry in a
single close mass of spearmen (see ARMY: History). In anatomy,
the Latin plural phalanges is the term applied to the bones of
the finger and toe, and in botany to a group of united
stamen clusters. The term " phalanx " was adopted by
F. C. M. Fourier (q.v.) as the name of the socialistic community
living in a " phalanstery."

PHALARIS, tyrant of Acragas (Agrigentum) in Sicily, c. 570-
554 B.C. He was entrusted with the building of the temple
of Zeus Atabyrius in the citadel, and took advantage of his
position to make himself despot (Aristotle, Politics, v. 10).
Under his rule Agrigentum seems to have attained considerable
prosperity. He supplied the city with water, adorned it with
fine buildings, and strengthened it with walls. On the northern
coast of the island the people of Himera elected him general
with absolute power, in spite of the warnings of the poet
Stesichorus (Aristotle, Rhetoric, ii. 20). According to Suldas he
succeeded in making himself master of the whole of the island.
He was at last overthrown in a general rising headed by
Telemachus, the ancestor of Theron (tyrant c. 488-472), and
burned in his brazen bull.

After ages have held up Phalaris to infamy for his excessive
cruelty. In his brazen bull, invented, it is said, by Perillus of
Athens, the tyrant's victims were shut up and, a fire being kindled
beneath, were roasted alive, while their shrieks represented the
bellowing of the bull. Perillus himself is said to have been the first
victim. There is hardly room to doubt that we have here a tradition
of human sacrifice in connexion with the worship of the Phoenician
Baal (Zeus Atabyrius) such as prevailed at Rhodes; when misfortune
threatened Rhodes the brazen bulls in his temple bellowed. The
Rhodians brought this worship to Gela, which they founded con-
jointly with the Cretans, and from Gela it passed to Agrigentum.
Human sacrifices to Baal were common, and, though in Phoenicia
proper there is no proof that the victims were burned alive, the
Carthaginians had a brazen image of Baal, from whose down-
turned hands the children slid into a pit of fire; and the story that
Minos had a brazen man who pressed! people to his glowing breast
points to similar rites in Crete, where the child-devouring Minotaur
must certainly be connected with Baal and the favourite sacrifice
to him of children.

The story of the bull cannot be dismissed as pure invention.
Pindar (Pythia, i. 185), who lived less than a century afterwards,
expressly associates this instrument of torture with the name of
the tyrant. There was certainly a brazen bull at Agrigentum,
which was carried off by the Carthaginians to Carthage, whence
it was again taken by Scipio and restored to Agrigentum. In
later times the tradition prevailed that Phalaris_was a naturally
humane man and a patron of philosophy and literature. He is
so described in the declamations ascribed to Lucian, and in the
letters which bear his own name. Plutarch, too, though he takes
the unfavourable view, mentions that the Sicilians gave to _ the
severity of Phalaris the name of justice and a hatred of crime.
Phalaris may thus have been one of those men who combine justice
and even humanity with religious fanaticism (Sui'das, s.v. ; Diod. Sic.
ix. 20, 30, xiii. 90, xxxii. 25; Polybius vii. 7, xii. 25; Cicero, De
Officiis, ii. 7, iii. 6).

The letters bearing the name of Phalaris (148 in number) are
now chiefly remembered for the crushing exposure they received at
the hands of Richard Bentley in his controversy with the Hon.
Charles Boyle, who had published an edition of them in 160)5. The
first edition of Bentley's Dissertation on Phalaris appeared in 1697,
and the second edition, replying to the answer which Boyle published
in 1698, came out in 1699. From the mention in the letters of
towns (Phintia, Alaesa and Tauromenium) which did not exist in
the time of Phalaris, from the imitations of authors (Herodotus,
Democritus, Euripides, Callimachus) who wrote long after he was
dead, from the reference to tragedies, though tragedy was not yet
invented in the lifetime of Phalaris, from the dialect, which is not

Dorian but Attic, nay, New or Late Attic, as well as from absurdities
in the matter, and the entire absence of any reference to them by
any writer before Stobaeus (c. A.D. 500), Bentley sufficiently proved
that the letters were written by a sophist or rhetorician (possibly
Adrianus of Tyre, died c. A.D. 192) hundreds of years after the death
of Phalaris. Sui'das admired the letters, which he thought genuine,
and in modern times, before their exposure by Bentley, they were
thought highly of by some (e.g. Sir William Temple in his Essay on
Ancient and Modern learning), though others, as Politianus and
Erasmus, perceived that they were not by Phalaris. The latest
edition of the Epistles is by R. Hercher, in Epistolographi graeci
(1873), and of Bentley's Dissertation by W.Wagner (with introduction
and notes, 1883) ; see especially R. C. Jebb, Life of Bentley (1882).

PHALLICISM, or PHALLISM (from Gr. #aXX6s), an anthropo-
logical term applied to that form of nature worship in which
adoration is paid to the generative function symbob'zed by the
phallus, the male organ. It is common among primitive
peoples, especially in the East, and had been prominent also
among more advanced peoples, e.g. the Phoenicians and the
Greeks. In its most elementary form it is associated with
frankly orgiastic rites. This aspect remains in more advanced
forms, but gradually it tends to give place to the joyous recog-
nition of the principle of natural reproduction. In Greece for
example, where phallicism was the essence of the Dionysiac
worship and a phallic revel was the origin of comedy (see also
HERMES), the purely material and the symbolical aspects no
doubt existed side by side; the Orphic mysteries had to the
intellectual Greeks a significance wholly different from that which
they had to the common people. Phallic worship is specially
interesting as a form of sympathetic magic: observing the
fertilizing effect of sun and rain, the savage sought to promote
the growth of vegetation in the spring by means of symbolic
sexual indulgence. Such were the rites which shocked Jewish
writers in connexion with the worship of Baal and Astaroth
(see BAAL, and cf. ATARGATIS, ISHTAR). The same principle is
at the root of the widespread nature worship of Asia Minor, whose
chief deity, the Great Mother of the Gods (?.».), is the personifi-
cation of the earth's fertility: similarly in India worship is paid
to divine mothers. Generally it should be observed that phallic
worship is not specially or perhaps primarily paid to male deities,
though commonly the more important deity is accompanied by
a companion of the other sex, or is itself androgynous, the two
symbols being found together.

In the Dionysiac rites the emblem was carried at the head of
the processions and was immediately followed by a body of men
dressed as women (the ithy phalli). In Rome the phallus was
the most common amulet worn by children to avert the evil
eye: the Latin word was fascinum (cf. Pliny, Nat. Hist. xix. 50,
satyrica signa; Varro, Ling. Lot. vii. 97, ed. Miiller). Pollux
says that such emblems were placed by smiths before their
forges. Before the temple of Aphrodite at Hierapolis (q.v.)
were two huge phalli (180 ft. high), and other similar objects
existed in all parts of the ancient world both in statuary and in
painting. Among the Hindus (see HINDUISM) the phallus is
called linga or lingam, with the female counterpart called yoni',
the linga symbolizes the generative power of Siva, and is a charm
against sterility. The rites classed together as Sakti puja
represent the adoration of the female principle. In Mexico,
Central America, Peru and other parts of America phallic
emblems are found. The tendency, however, to identify all
obelisk-like stones and tree-trunks, together with rites like
circumcision, as remains of phallic worship, has met with much
criticism (e.g. Robertson Smith, Religion of the Semites, 2nd ed.,
pp. 456 sqq.).

For authorities see works quoted under RELIGION: §§ A and B
ad fin.

PHALTAN, a native state of India, in the central division of
Bombay, ranking as one of the Satara jagirs. Area, 397 sq. m.;
pop. (1901), 45,739, showing a decrease of 31% in the decade.
The estimated revenue is £13,000, and the tribute £640. The
chief, whose title is nimbalkar, is a Mahratta, tracing his descent
to a grantee from a Delhi emperor in the I4th century. The
town of Phaltan is 37 m. north-east of Satara; pop. (1901),
9512.

PHANARIOTES— PHARISEES

PHANARIOTES, a name derived from Phanar, the chief
Greek quarter at Stamboul, where the oecumenical patriarchate
is situated, and applied to those members of families resident
in the Phanar quarter who between the years 1711 and 1821
were appointed hospodars of the Danubian principalities; that
period of Moldo-Wallachian history is also usually termed the
Phanariote epoch. It is not to be understood as marking the
introduction into the principalities of the Greek element, which
had already established itself firmly in both provinces, to both of
which Greek princes had been appointed before the i8th century.
But whereas the Greek families of earlier introduction gradually
became merged in their country of adoption, the later immi-
grants retained their separate nationality and grew to be powerful
agents for furthering the spread of Graecism in the principalities.
The person raised to the princely dignity was usually the chief
dragoman of the Sublime Porte, and was consequently well
versed in contemporary politics and the statecraft of the Otto-
man government. The new prince, who was compelled to pur-
chase his elevation with a heavy bribe, proceeded to the country
which he was selected to govern, and of the language of which
he was in nearly every case totally ignorant, accompanied by a
horde of needy hangers-on; he and his acolytes counted on re-
couping themselves in as short a time as possible for their initial
outlay and in laying by a sufficiency to live on after the termina-
tion of the prince's brief authority. It was the interest of the
Porte to change the princes as often as possible, as the accession
donation thus became due more frequently. When, owing to the
numerous cases of treachery among the princes, the choice became
limited to a few families the plan was hit upon of frequently
shifting the prince from one province to the other: the prince of
Wallachia, the richer of the two principalities, was always ready
to pay a handsome douceur to avert his transfer to Yassy; the
prince of Moldavia was equally ready to bribe his supporters
at Constantinople to secure his appointment to Wallachia. To
raise funds to satisfy the rapacity of the Porte the princes became
past masters in the art of spoliation, and the inhabitants, liable
to every species of tax which the ingenuity of their Greek rulers
could devise, were reduced to the last stage of destitution. The
active part taken by the Greek princes in the revolt of 1820-21
induced the Porte to revert to the appointment of native
princes.

PHAN1AS, of Eresus in Lesbos, Greek philosopher, important
as an immediate follower of and commentator on Aristotle,
came to Athens about 332 B.C., and joined his compatriot,
Theophrastus, in the Peripatetic school. He wrote works entitled
Analytica, Categoriae and De inter pretatione, which were either
paraphrases or critical commentaries, and seem to have added
little to Aristotle's own writings. Alexander of Aphrodisias
refers to a work irpk AtoSupov, and Athenaeus quotes from
another treatise, Against (he Sophists. Outside philosophy, he
and Theophrastus carried on the physical investigations of
Aristotle; Athenaeus frequently quotes from a work on botany
which manifests great care in definitions and accuracy of obser-
vation. From Plutarch (Life of Themistocles) we learn that
he was regarded as an historian of importance. The chief of
his historical works is the Prylaneis Eresii, which was either a
history of his native place or a general history of Greece arranged
according to the period of the Eresian magistracy. He wrote
also works on the Tyrants of Sicily and on tyranny in general.
The value of these books is attested by the frequency with which
they are quoted on questions of chronology (e.g. by Plutarch,
Suidas, Athenaeus). To the history of Greek literature he
contributed works on the poets and on the Socratics, both of
which are quoted.

He must be distinguished from another Phanias, a Stoic philo-
sopher, disciple of Posidonius. Diogenes Laertius mentions a
work of his wherein he compares Posidonius with Panaetius in
arguing from physical principles.

PHANOCLES, Greek elegiac poet, probably flourished about
the time of Alexander the Great. His extant fragments show
resemblances in style and language to Philetas, Callimachus and
Hermesianax. , He was the author of a poem on paederasty.
A lengthy fragment in Stobaeus (Florilegium, 64) describes

the love of Orpheus for the youthful Calais, son of Boreas,
and his subsequent death at the hands of the Thracian
women. It is one of the best extant specimens of Greek elegiac
poetry.

See N. Bach, Philetae, Hermesianactis, et Phanoclis reliquiae (1829) ;
L. Preller, Ausgewdhlte Aufsdtze aus dem Gebiete der classiscken
Alterthumswissenschaft (1864).

PHANTASMAGORIA, a name invented by a certain Philipstal
in 1802 (from Gr. <tta.vTa.atia., phantasm, apparition; and afopa,
assembly) for a show or exhibition of optical illusions produced
by means of the projecting lantern (q.v.). The word has since
been applied to any rapidly or strikingly changing scene, and
especially to a disordered or fantastic scene or picture of the
imagination.

PHARAOH (Par'oh), the Hebraized title of the king of Egypt
(q.ii.), in Egyptian Per-'o; Pheron in Herodotus represents the
same. Its combination with the name of the king, as in Pharaoh-
Necho, Pharaoh-Hophra, is in accordance with contemporary
native usage: the name of the earlier Pharaoh Shishak (Sheshonk)
is rightly given without the title. In hieroglyphic a king bears
several names preceded by distinctive titles. In the IVth

Dynasty there might be four of the latter: (i) v\ identifying
him with the royal god Horus; the name is commonly written
in a frame ||||||||| representing the facade of a building,
perhaps a palace or tomb, on which the falcon stands. (2)
connecting him with the vulture and uraeus god-
desses, Nekhabi and Buto of the south and north,
a hawk oil the symbol of gold, signifying the victorious Horus.

(4)

the old titles of the rulers of the separate king-

doms of Upper and Lower Egypt, to be read stni, " butcher(?) "
and byti, " beekeeper(?) " The personal name of the king
followed (4), and was enclosed in a cartouche d> ap-
parently symbolizing the circuit of the sun which alone
bounded the king's rule. Before the IVth Dynasty the car-
touche is seldom found: the usual title is (i), and (3) does not
occur. In the Vth Dynasty the custom began of giving the
king at his accession a special name connecting him with the sun :
this was placed in the cartouche after (4), and a fifth title was

added: (5) 5r* Si-re, "son of the Sun-god," to precede

a cartouche containing the personal name. The king was briefly
spoken of by his title stni (see 4), or ftnm-f, "his service," or Ity,
" liege-lord." These titles were preserved in the sacred writing
down to the latest age. An old term for the royal palace
establishment and estate was Per-'o, " the Great House, " and
this gradually became the personal designation of Pharaoh
(cf. the Grand Porte), displacing all others in the popular
language. (F. LL. G.)

PHARI, a town of Tibet. It is supposed to be the highest and
coldest town in the world, being 15,00° ft. above the sea. As it
commands the road between the Chumbi Valley and Lhasa and
also one of the chief passes into Bhutan, Phari is of considerable
military importance, and is defended by a large fort or Jong,
which was occupied by the British expedition of 1904. Phari
Jong is supposed to have been built about 1500 A.D., and was
enlarged or rebuilt in 1792, under Chinese advice, as a defence
against the British. It has the appearance of a medieval castle,
and seems to have been built in imitation of the European
style.

PHARISEES, a sect of the Jews first mentioned by Josephus,
in his account (Ant. xiii. 5, 9) of the reign of Jonathan, the
brother and successor of Judas Maccabaeus. The name, which
may be translated " Separatists," indicates their devotion to
the ideal, enforced by Ezra and Nehemiah upon the reluctant
Jews, of a nation separate from all other nations in virtue of its

PHARMACOLOGY

347

peculiar relation to Yahweh (Neh. ix.). This ideal nation
consisted of all who were prepared to obey the Law of
Moses, irrespective of their natural descent. Consequently the
Pharisees, who seem to have been an order of religious teachers,
were concerned to make converts (proselytes), and some of their
greatest teachers were of non-Jewish parentage. They were
also concerned to insist upon the strict observance of the Law,
so far as it was compatible with the exigencies of ordinary life,
and to train disciples who should set a proper example to the
mass of the people.

The ideal of separation descended from the Great Synagogue
(Assembly) of the time of Ezra to the Synagogue of the $asi-
daeans (Assidaeons), who allied themselves with Judas Macca-
baeus when his followers decided to suspend the law of the
Sabbath, in order that the true Jews might preserve themselves
from annihilation and survive to keep the Law as a whole. This
action of the Hasidaeans is clearly the practical outccme of the
principle which Josephus describes in the language of philosophy
as the characteristic of the Pharisees — " some things and not all
are the work of Fate " (Ant. xiii. 5, 9). Fate is the Stoic term
for God; and these forerunners of the Pharisees judged that the
time had come for them to take action rather than to wait
passively on God. But then and always the prime concern of the
Pharisees was the extension of God's sovereignty (the Kingdom
of God) throughout the world. God's will, which all men should
obey, was revealed in the Law, and though He might appoint
governors over them, He remained their King, and no governor
who was not a prophet — God's mere mouthpiece — could com-
mand their unquestioning obedience. When Judas reconquered
Jerusalem and re-dedicated the desecrated Temple, his work,
from the Pharisees' point of view, was done. The Temple-
worship was part and parcel of the Divine plan, and a legitimate
High Priest was necessary. Alanius was, therefore, welcomed
by the Hasidaeans, and only his treacherous murder of sixty of
their number taught them that any Syrian nominee was their
enemy. Later they acquiesced in the election of Simon to the
high-priesthood with the condition " until there should arise a
faithful prophet "; but some of them remonstrated against the
combination of the sacred office with the position of political
ruler in the person of John Hyrcanus as contrary to the precedent
set by Moses at his death. When Alexandra came to the throne
the Pharisees were the real rulers and imposed upon the people
the deductions from the written Law which formed the growing
body of their oral tradition. Their reign was long enough to
establish this tradition in respect of ritual, and even when this
golden age — as it seemed to later Scribes — was over they
exercised a paramount influence upon the common people.
They had learned to read God's will in the events of history, and
deduced (for example) the doctrine of the resurrection of the
dead from the death of the martyrs under Antiochus Epiphanes
and Alcimus. And what they learned from current history and
from the ancient history of the nation recorded in Scripture they
taught in the synagogues, which corresponded not merely to the
parish churches but also to the schools — day schools and Sunday
schools — of to-day. Apart from their control of public education,
their power was enhanced by their efforts to better the position
of women, and by their notorious leniency in the matter of
punishments. Everything — the repeated statements of Josephus
and the facts of Jewish history after A.D. 70 — goes to show that
the Pharisees moulded the religion of the people. Attempts
have been made in modern times to represent the Apocalyptists
as opposed to the Pharisees and as occupying the position in
popular estimation which Josephus ascribes to the Pharisees. But
for such representations there is no solid ground. Superficially
the language of apocalypses differs from that of rabbinic deci-
sions., and where the seer takes a comprehensive view of the ages
the rabbi legislates for particular cases. But even in the Talmud
the reign of Alexandra is described in apocalyptic language such
as is commonly applied to the future age, and if allowance be
made for the symbolism proper to revelations it is clear that
essentially the scribe and the seer have the same purpose and
even the same doctrines. The Pharisees were occupied with the

piecemeal realization of the dreams of their supposed opponents,
which gain a vague glory from their being far off.

The gospels generally have left upon the minds of men an
impression unfavourable to the Pharisees. They contain de-
nunciations attributed to our Lord and assigned — with obvious
injustice in some cases — to the scribes of this sect. It is to be
remembered that the Pharisees were the only sect of the Jews
who survived in Christian times and that the Pharisees were
never a homogeneous body possessed of a definite policy or body
of doctrine. Moreover it is clear that our Lord denounced no't
all the Pharisees but the hypocrites only, as did the rabbis
whose sayings are reported in the Talmud and other Jewish
books. Again the third gospel in particular betrays relations
between the Pharisees and Jesus very different from those of the
common Christian view, which conjures up an impossible picture
of an absolute breach between the Prophet of Nazareth and
the whole corporation of the Pharisees as a result of a quarrel
with certain members of that dissident sect of independent
thinkers. Gamaliel and his pupil St Paul nre better representa-
tives of the non-hypocritical Pharisee; and the Pauline Epistles
or the writings of Philo are the best extant examples of the manner
and matter of their teaching. As for the denunciations, apart
from the charge of insincerity, it appears that the scribes in
question are pilloried for the defects — or the excesses — of their
qualities. Indeed they are corroborative evidence for the
reverence with which the Pharisees were regarded by the
people generally, and for the zeal with which they strove to
fulfil God's will as contained in the Law and elucidated by the
Tradition. (J. H. A. H.)

PHARMACOLOGY. Systematic writers on the subject differ
considerably in the exact meaning which they attach to the term
pharmacology ((ftapnaKov, a drug; Xo^os, a discourse), some
making it much more comprehensive than others. Binz, for
instance, defines it as treating of the origin, nature, chemical
and physical qualities, physiological actions, and therapeutical
uses of drugs; in France and in Italy it is restricted to the mere
description of medicines and their preparations, the action and
uses of which as remedies are included in the term therapeutics.
In English-speaking countries, and by the majority of German
writers, the meaning is now restricted to the study of the action
of chemical substances (as apart from foods) on all kinds of
animals, from bacteria up to man; it is, in fact, a comparative
study of the action of chemical bodies on invertebrate and verte-
brate animals. One of its practical aims is to obtain a wide and
accurate knowledge of remedial substances in relation to their
application in the treatment of disease, while another is to
discover new or improved remedies. This meaning of the word
has now become fixed in the English language by use and wont.
The term pharmaco-dynamics (<i>apfia.Koi>, dvvafus, power),
which is etymologically more correct, is often used as its equiva-
lent, but it has never become widely adopted. The study of
pharmacological actions was at first almost entirely confined
to those of remedial agents, and especially to the remedies in the
different national pharmacopoeias, but in many cases it has now
been extended to substances which are not used for curative
purposes. The introduction into practical use of many medi-
cines, such as paraldehyde, phenazone and strophanthus, has
followed the study of their actions on animals, and this tends
to be more and more the case. Pharmacology is a branch of
biology; it is also closely connected with pathology and bacteri-
ology, for certain drugs produce structural as well as functional
changes in the tissues, and in germ diseases the peculiar symptoms
are caused by foreign substances (toxins) formed by the infective
organisms present in the body. The effects of many of these
toxins bear a close resemblance to the action of certain well-
known drugs, as in the case of tetanus toxin and strychnine, and
are studied by the same methods of observation and research.
It is impossible also to dissociate pharmacology from clinical
therapeutics; the former investigates the agents which are used
in the treatment of disease, the latter is concerned with their
remedial powers and the conditions under which they are to
be used. Hence the word " pharmaco-therapy " has come into

PHARMACOLOGY

use, and most of the newer standard textbooks combine together
the consideration of pharmacology and therapeutics. Pharma-
cology is also related to toxicology, as many remedial and other
agents are more or less poisonous when given in large doses, but
it does not include the detection, tests, and the other strictly
medico-legal aspects of poisoning.

Pharmacology proper began as the result of the application
of strictly experimental methods to physiology. The discovery
Histo (early in the ipth century) that plants owe their
remedial and poisonous qualities to small quantities of
definite active principles, such as alkaloids and neutral bodies,
which can be extracted in a chemically pure condition, had also a
very important effect on its development. We meet first with
experiments made by investigators who perceived that observa-
tions on man and animals might lead to a better understanding
of the action of drugs. In 1676 Wepfer and Conrad Brunner
demonstrated on dogs the tetanizing action of nux vomica, and
similar rough experiments were repeated from time to time with
other substances by later investigators. In 1755 Menghini
published an elaborate study of the action of camphor on a great
variety of different kinds of animals. Albert von Haller (b.
1708) sought to elucidate the action of remedies by observations
on healthy men, and in 1767 William Alexander made experi-
ments on himself with drugs, which were, however, brought to
an abrupt termination by his nearly killing himself. In 1776
Daries, by observations on himself and on cats, established the
mydriatic action of belladonna and other atropaceous plants.
Hitherto no attempt had been made to determine what particular
parts of the body were especially affected by drugs, but Fontana
showed, in his great work (Florence, 1765) on the venom of the
viper and on other poisons, that the general symptoms were
brought about by an action on particular organs. He performed
more than six thousand experiments, more than four thousand
of which were on animals, and he determined the effects on the
heart and other important structures. These analytical methods
of research were well known to the second Monro in Edinburgh,
and to his pupils, one of whom, William Alexander, wrote a thesis
in 1790 entitled " De partibus corporis animalis quae viribus
opii parent." His methods were doubtless known also to the
French physiologist Magendie, who improved upon them, and
who in 1809 published a research on the Upas Tieute and other
strychnine-containing plants, in which he showed that their
effects were due to an action on the spinal cord. The researches
of his pupil, Claude Bernard, on curare, were equally exact and
logical, and have served as the model for many subsequent
investigations. In consequence, from the time of Magendie
pharmacology may be said to have been put on a more exact basis.
By the middle of the i9th century there were many workers on
the subject, and the actions of such drugs as digitalis, morphine,
alcohol, and many others had been frequently and minutely
investigated. About this time Buchheim, professor of materia
medica in Dorpat from 1846 to 1879, founded the first pharmaco-
logical laboratory on modern lines in Europe, and he introduced
a more rational classification of drugs than had hitherto been in
use, arranging them in groups according to their pharmaco-
logical actions. In the herbals and older treatises on materia
medica and therapeutics no explanation is usually offered of the
action of medicines, and in such works as that of Cullen (1789)
only a few of the more obvious actions are occasionally explained
according to the current theories of physiology and pathology.
In works such as Pareira's Elements of Materia Medica and Thera-
peutics (1842), the physiological effects of medicines are usually
described, but very briefly as compared with the materia medica.
At the present day most textbooks dealing with medicinal agents
and treatment devote a large part of their space to pharma-
cology, and a corresponding change has taken place in the
teaching of the subject in universities and medical schools.
Since Magendie's time numerous papers dealing with pharmaco-
logical subjects have appeared in the Journal of Anatomy and
Physiology, the Journal of Physiology, Virchow's Archiv, and the
principal medical periodicals of all countries. In 1873 the Archiv
fiir experimentelle Pathologic und Pharmakologie first appeared,

in 1895 the Archives Internationales de Pharmakodynamie, and
in 1909 The Journal of Pharmacology and Therapeutics (pub-
lished at Baltimore, U.S.A.), all of which are chiefly or entirely
devoted to pharmacology.

The methods of research are essentially those employed by
physiologists, the action of substances being studied in the usual
way on bacteria, leucocytes, frogs, rabbits and other animals.
Not only are the general symptoms investigated, but it is neces-
sary to carry out experiments on the nerves, muscles, circulation,
secretions, &c., so as to get a more exact knowledge of the
reasons of the general action. It is true that many of these
animals react somewhat differently to drugs, both as regards each
other and as regards man, but for the most part the differences
are quantitative rather than qualitative. After carrying out a
series of observations on animals, the drug can be assigned to its
special group, and a good idea can be obtained of its possible
practical value or the reverse; hence there is a saving of time and
an avoidance of the necessity of testing its effects on man. The
action of a drug may be called direct when it acts on any part
to which it is immediately applied, or which it may
reach through the blood; and indirect when one organ
is affected secondarily to another, as, for instance, in
strychnine poisoning when the muscles are violently contracted
as the result of the action of the alkaloid upon the spinal cord.
In a few cases the action is merely physical, but most frequently
it is chemical in its nature, and is exerted on the living cell, the
activity of which is either stimulated or depressed. In some
cases the substances actually enter into a chemical combination
with the protoplasm, which may be temporary or (much less
frequently) permanent; in other cases they seem simply to
modify or disturb the usual chemical activity of the cells. Pro-
longed or excessive stimulation invariably leads to depression
or paralysis, the tissues becoming fatigued, and from this con-
dition they may recover or they may not. When we come to
consider more in detail the results of these actions we find that
the various secretions of the body, such as the sweat, gastric
juice, bile, milk, urine, &c., may be increased or diminished;
that the heart may have its muscular or nervous apparatus
stimulated or depressed; that the nerve-centres in the brain,
medulla and spinal cord may be rendered more sensitive or the
reverse; and that the general metabolism of the body may be
altered in various ways. In addition, the fluid constituents,
such as the lymph and blood, may have their composition and
bulk considerably altered, while the special senses, the tempera-
ture, and, in short, every function and tissue, may be more or
less affected.

Some drugs given in excess are poisons to all forms of proto-
plasm, but when given in doses much short of the lethal they
usually exhibit a distinct tendency to affect specially, and at an
early period, certain organs or tissues, and hence result differences
in action; others may act only on certain organs, leaving the others
practically untouched. It is often possible by appropriate dosage
to contrive that these special parts or organs may be affected
and the rest of the body left practically intact, and it is by
taking advantage of these selective actions that remedial or
therapeutical effects are usually obtained. Some substances
have a very wide range of action, and involve a great variety of
structures, while others, such as purgatives, have a very limited
sphere. The action of drugs is often modified by circumstances
peculiar to the individuals or animals to whom they are ad-
ministered. In man the most important of these circumstances
is age, but speaking broadly this is really a question of bulk, the
child being affected like the adult, but by smaller doses. There
are exceptions to this, however, as children are more affected
in proportion by opium and some other substances, and less by
mercury and arsenic. In old age also the nervous system and
the tissues generally do not react so readily as in youth. Habit,
race, personal temperament, emotional conditions, disease, the
time and circumstances of administration, and other accidental
causes may also modify the action in man. Some species of
animals are much more susceptible to the action of certain
drugs than others, a condition which depends on obvious

PHARMACOLOGY

349

or unknown structural or metabolic differences. In the same
way some individuals show a special tendency to poisoning by
doses of certain drugs which are harmless to the great majority
of mankind, and hence we get unexpected or unusual results,
these arising from special susceptibility on the part of certain
organs. These idiosyncrasies are not confined to drugs, but are
seen with a few articles of food, such as eggs and shellfish. It
is well known that the habitual consumption of certain drugs,
such as tobacco, Indian hemp, opium, arsenic, alcohol and
many others, gradually induces a condition of tolerance to their
effects, so that large doses can be taken without causing symp-
toms of poisoning. In all cases, however, there is a limit, and
after it is reached the ordinary effects of these substances are
seen. Some individuals, however, never become tolerant, and
show poisonous effects on each repetition of the dose. The
degree of tolerance often differs in individuals at different
times and in different circumstances, and may become lost by
breaking off the habit for a short time. The explanation
generally given is that the nerve and other cells become
accustomed to the drug, so that they cease to react, or that an
antitoxin is formed which antagonizes the poison, or that the
poison is rapidly destroyed in the body. Recent researches
on arsenic and atropine, however, point to the leucocytes as
playing an important part in the production of tolerance, as
these gradually become capable of ingesting large amounts of
the foreign substances, and thus render them more or less
harmless to the tissues, until they are gradually excreted from
the body. When the amount is too large to be dealt with
by the leucocytes, poisoning seems to occur even in the most
habituated. Tolerance is therefore analogous to, but not
identical with, the immunity which takes place with the toxins
of infectious diseases and snake poison. Certain substances,
notably digitalis, lead, mercury and strychnine, exhibit what is
called a cumulative action — that is to say, when small quanti-
ties have been taken over a period of time, poisoning or an
excessive action suddenly ensues. The explanation in these
cases is that the drug is absorbed more rapidly than it is
excreted, hence there is a tendency to accumulation in the
body until a point is reached when the amount becomes
poisonous.

Bodies which have a close resemblance in their chemical con-
stitution exhibit a similar resemblance in their pharmacological
action, and as the constitution of the substance becomes modified
chemically so does its action pharmacologically. Numerous
researches have demonstrated these points with regard to
individual groups of substances, but hitherto it has not been
possible to formulate any fixed laws regarding the relationship
between chemical constitution and physiological action.

When drugs are swallowed no absorption may take place
from the alimentary canal; but, as a rule, they pass from there
into the blood. Absorption may also take place from the skin,
from the rectum, from the respiratory passages, or from wounds,
and from direct injection into the subcutaneous tissue or into a
blood vessel. Very rarely, as in the case of silver salts, excre-
tion does not take place; but usually the drug is got rid of by
the ordinary channels of elimination. Just as drugs act upon
the tissues, so they themselves are in many cases reacted upon,
and broken up or altered. While in the alimentary canal they
are subjected to the action of the digestive fluids and the varied
contents of the stomach and intestines, and after absorption
they come under the influence of the constituents of the blood
and lymph, and of the chemical action of the tissue cells. In-
organic bodies, such as metals, may enter into albuminous
combinations which may greatly modify their effects, and
organic substances may be split up into simpler compounds by
oxidation or reduction, or may be rendered more complex by
synthesis.

The antagonism between certain drugs has been much
studied in relation to their use as antidotes in poisoning, the aim
being to counteract the effects rather than to obtain a direct
physiological antagonistic action. Substances which directly
antagonize each other by acting on the same tissue are few in

*

number, but there are numerous instances in which the effects or
symptoms may be obviated by acting on another tissue. Thus
curare may stop strychnine convulsions by paralysing the
terminations of motor nerves, and chloroform may exercise the
same effect by abolishing the irritability of the spinal cord. If
two poisons act on the same tissue, one stimulating and the
other paralysing it, the paralysing substance removes the
action of the stimulant substance, not by bringing the tissue
back to its normal state, but by abolishing its excitability;
hence, although life may be saved by such an action, yet it
can only be so within certain limits of dosage, because the
antagonism is never complete at every point.

Speaking in the widest sense, every substance has an action
on living protoplasm, but for convenience pharmacological
substances have come to be limited to those which are used
as drugs, or which have a distinct action upon the animal
organism. Such substances are derived from (i) the chemical
elements and their compounds; (2) plants; and (3) animals.
The first class includes such substances as iodine, mercury, iron,
carbon, and their various compounds, and such bodies as
alcohol, chloroform and chloral, all of which are found in
nature or can be prepared by ordinary chemical processes of
manufacture. From plants many substances are obtained which
at the present time we are unable to make in the chemical
laboratory, and of the constitution or composition of which
we are in many cases ignorant. Some of these, such as resins,
gums, essential oils and fats, are readily obtained as natural
exudations or by very simple manipulations, while others, such
as the alkaloids, glucosides and vegetable acids, often require
to be extracted by very complex processes. Substances ob-
tained from animals include gland secretions, pepsin and other
ferments, musk, cod-liver oil, &c., and to these may be added
various antitoxins. The classification of substances having
pharmacological actions presents so many difficul-
ties that no satisfactory or universally adopted
method has yet been proposed. Our knowledge
presents so many gaps, and the mode of action of many remedies
is so obscure and imperfectly understood, that any arrange-
ment adopted must be more or less tentative in character. The
close alliance between pharmacology, therapeutics and clinical
medicine has induced many authors to treat the subject from
a clinical point of view, while its relationships to chemistry and
physiology have been utilized to elaborate a chemical and
physiological classification respectively as the basis for system-
atic description. Certain writers in despair have adopted an
alphabetical arrangement of the subject, while others have
divided it up into inorganic, vegetable and animal substances.
These last-mentioned methods are far behind our present state
of knowledge, and need not be discussed here. The objection
to a strictly chemical classification is, that while many sub-
stances closely allied chemically have a somewhat similar action
in certain respects, yet in others they differ very widely — a
striking example of which is given in the case of sodium and
potassium. A physiological classification according to an action
on the brain, heart, kidney or other important organ becomes
still more bewildering, as many substances produce the same
effects by different agencies, as, for instance, the kidneys may
be acted upon directly or through the circulation, while the heart
may be affected either through its muscular substance or its
nervous apparatus. A clinical or therapeutical classification
into such divisions as anaesthetics, expectorants, bitters, and
so on, according to their practical applications, also leads to
difficulties, as many drugs are employed for numerous purposes.
The ideal method of grouping pharmacological substances
would be in reference to their chemical action on living proto-
plasm, but as yet our knowledge is too scanty for this. At
the present time the method adopted by Buchheim, or some
modification of it, is the most scientific. As the result of
painstaking investigations he grouped together all those sub-
stances having similar actions, giving to each group the name of its
best-known or most thoroughly investigated member. Once the
groups were more or less fixed any new substance could, when

350

PHARMACOLOGY

its action was determined, be referred to its own group, and
thus be placed or classified. As few substances are absolutely
identical in action, but only broadly similar, it is often difficult
to divide sharply one group from another. In a resumt it is
manifestly impossible to pass in review every pharmacological
substance, and we shall therefore confine ourselves to those
groups which are of practical importance. Many individual
drugs are described under their own headings.

GROUP I. Acids. — This includes sulphuric, hydrochloric, nitric,
phosphoric, tartaric, citric, acetic and lactic acids, all of which owe
their action to their acidity. Many of the other acids, such as
carbolic and salicylic, have specific effects which have no relationship
to their acid reaction. The concentrated acids have an intense
local action, varying from complete destruction of the tissues to
more or less irritation. When considerably diluted they are only
slightly irritating; externally applied and in the stomach they have
an antiseptic action; they increase the secretion of saliva, and thus
assuage thirst. In the intestine they combine with ammonia and
other alkalis present, and are absorbed into the blood as neutral
salts, being excreted chiefly in the urine. In small doses they some-
what increase general metabolism. • Boric acid only belongs partially
to this group, as it and its compound borax have certain specific
actions in addition.

GROUP II. Alkalis. — This includes caustic potash, caustic soda,
solution of ammonia, their carbonates and bicarbonates, borax,
soaps, lithium carbonate and citrate, quicklime, slaked lime, chalk,
magnesia and magnesium carbonate. All these substances, apart
from any other actions, exert a similar effect upon the body in
virtue of their alkalinity. When they are taken internally in small
amounts they neutralize the acids in the stomach and other parts of
the alimentary canal, and at the same time they increase the normal
acid secretion of the stomach. After absorption into the blood,
which they make somewhat more alkaline, they are excreted chiefly
in the urine, to which they impart an alkaline reaction if given in
sufficient quantity. Some of them by stimulating the kidney
cells act as diuretics, but others apparently lack this action. Caustic
potash and caustic soda are locally very irritating, and destroy the
tissues, but lose this quality when combined with acids as in the case
of their carbonates, bicarbonates and borax. Quicklime is also
caustic, but magnesia is bland and unirritating. Weak solutions
applied locally saponify fats, soften the epidermis, and thus act as
slight stimulants and cleansers of the skin. Calcium salts form
insoluble soaps with fats, and combine with albumen in a manner
which makes them soothing and astringent rather than irritating.
Apart from alkaline effects, these metals differ considerably
pharmacologically. Potassium and lithium have a depressing
action upon the nervous system, ammonium salts have a stimulating
action, while sodium practically speaking is indifferent. Calcium
and magnesium have actions somewhat similar to that of potassium.
Most of these substances are normal constituents of the body,
and indispensable for healthy existence. They are contained in
sufficient amount in our ordinary dietary to supply the needs of
the organism.

GROUP III. Easily absorbed Salts. — Sodium chloride may be
taken as the type of those salts which diffuse readily, and are
therefore easily absorbed. Sodium nitrate, potassium nitrate,
potassium chloride, ammonium chloride, the alkaline iodides and
bromides, also belong partly to this group, although most of them
have also specific actions. Locally they cause considerable irritation,
and when swallowed in concentrated solution may cause vomiting.
From the stomach and intestines they are rapidly absorbed, and
rapidly excreted from the blood, increasing all secretions and the
general metabolism. These effects are apparently due to their
irritating action upon individual cells.

GROUP IV. Salts absorbed with difficulty. — This group includes
the sulphates of sodium, potassium and magnesium, the acetate
and tartrate of potash, citrate of magnesium, sodium phosphate,
sodium tartrate and similar salts. Locally their action is slight,
but when taken internally, dissolved in water, they are not absorbed
from the alimentary canal except in very limited amount. They
therefore remain for the most part in the intestine, and as they
attract and retain large quantities of water, and at the same time
slightly stimulate the mucous membrane, they come to have a
purgative action and form the well-known group of saline cathartics.
The small portion which is absorbed exerts a diuretic action.

GROUP V. Heavy Metals. — These include iron, manganese,
aluminium, chromium, zinc, copper, silver, gold, platinum, lead,
mercury, and probably antimony, arsenic and bismuth. Although
some of these differ very greatly in their actions after absorption,
still locally they have certain effects in common due chiefly to their
chemical action on albumen. Their soluble salts combine with
albumen and preserve it, strong solutions being extremely irritant
or caustic, while weaker ones are astringent simply, or even soothing.
They are all antiseptics. Their insoluble compounds are much
less active locally than the soluble, and in many cases are only
effective to the extent to which they are dissolved by the secretions.
Some metals are only absorbed from the alimentary canal to such

a very limited amount that they exert no general action, while others
readily pass into the blood and give rise to more or less marked
effects. All of them injected into the blood in large doses act as
muscle and nerve poisons, and during their excretion by the kidney
usually irritate it severely, but only a few are absorbed in sufficient
amount to produce similar effects when given by the mouth. When
iron is injected directly into a vein it depresses the heart's action,
the blood pressure and the nervous system, and during its excretion
greatly irritates the bowel and the kidneys. When taken by the
mouth, however, no such actions are seen, owing to the fact that
very minute quantities are absorbed and that these become stored
in the liver, where they are converted into organic compounds and
ultimately go to form haemoglobin. Soluble salts of manganese,
aluminium, zinc, copper, gold, platinum and bismuth have, when
given by the mouth, little action beyond their local astringent or
irritating effects; but when injected into a blood vessel they all exert
much the same depressing effect upon the heart and nervous system.
Silver resembles them closely, but differs by the circumstance that
it is deposited permanently in minute granules in the tissues, and,
without affecting the general health, stains the skin of a bluish
colour (argyria). Mercury and lead are absorbed from the bowel
in considerable quantities, and are capable of inducing acute
irritant poisoning as well as chronic poisoning. Lead poisons the
muscular and nervous systems, and gives rise to paralysis, wasting,
colic and other symptoms, while in the case of mercury, tremors,
salivation, anaemia and very marked cachexia are induced.
Arsenic and antimony do not form combinations with albumen,
but they both greatly depress the central nervous system and
circulation; and, if their action be long continued in large doses,
they cause fatty degeneration of the viscera and disappearance
of glycogen from the liver. Locally they are both very irritating,
and antimony has a special tendency to cause vomiting.

GROUP VI. Halogens. — This group includes iodine, bromine and
chlorine, in their free state or as compounds. Locally they are
all three strongly irritant or caustic, owing to their chemical action
on albumen. They are in addition powerful germicides, and by
splitting up water may act as oxidizing agents. Owing to their
strong affinity for the hydrogen of organic compounds they often
act as bleachers and deodorizers. Iodine has a special interest, as
it is a necessary constituent of food, and is present in the secretion
of the thyroid gland. Apart from certain conditions of ill health,
the iodides, as such, have no yery marked influence on the healthy
body beyond their saline action. Alkaline bromides, in addition
to their saline action, have in sufficient doses a depressing effect
upon the central nervous system, and less markedly upon the
heart. Chlorine compounds are not known to exercise any action
of a similar kind.

GROUP VII. Sulphur. — Sulphur itse|f has no action, but when
brought into contact with the secretions it forms sulphides, sulphites
and sulphuretted hydrogen, and thereby becomes more or less irritant
and antiseptic. In the bowel its conversion into sulphides causes it
to act as a mild laxative. Baths containing sulphuretted hydrogen
or alkaline sulphides have a slightly irritating effect upon the skin,
and stimulate the general metabolism.

GROUP VIII. Phosphorus. — This includes phosphides, and,
according to some authorities, hypophosphites. Phosphorus is
present in all cells, in considerable quantity in the nervous tissue,
and in the bones as phosphates. It is therefore, in some form or
other, a necessary part of dietary. When taken by the mouth
phosphorus is an irritant poison in large doses; in small doses the
only effects noticeable consist in an increased formation of bony
and connective tissue, although it is also supposed to exert a gently
stimulating effect upon the nervous system.

GROUP IX. Oxygen. — When pure oxygen is inhaled the only
effect is a slight increase of the amount of the gas in the blood, but
this has no particular physiological effect. The pharmacological
action of hydrogen peroxide (HjOs), potassium permanganate,
powdered charcoal and some other oxidizing agents depends on the
readiness with which they give up oxygen.

GROUP X. Carbonic Acid. — Carbonic acid gas, carbonic oxide
(CO) and some other irrespirable gases produce their effects practi-
cally by asphyxiation. When dissolved in water, however, carbonic
acid gas is a gentle stimulant to the mouth, stomach and bowel,
the mixture being absorbed more rapidly than plain water; hence
its greater value in assuaging thirst. Nitrous oxide (laughing gas)
was at one time believed to act simply by cutting off the supply of
oxygen to the tissues, but it also has a specific effect in producing
paralysis of certain parts of the central nervous system, and hence
its value as an anaesthetic; when given in small amounts mixed
with air it produces a condition of exhilaration.

GROUP XI. Water. — Water acts directly as a diluent and solvent.
It therefore increases all the secretions, especially those of the skin
and kidneys, while it also stimulates the general metabolism of the
body and the excretion of nitrogenous products. Mineral waters
act in the same way, but their effects are very much modified by, and
depend largely upon, other constituents, such as alkaline salts,
iron, arsenic, sulphides, carbonic acid, &c.

GROUP XII. Tannic Acid. — Tannic acid is present in small
quantities in the great majority of plants, but in notable quantity in
gall-nuts, oak bark, bearberry leaves, rhatany root, catechu, kino,

PHARMACOLOGY

red gum, bael fruit, logwood and witch hazel, all of which are
largely used as medicines. In these the variety of tannic acid is
not exactly the same, but although there are slight chemical differ-
ences, they all possess the power of tanning raw hides and of pre-
serving albuminous tissues. The action of tannic acid is strictly
local, and depends upon its power of precipitating albumen and of
destroying germs. It thus acts as an astringent on all mucous
membranes. After absorption into the blood it loses this effect,
as it is partly broken up into gallic acid and partly combined with
alkalis, both of which changes nullify its action upon albumen.

GROUP XIII. Local Irritants. — Although some of the drugs
already considered have a local irritant action, they produce other
more important effects, but the substances here ranged under this
heading depend entirely for their action on their local irritant
effects.

a. Those which act upon the alimentary canal: Simple bitters
such as quassia wood, columbo root, taraxacum, gentian, chiretta,
and many others, irritate gently the mucous membrane of the
stomach and bowels, and by increasing the secretions improve
the appetite and digestion. The aromatic bitters such as chamo-
mile flowers, cascarilla bark, hops, orange peel and others contain
in addition small quantities of essential oils which increase their
local action. The active principles in some of these bitters have
been isolated pure, and have been found to be alkaloids or neutral
compounds. Substances like pepper, cayenne pepper, mustard,
horse-radish and ginger irritate the stomach and bowel much in
the same way, but are more pungent, and are consequently used as
condiments. Some of these have a similar but less marked effect
upon the skin. The large number of vegetable substances used as
purgatives owe their action to an irritating effect upon the mucous
membrane and the neuro-muscular apparatus of the bowel, whereby
the secretions and peristalsis are more or less increased, as the result
of which diarrhoea ensues. Some of them cause so much irritation
that the discharge is very watery (hydragogue cathartics), while
others, for example aloes, by acting gently on the lower part of
the bowel and on its muscular coat, produce simply a laxative
effect. A few of them, such as aloin and colocynthin, are also
purgative when injected subcutaneously or into the blood, probably
owing to their being excreted into the intestinal canal.

b. Those which act on the skin: The best known of these is
cantharides (Spanish fly), the active principle of which is a colour-
less crystalline body — cantharidin — which is extremely irritating.
On a mucous membrane or a delicate skin it exerts an irritant
action, which occurs more quickly than on a thickened epidermis,
such as the scalp, and according to the strength and period of
application there may result redness, a blister, or an ulcer. Many
other substances, such as chrysarobin, mustard, pepper, &c., are
also capable of irritating the skin, the effect produced varying from
mere dilatation of the cutaneous vessels to destruction of tissue.

GROUP XIV. Male-fern. — This includes the male-fern, santonin,
cusso, pomegranate bark, pumpkin seeds and many other substances
containing active principles which have a specific poisonous action
on intestinal parasitic worms. Apart from this their actions vary
considerably, but are of little practical importance.

GROUP XV. Ethereal Oils. — This includes a very large number
of substances which owe their action to the fact that they contain
ethereal or essential oils. The best known of these are cloves,
pimento (allspice), myrtle, eucalyptus, caraway, fennel, dill, cori-
ander, rosemary, lavender, peppermint, spearmint, nutmeg, cinna-
mon, sandal-wood, turpentine, juniper berries, valerian and sumbul.
In this group may be included the oleo-resins, such as copaiba,
cubebs and Canada balsam; the gum-resins, such as asafetida,
myrrh, ammoniacum and galbanum; and the true balsams, such
as benzoin, storax, balsam of Tolu and balsam of Peru. The resins
when taken internally have much the same action as essential oils,
which are closely allied chemically, while the benzoic and cinnamic
acids in the balsams modify their actions very slightly. Although
individual essential oils may differ somewhat in action, chemically
and pharmacologically they are fundamentally similar. They all
have a poisonous action on protoplasm, which makes them useful
in medicine as antiseptics, disinfectants, germicides, anti-fermenta-
tives and parasiticides; when locally applied they are more or less
irritating, and, when very dilute, astringent. When swallowed
in small doses they slightly irritate the mouth and gastric mucous
membrane, increasing the secretions and producing a feeling of
warmth. At the same time they increase the movements of the
stomach, and also in this way hasten digestion, an action which
extends to the upper part of the bowel. They are readily absorbed
into the blood, and they are excreted chiefly by the kidneys in a
more or less altered form, and probably also by the different mucous
membranes, and even by the skin. After absorption their action,
speaking generally, is exerted on the brain and spinal cord, and is
at first slightly stimulant and afterwards depressing, even to the
causing of sleepiness and stupor. Locally applied they depress
the terminations of sensory nerves, and may thereby lessen pain.
On the heart and circulation the effects are stimulant unless large
doses are given, when the pulse becomes slow and blood-pressure
much lessened. During excretion they irritate the kidneys and the
sweat-glands, and thereby increase the excretion of urine and of
sweat. They also increase the number of leucocytes in the blood,

and the more irritating of them increase the flow of blood to the
pelvic organs, and may thus stimulate the uterus, or in large doses
cause abortion. The various camphors, such as laurel camphor,
Borneo camphor, menthol and cumarin, are oxidized derivatives of
essential oils, and differ only superficially from them in their action.

GROUP XVI. Phenol. — This includes a very large number of
bodies chemically allied to benzol, such as carbolic acid, sulpho-
carbolates, creosote, wood tar, coal tar, oil of cade, thymol, salicylic
acid, benzoic acid, naphthol, hydroquinon, cresol, guaiacol, ichthyol,
saccharin and many others. These all resemble carbolic acid more
or less closely, and may be described as general protoplasm poisons.
Locally their destructive and irritating effects vary a good deal, but
even when very dilute they all have a marked poisonous action on
bacteria, white blood corpuscles, yeast and similar organisms.
After absorption most of them exercise a depressing effect upon the
nervous system, and are capable of reducing high temperature.
They are mostly excreted in the urine.

GROUP XVII. Alcohol. — This group also includes a very large
number of chemical bodies, only a few of which are mentioned here.
Ethyl alcohol is taken as a type of the action of methyl alcohol,
amyl alcohol, propyl alcohol, ether, acetic ether, paraldehyde,
sulphonal, chloroform, methyl chloride, ethyl chloride, chloral
hydrate, butylchloral hydrate, and almost any number of derivatives
from these. Some of them are so volatile that they produce their
effects when inhaled, others when sprayed upon the skin cause
intense cold and then anaesthesia; but taken in the broadest sense
the action of all of them after absorption into the blood is very
similar, and is exerted upon the central nervous system, more especi-
ally the cerebrum. In all cases there is a longer or shorter period
of excitement, followed by intoxication or narcosis, and with large
doses this passes into paralysis and death from depression of the
respiratory centre or of the heart. Small doses of any of them
dilate the blood vessels from an action on the vaso-motor centre in
the medulla oblongata, as a result of which the heart beats more
rapidly and the blood circulates more freely; but larger doses have
a general depressing effect upon the circulatory system. Under
their action more heat is lost from the body, the general metabolism
is diminished and the temperature falls. With some of them, such
as chloral and chloroform, the stimulation period is short compared
with the narcotic period, while with others, such as ether, the reverse
is the case.

GROUP XVIII. Nitrites. — This group contains amyl nitrite,
ethyl nitrite, methyl nitrite, nitroglycerin, sodium and potassium
nitrites, erythrol-tetranitrate, and many other compounds con-
taining nitrous or nitric acid. The latter becomes reduced to
nitrous in the body, and thereby exercises its characteristic effects.
These consist chiefly in an action upon non-striped muscle, vaso-
motor centres, blood vessels and the blood. When they are given
by inhalation or by the mouth their first effect is to produce marked
dilatation of the small arteries, with a fall of blood-pressure and a
greatly increased rapidity of the heart's action. At the same
time the non-striped muscles slightly lose their tonicity, and when
very large doses are given the haemoglobin of the blood becomes
converted into the chocolate-coloured methaemoglobin. The
volatile members of the group act much more rapidly and more
transiently than the others.

GROUP XIX. Alkaloids. — This embraces a very large number
of important pharmacological substances, which differ a good deal
in the details of their action, but they all act upon muscle and
nerve tissue. Some of them affect only certain portions of the
nervous system, others have a much wider range of action; they
may act in either case as stimulants or as depressants, and hence
the symptoms produced by them vary very greatly.

1. Morphine and the other opium alkaloids (codeine, narcotine,
laudanine, &c.) have two prominent actions-a narcotic followed by
a tetanic action. In morphine, on the higher animals at least, the
narcotic action is very marked, the tetanizing action slightly so;
while in thebaine there is little narcotic effect, but a tetanizing action
like that of strychnine. Morphine exercises its effects chiefly upon
the cerebrum and the medulla oblongata in man. It has in addition
a markedly depressing action upon the respiratory centre, it lessens
all the secretions except the sweat, and diminishes bowel peristalsis
and the size of the pupil. Men are much more affected by it than
birds, rabbits, dogs and most other animals. Cats, however, show
marked symptoms of cerebral excitement and increase of the
reflexes. Compared with morphine, codeine and the other alkaloids
are only slightly narcotizing.

2. Strychnine and brucine very closely resemble each other in
action, and under this heading curarine may also be included.
These bodies stimulate the grey matter in the spinal cord and
cause tetanic convulsions. In the case of curare these are masked
almost at once by paralysis of the terminations of the motor nerves.

3. Caffeine is the active principle in tea, coffee, kola, mate and
guarana; while theobromine, a body closely allied to it, is found
in cocoa and chocolate. They both stimulate the grey nerve-cells
in the brain and cord, this being the foundation of their dietetic
value and their use as nervine stimulants. They also markedly
increase the secretion of urine by stimulating the secreting cells
of the kidneys.

4. Cocaine is the active principle of the coca leaf, which is chewed

352

PHARMACOLOGY

as a stimulant-narcotic in Peru and Bolivia. Small doses excite
the nervous system, while larger doses are depressing. The chief
action of cocaine from a practical point of view is its power of
paralysing the terminations of sensory nerves.

5. Atropine, hyoscyamine, homatropine, duboisine, daturine
and some- other bodies have a paralysing action upon the ends
of, the motor and secretory nerves. They therefore lessen al!
the secretions, and among other actions dilate the pupil and
increase the rapidity of the heart by paralysing the vagus. In
addition they have a stimulating action on the central nervous
system.

6. Nicotine, piturine and lobeline are the active principles of
tobacco and other substances which are smoked as stimulant
narcotics. In large doses they are powerful nerve poisons, but as
usually taken they exercise a gently stimulant effect upon the
nervous system. Pilocarpine has an action closely allied to that
of nicotine, but as it is much less poisonous (the effects produced
by small doses being chiefly excessive sweating and salivation), it
is capable of being utilized in medicine. Muscarine has a very
close resemblance in action to pilocarpine.

7. Physostigmine, the active principle of the Calabar bean, acts
chiefly as a stimulant to voluntary and involuntary muscles, and
at the same time exercises a depressing effect upon the spinal cord.
It contracts the pupil.

8. Conine, gelseminine and sparteine all exert a paralysing
effect on the terminations of the motor nerves, to the implication
of which the weakened gait and other symptoms are due.

9. Aconitine, delphinine and many of their derivatives have a
very widespread depressing action on muscle and nerve.

10. Apomorphine is essentially a muscle poison, but owing to the
fact that minute doses stimulate the vomiting centre and cause
emesis before any other symptoms are observable, its emetic action
is the most prominent effect in man.

11. Emetine acts as a gradual depressant to the nervous system
in animals. In man its chief effect is its emetic action, which
seems to be due entirely to local irritation of the stomach.

12. Quinine . Several of the other alkaloids found in cinchona
bark act very much like quinine. They all depress the conducting
power and the grey matter of the spinal cord, and to a much less
extent that of the brain. They lessen the general metabolism and
lower febrile temperature. The cinchona alkaloids have a specific-
ally poisonous effect on the parasites of malaria when present in
human blood, and are poisonous to all low organisms.

13. Phenacetin, acetanilide, phenazone and many similar bodies
act as antipyretics in virtue of an action on the heat-regulating
centres in the cerebrum.

GROUP XX. Digitalis. — This group-name has been given to a
large number of substances which have an action similar to that of
the foxglove leaves, including the active principles of strophanthus,
squill, Vrechites suberecta, Convallaria majalis, Nerium Oleander,
Helleborus niger, Antiaris ioxicaria (the upas tree), and several
others. The active principles of these vary a good deal in chemical
composition, but they are all non-nitrogenous neutral bodies.
Their action is exerted upon muscle, and chiefly upon the muscle
of the heart and blood vessels. The individual muscle-fibres con-
tract and expand more perfectly, and thus the diastole and systole
of the heart are rendered more complete, the pulse is slowed, and
the blood-pressure is raised. The slowing of the heart is partly
brought about by an action on the vagus centre.

GROUP XXI. Picrotoxin. — In large doses the action of picrotoxin
is exerted chiefly on the medullary nerve centres, whereby irregular
tonic-clonic convulsions are produced; in minute doses it stops the
secretion of sweat.

GROUP XXII. Saponin. — Saponin and many allied bodies
form an abundant soapy-looking froth when shaken up with water,
and they are contained in a very large number of plants, the chief
of which are the Quillaia saponaria, Polygala senega, sarsaparilla,
and others, known collectively as soapworts. They all act as local
irritants in the alimentary canal, and after absorption are more
or less depressing to the muscular and nervous systems. They
produce slight nausea and increased secretion of mucus.

GROUP XXIII. Cyanogen. — This includes compounds of cyano-
gen such as hydrocyanic (prussic) acid, cyanides of potassium,
sodium, &c., cherry-laurel water, amygdalin, bitter almonds and
other chemical and vegetable substances which readily yield hydro-
cyanic acid. Hydrocyanic acid is a general protoplasmic poison,
all the lower organisms being very susceptible to its action, while
in the higher animals it speedily depresses or paralyses all forms of
nerve tissue. It enters into combination with haemoglobin, forming
a bright scarlet compound and interfering with respiration. It kills
by its paralysing effect on the motor ganglia of the heart and on the
respiratory centre.

_ GROUP XXIV. Ferments. — These include such bodies as pepsin,
diastase, the pancreatic ferments, papain, the pine-apple ferment,
taka-diastase and oxhers, and serve to convert starch into sac-
charine substances, or albumen into peptone and albumoses.

GROUP XXV. Animal Glands and Secretions. — Of these the
thyroid gland, the suprarenal bodies, the spleen, the bile, the bone
marrow, the ovaries and some others have been investigated fully.
Speaking generally, when given in small doses their action on the

healthy organism is slight or nil, but in disease some of them are
capable of acting as substitutes for deficient secretions.

GROUP XXVI. Antitoxins. — These are substances which antago-
nize the toxins formed in the body by pathogenic organisms, the
toxins of snake venom and other animal poisons, and vegetable
toxins such as abrin, ricin, &c. A healthy person can be rendered
insusceptible by gradually accustoming him to increasing doses of
these poisons, and this immunity is due to antitoxins which are
found in the blood-serum and which are products of the blood cells.
The nature of these antitoxic substances is not definitely known,
but they combine with and destroy the poisons. In specific germ
diseases a similar antitoxin forms, and in cases which recover it
counteracts the toxin, while the germs are destroyed by the tissues.
Antitoxins can be prepared by immunizing a large animal, such as a
horse, by injecting gradually increasing doses of specific toxins into
its subcutaneous tissue. In due time the horse is bled, the serum
is filtered free of blood corpuscles, and then constitutes the anti-
toxic serum, which can be standardized to a certain potency. Such
serums are injected subcutaneously in diphtheria, tetanus, strepto-
coccic infections, plague, snake-poisoning, cholera and other similar
diseases. They do not as a rule harm healthy men even in large
quantities, but when repeated they often cause serious symptoms
due to the body becoming more sensitive to the action of the horse-
serum in which they are contained.

GROUP XXVII. Neutral Fats. — This includes cod-liver oil,
almond oil, olive oil, lard, &c., all of which act as foods when taken
internally, and have a merely physical emollient action when applied
externally. Lanolin, linseed oil, wax, spermaceti, &c., also belong
to this group. The paraffins, glycerin and vaseline, although not
fats, have much the same effect when applied externally, but they
are not nutritive.

GROUP XXVIII. Sugars, Starches, Gums, Gelatin, &c. — Although
these and allied bodies are used in various ways as remedies, their
action is for the most part purely mechanical or dietetic.

AUTHORITIES. — T. Lauder Brunton, Pharmacology, Therapeutics
and Materia Medica (3rd ed., London, 1891) ; The Action of Medicines
(London, 1897) ; H. C. Wood, Therapeutics: its Principles and Practice
(loth ed., London, 1905); A. Cushny, A Textbook of Pharmacology
and Therapeutics (1906); C. D. F. Phillips, Materia Medica, Pharma-
cology, and Therapeutics (Inorganic Substances) (London, 1894);
Binz, Lectures on PJiarmacology (Trans., New Sydenham Society,
London, 1895); Schmiedeberg, Grundriss der Arzneimittellehre
(3rd ed., Leipzig, 1895, Eng. trans, by Thos. Dixon, Edin-
burgh, 1887) ; Stokvis, Legons de pharmacotherapie (Haarlem and
Pans, 1898); Rabuteau, Traite de therapeutique et de pharmacologie
(Paris, 1884); Vulpian, Les Substances toxiques et mtdicamenteuses
(Paris, 1882) ; J. Harley, The Old Vegetable Neurotics (London, 1869) ;
J. Mitchell Bruce, Materia Medica and Therapeutics; W. Hale White,
Materia Medica, Pharmacy, Pharmacology and Therapeutics (London,
1909) ; Walter E. Dixon, A Manual of Pharmacology (London, 1906).

(R. S.*)

Terminology in Therapeutics.

It may be useful to give here a general explanation of the
common names used in the therapeutic classification of drugs.
It is convenient to divide drugs and other substances used in
medicine into groups according to the part of the system on
which they chiefly act, though, as stated above, many drugs
act in more than one manner and could come under several
groups.

I. Drugs acting on the blood vessels, which either dilate the
vessels when taken internally or applied locally, or contract the
superficial arterioles. Irritants (Lat. irritare, to excite) include:
Rubefacients (Lat. rubefacere, to make red), which cause the skin
to become red from dilatation of the blood vessels; Vesicants
(Lat. vesica, a bladder), which irritate sufficiently to cause the
blood-serum to exude and form vesicles or blisters, e.g. cantharides;
Pustulants (Lat. pustula, a blister), still more powerful in their
effects, causing the blisters to become filled with pus, e.g. croton
oil. Escharotics (Gr. fcrxApa, hearth, brazier; hence mark of a
burn, " scar ") or Caustics (Gr. naifiv, to burn), cause the death
of the part, e.g. silver nitrate and nitric acid. The term counter-
irritant is used when an irritant is applied to the skin for the pur-
pose of relieving pain or congestion by dilating the superficial
vessels. Drugs which contract the vessels and diminish exudation
comprise Astringents (Lat. astringere, to draw close), while Styptics
(crTiifaw, to contract) or Haemostatics (Gr. 0*^0, blood, oroTiicAs,
causing to stand) are substances applied either locally or internally
in order to arrest bleeding; cold, adrenalin, ergot and the per-salts
of iron may be taken as examples.

II. Drugs acting on the digestive tract. Sialogogues (Gr. <r£aXof,
spittle, d-j-wyAs, leading) increase the flow of saliva, e.g. mercury;
Antisialogogues decrease the flow, e.g. belladonna. Aromatics
(Gr. tpufta, spice) or Bitters increase the flow of the gastric juice.
Stomachics (Gr. orAMoxos) have the same effect. The term Carmina-
tives (Lat. carminare, to card wool), adopted from the old medical
theory of humours, is generally applied to pungent substances which
help to expel gas from the stomach by stimulating the movement

PHARMACOPOEIA

353

of its contents. Emetics (Gr. Z^eroj, vomiting) are substances
given for the purpose of causing vomiting, e.g. ipecacuanha or
apomorphine. Anti-emetics or Sedatives (Lat. sedare, to compose)
arrest vomiting either by their central or local action, e.g. opium,
cocaine or cerium oxalate. Purgatives (Lat. purgare, to cleanse)
aid the onward passage of the contents of the intestinal canal,
either by increasing the contractions of its muscular coat as laxatives
(Lat. laxare, to loosen), e.g. as magnesia, or by increasing the flow
of fluid. Some are termed drastics (Gr. apao-T«6s, active) or cathartics
(Gr. KaBapTiKk, cleansing), which produce watery evacuations.
Cholago^ues (Gr. x°Ai?, bile, &yuy6s, leading) are purgatives which
act by increasing the flow of bile, either by causing an increased
secretion (e.g. podophyllum) or by sweeping it onwards by
stimulating the intestinal contractions (e.g. calomel).

III. Drugs acting on parasites. Anthelmintics (Gr. &vrl, against,
J-X/K"?, fX^'^os, a worm) are drugs which kill parasites inhabiting
the intestine. The term vermicide (Lat. vermis, worm, caedere, to
kill) is applied to drugs which directly kill the entozoa, while
vermifuge (Lat. vermis, worm, fugare, to put to flight) is applied
to the purgative usually given after the vermicide for the purpose
of expelling the worm. Parasiticides or anti-par 'asitics destroy
parasites; the terms are usually restricted to those acting on skin-
parasites as contrasted with intestinal ones.

IV. Drugs acting on the urinary system. Diuretics (Gr. Jid,
through, dupov, the urine) increase the flow of urine, while lithon-
triptics (Gr. XWos, stone, rpiffeiv, to rub, grind down) are drugs
given to prevent the formation of urinary calculi.

V. Drugs acting on -the generative system. Aphrodisiacs (Gr.
'AQpoSirri, the goddess of love) increase the action of the generative
centre in the spinal cord; Anaphrodisiacs decrease its action.
Ecbolics (Gr. ix/SdXXeu', to throw out) or oxytocics (Gr. 6£6$,
sharp, quick, TOKOS, parturition) stimulate uterine action. Emmena-
gogues (Gr. IAWO, menses, 4701765, leading) are substances which
increase the menstrual flow. Galactogogues (Gr. 7AXa, milk) in-
crease the secretion of milk, while antigalactogogues (e.g. belladonna)
have the opposite effect.

VI. Drugs acting on the respiratory system. Expectorants
increase the bronchial secretions; antispasmodics relax the spasm
of the muscular coat of the bronchial tubes, e.g. stramonium.
This latter term is also used for drugs which act as general
depressants.

VII. Drugs or substances acting on the bodily heat. Anti-
pyretics (Gr. furl, against, xuptros, fever) either increase the heat
loss or diminish its production; e.g. phenacetin, cold water, &c.

VIII. Drugs or substances acting on the skin. Diaphoretics
(Gr. Sicutapeiv, to carry through) increase the amount of sweat,
either by acting directly on the sweat centres or on the nerve
terminals. The word Sudorific (Lat. sudor, sweat) is applied to
them when they act very powerfully. Anhidrotics or Antihidrotics
(Gr. topi!>?, sweat) diminish the secretion of sweat. Emollients
(Lat. mollis, soft) are substances which soften and protect the
parts. Demulcents (Lat. demulcere, soften), soothe the skin or
mucous membrane.

IX. Drugs acting on metabolism. Alteratives are drugs which
alter the course of a disease, the mode of action being unknown.
Tonics are drugs which increase the muscular tone of the body by
acting either on the stomach, heart, spinal cord, &c.

X. Drugs acting on the blood. Antitoxins are organic products
designed to neutralize the formation of the toxins of certain dis-
eases in the blood. Toxins are also injected in order to stimulate
the blood plasma to form antitoxins (see BACTERIOLOGY). Anti-
periodics inhibit a disease having periodic recurrences; e.g. quinine
in malaria. Haematinics are drugs which increase the amount of
haemoglobin in the blood.

XI. Drugs acting on the nervous system. Anaesthetics (q.v.)
diminish sensibility, either central or peripheral-; Anodynes (Gr.
av-, priv., ttiimj, pain) relieve pain only, but, as in Analgesics
(Gr. 4X7770-15, sense of pain), sensibility is unaltered. Stimulants
are those which lead to excitation of the mental faculties and in
quantity may lead to delirium and incoherence. Hypnotics (Gr.
CJTTOS, sleep) or Soporifics (Lat. sopor, a deep sleep) are drugs which
produce sleep without causing cerebral excitement. Narcotics
(Gr. vapuri, numbness) are those which besides producing sleep
may in large doses depress the functions of respiration and
circulation.

XII. Drugs which arrest the progress of putrefaction. This is
either by inhibiting the growth of micro-organisms (Antiseptics)
or by destroying them when present (Disinfectants). (H. L. H.)

PHARMACOPOEIA (lit. the art of the tj>a.pp.a.Kairou>s, or drug-
compounder), in its modern technical sense, a book containing
directions for the identification of simples and the preparation
of compound medicines, and published by the authority of a
government or of a medical or pharmaceutical society. The
name has also been applied to similar compendiums issued by
private individuals. The first work of the kind published under
government authority appears to have been that of Nurem-
berg in 1542; a passing student named Valerius Cordus showed

XXI. 12

a collection of medical receipts, which he had selected from the
writings of the most eminent medical authorities, to the phy-
sicians of the town, who urged him to print it for the benefit
of the apothecaries, and obtained for his work the sanction of
the senatus. An earlier work, known as the Anlidotarium
florentinum, had been published under the authority of the
college of medicine of Florence. The term " pharmacopoeia"
first appears as a distinct title in a work published at Basel in
1561 by Dr A. Foes, but does not appear to have come into
general use until the beginning of the i;th century. Before 1542
the works principally used by apothecaries were the treatises
on simples by Avicenna and Serapion; the De synonymis
and Quid pro quo of Simon Januensis; the Liber semitoris
of Bulchasim Ben Aberazerim, which described the pre-
parations made from plants, animals and minerals, and was the
type of the chemical portion of modern pharmacopoeias; and
the Antidotarium of Nicolaus de Salerno, containing Galenical
compounds arranged alphabetically. Of this last work there
were two editions in use — Nicolaus magnus and NicoJaus parvus;
in the latter several of the compounds described in the larger
edition were omitted and the formulae given on a smaller scale.
Until 1617 such drugs and medicines as were in common use
were sold in England by the apothecaries and grocers. In that
year the apothecaries obtained a separate charter, and it was
enacted that no grocer should keep an apothecary's shop. The
preparation of physicians' prescriptions was thus confined to
the apothecaries, upon whom pressure was brought to bear to
make them dispense accurately, by the issue of a pharmacopoeia
in May 1618 by the College of Physicians, and by the power
which the wardens of the apothecaries received in common with
the censors of the College of Physicians of examining the shops
of apothecaries within 7 m. of London and destroying all the
compounds which they found unfaithfully prepared. This, the
first authorized London Pharmacopoeia, was selected chiefly
from the works of Mezue and Nicolaus de Salerno, but it was
found to be so full of errors that the whole edition was cancelled,
and a fresh edition was published in the following December.
At this period the compounds employed in medicine were often
heterogeneous mixtures, some of which contained from 20 to 70,
or more, ingredients, while a large number of simples were used
in consequence of the same substance being supposed to possess
different qualities according to the source from which it was
derived. Thus crabs' eyes, pearls, oyster-shells and coral were
supposed to have different properties. Among other ingredi-
ents entering into some of these formulae were the excrements
of human beings, dogs, mice, geese and other animals, calculi,
human skull and moss growing on it, blind puppies, earthworms,
&c. Although other editions of the London Pharmacopoeia
were issued in 1621, 1632, 1639 and 1677, it was not until the
edition of 1721, published under the auspices of Sir Hans Sloane,
that any important alterations were made. In this issue many
of the ridiculous remedies previously in use were omitted,
although a good number were still retained, such as dogs'
excrement, earthworms, and moss from the human skull; the
botanical names of herbal remedies were for the first time added
to the official ones; the simple distilled waters were ordered of
a uniform strength; sweetened spirits, cordials and ratifias
were omitted as weU as several compounds no longer used in
London, although still in vogue elsewhere. A great improve-
ment was effected in the edition published in 1746, in which
only those preparations were retained which had received the
approval of the majority of the pharmacopoeia committee; to
these was added a list of those drugs only which were supposed
to be the most efficacious. An attempt was made to simplify
further the older formulae by the rejection of superfluous
ingredients. In the edition published in 1788 the tendency to
simplify was carried out to a much greater extent, and the
extremely compound medicines which had formed the principal
remedies of physicians for 2000 years were discarded, while a
few powerful drugs which had been considered too dangerous to
be included in the Pharmacopoeia of 1765 were restored to their
previous position. In 1809 the French chemical nomenclature

354

PHARMACOPOEIA

was adopted, and in 1815 a corrected impression of the same
was issued. Subsequent editions were published in 1824,
1836 and 1851.

The first Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia was published in 1699
and the last in 1841; the first Dublin Pharmacopoeia in 1807
and the last in 1850.

The preparations contained in these three pharmacopoeias
were not all uniform in strength, a source of much inconvenience
and danger to the public, when powerful preparations such as
dilute hydrocyanic acid were ordered in the one country and
dispensed according to the national pharmacopoeia in another.
In consequence of this inconvenience the Medical Act of 1858
ordained that the General Medical Council should cause to be
published a book containing a list of medicines and compounds,
to be called the British Pharmacopoeia, which should be a
substitute throughout Great Britain and Ireland for the separate
pharmacopoeias. Hitherto these had been published in Latin.
The first British Pharmacopoeia was published in the English
language in 1864, but gave such general dissatisfaction both to
the medical profession and to chemists and druggists that the
General Medical Council brought out a new and amended edition
in 1867. This dissatisfaction was probably owing partly to the
fact that the majority of the compilers of the work were not
engaged in the practice of pharmacy, and therefore competent
rather to decide upon the kind of preparations required than
upon the method of their manufacture. The necessity for this
element in the construction of a pharmacopoeia is now fully
recognized in other countries, in most of which pharmaceutical
chemists are represented on the committee for the preparation
of the legally recognized manuals.

National pharmacopoeias now exist in the following countries:
Austria, Belgium, Chile, Denmark, France, Germany, Great Britain,
Greece, Holland, Hungary, India, Japan, Mexico, Norway, Portugal,
Russia, Spain, Sweden, Italy, Switzerland, the United States of
America and Venezuela. All the above-mentioned were issued
under the authority of government, and their instructions have the
force of law in their respective countries, except that of the United
States, which was prepared by commissioners appointed by medical
and pharmaceutical societies, and has no other authority, although
generally accepted as the national textbook.

The French Codex has probably a more extended use than any
other pharmacopoeia outside its own country, being, in connexion
with Dorvault's L'Officine, the standard for druggists in a large
portion of Central and South America; it is also official in Turkey.
The sum-total of the drugs and preparations it contains is about
1250, or double the average of other modern pharmacopoeias.
The progress of medical knowledge has led to a gradual but very
perceptible alteration in the contents of the pharmacopoeias. The
original very complex formulae have been simplified until only
the most active ingredients have been retained, and in many
cases the active principles have to a large extent replaced the crude
drugs from which they were derived. From time to time such
secret remedies of druggists or physicians as have met with popular
or professional approval have been represented by simpler official
preparations.

The rapid increase in medical and pharmaceutical knowledge
renders necessary frequent new editions of the national pharma-
copoeias, the office of which is to furnish definite formulae for pre-
parations that have already come into extensive use in medical
practice, so as to ensure uniformity of strength, and to give the
characters and tests by which their purity and potency may be
determined. But each new edition requires several years to carry
out numerous experiments for devising suitable formulae, so that
the current Pharmacopoeia can never be quite up to date. This
difficulty has hitherto been met by the publication of such non-
official formularies as Squire's Companion to the Pharmacopoeia
and Martindale's Extra Pharmacopoeia, in which all new remedies
and their preparations, uses and doses are recorded, and in the
former the varying strengths of the same preparations in the different
pharmacopoeias are also compared. The need of such works to
supplement the Pharmacopoeia is shown by the fact that they are
even more largely used than the Pharmacopoeia itself, the first
having been issued in 1 8 and the second in 13 editions at compara-
tively short intervals. In England the task of elaborating a new
Pharmacopoeia is entrusted to a body of a purely medical character,
and legally the pharmacist has not, as in other countries, a voice
in the matter, notwithstanding the fact that, although the medical
practitioner is naturally the best judge of the drug or preparations
that will afford the best therapeutic result, he is not so competent
as the pharmacist to say how that preparation can be produced in
the most effective and satisfactory manner, nor how the purity of
drugs can be tested. In the preparation of the fourth edition of

the British Pharmacopoeia in 1898 some new departures were made.
A committee of the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain was
appointed at the request of the General Medical Council to advise
on pharmaceutical matters and the valuable assistance rendered
by it is acknowledged in the preface of that work. A census of
prescriptions was taken to ascertain the relative frequency with
which different preparations and drugs were used in prescriptions,
and suggestions and criticisms were sought from various medical
and pharmaceutical bodies at home and in the colonies. As regards
the purely pharmaceutical part of the work a committee of refer-
ence in pharmacy, nominated by the pharmaceutical societies of
Great Britain and Ireland, was appointed to report to the Pharma-
copoeia Committee of the Medical Council.

Some difficulty has arisen since the passing of the Adulteration
of Food and Drugs Act concerning the use of the Pharmacopoeia
as a legal standard for the drugs and preparations contained in it.
The Pharmacopoeia is defined in the preface as only " intended to
afford to the members of the medical profession and those engaged
in the preparation of medicines throughout the British Empire
one uniform standard and guide whereby the nature and composi-
tion of substances to be used in medicine may be ascertained and
determined." It is obvious that it cannot be an encyclopaedia
of substances used in medicine, and can only be used as a standard
for the substances and preparations contained in it, and for no
others. It has been held in the Divisional Courts (Dickins v.
Randerson) that the Pharmacopoeia is a standard for official pre-
parations asked for under their pharmacopoeia! name. But there
are many substances in the Pharmacopoeia which are not only
employed in medicine, but have other uses, such as sulphur, benzoin,
tragacanth, gum arabic, ammonium carbonate, beeswax, oil of
turpentine, linseed oil, and for these a commercial standard of
purity as distinct from a medicinal one is needed, since the prepara-
tions used in medicine should be of the highest possible degree of
purity obtainable, and this standard would be too high and too
expensive for ordinary purposes. The use of trade synonyms in
the Pharmacopoeia, such as saltpetre for purified potassium nitrate,
and milk of sulphur for precipitated sulphur, is partly answerable
for this difficulty, and has proved to be a mistake, since it affords
ground for legal prosecution if a chemist sells a drug of ordinary
commercial purity for trade purposes, instead of the purified
preparation which is official in the Pharmacopoeia for medicinal
use. This would not be the case if the trade synonym were omitted.
For many drugs and chemicals not in the Pharmacopoeia there is
no standard of purity that can be used under the Adulteration of
Food and Drugs Act, and for these, as well as for the commercial
quality of those drugs and essential oils which are also in the
Pharmacopoeia, a legal standard of commercial purity is much
needed. This subject formed the basis of discussion at several
meetings of the Pharmaceutical Society, and the results have been
embodied in a work entitled Suggested Standards for Foods and
Drugs, by C. G. Moor, which indicates the average degree of purity
of many drugs and chemicals used in the arts, as well as the highest
degree of purity obtainable in commerce of those used in medicine.

An important step has also been taken in this direction by the
publication under the authority of the Council of the Pharmaceutical
Society of Great Britain of the British Pharmaceutical Codex, in
which the characters of and tests for the purity of many non-
official drugs and preparations are given as well as the character
of many glandular preparations and antitoxins that have come
into use in medicine, but have not yet been introduced into the
Pharmacopoeia. This work may also possibly serve as a standard
under the Adulteration of Food and Drugs Act for the purity and
strength of drugs not included in the Pharmacopoeia and as a
standard for the commercial grade of purity of those in the Pharma-
copoeia which are used for non-medical purposes.

Another legal difficulty connected with modern pharmacopoeias
is the inclusion in some of them of synthetic chemical remedies,
the processes for preparing which have been patented, whilst the
substances are sold under trade-mark names such as veronal. The
scientific chemical name is often long and unwieldy, and the
physician prefers when writing a prescription to use the shorter
name under which it is sold by the patentees. In this case the
pharmacist is compelled to use the more expensive patented article
and the patient complains of the price. If he uses the same article
under its pharmacopoeia! name when the patented article is pre-
scribed he lays himself open to prosecution by the patentee for
infringement of patent rights. The only plan, therefore, is for the
physician to use the chemical name (which cannot be patented)
as given in the Pharmacopoeia, or — for those synthetic remedies
not included in the Pharmacopoeia — to use the scientific and
chemical name given in the British Pharmaceutical Codex.

International Pharmacopoeia. — Increased facilities for travel have
brought into greater prominence the importance of an approach
to uniformity in the formulae of the more powerful remedies, in
order to avoid danger to patients when a prescription is dispensed
in a different country from that in which it was written. Attempts
have been made by international pharmaceutical and medical
conferences to settle a basis on which an international pharmacopoeia
could be prepared, out, owing to national jealousies and the attempt
to include too many preparations in such a work it has not as yet

PHARMACOSIDERITE— PHARMACY

355

been produced. The standardization of preparations of patent
medicines, as regards the amount of active principles they contain,
can only conveniently and economically be done in operating on
large quantities, and must naturally lead to the preparations being
standardized at wholesale houses, who issue a guarantee with them ;
but it is not yet certain that deterioration may not take place after
standardization, in such as those of ergot or digitalis, so that it is
somewhat questionable whether the standardization is of permanent
value in all cases. Probably more dependence is to be placed on
careful selection of the drug, and skill in its preparation and pre-
servation by the retail pharmacist, who should be personally
responsible for the quality and purity of the preparations he sells.
Although the attempt to form an international pharmacopoeia
has failed, a project for an imperial pharmacopoeia which should
be adapted to the general and local requirements of all parts of
the British Empire has met with better success. With the aid of
the medical and pharmaceutical authorities in each of the seventy
administrative divisions of the British Empire an Indian and Colonial
addendum to the British Pharmacopoeia of 1898 was compiled
and published in 1900 in which each article receives official sanction
in the countries indicated at the foot of the monographs. This
was regarded as a preparatory step to the publication of a complete
imperial pharmacopoeia.

Several unofficial universal pharmacopoeias have been published
in England and in France, which serve to show the comparative
strength of parallel preparations in different countries. The metric
or decimal mode of calculation and the centigrade scale of tempera-
ture are adopted in all pharmacopoeias except those of Great
Britain (in which the metric equivalents are now given) and in
some instances of Greece. The majority omit chemical formulae.
An alphabetical arrangement is followed in all. The maximum
doses of preparations are given in several pharmacopoeias and the
physician must indicate on his prescription, if he exceeds this limit,
by using a note of exclamation after each article, that he purposely
intends such a dose to be employed. The great increase of medical
literature and international exchange of medical journals has led
to the adoption in almost every country of all the really valuable
remedial agents, and the more extended use of active principles
has given rise to an approximation in strength of their solutions.
The difficulty of nomenclature could probably be overcome by a
list of synonyms being given with each article, and that of language
by the use of Latin. The greatest stumbling-blocks in the way of
uniformity are the tinctures and extracts — a class of preparations
containing many very powerful drugs, but in which the same name
does not always indicate the same thing; thus, extract of aconite
signifies an extract of the root in the pharmacopoeias of the United
States, Japan and Russia, extract of the leaves in the Danish and
Portuguese, inspissated juice of the fresh leaves in the Greek,
and alcoholic extract of the root in that of Spain and Italy, and
alcoholic extract of the dried leaves in the Chilean pharmacopoeias.
It appears probable, however, that the growth of pharmaceutical
chemistry will indicate, in time, which of those in use form the most
active and trustworthy preparations, while the general adoption
of the metric system will lead to clearer approximation of strength
than hitherto. The method adopted by the Portuguese Pharma-
copoeia conies nearest to that uniformity which is so desirable in
such preparations, as the tinctures of the fresh plants are all pre-
pared with equal parts of the drug and alcoholic menstruum;
simple tinctures in general, with unfortunately a few exceptions,
with one part of the drug in five parts of alcohol of given strength ;
ethereal tinctures are in the proportion of one part in ten; and the
tinctures of the alkaloids and their salts contain one part of the
alkaloid in ninety-nine of menstruum.

Homoeopathic and eclectic practitioners as well as dentists
have also their special pharmacopoeias.

See Bell and Redwood, Progress of Pharmacy (London, 1880);
Scherer, Literatura pharmacopoearum (Leipzig and Sorau, 1822);
Flint, Report on the Pharmacopoeias of all Nations (Washington,
1883). (E. M. H.)

PHARMACOSIDERITE, a mineral species consisting of
hydrated basic ferric arsenate, 2FeAsO4-Fe(OH)3-5H2O. Crys-
tals have the form of small, sharply defined cubes of an olive- or
grass-green colour, and occur together in considerable numbers
on the matrix of the specimens. On account of its cubic form
the mineral was early known as " cube ore " (Ger., Wurfelerz);
the name pharmacosiderite, given by J. F. L. Hausmann in
1813, alludes to the arsenic and iron present (fyapnattov,
poison, and cr^rjpos, iron). The faces of the cube are striated
parallel to one diagonal, and alternate corners are sometimes
replaced by face? of a tetrahedron. The crystals are feebly
doubly refracting, and in polarized light exhibit a banded
structure parallel to the cube faces. The hardness is i\ and the
specific gravity 2-8. Recent analyses prove the presence of a
small but variable amount of potassium (K2O, 2-68—4-13%)
in the Cornish crystals, though in those from Hungary there is

only a trace; this constituent appears to take the place of basic
hydrogen in the above formula. A curious property is to be
observed when a crystal of pharmacosiderite is placed in a
solution of ammonia — in a few minutes the green colour changes
throughout the whole crystal to red; on placing the red crystal
in dilute hydrochloric acid the green colour is restored. Natural
crystals are sometimes honey-yellow to brown in colour, but
this appears to be due to alteration.

Pharmacosiderite is a mineral of secondary origin, the crystals
occurring attached to gozzany quartz in the upper part of veins of
copper ore. It was found in some abundance at the end of the l8th
century in the copper mines of the St Day district in Cornwall,
and has since been found at a few other localities, for example, at
Konigsberg near Schemnitz in Hungary, and in the Tintic district
in Utah. (L. J. S.)

PHARMACY, a term which in the original Greek form signified
the use of any kind of drug (<j>apij.aiiov), potion or spell,
and hence also poison and witchcraft. In the modern
signification it is applied to the act of preparing, preserving
and compounding medicines, according to the prescriptions
of physicians. It was used first in this sense in 1597.

In the earliest periods of the world's history of which we have
any record, this art, like that of the perfumer, was practised
by a special class of the priesthood, as in the case of Eleazar
(Num. iv. 16), and that of medicine by another class (Lev. xiii.).

Egyptian inscriptions indicate that the physician-priests
sent their prescriptions to be dispensed by the priests of Isis
when, accompanied by the chanter of incantations and spells,
they visited the sick1. A papyrus of Sent, 3300 B.C., gives
directions as to the preparation of prescriptions. In the Ebers
papyrus, 1550 B.C., mention is made of blisters, ointments,
clysters, mineral and vegetable drugs. The art of the apothe-
cary is alluded to very early in the Old Testament history
(Exod. xxx. 25-35 and m xxxvii. 20) and again in the time of
Solomon (Eccles. x. 9), but this word, which is translated par
fumeur in the French version, only indicates that the preparation
of fragrant unguents and incense formed, even at that early
date, a part of pharmacy, since the drugs mentioned, viz.
galbanum, myrrh, stacte, frankincense, calamus, cassia and
cinnamon, were all of them used in perfumes, even the myrrh
being probably the kind distinguished at the present time in
the Bombay market as perfumed myrrh or bissabol, which
still forms an ingredient of the joss sticks used as incense in the
temples in China. The myrrh mentioned in Gen. xxxvii. 35
is described under another Hebrew word, and refers to ladanum,
a fragrant resin produced in Cyprus, and the use of this drug,
as well as that of cinnamon and cassia, indicates even at that
early period a knowledge of the products of Somaliland, Arabia
and the East Indies and the existence of trade between the
farther East and Egypt. In China also at a very early period
the art of pharmacy was practised. Ching-Hong, a contem-
porary of Menes I. of Egypt, was learned in the art, and made
decoctions and extracts of plants. The materia medica of the
Chinese at the present date affords an excellent illustration of
the changes that have taken place in the use of drugs, and of the
theories and superstitions that have guided the selection of
these from the earliest ages, inasmuch as it still comprises
articles that were formerly used in medicine, but have now been
utterly discarded. Thus the doctrine of signatures is evident
in the use of the celebrated Ginseng root of China, which, like
that of the mandrake (Gen. xxx. 14-16), owed its employment
to the fact that the root often divides into branches resembling
the arms and legs of a man, and this resemblance gave rise to
the belief that it conferred strength and virility. The same
belief is shown in the botanical names applied to many plants,
e.g. Pulmonaria, Hepatica, Scrophularia, and others.

The astrological belief that plants, animals and minerals are
under the influence of the planets is shown in the older names
of some of the metals, e.g. Saturn for lead, Venus for copper,
and Mars for iron, and the belief that the colours of flowers

1 The Egyptians believed that the medicinal virtues of plants were
due to the spirits who dwelt within them.

356

PHARMACY

indicated the particular planet they were under led to their use
in diseases and for constitutions supposed to be under the same
planet. Physicians to this day head their prescriptions with a
sign that originally meant an invocation to Jupiter, but now
represents the word recipe.

The belief, which is still held by the Chinese, that the excrements
of animals retain the properties and peculiarities of the animals
from which they are derived, led to the use in medicine of these
disgusting remedies, which are still sold in drug shops in China,
and were only omitted from the English Pharmacopoeia as late as
1721. At that date the science of chemistry was very imperfectly
known, and the real constituents of ordinary remedies so little
understood that different virtues were attributed to different pro-
ducts containing the same constituents. Thus, prepared oyster-
shells, coral, pearls, crabs' " eyes " and burnt hart's horn were
regarded as specifics in different complaints, in ignorance of
the fact that they all contain, as the chief ingredients, calcium
phosphate and carbonate. The celebrated Gascoigne's powder,
which was sold as late as the middle of the ipth century in the
form of balls like sal prunella, consisted of equal parts of crabs'
" eyes," the black tips of crabs' claws, Oriental pearls, Oriental
bezoar and white coral, and was administered in jelly made of
hart's horn, but was prescribed by physicians chiefly for wealthy
people, as it cost about forty shillings per ounce. Superstition
also entered largely into the choice of remedies. Thus various
parts of criminals, such as the thigh bone of a hanged man,
moss grown on a human skull, &c., were used, and even the
celebrated Dr Culpeper in the iyth century recommended
" the ashes of the head of a coal black cat as a specific for such
as have a skin growing over their sight."

In course of time the knowledge of drugs, and consequently
the number in use, gradually increased, and some of the prepara-
tions made in accordance with the art attained a celebrity that
lasted for centuries. Thus diachylon plaster was invented by
Menecrates in A.D. i, and was used by him for the same purposes
as it is employed to-day. An electuary of opium, known as
Mithradatum, was invented by Mithradates VI., king of Pontus,
who lived in constant fear of being poisoned, and tested the
effects of poisons on criminals, and is said to have taken poisons
and their antidotes every day in the year. The prescription
for the general antidote known as Mithradatum was found with
his body, together with other medical MSS., by Pompey, after
his victory over that king. The prescription was improved by
Damocrates and Andromachus, body physicians to Nero. The
first was subsequently known as Mithradatum Damocratis, and
the second as Theriaca Andromachi, the name Theriaca or
Tiriaca being derived from the snake called Tyrus, the flesh
of which was added to it by Andromachus. The former con-
tained 55, or, according to some formulae, 72 ingredients, and
occurs in all the dispensatories, from that of Corvus Valerius
up to the pharmacopoeias of fhe igth century; and aromatic
preparations of opium are still used, under the name of Theriaka
in Persia. The Theriaca prepared at Venice had the highest
reputation, probably because in Venice the component parts
were exposed to the inspection of wise men and doctors for two
months, to determine whether they were or were not fit for use.
The apothecaries' ordinance at Nuremberg provided that no
Theriaca should in future be branded with the seal of the city
unless it had been previously examined and declared worthy
of the same by the doctors of medicine, and that every druggist
must know the age of the Theriaca he sold. Inasmuch as its
action changed very materially with age, " the buyer should in
all instances be informed, so that he may not be deceived."
The last public preparation of Theriaca took place at Nurem-
berg in 17 54.

In A.D. 77-78 Dioscorides of Anazarba, in Cilicia, wrote his
great work on materia medica, which still remains the most
important work on the plants and drugs used in ancient times
(of which about 400 were enumerated) and until the I7th century
was held as the most valuable guide to medicinal plants and
drugs extant. Nearly 100 years afterwards Galen, the imperial
physician at Rome (A.D. 131-200), who was learned in surgery,

pharmacy and materia medica, added about 200 more plants
to those described by Dioscorides.

Galen believed in the doctrine of humours originated by
Hippocrates, which supposes the condition of the body to depend
upon the proper mixture of the four elements, hot, cold, moist
and dry, and that drugs possess the same elementary qualities,
and that on the principle of contraries one or other was indicated,
e.g. a cooling remedy for a feverish state. This doctrine was
held for many centuries, and drugs are classed by all the old
herbalists as having one or other of these qualities in a greater
or less degree. Galen is said to have invented hiera-picra,
which he employed as an anthelmintic; it is still used in
England as a domestic remedy. In the 6th century Alexander
of Tralles used colchicum for gout, iron for anaemia, and rhubarb
in liver weakness and dysentery. The practice of pharmacy was
extended by the Arabian physicians, and the separation of it
from medicine was recognized in the 8th, and legalized in the
nth century. The practice of " polypharmacy," or the use of a
large number of ingredients in prescriptions, which was common
in the middle ages, was greatly due to the view enunciated by
Alkekendo, and held by one of the Arabian schools of medicine:
that the activity of medicine increases in a duplicate ratio
when compounded with others; and it was only in the first half
of the i8th century that the practice was altogether discontinued
in the pharmacopoeias, although the theory was shown to be
incorrect by Averroes in the I2th century.

The establishments for dispensing medicines at Cordova,
Toledo and other large towns under Arab rule, were placed under
severe legal restrictions. Frederick II. in A.D. 1233 passed a
law, which remained in force for a long time in the two Sicilies,
by which every medical man was required to give information
against any pharmacist who should sell bad medicine. The
pharmacists were divided into two classes, the stationarii, who
sold simple drugs and non-magisterial preparations at a tariff
determined by competent authorities, and the confectionarii,
whose business it was to dispense scrupulously the prescrip-
tions of medical men; all pharmaceutical establishments were
placed under the surveillance of the college of medicine. In
the monastic period pharmacy was to a great extent under the
control of the religious orders, particularly the Benedictines, who,
from coming into contact with the Arabian physicians, devoted
themselves to pharmacy, pharmacology and therapeutics; but,
as monks were forbidden to shed blood, surgery fell largely into
the hands of barbers, so that the class of barber-surgeons came
into existence, and the sign of their skill in blood-letting still
appears in provincial districts in England in the form of the
barber's pole, representing the application of bandages.

In England the separation between medicine and pharmacy
was somewhat later than on the continent of Europe. The
earliest record of an apothecary's shop in London was in 1345.
The status of the apothecary, as subordinate to the physician
in the time of Henry VIII., is evident from the following, out of
21 rules laid down by a prominent apothecary, who was a cousin
of Anne Boleyn: " His garden must be at hand, with plenty of
herbs and seeds and roots. He must read Dioscorides. He
must have mortars, pots, filters, glasses and boxes clean and
sweet. He must have two places in the shop, one most clean
for physic, and the base place for chirurgic stuff. He is neither
to increase nor to diminish the physician's prescription; he is
neither to buy nor to sell rotten drugs. He is only to meddle
in his own vocation; and to remember that his office is only to
be the physician's cook."

The drugs used by the physicians and apothecaries were
purchased from the grossarii or sellers in gross, who were sub-
sequently called grocers, some of whom specialized as druggists
and others as chymists or chemists. The apothecaries, who
were the pharmacists of those days, were not represented by
any corporate body, but in the reign of King James I., in 1606,
were incorporated with the Company of Grocers. This arrange-
ment was not, however, approved of by the physicians, who
obtained in 1617 a separate charter for the apothecaries, to
the number of 114, which was the number of physicians then

PHARMACY

357

practising in London. At the same time it was enacted that no
grocer should keep an apothecary's shop, and that no surgeon
should sell medicines, and that the physicians should have the
power to search the shops of the apothecaries within 7 m. of
London under a penalty of £100 in case of a refusal to permit
it. Soon after the apothecaries were formed into a separate
company they took into consideration means to prevent the
frauds and adulterations practised by the grocers and druggists,
and, to remedy the evil, established a manufactory of their own
in 1626 so that they might make preparations for their own
members. The frauds and adulterations were probably due in
part to the apothecaries, for Dr Merrit, a collegiate physician
of London, stated that " such chymists which sell preparations
honestly made complain that few apothecaries will go to the
price of them." The medicinal preparations which required
the aid of a furnace, such as mineral earths, were undertaken by
the chymists, who probably derived their name from the
Alchymists, who flourished from the I4th to the i6th centuries.
When the word was discovered to be derived from an Arabic
prefix and a Greek word the prefix was dropped. In the ipth
century the word chymist became altered to chemist, although
the original spelling is still continued to a small extent. The
curious signs on the coloured carboys in chemists' windows,
which were commonly to be seen until the middle of the ipth
century, were signs used by the alchemists to indicate various
chemical substances. In 1694 the apothecaries had increased
from 114 to nearly 1000, and many of them, having acquired
a knowledge of the uses of medicine, began to prescribe medicines
for their customers and to assume the functions of the physician,
who retorted in 1697 by establishing dispensaries, where medicines
could be procured at their intrinsic value, or at cost price. The
assistants employed at these dispensaries after a time appear
to have gone into business on their own account, and in this way
the dispensing chemists, as a class, appear to have originated.

In 1748 the Apothecaries' Corporation obtained a charter
empowering them to license apothecaries to sell medicines in
London, or within 7 m., and intended to use it to restrain
chemists and druggists from practising pharmacy, and to
prohibit physicians and surgeons from selling the medicines
they prescribed; but the apothecaries, by paying increased
attention to medical and surgical practice, had not only alien-
ated the physicians and surgeons, but materially strengthened
the position of chemists and druggists as dispensers of pre-
scriptions. When a further attempt was made in 1815 to bring
a bill into parliament including provisions for prohibiting the
practice of pharmacy by uneducated persons, and giving power
to examine dispensing chemists, the latter became alarmed,
and, finding that the provisions of the bill were entirely in the
interests of the apothecaries, and directed against chemists and
druggists, the latter took measures to oppose it in parliament,
which were so far successful as to prevent apothecaries from
interfering in any way with, or obtaining any control over,
chemists and druggists. In 1841 another attempt was made by
the apothecaries to control the trade of chemists and druggists
on the ground that no adequate examination or education in
pharmacy existed, and that such should be instituted, and be
controlled by the apothecaries and physicians, but the latter
disclaimed any desire to take an active part in the matter. The
chemists and druggists, recognizing that no institution for the
systematic education and examination of chemists and druggists
existed in England, and that no proof could be given that each
individual possessed the necessary qualifications, decided that
this objection must be met, and that pharmacy must be placed
upon a more scientific footing. They therefore resolved upon the
foundation of a voluntary society, under the title of the Pharma-
ceutical Society of Great Britain, " for advancing the know-
ledge of chemistry and pharmacy, and promoting a uniform
system of education for those who should practise the same, also
for protecting the collective and individual interests and privi-
leges of all its members, in the event of any hostile attack in
parliament or elsewhere." This society was instituted in 1841,
the original founders being chemists and druggists in the

metropolis and provincial towns. On the i8th of February 1843
a royal charter of incorporation was granted to the society, and
a permanent status was thus acquired. Chemists in business
before the granting of the charter were entitled to join the
society as members, but those who wished to join it subsequently
could do so only on condition of passing an examination for the
purpose of testing their knowledge of pharmacy. A school of
pharmacy was instituted, and a museum and library were
started. The chemical laboratory in connexion with the school
was, when first instituted, the only one in England for teaching
purposes, and the museum is now reputed to be the best
pharmaceutical one in the world, the library now containing
about 1 3, coo volumes.

The examinations are three in number. The first is of a pre-
liminary character, qualifying for registration as a student or
apprentice; in lieu of this examination, certificates of matriculation
at a university, and those of certain other educational bodies,
are accepted. The second examination qualifies for registration as
a chemist and druggist. This is known as the minor examination,
and must be passed before anyone can legally dispense, compound
and sell scheduled poisons. The subjects included are systematic
botany, vegetable morphology and physiology, chemistry, physics,
matena medica, pharmacy, dispensing, posology, the reading of
prescriptions, and a knowledge of poisons and their antidotes. The
Poisons and Pharmacy Act of 1908 (section 4) has given the society
power to regulate the preliminary training, arrange a curriculum,
and divide the qualifying examination into two parts, so that an
approximation to the standard of pharmaceutical education on the
Continent is likely to take place within a short period. Degrees in
science and pharmacy are granted by the universities of Manchester
and Glasgow, and other universities were in 1910 considering
the question of granting degrees.

The third, or major examination, which qualifies for registration
as a pharmaceutical chemist, is not, like the minor, a compulsory
one, but ranks as an honours examination. The education for this
examination has kept pace with the rapid actvances of science, all
the following subjects now receiving attention: the microscopical
structure of plants and drugs, so as to detect adulterations and
impurities in powdered drugs; organic and quantitative analysis,
including those of food and drugs, water, soils, gas and urine ; optics, so
as to enable them to carry out the prescriptions of oculists ; spectrum
analysis; the use of the polariscope and ref ractometer ; the method
of applying Rontgen rays; the preparation of glandular secretions
and antitoxins; and the chemistry of remedies for the fungoid
diseases and insect pests of plants.

Those who have passed this examination are competent to perform
analysis of all kinds, and generally obtain the preference for various
appointments, such as head dispensers in government or other
large hospitals, or as analysts. The society has also established a
chemical research laboratory, in which much useful work has
been done in connexion with the national pharmacopoeia under
the direction of the Pharmacopoeia Committee of the Medical
Council. t

A pharmacy act, which was passed in 1852, established a
distinction between registered and examined, and unregistered
and unexamined chemists and druggists, creating a register
of the former under the name of pharmaceutical chemists,
so that the public might discriminate between the two classes.
A subsequent pharmacy act, passed in 1868, added a register
of chemists and druggists, and rendered it unlawful for any
unregistered person to sell or keep open shop for selling the
poisons mentioned in the schedule of this act. The adminis-
tration of the act was entrusted to the pharmaceutical society,
and the duty of prosecuting unauthorized practitioners has
been performed by the society ever since, without any pecu-
niary assistance from the state, although the legal expenses
involved in prosecution amount to a considerable portion of its
income.

The Poisons and Pharmacy Act of 1908 extended the schedule
of poisons instituted by the act of 1868, and it now includes
arsenic, aconite, aconitine and their preparations; all poisonous
vegetable alkaloids, and their salts and poisonous derivatives;
atropine and its salts and their preparations; belladonna and all
preparations or admixtures (except belladonna plasters) con-
taining o-i % or more of belladonna alkaloid; cantharides and
its poisonous derivatives; any preparation or admixture of
coca-leaves containing o-i % or more of coca alkaloids; corrosive
sublimate; cyanide of potassium and all poisonous cyanides
and their preparations; tartar emetic, nux vomica, and all

358

PHARMACY

preparations or admixtures containing 0-2% or more of
strychnine; opium and all preparations and admixtures contain-
ing i% or more of morphine; picro-toxine; prussic acid and all
preparations and admixtures containing 0-1% or more of
prussic acid; savin and its oil, and all preparations or admixtures
containing savin or its oil. None of these may be sold to any
person who is unknown to the seller, unless introduced by a
person known to the seller, and not until after an entry is
made in a book kept for the purpose, stating, in the prescribed
form, the date of sale, name and address of purchaser, the
name and quantity of the article sold, and the purpose for
which it is stated by the purchaser to be required. The
signature of the purchaser and introducer (if any) must be
affixed to the entry.

The following poisons may not be sold, either retail or
wholesale, unless distinctly labelled with the name of the article,
and the word poison, with the name and address of the seller:—

Almonds, essential oil of (unless deprived of prussic acid). Anti-
monial wine. Cantharides, tincture and all vesicating liquids,
preparations or admixtures of. Carbolic acid, and liquid pre-
parations of carbolic acid and its homologues containing more than
3 % of those substances, except preparations for use as sheep-wash
or for any other purpose in connexion with agriculture or horti-
culture, contained in a closed vessel distinctly labelled with the
word " poisonous," the name and address of the seller, and a notice
of the special purposes for which the preparations are intended.
Chloral hydrate. Chloroform, and all preparations or admixtures
containing more than 20% of chloroform. Coca, any preparation
or admixture of, containing more than 0-1% but less than i%
of coca alkaloids. Digitalis. Mercuric iodide. Mercuric sulpho-
cyanide. Oxalic acid. Poppies, all preparations of, excepting red
poppy petals and syrup of red poppies (Papayer Rhoeas). Precipi-
tate, red, and all oxides of mercury. Precipitate, white. Stro-
phanthus. Sulphonal. All preparations or admixtures which are
not included in part I of the schedule, and contain a poison within
the meaning of the pharmacy acts, except preparations or admix-
tures, the exclusion of which from this schedule is indicated by the
words therein relating to carbolic acid, chloroform and coca, and
except such substances as come within the provisions of section 5
of the act.

It has been erroneously represented by interested persons
that the Pharmaceutical Society desires a monopoly of the sale
of poisons. This is not the case. Any poisonous substance
that is not included in the schedules can be sold by anyone,
as, for instance, red lead, sulphate of copper, &c. The duty of
the Pharmaceutical Society is a purely legal one, and relates
only to the schedules of poisons framed by the government to
protect the public by rendering it a difficult matter to obtain
the poisons most frequently used ior criminal purposes. In
continental countries the laws are even more stringent.

In response to an agitation originated by certain manufacturers
(one of whom was a member of parliament), who were prosecuted
for omitting to label arsenical and nicotine preparations as poisons,
as required by the Pharmacy Act of 1868, a new act was passed in
1908, by which persons, without any training in toxicology, and
being neither pharmaceutical chemists, nor chemists and druggists,
may be granted licences by local authorities to sell poisonous
substances used exclusively in agriculture or horticulture, for the
destruction of insects, fungi or bacteria, or as sheep dips or weed-
killers, but which are poisonous by reason of containing the
scheduled poisons, arsenic or nicotine, &c. One condition concerning
the granting of such licences has been, it is said, deliberately ignored
in many towns, viz. that the local authority, before granting a
licence, " shall take into consideration whether, in the neighbour-
hood, the reasonable requirements of the public are satisfied with
regard to the purchase of poisonous substances, and also any
objections they may receive from the chief officer of police, or from
any existing vendors of the substances to which the application
relates." It is left to the Pharmaceutical Society to take legal
action against any infringement of the law, although it is obvious
that this should be carried out at the government expense, since
it is for the benefit of a section of the public, and obviously to the
loss of the members of the Pharmaceutical Society. Moreover,
the present act nullifies the object of the previous act of 1868,
which was to reduce the facilities for obtaining poisons. The fact
that a voluntary society with limited funds must contest the
illegal decisions of local councils, without government support,
seems likely to render this portion of the act of 1908 a dead letter.

At the time of the passing of the Pharmacy Act of 1 852 co-operative
associations did not come under consideration, and no provision
was made concerning them as regards the title of chemist, or as to
any action such associations might take to evade the law. It
has been decided in the law courts that a limited liability company

is not a person in the eye of the law, and therefore does not come
under the operation of the act of 1868. The result of this decision
was that any chemist who failed to pass the qualifying examination
could constitute himself with a few others, even if ignorant of
pharmacy, into a limited liability company, which would then have
been outside the powers of the act, and not subject to its provisions.
This false position was remedied by the act of 1908, which brings
companies into line with individuals.

On the continent of Europe the dispensing of prescriptions
is confined to pharmacists (pharmaciens and apothe-
kers). They are not allowed to prescribe, nor the
medical men to dispense, except under special licence,
and then only in small villages, where the pharmacist could not
make a living. The principle of " one man one shop " is general;
a pharmacist may not own more than one shop in the same town.
In Holland he may not enter into any agreement, direct or
indirect, with a medical man with regard to the supply of medi-
cines. In Austria, Germany, Italy, Rumania and Russia the
number of pharmacies is limited according to the population.
In France, Switzerland, Belgium and Holland the number is not
limited, and every qualified pharmacist has the right to open a
shop or buy a pharmacy. Where the number of pharmacies
is limited by law prescriptions may only be dispensed at
these establishments. The original prescription is kept by
the pharmacist for either three or ten years, according to the
country, and a certified copy given to the patient, written on
white paper if for internal use, or on coloured paper (usually
orange yellow) if for external use. The price of the drugs
and the tariff for dispensing prescriptions is fixed by govern-
ment authority. In Russia a prescription containing any of the
poisons indicated in the schedules A and B in the Russian
pharmacopoeia may not be repeated, except by order of the
doctor. The use of pharmacopoeia preparations made by
manufacturers is allowed, but the seller is held responsible for
their purity and strength. The prices charged for dispensing
are lower in countries where the number of pharmacies is
limited by law, the larger returns enabling the profit to be
lessened.

The educational course adopted in different countries varies as
to the details of the subjects taught. The preliminary, or
classical examination, is usually that of university matriculation,
or its equivalent. The period of study is eighteen months
in Denmark or Norway, and two in Austria, Finland, Germany,
Portugal, Russia, Sweden and Switzerland, three in Belgium,
France, Greece and Italy, four to six in Holland, and five in
Spain. In Great Britain the period of study is voluntary, and
usually occupies only one year. Two or three years of appren-
ticeship is required in most countries, including Great Britain,
but none in Belgium, Greece, Italy or Spain.

The subject of patent medicines is but little understood by the
general public. Any medicine, the composition of which is kept
secret, but which is advertised on the label for the
cure of diseases, must in Great Britain bear a patent
medicine stamp equal to about one-ninth of its face
value. The British Medical Association published in 1907 a work
on Secret Remedies; what they cost and what they contain. The
analyses published in this work show that nearly all the widely
advertised secret remedies contain only well-known and inexpen-
sive drugs. The Pharmaceutical Society on the other hand has
also published a Pharmaceutical Journal Formulary, including
several hundred formulae of proprietary medicines sold by
pharmacists, so that it is now possible for any medical man
to ascertain what they contain. The government accepts all the
therein published formulae as " known, admitted and approved "
remedies, and therefore not requiring a patent medicine stamp.
In this way widely advertised secret remedies can be replaced by
medicines of known composition and accepted value in any part
of the world. Most continental countries have issued stringent
laws against the sale of secret remedies, and these have been
lately strengthened in Germany, France and Italy. In
Switzerland secret remedies cannot be advertised without
submitting the formula and a sample of the remedy to the
board of health. (E. M. H.)

PHARNABAZUS— PHARYNX

359

PHARNABAZUS, Persian soldier and statesman, the son of
Pharnaces, belonged to a family which from 478 governed the
satrapy of Phrygia on the Hellespont, from its headquarters at
Dascylium, and, according to a discovery by Th. Noldeke, was
descended from Otanes, one of the associates of Darius in the
murder of Smerdis. Pharnabazus first appears as satrap of this
province in 413, when, having received orders from Darius II.
to send in the outstanding tribute of the Greek cities on the
coast, he, like Tissaphernes of Caria, entered into negotiations
with Sparta and began war with Athens. The conduct of the
war was much hindered by the rivalry between the two satraps,
of whom Pharnabazus was by far the more energetic and up-
right. After the war he came into conflict with Lysander (q.v. :
see also PELOPONNESIAN WAR), who tried to keep the Greek
cities under his own dominion, and became one of the causes of
his overthrow, by a letter which he sent to the ephors at Sparta
(Plut. Lys. 19; Nepos, Lys. 4; Polyaen. vii. 19). He received
Alcibiades at his court and promised him means to go up to the
king to reveal the intrigues of Cyrus, but when the Spartans
insisted on his death he yielded to their demand for his assassi-
nation (Plut. Alcib. 37 sqq.; Diod. xiv. n). When in 399 the
war with Sparta broke out he again tried to conduct it strenu-
ously. With the help of Conon and Evagoras of Salamis he
organized the Persian fleet, and while he was hard pressed on
land by Agesilaus he prepared the decisive sea-battle, which was
fought in August 394 at Cnidus under his and Conon's command,
and completely destroyed the Spartan fleet. He sent support to
the allies in Greece, by which the walls of the Peiraeus were rebuilt.
But in the war on land he struggled in vain against the lethargy
and disorganization of the Persian Empire; and when at last,
in 387, in consequence of the embassy of Antalcidas to Susa,
the king decided to conclude peace with Sparta and to enter
again into close alliance with her, Pharnabazus, the principal
opponent of Sparta, was recalled from his command in high
honours, to marry Apame, a daughter of the king (Plut. Arlux.
27). In 385 he was one of the generals sent against Egypt, and
in 377 he was ordered to prepare a new expedition against the
valley of the Nile. The gathering of the army took years, and
when in 373 all was ready, his attempt to force the passage of
the Nile failed. A conflict with Iphicrates, the leader of the
Greek mercenaries, increased the difficulties; at last Pharna-
bazus led the army back to Asia. From these campaigns date
the silver coins with the name of Pharnabazus in Aramaic
writing. When he died is not known.

In the time of Alexander we meet with a Persian general Pharna-
bazus, son of Artabazus (Arrian ii. I seq.), who probably was the
grandson of the older Pharnabazus.

The name Pharnabazus is also borne by a king of Iberia (Georgia)
on the Caucasus, where the dynasty seems to have been of Persian
origin, defeated by a general of Marcus Antpnius (Mark Antony)
in 36 B.C. (Dio Cass. xlix. 24). In the Georgian dynasty the name
occurs as late as the igth century. (Eo. M.)

PHARYNGITIS. The pharynx, or upper portion of the gullet
(seen to a large extent on looking at the back of the mouth) is
frequently the seat of a chronic inflammatory condition, usually
associated with derangements of the digestive organs, or with
syphilis or gout; sometimes it is due to much speaking or to
excessive tobacco-smoking — especially of cigarettes. On in-
spection, the inflamed mucous membrane is seen unduly red
and glazed, and do'tted over with enlarged follicles. The con-
dition produces considerable irritation and " dryness," with
cough and discomfort, which may eventually become chronic.
Treatment consists in removing all sources of irritation, in
rectifying gastric disturbance, and in the application of the
electric cautery, of astringent lotions or of mild caustic solutions.
The pain may be relieved by spraying with certain anodyne
solutions. In the case of adenoid growths (see ADENOIDS) there
is often an associated granular appearance of the pharynx, due
to enlargement of the minute glands of the mucous membrane.
The inflamed pharynx of the orator (" clergyman's sore-throat ")
may be put right by lessons in elocution or by complete rest for
a time. The gouty throat may call for a change of diet, or for a
stay at one of the watering-places where early rising, moderate

food, regular exercise and the drinking of laxative waters join in
restoring health. (E. O.*)

PHARYNX (Gr. <t>a.pvy%, throat), in anatomy, the cavity into
which both the nose and mouth lead, which is prolonged into
the oesophagus or gullet below, and from which the larynx or
air tube comes off below and in front; it therefore serves as a
passage both for food and air. It may be likened to an empty
sack turned upside down and narrowing toward its mouth. The
back and sides of the sack are formed by the three constrictor
muscles of the pharynx, each of which overlaps the outer surface
of the one above it, and these are lined internally by thick
mucous membrane. The upturned bottom of the sack is
attached firmly to the base of the skull and the internal ptery-
goid plates, so that this part cannot collapse, but below the
anterior and posterior walls are in contact, and a transverse
section of the pharynx is a mere slit.

From the front wall, on a level with the floor of the nose and roof
of the mouth, a slanting shelf of muscular and glandular tissue,
covered with mucous membrane, projects downward and backward
into the cavity, and divides it into an upper part or naso-pharynx
and a lower or oral pharynx (see fig.). This shelf is the soft palate,
and from the middle of its free border hangs a worm-like projection,
of variable length but averaging about half an inch, the uvula.
The whole of the front wall of the naso-pharynx is wanting, and
here the cavity opens into the nose through the posterior nasal
apertures (see OLFACTORY SYSTEM). On each side of the naso-
pharynx, and therefore above the soft palate, is the large triangular
opening of the Eustachian tube through which air passes to the
tympanum (see EAR). Behind this opening, and reaching up to
the roof of the naso-pharynx, is a mass of lymphoid tissue, most
marked in children, known as the pharyngeal tonsil. This tissue,
when it hypertrophies, causes the disease known as " adenoids."

From the mid-line of the roof of the pharynx a small pouch, the
bursa pharyngea, best seen in childhood, projects upward, while
on each side, above and behind the opening of the Eustachian
tube, is a depression known as the lateral recess of the pharynx.

The oral pharynx communicates with the naso-pharynx by the
pharyngeal isthmus behind the free edge of the soft palate. Above
and in front it is continuous with the cavity of the mouth, and the
demarcation between the two is a ridge of mucous membrane on
each side running from the soft palate to the side of the tongue,
and caused by the projection of the palato-glossus muscle. This
is known as the anterior pillar of the fauces or anterior palatine
arch. About half an inch behind this ridge is another, made by
the palato-pharyngeus muscle, which gradually fades away in the
'side of the pharynx below. This is the posterior pillar of the
fauces or posterior palatine arch, and between it and the anterior
is the fossa (tonsilar sinus) in which the tonsil lies.

The Tonsil is an oval mass of lymphoid tissue covered by mucous
membrane which dips in to form mucous crypts; externally its
position nearly corresponds to that of the angle of the jaw. It
is very vascular, deriving its blood from five neighbouring arteries.
Below the level of the tonsil the anterior wall of the pharynx is
formed by the posterior or pharyngeal surface of the tongue (q.v.),
while below that is the epiglottis and upper opening of the larynx
which is bounded laterally by the aryteno-epiglottic folds (see
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM). On the lateral side of each of these folds
is a pear-shaped fossa known as the sinus pyriformis. Below this
the pharynx narrows rapidly until the level of the lower border of
the cricoid cartilage in front and of the sixth cervical vertebra
behind is reached ; here it passes into the oesophagus, having reached
a total length of about five inches.

The mucous membrane of the naso-pharynx, like that of the rest
of the respiratory tract, is lined by ciliated columnar epithelium,
but in the oral pharynx the epithelium is of the stratified squamous
variety. Numerous racemose glands are present (see EPITHELIAL
TISSUES), as well as patches of lymphoid tissue especially in child-
hood. Outside the mucous membrane and separating it from the
constrictor muscles is the pharyngeal aponeurosis, which blends
above with the periosteum of the base of the skull.

Embryology. — The pharynx is partly formed from the ecto-
dermal stomatodaeal invagination (see EMBRYOLOGY and MOUTH)
and partly from the fore gut, which is the cephalic part of the
entodermal mesodaeum. Up to the fifteenth day (see MOUTH), the
bucco-pharyngeal membrane separates these structures, and, though
no vestiges of it remain, it is clear that the upper and front part of
the naso-pharynx is stomatodaeal while the rest is mesodaeal.
The five visceral arches with their intervening clefts or pouches
surround the pharynx, and the Eustachian tube is a remnant of
the first of these. The second pouch is represented in the adult
by the tonsilar sinus, and until lately the lateral recess of the
pharynx was looked upon as part of the same, but it has now been
shown to be an independent diverticulum. The sinus pyriformis
probably represents that part of the fourth groove from which the
lateral lobes of the thyroid body are derived.

36°

PHEASANT

The Bursa pharyngea was at one time looked upon as the place
whence the pituitary body had been derived from the roof of the
pharynx, but this is now disproved and its meaning is unknown.
The tonsil is formed in the second branchial cleft or rather pouch,
for the clefts are largely incomplete in man, about the fourth month ;
its lymphoid tissue, as well as that elsewhere in the pharynx, is
formed from lymphocytes in the subjacent mesenchyme (see EM-
BRYOLOGY), though whether these wander in from the blood or are
derived from original mesenchyme cells is still doubtful. The

Middle turbinated bone

Middle meatus of nose

Inferior meatus
of nose

Superior meatus of nose

Genioglossus

Geniohyoid

Lymphoid follicle

Hyoid bone

(From Ambrose Birmingham, Cunningham's Text Book of Anatomy.)

Sagittal Section, through Mouth, Tongue, Larynx, Pharynx and Nasal Cavity.
The section is slightly oblique, and the posterior edge of the nasal septum has been pre-
served. The specimen is viewed slightly from below, hence in part the low position
of the inferior turbinated bone.

development of the ventral part of the pharynx is dealt with in
the articles TONGUE and RESPIRATORY SYSTEM.

For literature see Quain's Elements of Anatomy, vol. i. (London,
1908), and J. P. McMurrich, Development of the Human Body
(London, 1906).

Comparative Anatomy. — In the lower, water-breathing, verte-
brates the pharynx is the part in which respiration occurs. The
water passes in through the mouth and out through the gill slits
where it comes in contact with the gills or branchiae.

The lowest subphylum of the phylum Chordata, to which the
term Adelochorda is sometimes applied, contains a worm-like
creature Balanoglossus, in which numerous rows of gill slits open
from the pharynx, though Cephalodiscus, another member of the
same subphylum, has only one pair of these.

In the subphylum Urochorda, to which the Ascidians or sea-
squirts belong, there are many rows of gill slits, as there are also in the
Acrania, of which Amphioxus, the lancelet, is the type. In all these
lower forms there are no true gills, as the blood-vessels lining the
large number of slits provide a sufficient area for the exchange
of gases.

In the Cyclostomata a reduction of the number of gill slits takes
place, and an increased area for respiration is provided by the gill
pouches lined by pleated folds of entodermal mucous membrane;

these form the simplest type of true internal gills. In the larval
lamprey (Ammocoetes) there are eight gill slits opening from the
pharynx, but in the adult (Petromyzon) they are reduced to seven,
and a septum grows forward separating the ventral or branchial
part of the pharynx from the dorsal or digestive part. Both these
tubes, however, communicate near the mouth.

In fishes there are usually five pairs of gill slits, though a rudi-
mentary one in front of these is often present and is called the
spiracle. Occasionally, as in Hexanchus and Heptanchus, there
may be six or seven slits, and the evidence of
comparative anatomy is that fishes formerly
had a larger number of gill slits than at
present.

In the Teleostomi, which include the
bony fishes, there is an external gill cover or
operculum.

In the Dipnoi or mud fish the work of the
gills is shared by that of the lungs, and in
the African form, Protopterus, external gills,
developed from the ectodermal parts of the
gill slits, first appear. In the tailed Am-
phibians (Urodela) the first and fifth gill
clefts are never perforated and are therefore
in the same condition as all the gill clefts of
the human embryo, while in the gilled
salamanders (Necturus and Proteus) only
two gill clefts remain patent. The gills in
all the Amphibia are external and of ecto-
dermal origin, but in the Anura (frogs and
toads) these are succeeded before the meta-
morphosis from the tadpole stage by internal
gills, which, unlike those of fish, are said to
be derived from the ectoderm.

In the embryos of the Sauropsida (reptiles
and birds) five gill clefts are evident, though
the posterior two are seldom at any time
perforated, while in the Mammalia the rudi-
ments of the fifth cleft are no longer found
in the embryo, and in man, at all events,
none of them are normally perforated except
that part of the first which forms the
Eustachian tube. It will thus be seen that
in the process of phytogeny there is a gradual
suppression of the gill clefts beginning at the
more posterior ones.

iThe soft palate is first found in crocodiles
as a membranous structure, and it becomes
muscular in mammals. The bursa pharyngea
and pharyngeal tonsil are found in several of
the lower mammals. In the sheep the latter
is particularly large.

.For literature and further details, see
R. Wiedersheim's Comparative Anatomy of
Vertebrates, translated by W. N. Parker
(London, 1907); also Parker and Haswell's
Zoology (London, 1897). (F. G. P.)

PHEASANT (Mid. Eng. fesaunt and
fesaun; Ger. fasan and anciently fasant;
Fr. faisan — all from the Lat. phasianus
orphasiana,sc.avis), the bird brought from
the banks of the river Phasis, now the Rioni,
in Colchis, where it is still abundant, and
introduced, according to legend, by the
Argonauts into Europe. Judging from the

Sphenoidal sinus

Inferior turbinated bone

Posterior edge of nasal septum

Orifice of Eustachian tube

Bursa pharyngea

Part of the
pharyngeal tonsil

Lateral recess of
pharynx

Levator cushion

Salpingo-

pharyngeal fold

Glands in soft

palate

Anterior palatine

arch

Supratonsillar

fossa

Plica triangularis
Tonsil

Posterior palatine
arch

Epiglottis

Aryteno-
epiglottic fold

Cricoid cartilage

recognition of the remains of several species referred to the genus
Phasianus both in Greece and in France,1 it seems not impossible
that the ordinary pheasant, the P. colchicus of ornithologists,
may have been indigenous to this quarter of the globe. If it was
introduced into England, it must almost certainly have been
brought by the Romans;2 for, setting aside several earlier records
of doubtful authority,3 Stubbs has shown that by the regulations
of King Harold in 1059 unus phasianus is prescribed as the

1 These are P. archiaci from Pikermi, P. altus and P. medius
from the lacustrine beds of Sansan, and P. desnoyersi from Touraine,
see A. Milne Edwards, Ois.foss. de la France (ii. 229, 239-243).

2 Undoubted remains have been found in excavations at Silcnester.
8 Among these perhaps that worthy of most attention is in

Probert's translation of The Ancient Laws of Cambria (ed. 1823,
pp. 367, 368), wherein extracts are given from Welsh triads, pre-
sumably of the age of Howel the Good, who died in 948. One of
them is, " There are three barking hunts: a bear, a squirrel and a
pheasant." The explanation is, A pheasant is called a barking
hunt, because when the pointers come upon it and chase it, it takes
to a tree, where it is hunted by baiting." The present writer has
not been able to trace the manuscript containing these remarkable

PHEIDIAS

361

alternative of two partridges or other birds among the " pitantiae"
(rations or commons, as we might now say) of the canons of
Waltham Abbey, and, as W. B. Dawkins has remarked (Ibis, 1869,
p. 358), neither Anglo-Saxons nor Danes were likely to have intro-
duced it into England. It seems to have been early under legal
protection, for, according to Dugdale, a licence was granted in
the reign of Henry I. to the abbot of Amesbury to kill hares and
pheasants, and from the price at which the latter are reckoned
in various documents, we may conclude that they were not very
abundant for some centuries, and also that they were occasion-
ally artificially reared and fattened, as appears from Upton,1
who wrote about the middle of the isth century, while Henry
VIII. seems from his privy purse expenses to have had in his
household in 1532 a French priest as a regular " fesaunt breder,"
and in the accounts of the Kytsons of Hengrave in Suffolk for
1607 mention is made of wheat to feed pheasants, partridges and
quails.

The practice of bringing up pheasants by hand is now ex-
tensively followed, and the numbers so reared vastly exceed those
that are bred at large. The eggs are collected from birds that
are either running wild or kept in pens, and are placed under
domestic hens; but, though these prove most attentive foster-
mothers, much additional care on the part of their keepers is
needed to ensure the arrival at maturity of the poults; for,
being necessarily crowded in a comparatively small space, they
are subject to several diseases which often carry off a large
proportion, to say nothing of the risk they run by not being
provided with proper food, or by meeting an early death from
various predatory animals attracted by the assemblage of so
many helpless victims. As they advance in age the young
pheasants readily take to a wild life, and indeed can only be
kept from wandering in every direction by being plentifully
supplied with food, which has to be scattered for them in the
coverts in which it is desired that they should stay. The pro-
portion of pheasants artificially bred that " come to the gun "
would seem to vary enormously, not only irregularly according
to the weather, but regularly according to the district. In the
eastern counties of England, and some other favourable localities,
perhaps three-fourths of those that are hatched may be satis-
factorily accounted for; but in many of the western counties,
though they are the objects of equal or even greater care,
it would seem that more than half of the number that
live to grow their feathers disappear inexplicably before
the coverts are beaten. For the sport of pheasant-shooting see
SHOOTING.

Formerly pheasants were taken in snares or nets, and by
hawking; but the crossbow was also used, and the better to
obtain a " sitting shot," — for with that weapon men had not
learnt to " shoot flying "—dogs appear to have been employed
in the way indicated by the lines under an engraving by Hollar,
who died in 1677: —

" The Peasant Cocke the woods doth most frequent,
Where Spaniells spring and pearche him by the sent."2

Of the many other species of the genus Phasianus, two only
can be dwelt upon here. These are the ring-necked pheasant
of China, P. torqualus, easily known by the broad white collar,
whence it has its name, as well as by the pale greyish-blue of its
upper wing-coverts and rump and the light buff of its flanks,
and the P. versicolor of Japan, often called the green pheasant

statements so as to find out the original word rendered " pheasant "
by the translator; but a reference to what is probably the same
passage with the same meaning is given by Ray (Synops. meth.
animalium, pp. 213, 214) on the authority of Llwyd or Lloyd,
though there is no mention of it in Wotton and Clarke's Leges
Watticae (1730). A charter (Kemble, Cod. diplom. iv. 236), pro-
fessedly of Edward the Confessor, granting the wardenship of
certain forests in Essex to Ralph Peperking, speaks of " fesant hen "
and " fesant cocke," but is now known to be spurious.

1 In his De studio militari (not printed till 1654) he states (p. 195)
that the pheasant was brought from the East by " Palladius an-
corista."

1 Quoted by the writer (Broderip ?) of the article " Spaniel "
in the Penny Cyclopaedia. The lines throw light on the asserted
Welsh practice mentioned in a former note.

from the beautiful tinge of that colour that in certain lights
pervades almost the whole of its plumage, and, deepening into
dark emerald, occupies all the breast and lower surface that in
the common and Chinese birds is bay barred with glossy black
scallops. Both of these species have been introduced into
England, and cross freely with P. colchicus, while the hybrids
of each with the older inhabitants of tht woods are not only
perfectly fertile inter se, but cross as freely with the other
hybrids, so that birds are frequently found in which the blood
of the three species is mingled. The hybrids of the first cross
are generally larger than either of their parents, but the superi-
ority of size does not seem to be maintained by their descendants.
White and pied varieties of the common pheasant, as of most
birds, often occur, and with a little care a race or breed of each
can be perpetuated. A much rarer variety is sometimes seen;
this is known as the Bohemian pheasant, not that there is the
least reason to suppose it has any right to such an epithet, for
it appears, as it were, accidentally among a stock of the pure
P. colchicus, and offers an example analogous to that of the
Japan peafowl (see PEACOCK), being, like that breed, capable
of perpetuation by selection. Two other species of pheasant
have been introduced to the coverts of England — P. reevesi from
China, remarkable for its very long tail, white with black bars,
and the copper pheasant, P. soemmerringi, from Japan. The
well-known gold and silver pheasants, P. pictus and P. nycthe-
merus, each the type of a distinct section or subgenus, are both
from China and have long been introduced into Europe, but are
only fitted for the aviary. To the former is allied the still more
beautiful P. amherstiae, and to the latter about a dozen more
species, most of them known to Indian sportsmen by the general
name of " kaleege." The comparatively plain pucras pheasants,
Pucrasia, the magnificent monauls, Lophophorus, and the fine
snow-pheasants, Crossoptilum — of each of which genera there
are several species, may also be mentioned.

All the species known at the time are beautifully figured from
drawings by J. Wolf in D. G. Elliot's Monograph of the Phasianidae
(2 vols., fol., 1870-1872) — the last term being used in a somewhat
general sense. With a more precise scope W. B. Tegetmeier's
Pheasants: their Natural History and Practical Management
(4th ed., 1904) is to be commended as a very useful work. (A. N.)

PHEIDIAS, son of Charmides, universally regarded as the
greatest of Greek sculptors, was born at Athens about 500 B.C.
We have varying accounts of his training. Hegias of Athens,
Ageladas of Argos, and the Thasian painter Polygnotus, have
all been regarded as his teachers. In favour of Ageladas it may
be said that the influence of the many Dorian schools is certainly
to be traced in some of his work. Of his life we know little
apart from his works. Of his death we have two discrepant
accounts. According to Plutarch he was made an object of
attack by the political enemies of Pericles, and died in prison at
Athens. According to Philochorus, as quoted by a scholiast
on Aristophanes, he fled to Elis, where he made the great
statue of Zeus for the Eleans, and was afterwards put . to
death by them. For several reasons the first of these tales is
preferable.

Plutarch gives in his life of Pericles a charming account of
the vast artistic activity which went on at Athens while that
statesman was in power. He used for the decoration of his own
city the money furnished by the Athenian allies for defence
against Persia: it is very fortunate that after the time of Xerxes
Persia made no deliberate attempt against Greece. " In all
these works," says Plutarch, " Pheidias was the adviser and
overseer of Pericles." Pheidias introduced his own portrait
and that of Pericles on the shield of his Parthenos statue.
And it was through Pheidias that the political enemies of
Pericles struck at him. It thus abundantly appears that
Pheidias was closely connected with Pericles, and a ruling spirit
in the Athenian art of the period. But it is not easy to go
beyond this general assertion into details.

It is important to observe that in resting the fame of Pheidias
upon the sculptures of the Parthenon we proceed with little evi-
dence. No ancient writer ascribes them to him, and he seldom,
if ever, executed works in marble. What he was celebrated

362

PHEIDON— PHELPS, A.

for in antiquity was his statues in bronze or gold and ivory.
If Plutarch tells us that he superintended the great works of
Pericles on the Acropolis, this phrase is very vague. On the
other hand, inscriptions prove that the marble blocks intended
for the pedimental statues of the Parthenon were not brought
to Athens until 434 B.C., which was probably after the death
of Pheidias. And there is a marked contrast in style between
these statues and the certain works of Pheidias. It is therefore
probable that most if not all of the sculptural decoration of the
Parthenon was the work of pupils of Pheidias, such as Alcamenes
and Agoracritus, rather than his own.

The earliest of the great works of Pheidias were dedications
in memory of Marathon, from the spoils of the victory. At
Delphi he erected a great group in bronze including the figures
of Apollo and Athena, several Attic heroes, and Miltiades the
general. On the Acropolis of Athens he set up a colossal bronze
image of Athena, which was visible far out at sea. At Pellene
in Achaea, and at Plataea he made two other statues of Athena,
also a statue of Aphrodite in ivory and gold for the people
of Elis. But among the Greeks themselves the two works of
Pheidias which far outshone all others, and were the basis of
his fame, were the colossal figures in gold and ivory of Zeus at
Olympia and of Athena Parthenos at Athens, both of which
belong to about the middle of the sth century. Of the Zeus
we have unfortunately lost all trace save small copies on coins
of Elis, which give us but a general notion of the pose, and the
character of the head. The god was seated on a throne, every
part of which was used as a ground for sculptural decoration.
His body was of ivory, his robe of gold. His head was of
somewhat archaic type: the Otricoli mask which used to be
regarded as a copy of the head of the Olympian statue is certainly
more than a century later in style. Of the Athena Parthenos
two small copies in marble have been found at Athens (see
GREEK ART, fig. 38) which have no excellence of workmanship,
but have a certain evidential value- as to the treatment of their
original.

It will be seen how very small is our actual knowledge of the
works of Pheidias. There are many stately figures in the Roman
and other museums which clearly belong to the same school as
the Parthenos; but they are copies of the Roman age, and not
to be trusted in point of style. A. Furtwangler proposes to
find in a statue of which the head is at Bologna, and the body
at Dresden, a copy of the Lemnian Athena of Pheidias; but his
arguments (Masterpieces, at the beginning) are anything but
conclusive. Much more satisfactory as evidence are some sth
century torsos of Athena found at Athens. The very fine torso
of Athena in the Ecole des Beaux Arts at Paris, which has
unfortunately lost its head, may perhaps best serve to help
our imagination in reconstructing a Pheidian original.

As regards the decorative sculptures of the Parthenon, which
the Greeks rated far below their colossus in ivory and gold, see
the article PARTHENON.

Ancient critics take a very high view of the merits of Pheidias.
What they especially praise is the ethos or permanent moral
level of his works as compared with those of the later " pathetic "
school. Demetrius calls his statues sublime, and at the same
time precise. That he rode on the crest of a splendid wave of
art is not to be questioned: but it is to be regretted that we have
no morsel of work extant for which we can definitely hold him
responsible. (P. G.)

PHEIDON (Sth or 7th century B.C.), king of Argos, generally,
though wrongly, called " tyrant." According to tradition he
flourished during the first half of the Sth century B.C. He was
a vigorous and energetic ruler and greatly increased the power
of Argos. He gradually regained sway over the various cities of
the Argive confederacy, the members of which had become
practically independent, and (in the words of Ephorus) " re-
united the broken fragments of the inheritance of Temenus."
His object was to secure predominance for Argos in the north
of Peloponnesus. According to Plutarch, he attempted to
break the power of Corinth, by requesting the Corinthians to
send him 1000 of their picked youths, ostensibly to aid him in

war, his real intention being to put them to death; but the plot
was revealed. Pheidon assisted the Pisatans to expel the Elean
superintendents of the Olympian games and presided at the
festival himself. The Eleans, however, refused to recognize the
Olympiad or to include it in the register, and shortly afterwards,
with the aid of the Spartans, who are said to have looked upon
Pheidon as having ousted them from the headship of Greece,
defeated Pheidon and were reinstated in the possession of
Pisatis and their former privileges. Pheidon is said to have
lost his life in a faction fight at Corinth, where the monarchy
had recently been overthrown. The affair of the games has an
important bearing on his date. Pausanias (vi. 22, 2) definitely
states that Pheidon presided at the festival in the Sth Olympiad
(i.e. in 748 B.C.), but in the list of the suitors of Agariste, daughter
of Cleisthenes of Sicyon, given by Herodotus, there occurs the
name of Leocedes (Lacedas), son of Pheidon of Argos. Accord-
ing to this, Pheidon must have flourished during the early part
of the 6th century. It has therefore been assumed that
Herodotus confused two Pheidons, both kings of Argos. The
suggested substitution in the text of Pausanias of the 28th for
the Sth Olympiad (i.e. 668 instead of 748) would not bring it into
agreement with Herodotus, for even then Pheidon 's son could
not have been a suitor in 570 for the hand of Agariste. But
the story of Agariste's wooing resembles romance and has slight
chronological value. On the whole, modern authorities assign
Pheidon to the first half of the 7th century. Herodotus further
states that Pheidon established a system of weights and measures
throughout Peloponnesus, to which Ephorus and the Parian
Chronicle add that he was the first to coin silver money, and that
his mint was at Aegina. But according to the better authority
of Herodotus (i. 94) and Xenophanes of Colophon, the Lydians
were the first coiners of money at the beginning of the 7th century,
and, further, the oldest known Aeginetan coins are of later date
than Pheidon. Hence, unless a later Pheidon is assumed, the
statement of Ephorus must be considered unhistorical. No
such difficulty occurs in regard to the weights and measures;
it is generally agreed that a system was already in existence in
the time of Pheidon, into which he introduced certain changes.
A passage in the Aristotelian Constitution of Athens (x. 2)
states that the measures used before the Solonian period of
reform were called " Pheidonian."

See Herodotus yi. 127; Ephorus in Strabo viii. 358, 376; Plutarch,
Amatoriae narrationes, 2; Marmpr parium, ep. 30; Pol"
Nicolaus Damascenus, frag. 41 (in C. W. Muller s Frag.

ollux ix. 83;

_ . . ig. hist, grae-

corum, iii.) ; G. Grote, History of Greece, pt. ii. ch. 4 ; B. V. Head,
Historia Numorum (1887); F. Hultsch, Griechische und rdmische
Metrologie (1882); G. Rawlinson's Herodotus, appendix, bk. i.,
note 8. On the question of Pheidon 's date, see J. B. Bury, History
of Greece, ii. 468 (1902); J. P. Mahaffy, Problems in Greek History,
ch. 3 (1892); J. G. Frazer's note on Pausanias vi. 22, 2; and especi-
ally G. Busolt, Griechische Geschichte (2nd ed., 1893), ch. iii. 12. C.
Trieber, Pheidon von Argos (Hanover, 1880), and J. Beloch, in
Rheinisches Museum, xlv. 595 (1890), favour a later date, about
580.

PHELPS, AUSTIN '(1820-1890), American Congregational
minister and educationalist, was born on the 7th of January
1820 at West Brookfield, Massachusetts, son of Eliakim Phelps,1
a clergyman, who, during the boyhood of his son was principal
of a girls' school in Pittsfield, Massachusetts, and later pastor
of a Presbyterian church in Geneva, New York. The son
studied at Hobart College in 1833-1835, then at Amherst for
a year, and in 1837 graduated at the university of Pennsylvania.
He studied theology at Union Theological Seminary, at the Yale
Divinity School, and at Andover, and was licensed to preach
in 1840 by the Third Presbytery of Philadelphia. He was
pastor of the Pine Street (Congregational) Church in Boston
in 1842-1848, and in 1848-1879 was professor of sacred rhetoric
and homiletics at Andover Theological Seminary, of which he
was president from 1869 to 1879, when his failing health forced
him to resign. He died on the i3th of October 1890 at Bar
Harbor, Maine. His Theory of Preaching (1881) and English

1 Eliakim Phelps afterwards lived in Stratford, Herkimer county,
New York, where hig house was " possessed " and was long a place
of curious interest to students of " spiritualism."

PHELPS, E. J.— PHENACETIN

Style in Public Discourse (1883) became standard textbooks;
and personally he was a brilliant preacher. He married in
1842 Elizabeth Stuart (1815-1852), eldest daughter of Moses
Stuart, then president of Andover; she was the author of the
popular story Sunny side (1851) and of other books. In 1854
he married her sister, who died only eighteen months later; and
in 1858 he married Mary A. Johnson, of Boston.

With Professors E. A. Park and D. L. Furber he edited Hymns
and Choirs (1860), and with Professor Park and Lowell Mason The
Sabbath Hymn Book (1859). The Still Hour (1859), a summary of
a series of sermons on prayer, is a devotional classic. His other
works are: The New Birth (1867), portraying conversion (in some
instances) as a gradual change; Sabbath Hours (1874); Studies of
the Old Testament (1878) ; Men and Books (1882) ; My Portfolio (1882) ;
My Study (1885); and My Note Book (1890).

See Austin P helps: A Memoir (New York, 1891), by his daughter,
Elizabeth Stuart Phelps-Ward.

PHELPS, EDWARD JOHN (1822-1900), American lawyer
and diplomat, was born on the nth of July 1822 at Middlebury,
Vermont. He graduated from Middlebury College in 1840,
was a schoolmaster for a year in Virginia, and was admitted to
the bar in 1843. He began practice at Middlebury, but in
1845 removed to Burlington, Vermont. From 1851 to 1853 he
was second comptroller of the United States Treasury, and then
practised law in New York City until 1857, when he returned
to Burlington. Becoming a Democrat after the Whig party
had ceased to exist, he was debarred from a political career in
his own state, where his party was in the minority, but he
served in the state constitutional convention in 1870, and in
1880 was the Democratic candidate for governor of his state.
He was one of the founders of the American Bar Association,
and was its president in 1880-1881. From 1881 until his
death he was Kent Professor of Law in Yale University. He
was minister to Great Britain from 1885 to 1889, and in 1893
served as senior counsel for the United States before the inter-
national tribunal at Paris to adjust the Bering Sea controversy.
His closing argument, requiring eleven days for its delivery,
was an exhaustive review of the case. Phelps lectured on
medical jurisprudence at the university of Vermont in 1881-
1883, and on constitutional law at Boston University in 1882-
1883, and delivered numerous addresses, among them that on
" The United States Supreme Court and the Sovereignty of
the People " at the centennial celebration of the Federal
Judiciary in 1890 and an oration at the dedication of the
Bennington Battle Monument, unveiled in 1891 at the centennial
of Vermont's admission to the Union. In politics Phelps was
always Conservative, opposing the anti-slavery movement
before 1860, the free-silver movement in 1896, when he supported
the Republican presidential ticket, and after 1898 becoming
an ardent " anti-expansionist." He died at New Haven,
Connecticut, on 'the 9th of March 1900.

See the Orations and Essays of Edward John Phelps, edited by
J. G. McCullough, with a Memoir by John W. Stewart (New York,
1901) ; and " Life and Public Services of the Hon. Edward J. Phelps,"
by Matthew H. Buckham, in Proceedings of the Vermont Historical
Society (Burlington, Vt., 1901).

PHELPS, SAMUEL (1804-1878), English actor and manager,
was born at Devonport on the i3th of February 1804. He was
early thrown upon his own resources, and worked in various
newspaper offices. Shortly after his marriage in 1826 to Sarah
Cooper (d. 1867), he accepted a theatrical engagement in the
York circuit at eighteen shillings a week, and afterwards
appeared in south of England towns in prominent tragic r61es,
attracting sufficient attention to be spoken of as a rival to
Kean. He made his first London appearance on the 28th
of August 1837 as Shylock at the Haymarket. After a short
season there he was with Macready for about six years at
Covent Garden, the Haymarket and Drury Lane successively.
In 1844 he became co-lessee of Sadler's Wells Theatre with
Thomas L. Greenwood and Mrs Mary Amelia Warner (1804-
1854). Greenwood supplied the business capacity, Phelps was
the theatrical manager, and Mrs Warner leading lady. In
this position Phelps remained for twenty years, during which
time he raised the Sadler's Wells house to an important position,

and himself appeared in a very extensive and varied repertory.
Thirty-four of Shakespeare's plays were presented there under
his direction, with great educational effect, both on public and
players. In 1861 Greenwood retired from the partnership,
and Phelps, unable to cope with the business of management,
retired from it in the following year. For the next fifteen years
he acted under various managements, achieving considerable
success in some of Halliday's dramatic versions of Scott's novels,
such as The Fortunes of Nigel and Ivanhoe. His last appear-
ance was in 1878 as Wolsey in Henry VIII., and he died on the
6th of November 1878. He was a sound and capable actor,
rather than one of any marked genius; and, in spite of his
predilection for tragedy, was most successful in such characters
of comedy as called for dry humour. Perhaps Sir Pertinax
Macsycophant in Charles Macklin's The Man of the World was
his finest impersonation. He published an annotated edition
of Shakespeare's plays (2 vols., 1852-1854).

PHELYPEAUX, a French family of Blesois. Its two principal
branches were those of the siegneurs of Herbault, La Vrilliere
and Saint Florentin, and of the counts of Pontchartrain and
Maurepas. Raimond Phelypeaux, seigneur of Herbault and
La Vrilliere (d. 1629), was treasurer of the Epargne in 1599,
and became secretary of state in 1621. His son Louis succeeded
him in this latter office, and died in 1681. Balthazar Phely-
peaux, marquis de Chateauneuf (d. 1700), and Louis, marquis
de La Vrilliere (d. 1725), respectively son and grandson of
Louis, were also secretaries of state. Louis Phelypeaux (1705-
1777), count of Saint Florentin and afterwards duke of La
Vrilliere (1770), succeeded his father as secretary of state;
became minister of the king's household in 1749, a minister
of state in 1751, and discharged the functions of minister of
foreign affairs on the disgrace of Choiseul (1770). He incurred
great unpopularity by his abuse of lettres de cachet, and had to
resign in 1775. Raimond Balthazar Phelypeaux, seigneur
du Verger, a member of the La Vrilliere branch, was sent as
ambassador to Savoy in 1700, where he discovered the intrigues
of the duke of Savoy, Victor Amadeus II., against France; and
when war was declared he was kept a close prisoner by the duke
(1703-1704). At the time of his death (1713) he was governor-
general in the West Indies. The branch of Pontchartrain-
Maurepas was founded by Paul Phelypeaux (1569-1621),
brother of the first-mentioned Raimond; he became secretary
of state in 1610.

PHENACETIN, C2H6O-C6H4-NHCOCH3 (para-acetamino-
phenetol), a drug prepared by acetylating para-phenetidin,
or by heating para-acetylaminophenol and potassium ethyl
sulphate with alcoholic soda to 150° C. Para-phenetidin is
prepared by treating the sodium salt of para-nitrophenol with
ethyl iodide, and reducing the nitrophenetol to para-phenetidin
or aminophenetol. The yield may be doubled by diazotizing
para-phenetidin, coupling with phenol, ethylating and reducing:

EtO-C6H4-NH2->EtO-C6H4-N2OH-}EtO-C6H4-N2-C6H-OH->
EtO-C6H4-N2-C6Hi-OEt-^2EtO-C6H4-NH2.

It crystallizes from water in colourless plates, melting at 135° C.
It is soluble in about 70 parts of hot and in about 1400 parts of
cold water.

Several compounds related to phenacetin have been intro-
duced into medicine. Triphenin is propylphenetidin; lacto-
phenin is lactylphenetidin; pyrantin is para-ethoxyphenyl
succinimide, EtO-CeHrNlCO-CHj];!; salop'hen or saliphenin is
salicylphenetidin; amygdophenin is mandelylphenetidin. In
addition, several other derivatives have been suggested which
have a greater solubility than phenacetin, e.g. phesin, which is the
sodium salt of phenacetin sulphonic acid, apolysin and citrophen
(citrophenin), which are citric acid derivatives of para-phene-
tidin, &c.

Phenacetin is contained in both the British and United States
pharmacopoeia, in the latter under the name of acetphenetidin.
The dose is 5 to 10 grs. given in cachets or in suspension. When
the drug is carelessly made it may contain impurities, producing
considerable irritation of the kidneys. The physiological action
of phenacetin consists in a sedative action on the sensory tracts of
the spinal cord, and a depressant action on the heart, where it

364

PHENACITE— PHENAZINE

tends to paralyse the action of the cardiac muscle. Upon the
bodily heat it exercises a marked effect, decreasing the action of
the heat-producing centre as well as increasing the dissipation of
heat, and thus causing a marked fall in temperature. In toxic
doses the blood becomes dark and blackish from the formation of
methaemoglobin, and the urine is changed in colour from the passage
of altered blood. The chief therapeutic use of phenacetin is as an
antineuralgic, and it is of service in migraine, rheumatism of the
sub-acute type, intercostal neuralgia and locomotor ataxia.

PHENACITE, a mineral consisting of beryllium orthosilicate,
Be2SiO4, occasionally used as a gem-stone. It occurs as isolated
crystals, which are rhombohedral with parallel-faced hemihedrism,
and are either lenticular or prismatic in habit: the lenticular
habit is determined by the development of faces of several
obtuse rhombohedra and the absence of prism faces (the accom-
panying figure is a plan of such
a crystal viewed along the triad,
or principal, axis). There is no
cleavage, and the fracture is
conchoidal. The hardness is
high, being 75-8; the specific
gravity is 2-98. The crystals are
sometimes perfectly colourless
and transparent, but more often
they are greyish or yellowish
and only translucent; occasion-
ally they are pale rose-red. In
general appearance the mineral
is not unlike quartz, for which
indeed it had been mistaken; on this account it was named, by
N. Nordenskiold in 1833, from Gr. <£t?a£ (a deceiver).

Phenacite has long been known from the emerald and chryso-
beryl mine on the Takovaya stream, near Ekaterinburg in
the Urals, where large crystals occur in mica-schist. It is also
found with topaz and amazon-stone in the granite of the Ilmen
mountains in the southern Urals and of the Pike's Peak region
in Colorado. Large crystals of prismatic habit have more
recently been found in a felspar quarry at Kragero in Norway.
Framont near Schirmeck in Alsace is another well-known locality.
Still larger crystals, measuring 12 in. in diameter and weighing
28 Ib, have been found at Greenwood in Maine, but these are
pseudomorphs of quartz after phenacite.

For gem purposes the stone is cut in the brilliant form, of
which there are two fine examples, weighing 43 and 34 carats,
in the British Museum. The indices of refraction (£0=1-6540,
6 = 1-6527) are higher than those of quartz, beryl or topaz; a
faceted phenacite is consequently rather brilliant and may
sometimes be mistaken for diamond. (L. J. S.)

PHENACODUS, one of the earliest and most primitive of
the ungulate mammals, typifying the family Phenacodontidae
and the sub-order Condylarthra. The typical Phenacodus
primaevus, of the Lower or Wasatch Eocene of North America,
was a relatively small ungulate, of slight build, with straight
limbs each terminating in five complete toes, and walking in
the digitigrade fashion of the modern tapir. The middle toe
was the largest, and the weight of the body was mainly supported
on this and the two adjoining digits, which appear to have been
encased in hoofs, thus foreshadowing the tridactyle type
common in perissodactyle and certain extinct groups of ungulates.
The skull was small, with proportionately minute brain; and
the arched back, strong lumbar vertebrae, long and powerful
tail, and comparatively feeble fore-quarters all proclaim kinship
with the primitive creodont Carnivora (see CREODONTA), from
which Phenacodus and its allies, and through them the more
typical Ungulata, are probably derived. All the bones of the
limbs are separate, and those of the carpus and tarsus do not
alternate; that is to say, each one in the upper row is placed im-
mediately above the corresponding one in the row below. The
full series of forty-four teeth was developed; and the upper molars
were short-crowned, or brachyodont, with six low cones, two
internal, two intermediate and two external, so that they were
of the typical primitive bunodont structure. In habits the
animal was cursorial and herbivorous, or possibly carnivorous.

In the Puerco, or Lowest Eocene of North America the place
of the above species was taken by Euprologonia puercensis, an
animal only half the size of Phenacodus primaevus, with the
terminal joints of the limbs intermediate between hoofs and
claws, and the first and fifth toes taking their full share in the
support of the weight of the body. These two genera may be
regarded as forming the earliest stages in the evolution of the
horse, coming below Hyracotherium (see EQUIDAE).

As ancestors of the Artiodactyle section of the Ungulata, we
may look to forms more or less closely related to the North
American Lower Eocene genera Mioclaenus and Pantolestes,
respectively typifying the families Mioclaenidae and Panto-
lestidae. They were five-toed, -bunodont Condylarthra, with a
decided approximation to the perissodactyle type in the struc-
ture of the feet. A third type of Condylarthra from the North
American Lower Eocene is represented by the family Menisco-
theriidae, including the genera Meniscotherium and Hyracops.
These, it is suggested, may have been related to the ancestral
Hyracoidea. Teeth and jaws probably referable to the Condyl-
arthra have been obtained in European early Tertiary forma-
tions. All Ungulata probably originated from Condylarthra.

See H. F. Osborn, Skeleton of Phenacodus primaevus; comparison
with Euprotogonia, Bull. Amer. Mus. x. 159. (R. L.*)

PHENANTHRENE, Ci4H10, a hydrocarbon isomeric with
anthracene, with which it occurs in the fraction of the coal tar
distillate boiling between 27o°-4oo° C. It may be separated
from the anthracene oil by repeated fractional distillation,
followed by fractional crystallization from alcohol (anthracene
being the less soluble), and finally purified by oxidizing any
residual anthracene with potassium bichromate and sulphuric
acid (R. Anschutz and G. Schultz, Ann., 1879, 196, p. 35); or
the two hydrocarbons may be separated by carbon bisulphide,
in which anthracene is insoluble. It is formed when the
vapours of toluene, stilbene, dibenzyl, ortho-ditolyl, or coumarone
and benzene are passed through a red-hot tube; by distilling
morphine with zinc dust; and, with anthracene, by the action
of sodium on ortho-brombenzyl bromide (C. L. Jackson and
J. F. White, Amer. Chem. Jour., 1880, 2, p. 391). It crystallizes
in colourless plates or needles, which melt at 99° C. Its solutions
in alcohol and ether have a faint blue fluorescence. When
heated to 250° C. with red phosphorus and hydriodic acid it
gives a hydride Cu H^. It is nitrated by nitric acid and sulphon-
ated by sulphuric acid. With picric acid it forms a sparingly
soluble picrate, which melts at 145° C. On the condition of
phenanthrene in alcoholic solution see R. Behrend, Zeit. phys.
Chem., 1892, 9, p. 405; 10, p. 265. Chromic acid oxidizes
phenanthrene, first to phenanthrene-quinone, and then to
diphenic acid, HOzC-CeH^rL.-^!!.

Phenanthrene-quinone, [CeH^tCO^, crystallizes in orange needles
which melt at 198° C. It possesses the characteristic properties
of a diketone, forming crystalline derivatives with sodium bisulphite
and a dioxime with hydroxylamine. It is non-volatile in steam,
and is odourless. Sulphurous acid reduces it to the corresponding
dihydroxy compound. It combines with ortho-diamines, in the
presence of acetic acid, to form phenazines.

On the constitution of phenanthrene see CHEMISTRY: § Organic.

PHENAZINE (Azophenylene), C^HjNz, in organic chemistry,
the parent substance of many dyestuffs, e.g. the eurhodines,
toluylene red, indulines and safranines. It is a dibenzopara-
diazine having the formula given below. It may be obtained
by distilling barium azobenzoate (A. Claus, Ber., 1873, 6, p. 723);
by passing aniline vapour over lead oxide, or by the oxidation
of dihydrophenazine, which is prepared by heating pyrocatechin
with orthophenylene diamine (C. Ris, Ber., 1886, 19, p. 2206).
It is also formed when ortho-aminodiphenylamine is distilled
over lead peroxide (O. Fischer and E. Hepp). It crystallizes in
yellow needles which melt at 171° C., and are only sparingly
soluble in alcohol. Sulphuric acid dissolves it, forming a deep-
red solution. The more complex phenazines, such as the
naphthophenazines, naphthazines and naphthotolazines, may
be prepared by condensing ortho-diamines with ortho-quinones
(O. Hinsberg, Ann., 1887, 237, p. 340); by the oxidation of an
ortho-diamine in the presence of a-naphthol (0. Witt), and by

PHENOLPHTHALEIN— PHERECYDES OF SYROS

the decomposition of ortho-anilido-(-toluidido- &c.)-azo com-
pounds with dilute acids. If alkyl or aryl-ortho-diamines be
used azonium bases are obtained. The azines are mostly
yellow in colour, distil unchanged and are stable to oxidants.
They add on alkyl iodides readily, forming alkyl azonium salts.

By the entrance of amino or hydroxyl groups into the molecule
dyestuffs are formed. The mono-amino derivatives or eurhodines
are obtained when the arylmonamines are condensed with ortho-
amino zo compounds; by condensing quinone dichlorimide or
para-nitrosodimethyl aniline with monamines containing a free
para position, or by oxidizing ortho-hydroxydiaminodiphenylamines
(R. Nietzki, Ber., 1895, 28, p. 2976; O. Fischer, ibid., 1896, 29,
p. 1874). They are yellowish-red solids, which behave as weak
bases, their salts undergoing hydrolytic dissociation in aqueous
solution. When heated with concentrated hydrochloric acid the
amino group is replaced by the hydroxyl group and the phenolic
eurhodols are produced.

The symmetrical diaminophenazine is the parent substance of
the important dyestuff toluylene red or dimetnyldiaminotoluphen-
azine. It is obtained by the oxidation of orthophenylene diamine
with ferric chloride; when a mixture of para-aminodimethylaniline
and meta-toluylenediamine is oxidized in the cold, toluylene blue,
an indamine, being formed as an intermediate product and passing
into the red when boiled; and also by the oxidation of dimethyl-
paraphenylene diamine with metatoluylene diamine. It crystal-
lizes in orange-red needles and its alcoholic solution fluoresces
strongly. It dyes silk and mordanted cotton a fine scarlet. It
is known commercially as neutral red. For the phenazonium salts
see SAFRANINE.

Phenazone is an isomer of phenazine, to which it bears the same
relation that phenanthrene bears to anthracene. It is formed by
reducing diortho-dinitrodiphenyl with sodium amalgam and methyl
alcohol, or by heating diphenylene-ortho-dihydrazine with hydro-
chloric acid to 150° C. It crystallizes in needles which melt at
156° C. Potassium permanganate oxidizes it to pyridazine tetra-
carboxylic acid.

^ ^ xN:N

Phenazine.

Phenazone.

PHENOLPHTHALEIN, in organic chemistry, a compound
derived from phthalophenone, or diphenyl phthalide (formula
I.), the anhydride of triphenyl-carbinol-ortho-carboxylic acid,
which is obtained by condensing phthalyl chloride with benzene
in the presence of aluminium chloride. The phthaleins are
formed from this anhydride by the entrance of hydroxyl or
amino groups into the two phenyl residues, and are prepared
by condensing phenols with phthalic anhydride, phenol itself
giving rise to phenolphthalein (formula II.) together with a
small quantity of fluorane (formula III.), whilst resorcin under
similar conditions yields fluorescein (<?.».). The phthaleins on
reduction yield phthalines, which are derivatives of triphenyl-
methane carboxylic acid ; these reduction products are colourless
and may be regarded as the leuco-compounds of the phthaleins,
thus phenolphthalein itself gives phenolphthaline (formula IV.).
Dehydrating agents usually convert the phenolphthalines into
anthraquinone derivatives.

/CPh
,H4<

Nco

, C6H

>0,

I. Diphenylphthalide, II. Phenolphthalein,

^CO-
IIl. Fluorane.

C,H4

\CO2H
IV. Phenolphthaline.

Phenolphthalein is obtained when phenol and phthalic anhydride
are heated with concentrated sulphuric acid. It crystallizes in
colourless crusts and is nearly insoluble in water, but dissolves in
dilute solutions of the caustic alkalis with a fine red colour, being
reprecipitated from these solutions by the addition of mineral
acid. It dissolves in concentrated caustic alkalis to a colourless
solution which probably contains salts of a non-quinonoid character.
This difference in behaviour has led to considerable discussion
(see H. Meyer, Monats., 1899, 20, p. 337; R. Meyer, Ber., 1903,
36, p. 2949; A. G. Perkin and Green, Jour. Chem. Soc., 1904, p. 398).
On fusion with caustic alkali, phenolphthalein yields benzoic acid
and para-dihydroxybenzpphenone, which shows that in the original
condensation the phthalic acid residue has taken the para position
to the hydroxyl groups of the phenol.

Fluorane is a product of the condensation of the phthalic acid
residue in the ortho position to the hydroxyl groups of the phenol,

anhydride formation also taking place between these hydroxyl
groups. It dissolves in concentrated sulphuric acid with a yellowish-
green fluorescence. The rhodamines, which are closely related to
the phthaleins, are formed by the condensation of the alkyl meta-
aminophenols with phthalic anhydride in the presence of sulphuric
acid. Their salts are fine red dyes.

PHENOMENON (Gr. <t>au>biMvov , a thing seen, from <t>aivtaOai.,
to appear), in ordinary language a thing, process, event, &c.,
observed by the senses. Thus the rising of the sun, a thunder-
storm, an earthquake are natural " phenomena." From this
springs the incorrect colloquial sense, something out of the
common, an event which especially strikes the attention ; hence
such phrases as " phenomenal " activity. In Greek philosophy
phenomena are the changing objects of the senses as opposed
to essences (TO. avra) which are one and permanent, and are
therefore regarded as being more real, the objects of reason
rather than of senses which are " bad witnesses." In modern
philosophy the phenomenon is neither the " thing-in-itself,"
nor the noumenon (q.v.) or object of pure thought, but the thing-
in-itself as it appears to the mind in sensation (see especially
KANT; and METAPHYSICS). In this sense the subjective character
is of prime importance. Among derivative terms are " Pheno-
menalism" and " Phenomenology." • Phenomenalism is either
(i) the doctrine that there can be no knowledge except by
phenomena, i.e. sense-given data, or (2) the doctrine that all
known things are phenomena, i.e. that there are no " things-in-
themselves." " Phenomenology " is the science of phenomena:
every special science has a special section in which its particular
phenomena are described. The term was first used in English
in the 3rd edition of the Ency. Brit, in the article " Philosophy "
by J. Robison. Kant has a special use of the term for that
part of the Melaphysic oj Nature which considers motion and
rest as predicates of a judgment about things.

PHERECRATES, Greek poet of the Old Attic Comedy, was a
contemporary of Cratinus, Crates and Aristophanes. At first
an actor, he seems to have gained a prize for a play in 438 B.C.
The only other ascertained date in his life is 420, when he pro-
duced his play The Wild Men. Like Crates, whom he imitated,
he abandoned personal satire for more general themes, although
in some of the fragments of his plays we find him attacking
Alcibiades and others. He was especially famed for his inven-
tive imagination, and the elegance and purity of his diction
are attested by the epithet dTTi/cwraros (most Attic) applied
to him by Athenaeus and the sophist Phrynichus. He was the
inventor of a new metre, called after him Pherecratean, which
frequently occurs in the choruses of Greek tragedies and in
Horace.

A considerable number of fragments from his 16 (or 13) plays
has been preserved, collected in T. Kock, Comicorum Atticorum
Fragmenta, i. (1880), and A. Meineke, Poetarum Comicorum Grae-
corum Fragmenta (1855).

PHERECYDES OF LEROS, Greek mythographer, fl. c. 454
B.C. He is probably identical with Pherecydes of Athens,
although the two are distinguished by Suidas (also by I. Lipsius,
Quaestiones logographicae, 1886). He seems to have been born
in the island of Leros, and to have been called an Athenian
because he spent the greater part of his life and wrote his great
work there. Of his treatises, On Leros, On Iphigeneia, On the
Festivals of Dionysus, nothing remains; but numerous fragments
of his genealogies of the gods and heroes, variously called
Toroptai, TtmaKtryiaL, Avroxdovts, in ten books, written in the
Ionic dialect, have been preserved (see C. W. Miiller's Frag,
hist, graec., vol. i. pp. xxxiv., 70). He modified the legends, not
with a view to rationalizing them, but rather to adjust them to
popular beliefs. He cannot, therefore, be classed with Hecataeus,
whose method was far more scientific.

'See C. Lutke, Pherecydea (diss. Gottingen, 1893); W. Christ,
Geschichte der griechischen Litteratur (1898) ; and specially H. Bertsch,
Pherekydeische Studien (1898).

PHERECYDES OF SYROS, Greek philosopher (or rather
philosophical theologian), flourished during the 6th century B.C.
He was sometimes reckoned one of the Seven Wise Men, and is
said to have been the teacher of Pythagoras. With the possible

366

PHIGALIA

exception of Cadmus (q.v.) of Miletus, he was the first Greek
prose-writer. He belonged to the circle of Peisistratus at
Athens, and was the founder of an Orphic community. He
is characterized as " one of the earliest representatives of a
half-critical, half-credulous eclecticism " (Gomperz). He was
credited with having originated the doctrine of metempsychosis
(5.1;.), while Cicero and Augustine assert that he was the first to
teach the immortality of the soul. Of his astronomical studies
he left a proof in the " heliotropion," a cave at Syros which
served to determine the annual turning-point of the sun, like
the grotto of Posillipo (Posilipo, Posilippo) at Naples, and was
one of the sights of the island.

In his cosmogonic treatise on nature and the gods, called
HtvTffivxos (Preller's correction of Sui'das, who has lirTa.iwx.os)
from the five elementary or original principles (aether, fire, air,
water, earth; Gomperz substitutes smoke and darkness for
aether and earth), he enunciated a system in which science,
allegory and mythology were blended. In the beginning were
Chronos, the principle of time; Zeus (Zas), the principle of
life; and Chthonie, the earth goddess. Chronos begat fire, air
and water, and from these three sprang numerous other gods.
Smoke and darkness appear in a later tradition. A fragment
of the " sacred marriage " of Zas and Chthonie was found on
an Egyptian papyrus at the end of the ipth century.

See H. Diels, Fragment* der Vorsokratiker (1903) ; also Q. Kern, De
Orphei, Epimenidis, Pherecydis theogoniis (1888); D. Speliotopoulos,
Ufpi *tp«Woi> rov Zupiou (Athens, 1890); T. Gomperz, Greek Thinkers
(Eng. trans.), i. 85; B. P. Grenfell, New Classical Fragments (1897);
H. Weil, Etudes sur I'antiquite grecque (1900).

PHIGALIA, or PHIGALEIA (<i>i7aXia or <EvyaX«a ; mod. Pavlitsd),
an ancient Greek city in the south-west angle of Arcadia, situated
on an elevated rocky site, among some of the highest mountains
in the Peloponnesus — the most conspicuous being Mt Cotylium
and Mt Elasum; the identification of the latter is uncertain.

In 659 B.C. Phigalia was taken by the Lacedaemonians,
but soon after recovered its independence by the help of the
Orasthasians. During the struggle between Achaeans and
Aetolians in 221 B.C. it was held by Dorimachus, who left it
on the approach of Philip V. of Macedon. In common with
the other cities of Arcadia, it appears from Strabo to have
fallen into utter decay under the Roman rule. Several curious
cults were preserved near Phigalia, including that of the fish-
tailed goddess Eurynome and the Black Demeter with a horse's
head, whose image was renewed by Onatas. Notices of it in
Greek history are rare and scanty. Though its existing ruins
and the description of Pausanias show it to have been a place
of considerable strength and importance, no autonomous coins
of Phigalia are known. Nothing remains above ground of the
temples of Artemis or Dionysus and the numerous statues and
other works of art which existed at the time of Pausanias's
visit, about A.D. 170. A great part of the city wall, built in fine
Hellenic masonry, partly polygonal and partly isodomous, and
a large square central fortress with a circular projecting tower,
are the only remains now traceable — at least without the aid
of excavation. The walls, once nearly 2 m. in circuit, are strongly
placed on rocks, which slope down to the little river Neda.

One very important monument still exists in a fairly perfect
state; this is a temple dedicated to Apollo Epicurius (the Pre-
server), built, not at Phigalia itself, but at Bassae, 5 or 6 m.
away, on the slope of Mt Cotylium; it commemorates the aid
rendered by Apollo in stopping a plague which in the sth century
B.C. was devastating Phigalia. This temple is mentioned by
Pausanias (viii. 41) as being (next to that of Tegea) the finest
in the Peloponnesus, " from the beauty of its stone and the
symmetry of its proportions." It was designed by Ictinus, who,
with Callicrates, was joint architect of the Parthenon at Athens.
Though visited by Chandler, Dodwell, Cell, and other English
travellers, the temple was neither explored nor measured till
1811-1812, when C. R. Cockerell and some other archaeologists
spent several months in making excavations there. After
nearly fifty years' delay, Professor Cockerell published the
results of these labours, as well as of his previous work at Aegina,
in Temples of Aegina and Bassae (1860), one of the most careful

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and beautifully illustrated archaeological works produced. The
labours of Cockerell and his companions were richly rewarded;
not only were sufficient remains of the architectural features
discovered to show clearly the whole design, but the internal
sculptured frieze of the cella was found almost perfect. This
and other fragments of its sculpture are now in the British
Museum. The colonnade of the temple has been recently
restored by the Greek authorities.

The figure shows the plan of the temple, which is of the Doric order,
but has an internal arrangement of its cella unlike that of any other
known temple. It stands on an
elevated and partly artificial plateau,
which commands an extensive view
of the oak-clad mountains of
Arcadia, reaching away to the blue
waters of the Messenian Gulf.
Unlike other Doric temples, which
usually stand east and west, this is
placed north and south; but it has
a side entrance on the east. It is
hexastyle, with fifteen columns on
its flanks; thirty -four out of the
thirty-eight columns of the peristyle
are still standing, with the greater
part of their architrave, but the rest
of the entablature and both pedi-
ments have fallen, together with the
greater part of the internal columns
of the cella. It will be seen from
the plan that these are very
strangely placed, apparently without
symmetry, as regards the interior,
though they are set regularly op-
posite the voids in the peristyle.

With the exception of one at the
south end, which is Corinthian, the
internal columns are of the Ionic
order, and are engaged with the cella-
wall, forming a series of recesses,
which may have been designed to
contain statues. Another peculi-
arity of this interior is that these
columns reach to the top of the
cella in one order, not in two ranges
of columns, one over the other, as
was the usual Doric fashion. These
inner columns carried an Ionic
entablature, of which the frieze now
in the British Museum formed a
part. The pediments and external metopes of the peristyle appear
to have contained no sculpture, but the metopes within the peristyle
on the exterior of the cella had sculptured subjects ; only a few frag-
ments of these were, however, discovered. The position occupied by
the great statue of Apollo is a difficult problem. Cockerell, with much
probability, places it in the southern portion of the cella, facing the
eastern side door, so that it would be lighted up by the rays of the
rising sun. The main entrance is at the northern end through the
pronaos, once defended by a door in the end of the cella and a metal
screen, of which traces were found on the two columns of the pronaos.
There was no door between the posticum and the cella. The general
proportions of the fronts resemble those of the Theseum at Athens,
except that the entablature is less massive, the columns thicker,
and the diminution less — all proportionally speaking. In plan the
temple is long in proportion to its width — measuring, on the top of
the stylobate, 125 ft. 7 in. by 48 ft. 2 in., while the Theseum (built
probably half a century earlier) is about 104 ft. 2 in. by 45 ft. 2 in.

The material of which the temple is built is a fine grey limestone
(once covered with painted stucco), except the roof-tiles, the capitals
of the cella columns, the architraves, the lacunaria (ceilings) of the
posticum and pronaos, and the sculpture, all of which are of white
marble. The roof-tiles, specially noticed by Pausanias, are remark-
able for their size, workmanship, and the beauty of the Parian marble
of which they are made. They measure 2 ft. I in. by 3 ft. 6 in., and
are fitted together in the most careful and ingenious manner. Unlike
those of the Parthenon and the temple of Aegina, the ipnoi or " joint-
tiles " are worked out of the same piece of marble as the flat ones,
for the sake of more perfect fitting and greater security against wet.

Traces of painting on various architectural members were found
by Cockerell, but they were too much faded for the colours to be
distinguished. The designs are the usual Greek patterns — the
fret, the honeysuckle, and the egg and dart.

The sculpture is of the greatest interest, as being designed to deco-
rate one of the finest buildings in the Peloponnesus in the latter half
of the sth century B.C.; see Brit. Mus. Catalogue of Sculpture, vol. i

The frieze, now in the British Museum, is complete; it is nearly
101 ft. long by 2 ft. high, carved in relief on twenty-three slabs of
marble 4$ to 5 in. thick. The subjects are the battle of the Lapithae
and the Centaurs, and that between the Amazons and the Greeks, the

Plan of the Temple at
Bassae.

PHILADELPHIA

367

two favourite subjects in Greek plastic art of the best period. They
are designed with wonderful fertility of invention, and life-like
realism and spirit ; the composition is arranged so as to form a series
of diagonal lines or zigzags M, thus forming a pleasing contrast
to the unbroken horizontal lines of the cornice and architrave.
The various groups are skilfully united together by some dominant
line or action, so that the whole subject forms one unbroken com-
position.

The relief is very high, more than 3$ in. in the most salient parts,
and the whole treatment is quite opposite to that of the Parthenon
frieze, which is a very superior work of art to that at Bassae. Many
of the limbs are quite detached from the ground ; the drill has been
largely used to emphasize certain shadows, and in many places,
for want of due calculation, the sculptor has had to cut into the flat
background behind the figures. From this it would appear that no
finished clay-model was prepared, but that the relief was sculptured
with only the help of a drawing. The point of sight, more than 20 ft.
below the bottom of the frieze, and the direction in which the light
fell on it have evidently been carefully considered. Many parts,
invisible from below, are left comparatively rough. The workman-
ship throughout is unequal, and the hands of several sculptors can
be detected. On the whole, the execution is not equal to the beauty
of the design, and the whole frieze is somewhat marred by an evident
desire to produce the maximum of effect with the least possible
amount of labour — very different from the almost gem-like finish
of the Parthenon frieze. Even the design is inferior to the
Athenian one; most of the figures are ungracefully short in their
proportions, and there is a great want of refined beauty in many of
the female hands and faces. It is in the fire of its varied action and
its subtlety of expression that this sculpture most excels. The
noble movements of the heroic Greeks form a striking contrast to
the feminine weakness of the wounded Amazons, or the struggles
with teeth and hoofs of the brutish Centaurs; the group of Apollo
and Artemis in their chariot is full of grace and dignified power.
The marble in which this frieze is sculptured is somewhat coarse and
crystalline; the slabs appear not to have been built into their place
but fixed afterwards, with the aid of two bronze bolts driven through
the face of each.

Of the metopes, which were 2 ft. 8 in. square, only one exists
nearly complete, with eleven fragments; the one almost perfect
has a relief of a nude warrior, with floating drapery, overcoming a
long-haired bearded man, who sinks vanquished at his feet. The
relief of these is rather less than that of the frieze figures, and the
work is nobler in character and superior in execution.

In addition to the works mentioned in the text, see Leake, Morea
(i. 490 and ii. 319; Curtius, Peloponnesos. i. 319; Ross, Reisen in
Peloponnesos; Stackelberg, Der Apollo-Tempel zu Bassae (1826);
Lenormant, Bas-reliefs du Parthenon et de Phigalie (1834) ; and
Histories of Sculpture mentioned under GREEK ART.

(J.H.M.;E.GR.)

PHILADELPHIA, the Greek name (i) of a city in Palestine
in the land of Ammon (see AMMONITES), and (2) of a city so-called
in honour of Attalus II. of Pergamum, the modern Ala-Shehr
(?.»•).

PHILADELPHIA, the third city in population in the United
States, the chief city of Pennsylvania, and a port of entry,
co-extensive with Philadelphia county, extending W. from the
Delaware river beyond the Schuylkill River, and from below
the confluence of the Delaware and Schuylkill rivers N.E.
about 23 m. along the Delaware river and Poquessing Creek.
Independence Hall, which is a few squares east by south of the
city hall, is in 39° 56' 57-5" N. and 75° 8' 54-75* W. The port is
about 102 m. from the Atlantic Ocean, and the city hall is 90 m.
by rail S.S.W. of New York and 135 m. N.E. of Washington.
The city has an area of 132-7 sq. m. At the southern extremity
are lowlands protected by dikes from the tide; the business centre
between the rivers is about 40 ft. higher but level; the district
west of the Schuylkill is generally rolling; and in the upper
district the surface rises from the Delaware toward the north-
west until in the extreme north-west is a picturesque district
overlooking Wissahickon Creek from hills exceeding 40x3 ft. in
height.

Population. — When the first United States census was taken,
in 1790, Philadelphia was the second largest city in the Union,
and had a population of 28,522. It held this rank until 1830,
when it was exceeded in size by Baltimore as well as by New
York. In 1850 it was smaller also than Boston; but in 1854
the Consolidation Act extended its boundaries so as to include
all Philadelphia county and in 1860 the city had risen again
to second rank. This rank it held until 1890 when, although
its population had grown to 1,046,964, it was 50,000 less than
that of Chicago. In 1900, with a population of 1,293,679, it

was still farther behind both New York and Chicago. In 1900,
of the total population, 998,357, or 77-18%, were native-born,
as against only 63% native-born in New York and 65-43%
native-born in Chicago. Of Philadelphia's native-born white
population, however, 414,093, or 44-24%, were of foreign-
born parentage. The foreign-born population included 98,427
born in Ireland, 71,319 born in Germany, 36,752 born in
England, 28,951 born in Russia (largely Hebrews), 17,830 born
in Italy, 8479 born in Scotland and 5154 born in Austria; and
the coloured consisted of 62,613 negroes, 1165 Chinese, 234
Indians and 12 Japanese. In 1910 the population was 1,549,008.

Streets. — With the exception of a limited number of diagonal
thoroughfares and of streets laid out in outlying districts in
conformity with the natural contour of the ground the plan of
the city is regular. Market Street — which Penn called High
Street — is the principal thoroughfare east and west, Broad Street
the principal thoroughfare north and south, and these streets in-
tersect at right angles at City Hall Square in the business centre.
The streets parallel with Broad are numbered from First or Front
Street west from the Delaware River to Sixty-Third Street,
taking the prefix " North " north of Market Street and the prefix
" South " south of it; the streets parallel with Market are named
mostly from trees and from the governors and counties of
Pennsylvania.

The wholesale district is centred at the east end of Market Street
near the Delaware river. The best retail shops are farther west
on the south side of Chestnut Street and on Market and Arch
streets. Most of the leading banks and trust companies are on
Chestnut Street and on Third Street between Chestnut and Walnut
streets. Several of the larger office buildings and the stations of
the Pennsylvania and the Philadelphia & Reading railways are in
the vicinity of the city hall; here too, are the Baldwin Locomo-
tive Works. The large textile mills, the great coal wharves
and the Cramp Ship- Yards are to the north-east along the
Delaware, and in districts west of these are the leading manu-
factories of iron and steel. There are large sugar refineries in
the south-eastern part of the city. Rittenhouse Square, a short
distance south-west of the city hall, is the centre of the 'old
aristocratic residential district, and the south side of Walnut
Street between Fourteenth and Nineteenth streets is a fashion-
able parade. There are fine residences on North Broad Street
and on some of the streets crossing it, and many beautiful villas
in the picturesque suburbs of the north-west. The most con-
gested tenements, occupied largely by Italians, Hebrews and
negroes, are along the alleys between the rivers and south of
Market Street, often in the rear of some of the best of the older
residences.

The principal structure is the city hall (or " Public Buildings ")
one of the largest buildings in the world in ground space (4!
acres). It rises 548 ft. to the top of a colossal bronze statue
(37 ft. high) of William Penn (by Alexander Calder) surmounting
the tower. It accommodates the state and county courts as
well as the municipal and county offices. The foundation stone
was laid in August 1872. On its first floor is Joseph A. Bailly's
statue of Washington, which was erected in front of Indepen-
dence Hall in 1869. About the Public Buildings are statues
of Generals McClellan and Reynolds, President McKinley, and
Joseph Leidy and St Gaudens's " Pilgrim." On all sides are
great buildings: on the north the masonic temple (1868-1873);
on the south the stately Betz Building; on the west the enormous
Broad Street station cf the Pennsylvania railway. The Penn-
sylvania Academy of Fine Arts and the Oddfellows' Temple
are among other notable buildings in the vicinity. The post
office, facing Ninth Street and extending from Market Street
to Chestnut Street, was opened in 1884; in front is a seated
statue of Benjamin Franklin, by John J. Boyle. The mint is
at the corner of Sixteenth and Spring Garden streets. The
custom-house, on Chestnut Street, was designed by William
Strickland (1787-1854), in his day the leading American architect.
It was modelled after the Parthenon of Athens, was built for
the Second United States Bank, was completed in 1824, and was
put to its present use in 1845. Other prominent buildings of

368

PHILADELPHIA

•which Strickland was the architect are the stock exchange,
St Paul's Protestant Episcopal Church, St Stephen's Church, the
almshouse and the United States Naval Asylum. The main
building of Girard College (on Girard Avenue, between North
igth and North 25th streets), of which Thomas Ustick Walter
(1804-1887), a pupil of Strickland's, was the architect, is one of
the finest specimens of pure Greek architecture in America. Near
the Schuylkill river, in West Philadelphia, are the buildings of
the university of Pennsylvania. Its free museum of science and
art, at South 23rd and Spruce, on the opposite side of the river,
was built from the designs of Walter Cope, Frank Miles Day
and Wilson Eyre, and its north-western part was first opened
in 1899. Tall steel-frame structures, of which the Betz Building,
completed in 1893, was the first, have become numerous. The
Roman Catholic Cathedral of St Peter and St Paul, east of
Logan Square, was begun in 1846 and was eighteen years in
building. The Arch Street Methodist Episcopal Church is
one of the most handsome churches in the city. The South
Memorial Church of the Advocate (1897), on North i8th and
Diamond streets, is a reproduction on a smaller scale of Amiens
Cathedral.

Perhaps the most famous historical monument in the United
States is Independence Hall, on Chestnut Street between Fifth
and Sixth streets, designed for the state house by Andrew
Hamilton (c. 1676-1741), speaker of the assembly, and was used
for that purpose until 1799. The foundations were laid in 1731
and the main building was ready for occupancy in 1735, although
the entire building was not completed until 1751. The steeple
was taken down in 1774 but was restored by Strickland in 1828,
and further restorations of the building to its original condition
were effected later. In the east room on the first floor of this
building the second Continental Congress met on the loth of
May 1775, George Washington was chosen commander-in-chief
of the Continental army on the isth of June 1775, and the
Declaration of Independence was adopted on the 4th of July
1776. The room contains much of the furniture of those days,
and on its walls are portraits of forty-five of the fifty-six signers
of the Declaration and a portrait of Washington by Peale. At
the head of the stairway is the famous Liberty bell, which bears
the inscription, " Proclaim liberty through all the land unto all
the inhabitants thereof " and is supposed (without adequate
evidence) to have been the first bell to announce the adoption
of the Declaration of Independence. It was cast in England
in 1752, was cracked soon after it was brought to America, was
recast with more copper in Philadelphia, and was cracked again
in 1835 while bejng tolled in memory of Chief Justice John
Marshall, and on the 22nd of February 1843 this crack was so
increased as nearly to destroy its sound. On the second floor
is the original of the charter which William Perm granted to
the city in 1701 and the painting of Penn's treaty with the
Indians by Benjamin West. The building has been set apart
by the city, which purchased it from the state in 1816, as a
museum of historical relics. On the north-west corner of
Independence Square is old Congress hall, in which Congress
sat from 1790 to 1800, and in which Washington was inaugurated
in 1793 and Adams in 1797. At the north-east corner is the
old city-hall, on the second floor of which the Supreme Court
of the United States sat from 1791 to 1900. A short distance
east of Independence Square in Carpenters' Hall, in which the
first continental congress assembled on the $th of September
1774 and in which the national convention in 1787 framed
the present constitution of the United States; the building was
also the headquarters of the Pennsylvania committee of corre-
spondence, the basement was used as a magazine for ammunition
during the War of Independence, and from 1791 to 1797 the
whole of it was occupied by the First United States Bank. The
Carpenters' Company (established in 1724) erected the building
in 1770, and since 1857 has preserved it wholly for its historic
associations. On Arch Street near the Delaware is preserved
as a national monument the house in which Betsy Ross, in 1777,
made what has been called the first United States flag, in accor-
dance with the resolution of Congress of the I4th of June. Not

far from this house is Christ Church (Protestant Episcopal),
a fine colonial edifice designed mainly by Dr John Kearsley
(1684-1772). The corner stone was laid in 1727, but the steeple,
in part designed by Benjamin Franklin and containing a famous
chime of eight bells, was not completed until 1754. The
interior was restored to its ancient character in 1882, the pews
of Washington and Franklin are preserved, and a set of com-
munion plate presented to the church by Queen Anne in 1708
is used on great occasions. In the churchyard are the graves
of Benjamin Franklin, Robert Morris, Brigadier- General John
Forbes, John Penn, Peyton Randolph, Francis Hopkinson and
Benjamin Rush. St Peter's, the second Protestant Episcopal
Church in the city, has a massive tower and a simple spire;
within are the original pews. In the south-east part of the city
near the Delaware is the ivy-clad Old Swedes' Church, built of
brick in 1698-1700. The house which William Penn built
about 1683 for his daughter Letitia was removed to Fairmount
Park and rebuilt in 1883. In Germantown (q.v.), a suburb
which was annexed in 1854, are several other historic buildings.
The dominant feature of the domestic architecture is the long
rows, in street after street, of plain two-storey or three-storey
dwellings of red (" Philadelphia ") pressed brick with white
marble steps and trimmings, and with white or green shutters,
each intended for one family.

Parks. — Fairmount Park extends along both banks of the Schuyl-
kill for about 5 m. and from the confluence of the Schuylkill and
Wissahickon Creek it continues up the latter stream through a
romantic glen for 6 m. Its area is about 3418 acres. Five acres
of an estate belonging to Robert Morris during the War of Indepen-
dence and known as " Fair Mount," or " The Hills," were purchased
by the municipality for " a city waterworks and for park purposes "
in 1812, and from this beginning the park grew to its present dimen-
sions by purchases and gifts. The principal buildings in the park
are : the McPherson mansion, once the property of Benedict Arnold
and in October 1780 confiscated by the committee of safety; the
Peters (or Belmont) Mansion, built in 1745 and much frequented
by the notables of the Revolutionary and early national period;
the birth-place of David Rittenhouse, the astronomer, and a monas-
tery of the German pietists, both on the banks of Wissahickon;
and memorial hall and horticultural hall, both survivals of the
centennial exhibition of 1876. On Lemon Hill, near the south end
of the park, stands the Robert Morris mansion ; in the vicinity is the
cabin which was General U. S. Grant's headquarters at City Point,
Virginia, during the winter of 1864-1865. Near the] Columbia
Avenue entrance to the park and near the East Park Reservoir are
the children's playhouse and playground, endowed by the will
of Mrs Sarah A. Smith (d. 1895). At the Green Street entrance is
an imposing monument to Washington, designed by Rudolph Siemer-
ing and erected by the Society of the Cincinnati in 1896-1897, with
a bronze equestrian statue. The Smith Memorial entrance, white
granite with bronze statues, was erected in memory of the officers
of the Civil War. The park also contains l a monument to Lincoln
by Randolph Rogers; an equestrian statue of Grant by Daniel
Chester French and Edward C. Potter; an equestrian statue of Major-
General James Gordon Meade by Alexander Milne Calder; an
equestrian statue of Joan of Arc by Emmanuel Fremiet ; an heroic
bust of James A. Garfield by Augustus St Gaudens; statues of
Columbus, Humboldt, Schiller and Goethe; a Tarn O' Shanter group
of four figures in red sandstone by James Thorn; John J. Boyle s
" Stone Age in America " ; Cyrus Edwin Dallin's " Medicine Man " ;
Wilhelm Wolff's " Wounded Lioness " (at the entrance to the
Zoological Gardens); Albert Wolff's "Lion Fighter"; Auguste
Nicolas Cain's " Lioness bringing a Wild Boar to her Cubs " ; Edward
Kemeys's " Hudson Bay Wolves "; Frederick Remington's " Cow
Boy "; and several artistic fountains, and a Japanese temple-gate.
In the down-town district, Franklin, Washington, Rittenhouse
and Logan squares, equidistant from the city-hall, have been
reserved for public parks from the founding of the city; in Ritten-
house Square is the bronze " Lion and Serpent " of A. L. Barye.
In Clarence H. Clark Park, West Philadelphia, is Frank Edwin
Elwell's group " Dickens and Little Nell." In Broad and Spring
Garden streets opposite the Baldwin Locomotive Works is Herbert
Adams's statue of Matthias William Baldwin (1795-1866), founder
of the works. Close to the bank of the Delaware, some distance
N.N.E. of the city-hall, is the small Penn Treaty Park with a
monument to mark the site of the great elm tree under which
Penn, according to tradition, negotiated his treaty with the
Indians in 1683. In the south-west part of the city, along the
Schuylkill, is Bartram's botanical garden (27 acres), which the city

1 Many of the statues and other works of art in Fairmount and
other parks are the gift of the Fairmount Park Art Association
(1871 ; reorganized in 1888 and 1906).

PHILADELPHIA

369

added to its park system in 1891 ; in it is the stone house, with ivy-
covered walls, which the famous botanist built with his own hands.

Through the efforts of the City Park Association, organized in
1888, a number of outlying parks, connecting parkways and small
triangular or circular parks, have been placed on the city plan.
Among these are League Island Park (300 acres), opposite the United
States navy yard on League Island; Penny Pack Creek Park
(about 1200 acres), extending 6| m. along Penny Pack Creek, in the
north-east ; Cobb's Creek Park, extending about 4 m. along the west-
ern border ; Fairmount Parkway, 300 ft. wide on a direct line south-
east from Fairmount Park to Logan Square and somewhat narrower
from Logan Square to the city-hall ; and Torresdale Parkway (300 ft.
wide and 10$ m. long), from Hunting Park, 4! m. north of the city-
hall, along a direct line north-east to the city limits. A plaza at
the intersection of Broad and Johnson streets, radiating streets
therefrom, and the widening of Broad Street to 300 ft. from this
plaza to League Island Park are also on the city plan. Laurel
Hill cemetery, on a high bank of the Schuylkill and contiguous to
Fairmount Park, is the city's principal burying ground ; in it are the
tombs of Dr Elisha Kent Kane, the Arctic explorer, and Major-
General Meade.

Theatres. — The first Shakespearean performance in the United
States was probably at Philadelphia in 1749; another company
played there in 1754 and 1759; and in 1766 was built the Old South-
wark theatre, in which Major John Andre' and Captain John Peter
De Lancey acted during the British occupation of the city, and which
after twenty years of illegal existence was opened " by authority "
in 1789. The Walnut Street theatre (1808) is said to be the oldest
play-house in the United States. Other theatres are the Garrick,
the large Academy of Music, the Chestnut Street opera house, the
Lyiic, the Adelphi, the Park and the German.

Clubs. — Among social clubs are the Union League, the University
(1881), the Philadelphia, the City, the Markham, the Manufacturers
(1887), the Rittenhouse, the Lawyers, the Clover, the Pen and Pencil,
the Art, the Mercantile, several country clubs and athletic clubs
(notably the Racket), and the foremost cricket clubs in the United
States, the Belmont, the Philadelphia, the Keystone, the Merion
(at Haverford), and the Germantown (at Manheim).

Museums, Learned Societies and Libraries. — In the southern part
of Fairmount Park is a zoological garden with an excellent collection.
Its site is the former estate of John Penn, grandson of William Penn.
The collection is an outgrowth of the museum, the first in the United
States, opened by Charles Willson Peale in Independence Hall in
1802. It is now owned by the Zoological Society (incorporated in
1859) and was opened in 1874. Other museums in Fairmount Park
are: the botanical collection in horticultural hall; and in memorial
hall the general art collections of the Pennsylvania Museum and
School of Industrial Arts and the Wilstach collection of paintings
(about 500), including examples of the Italian schools from the I5th
to the I7th centuries and of modern French and American painters.
Bartram's botanical garden, mentioned above as a city park, was
established in 1728 by John Bartram (1699-^1777) and is the oldest
botanical garden in America. The Philadelphia Commercial
Museums, founded in 1894, is a notable institution for promoting
the foreign commerce of the United States, having a collection of
raw materials and manufactured products from all countries, a
laboratory and a library. The institution investigates trade condi-
tions and the requirements of markets in all parts of the world,
maintains a bureau of information, issues a weekly bulletin for
American exporters and a monthly publication for foreign buyers,
and has published several " foreign commercial guides " and other
commercial works. The museum is maintained chiefly by municipal
appropriations and by fees. Its control is vested in " The Board
of Trustees of the Philadelphia Museums," composed of fourteen
citizens of Philadelphia chosen for life and eight ex officio members
who are the incumbents of the leading state and municipal offices.
There are home and foreign advisory boards, and the immediate
management is under a director. In 1727 Franklin, then in his
twenty-second year, formed most of his " ingenious acquaintance
into a club," which he called the Junto, " for mutual improvement,"
and out of the Junto grew in 1731 the library of the Library Company
of Philadelphia, which he spoke of as the " mother of all North
American subscription libraries," but which was not the first sub-
scription library in North America. The Library Company of
Philadelphia absorbed in 1769 the Union Library, which had been
founded some years before; and in 1792 the Loganian library, a
valuable collection of classical and other works provided for under
the will of James Logan, a friend of Penn, was transferred to it.
Subsequently it acquired by bequest the libraries of the Rev. Samuel
Preston of London and of William Mackenzie of Philadelphia.
Among the rarities in the latter was a copy of Caxton's Golden
Legend (1486). In 1869 the Library Company was made the
beneficiary, under the will of Dr James Rush (1786-^1869), of an
estate valued at about a million dollars, and with this money the
Ridgway branch was established in 1878. The library has owned
its building since 1790; the building on the present site was opened
in 1880 and was enlarged in 1889.

The American Philosophical Society, founded by Franklin in 1743,
is the oldest and the most famous academy of science in America.
Its organization was the immediate consequence of a circular by

Franklin entitled, A Proposal for Promoting Useful Knowledge
among the British Plantations in America. In 1769 it united with
(and officially took the name of) " The American Society held at
Philadelphia for Promoting Useful Knowledge." Among its early
presidents were Franklin, Rittenhouse and Jefferson. It has a
valuable library — about 50,000 vols. — containing the great mass
of the correspondence of Franklin; here, too, are many interesting
relics, among them the chair in which Jefferson sat while writing,
the Declaration of Independence and an autograph copy of the
Declaration. The society has published 27 quarto vols. of Transac-
tions (1771-1908); its Proceedings have been published regularly
since 1838, and in 1884 those from 1744 to 1838, compiled from the
manuscript minutes, were also published. The Academy of Natural
Sciences of Philadelphia, founded in 1812, has been noted for its
collection of birds since it acquired, in 1846, the collection of the due
de Rivoli numbering more than 12,000 specimens; several smaller
collections have since been added. The academy has a notable
collection of shells and fossils and the " types " of Leidy, Cope, Say,
Conrad and other naturalists, and a library. It is composed of the
following " sections ": biological and microscopical (1868), entomo-
logical (1876), botanical (1876), mineralogical and geological (1877)
and ornithological (1891). It has published a Journal since 1817
and its Proceedings since 1841, and periodicals on entomology,
conchology and ornithology. To a few young men and women it
gives training in scientific investigation without charge. The
Pennsylvania Historical Society, organized in 1824, has a valuable
collection of historical material, including the papers of the Perm
family and the Charlemagne Tower collection of American colonial
laws, and many early American printed handbills and books
(especially of Bradford, Franklin and Christopher Saur), portraits
and relics. With the proceeds of the society's publication fund the
Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography has been published
since 1877. The Numismatic and Antiquarian Society of Phila-
delphia, organized in 1858, is the oldest numismatic organization in
the United States; it has a collection of coins, and since 1865 it has
published its Proceedings. The College of Physicians and Surgeons
has an excellent medical library. The free library of Philadelphia
(established 1891) includes a main library and several branches.
Other important libiaries are that of the umveisity of Pennsylvania,
the Mercantile, that of Franklin Institute, that of the Law Associa-
tion of Philadelphia, the Athenaeum, that of the German Society
of Pennsylvania, and Apprentices'. The free museum of science
and art of the university of Pennsylvania has valuable archaeological
collections, notably the American and the Babylonian collections
made by university expeditions.

Schools. — William Penn in his frame of government provided for
a committee of manners, education and art. The assembly, in
March 1683, passed an act which provided that all children should
be taught to read and write by the time they were twelve years of
age, that then they should be taught some useful trade, and that
for every child not so taught the parent or guardian should be fined
five pounds. At a meeting of the provincial council held in
Philadelphia in 1683 the governor and council appointed as school-
master, Enoch Flower, who for twenty years had held that position
in England. But schools were left almost wholly to private
initiative until 1818. The first grammar school, commonly known
in its early years as the Friends' free school, was established in
1689 under the care of the celebrated George Keith; although
maintained by the Friends it was open to all, and for more than sixty
years was the only public place for free instruction in the province.
It was chartered by Penn in 1701, 1708 and 1711, in time became
known as the William Penn Charter School, and is still a secondary
school on Twelfth Street. In 1740 a building was erected for a
" charity school " and for a " house of worship," but the school
had not been opened when, in 1749, Franklin published his Proposals
relating to the Education of Youth in Pensilvania. Under the
influence of this publication a new educational association was formed
which purchased the building and in January 1751 opened in it an
institution that was chartered as an " academy and charitable
school " in 1753, was rechartered as a college and academy in 1755,
and became the university of Pennsylvania by act of the state
legislature passed in 1791. The university occupied the site of the
present post office from 1802 until 1872, but was then removed
to grounds near the western bank of the Schuylkill.

The foundation of the present public school system was laid in
1818 by an act of the legislature which constituted the city and
county of Philadelphia the first school district of Pennsylvania
and provided for the establishment therein of free schools for indigent
orphans and the children of indigent parents; the same act author-
ized the establishment of a model school for the training of teachers,
which was the pioneer school for this purpose in America. In 1834
free elementary schools were authorized for all children of school
age, and since then the system has developed until it embraces the
Central High School for boys, which has a semi-collegiate course
with a department of pedagogy and confers the degrees of B.A. and
B.S. ; a Normal High School for girls, into which the model school
was converted in 1848, in which most of the teachers of the
city are trained and which only graduates of the Girls' High
School are permitted to enter; the William Penn High School
for girls (opened 1909) with academic, commercial, applied arts,

37°

PHILADELPHIA

household science and library economy departments; a School of
industrial arts; two manual training schools; about one hundred
night schools (attended mainly by adults) ; several special schools
for habitual truants or insubordinate and disorderly children ; and a
number of vacation schools and playgrounds for the summer season.
In 1909 district high schools were planned as a part of the public
school system. The city has also many private high schools and
academies.

Besides the university of Pennsylvania and the Central High
School for boys the collegiate institutions are La Salle College
(Roman Catholic; opened in 1867) and the Temple University (non-
sectarian; chartered in 1888 as Temple College after four years of
teaching; in 1891 received the power to confer degrees); which is
designed especially for self-supporting men and women and was
founded by Russell Hermann Conwell (b. 1842), a lawyer and jour-
nalist, who entered the Baptist ministry in 1879, was pastor of the
Grace Baptist Church of Philadelphia in 1881-1891, became pastor
of the Grace Baptist Temple in 1891, and was a public lecturer.
He was the first president of the Temple College, which was begun
in connexion with the work of his church. Temple University
offers instruction both day and evening, has classes from the kinder-
garten to the highest university grades, and courses in business, civil
engineering, domestic art and domestic science, physical training,
pedagogy and music; it has a theological school (1893), a law school
(1894), a medical school (1901) and a school of pharmacy (i 902 );
and in 1907 the Philadelphia Dental College, one of the best known
dental schools in the country, joined the university. In 1893
a trust fund left by Hyman Gratz was used to found the Gratz
College for the education of teachers in Jewish schools and for the
study of the Hebrew language, and Jewish history, literature and
religion ; the college is under the control of the Kaal Kidosh Mikoe
Israel of Philadelphia. Bryn Mawr College (q.v.), one of the leading
institutions in America for the higher education of women, is a few
miles beyond the city limits. Schools of medicine, for which Phila-
delphia has long been noted, include the department of medicine
of the university of Pennsylvania (opened in 1765); Jefferson
Medical College (1825); the Woman's Medical College (1850), the
first chartered school of medicine for women to confer the degree of
M.D. ; the Medico-Chirurgical College (1881) ; Hahnemann (homoeo-
pathic) Medical College (1888); and the department of medicine of
Temple University (1901). Among other professional schools are
the department of law of the university of Pennsylvania (1790),
the law school of Temple University (1894); the divinity school of
the Protestant Episcopal Church (1862); the Lutheran theological
Seminary (1864); Saint Vincent's (Theological) Seminary (R.C.,
1868); the theological school of Temple University (non-sectarian,
1893); Pennsylvania College of Dental Surgery (1856); Philadelphia
Dental College (1863; since 1907 a part of Temple University);
the department of dentistry of the university of Pennsylvania
(1878); the department of dentistry of the Medico-Chirurgical
College (1897); the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy (1821); the
department of pharmacy of the Medico-Chirurgical College (1898);
and the school of pharmacy of Temple University (1902). Girard
College (see GIRARD, STEPHEN) is a noted institution for the educa-
tion of poor white orphan boys. The Pennsylvania Academy of the
Fine Arts, founded in 1805 in Independence Hall, was the first art
school in America ; it occupies a fine building on Broad and Cherry
streets, with a gallery of about 500 paintings, including examples of
early American masters (especially Gilbert Stuart, of whom it has
the largest collection), of modern American artists (especially in
the Temple collection), and, in the collection of Henry C. Gibson,
of French landscapes. The Drexel Institute of Arts and Sciences,
founded in 1891 by Anthony T. Drexel and endowed by him with
$2,000,000, occupies a beautiful building (Chestnut Street and 32nd ;
opened in 1891) and embraces the following departments: archi-
tecture, science and technology, commerce and finance, domestic
science, domestic arts, library school, English language and literature,
history, civil government and economics, physical training, evening
classes, department of free public lectures and concerts, library and
reading room, and museum and picture gallery. The institution
bestows free scholarships on a considerable number of students
and charges the others very moderate fees. Its building houses
a library, a collection of rare prints and autographs, and a museum
with a picture gallery and exhibits of embroidery, textiles, ceramics,
wood and metal work, &c. The Pennsylvania Museum and School
of Industrial Art founded in 1876 and opened in 1877, has schools
at Broad and Pine streets — the museum is housed in Memorial
Hall in Fairmount Park. The school is a pioneer in America; it
was originally a school of applied art, but in 1884 the Philadelphia
textile school was established as another department. The Wagner
Free Institute of Science, founded by William Wagner in 1855, has a
library and a natural history museum, provides free lectures on
scientific subjects, and publishes Transactions, containing scientific
memoirs. The Franklin Institute for the promotion of mechanic
arts (1824) has a technical library (with full patent records of several
nations); since 1824 it has held exhibitions of manufactures; it has
published since 1826 the Journal of the Franklin Institute; the
institute provides lecture courses and has night schools of drawing,
machine design and naval architecture. The Spring Garden Insti-
tute (1851), with day classes in mechanical drawing, handiwork,

and applied electricity, and night classes in those subjects and in
freehand and architectural drawing; the Philadelphia School of
Design for Women (1836), of which Emily Sartain, a daughter of
John Sartain, became principal in 1886; and a school of horology
(1894) are other manual and industrial training schools within the
city, and not far beyond the city limits is the Williamson Free School
of Mechanical Trades (1888), endowed by Isaiah Vansant Williamson
(1803-1889) with more than $5,000,000 for the free training of
bricklayers, machinists, carpenters, pattern makers, stationary
engineers and other mechanics. The Lincoln Institution and
Educational Home until 1907 was devoted mainly to the education
of Indians.

Newspapers and Periodicals, — The American Weekly Mercury was
the first newspaper published in Philadelphia and the third in
the colonies. It was first issued on the 22nd of December 1719 by
Andrew Sowle Bradford, a son of William Bradford, the first
printer in the Middle Colonies, and was the first newspaper in these
colonies. The second newspaper in the city and in the province
was the Universal Instructor in all Arts and Sciences and Penn-
sylvania Gazette. It was established in 1728 by Samuel Keimer, but
less than a year afterwards it became the property of Benjamin
Franklin and Hugh Meredith, who shortened its title to the Penn-
sylvania Gazette. The only one of the newspapers established
during the colonial era which survived the loth century was the
Pennsylvania Packet or General Advertiser, which was started in 1771
by John Dunlap, and during the War of Independence was published
semi-weekly, with occasional "postscripts" of important news;
in 1839 it was absorbed by the North American (1829), with which
the United States Gazette (1789) was united in 1847 and which is still
published as the North American. The Aurora and General Adver-
tiser, established in 1790 by Benjamin Franklin Bache (1769-1798),
a grandson of Franklin, was a notorious anti-Federalist organ in its
early years. A pioneer among newspapers at modern prices is the
Public Ledger, founded in 1836, and in 1864 purchased by George
William Childs. Other prominent daily papers now published are
the Inquirer (Republican; 1829), the Press (Republican; 1857),
the Record (Independent Democrat; 1870), the Demokrat (German;
1838), the Evening Bulletin (Republican; established in 1815 as the
American Sentinel), the Evening Item (1847), the Evening Telegraph
(Independent Republican; 1 864), and the Tageblatt (Labour; German;
1877). Many of the earlier literary periodicals of America were
published in Philadelphia; among them were the American Magazine
(1757-1758 and 1769), Thomas Paine's Pennsylvania Magazine
(1775-1776), the Columbian Magazine (1786-1790; called the
Universal Asylum in 1790) which was edited by Matthew Carey and
by A. J. Dallas, the excellent American Museum (1787-1792 and
1798), with which Carey was connected, the Port Folio (1801—1827;
edited until 1812 by Joseph Dennie) and the A nalectic (1802-1812)
which succeeded Select Reviews and Spirit of the Foreign Magazines
(1809), of which Washington Irving was editor in 1813—1814, and
to which Pauldine and Verplanck contributed, and the American
Quarterly Review (1827-1837). Among others were: Godey's Lady's
Book (1830-1877), for which Poe, Irving, Longfellow, Willis and
others wrote; and Graham's Lady's and Gentleman's Magazine
(1840-1859), with the contributors just named and Cooper, JohnG.
Saxe, E. P. Whipple and others. Lippincott's Magazine (1868) is
a monthly, best known for its fiction. The Saturday Evening Post,
which has the largest circulation of the weekly publications, and the
Ladies' Home Journal (1883), the semi-monthly with the largest
circulation, are owned by the same company. The Farm Journal
(1877) is a well-known agricultural monthly.

Trusts, Charities, &c. — Girard College and thirty-eight other
charities are maintained out of the proceeds of as many trusts,
which are administered by a board of directors composed of twelve
members, appointed by the courts of common pleas, and the mayor,
president of the select council, and president of the common
council as ex-officio members. In 1907 the invested capital of the
Girard Trust alone amounted to $24,467,770 and the income from it
was $1,988,054. The total capital of all the minor trusts in the same
year was $1,583,026 and the income from this was $56,730. Among
the minor trust funds are: Wills Hospital (established in 1825);
Benjamin Franklin Fund (1790) for aiding young married artificers;
Thomas D. Groyer Fund (1849) for providing the poor with fuel and
food; Mary Shields Almshouse Fund (1880); and the John Scott
Medal Fund (1816) for bestowing medals upon young inventors.
To Franklin Philadelphia is largely indebted for the Pennsylvania
hospital, the first hospital in the United States, which was projected
in 1751 and is one of the foremost of nearly one hundred such institu-
tions in the city. The municipal hospital for contagious diseases
and hospitals for the indigent and the insane are maintained by the
municipality, but most of the other institutions for the sick are
maintained by medical schools and religious sects. Municipal
charities are under the supervision of the department of public
health and charities. Philadelphia is the seat of the state peniten-
tiary for the eastern district, in which, in 1829, was inaugurated
the " individual " system, i.e. the separate imprisonment and dis-
criminating treatment of criminals with a view to effecting their
reform.

Transportation and Commerce. — Nearly every street in the
business centre and about one-third of the streets throughout the

PHILADELPHIA

built-up portion of the city have a single track of electric railway
(overhead trolley), and most of the wider ones, except Broad Street,
which has none, have a double track. A subway line has been
opened for a short distance under Market Street, and other subway
lines, as well as elevated lines, have been projected. The entire
system, embracing in 1909 a total of 624-21 m., is operated by the
Philadelphia Rapid Transit Company. Several inter-urban electric
lines afford cheap service to neighbouring towns and cities. The
extensive railway system under the control of the Pennsylvania
railway together with the Baltimore & Ohio railway affords
transportation facilities north to New York, south to Baltimore,
Washington and the south, west to the bituminous coalfields of
Pennsylvania, the grain fields of the Middle West, and to Pittsburg,
Cleveland, Cincinnati and Chicago. The Philadelphia & Reading
railway connects the city with the great anthracite coal region,
and both the Philadelphia & Reading and the Pennsylvania control
a line to Atlantic City. The Schuylkill is navigable for small craft
to the " Fall line," about 7! m. above its mouth and for vessels
drawing 26 ft. to the oil refineries at Point Breeze, 3 m. from the
mouth ; from Point Breeze to the head of navigation the channel
depth varies from 14 to 22 ft. The Delaware river is navigable to
Trenton, New Jersey, about 30 m. above the upper end of the port
of Philadelphia, and although in its natural condition this river
was only 17 ft. deep at low water in its shallowest part below the
port this depth was increased between 1836 and 1899 to 26 ft.
(except in three shoal stretches), and a project of the Federal govern-
ment was adopted in 1899 for increasing the depth to 30 ft. and the
width to 6op ft. In 1905 the city of Philadelphia and the state of
Pennsylvania appropriated $750,000 for the improvement of the
river between the city and the southern boundary of the state.1
Steamships ply regularly between Philadelphia and several European
ports, ports in the West Indies, and ports of the United States.

The port extends from the Pennsylvania railway terminal at
Greenwich Point up the Delaware River to the Philadelphia &
Reading terminal at Port Richmond, a distance of about 8 m., and
there are minor harbour facilities on the Schuylkill. The natural
facilities, together with the improvements that have been made, were
long offset by an inefficient port administration under an antiquated
law of 1803 which permitted the wharves to pass largely under
private control; but in 1907 the old board of port wardens was
abolished and in its place was created a municipal department of
wharves, docks and ferries.

Until the opening of the Erie Canal, in 1825, Philadelphia was
the emporium of the United States; it was then displaced by New
York. Some years later Philadelphia lost its lucrative China trade,
and its decline in commercial importance continued until 1883,
when the value of its imports amounted to only $32,811,045, the
value of its exports to only $38,662,434, and the city was out-
ranked in foreign trade by New York, Boston, San Francisco and
New Orleans. By 1900, however, the value of its imports had
risen to $49,191,236 and the value of its exports to $81,327,704;
in 1909 the value of the imports was $78,003,464, an amount less
than one-eleventh that of New York, but exceeded only by New
York and Boston, and the value of the exports was $80,650,274,
an amount less than one-eighth that of New York, but exceeded
only by New York, Galveston and New Orleans. The principal
imports are sugar, drugs and chemicals, goatskins, wool, tobacco,
jute and burlap, and cotton goods, iron ore, manufactured iron,
hides and bananas; the principal exports are iron (manufac-
tured), steel, petroleum, wheat, flour, lard, cattle and meat pro-
ducts. The proximity of the city to New York, whence many of
its products are shipped, makes the statistics of its direct imports
and exports no true index of its commercial importance.

Manufactures. — Philadelphia has always been one of the foremost
manufacturing centres in the United States, and in 1905 it was
outranked only by New York and Chicago.2 The total value of its
factory product was $519,981,812 in 1900, and $591,388,078 in 1905.
Measured by the value of the products, Philadelphia ranked first
among the cities of the country in 1905 in refining sugar and molasses
($37,182,504; 13-4% of the total of the country) and in the manu-
facture of carpets and rugs ($25,232,510; 41 % of the total of
the country), leather ($23,903,239; 9-5% of the total of the
country), hosiery and knit goods ($15,770,873; 11-5% of the total
of the country), woollen goods ($12,239,881; 8-6% of the total of
the country), and felt hats ($5,847,771; 16% of the total of the
country) ; second in the manufacture of worsted goods ($26,964,533 ;
16% of the total of the country) and in dyeing and finishing textiles
($4,371,006; 8-6% of the total of the country); and third in the
manufacture of clothing ($31,031,882; 5-1% of the total of the
country) and silk goods ($5,079,193; 3-8% of the total of the
country). Other large industries are the manufacture of foundry
and machine-shop products, cotton goods, malt liquors, iron and
steel, chemicals, cigars and cigarettes, soap, confectionery, furniture,

'The city had previously expended $1,555,000 on the improve-
ment of the^Delaware and Schuylkill rivers.

1 The Philadelphia Museums claim that excluding slaughter-
house and sweat-shop products the value of Philadelphia's manu-
factured products is greater than that of any other city in the
country.

ii

paints, boots and shoes, electrical apparatus, and cordage and twine,
and among notable individual establishments are the Baldwin
Locomotive Works, the Cramp Ship- Yards and the Disston or
Keystone Saw Works. There are petroleum refineries at Point
Breeze near the mouth of the Schuylkill; petroleum is piped to them
from the north-west part of the state.

Water Supply. — The first municipal waterworks, installed in
1799-1801, pumped water by steam power from the Schuylkill
into an elevated tank in Centre Square, where the city-hall now
stands; this was one of the earliest applications of steam to municipal
water pumping. In 1812-1815 new steam works were installed on
Quarry Hill, or Fairmount; in 1819-1822 pumping works operated
by water power were substituted for those operated by steam ; and
it was in great part for the preservation of the purity of the water
supply that Fairmount Park was created. The park, however, did
not serve its purpose in this respect. The water was impure and
inadequate: additional works were installed from time to time,
mostly on the Schuylkill, whence water was pumped by steam to
reservoirs from which distribution was made by gravity ; and to meet
the increasing demands new filtration works and accessories were
installed in 1901-1908. These take the water mainly from the
Delaware river.

Government and Finances. — Inasmuch as it has been proved
that in 1683 there was in use in Philadelphia a seal bearing the
inscription " Philadelphia .83. William. Penn. Proprietor, and.
Governor " and in all respects different from the provincial
seal or the county seal, it seems that there was then a distinct
government for the city. In July 1684 the provincial council,
presided over by William Penn, appointed a committee to draft
a borough charter, but there is no record of the work of this
committee, and it is uncertain what the government of Phila-
delphia was for the next seventeen years.3 In 1 701 Penn himself
issued a charter creating a close corporation modelled after the
English borough and under this the city was governed until
the War of Independence. Upon the annulment of the Penn
charter by the Declaration of Independence, government by
commissions was established, but in 1789 a new charter was
granted and, although the government has since undergone
many and great changes, it is by virtue of this charter that the
city remains a corporation to-day. The Consolidation Act of
1854 extended the boundaries to the county lines without
destroying the county government, changed the corporate name
from " Mayor, Aldermen, and Citizens of Philadelphia " to " the
City of Philadelphia," created the offices of controller and
receiver of taxes, and considerably modified the powers and
duties of the corporation and its officers. The Bullitt Act,
passed in 1885 to go into effect in 1887, and since 1885 amended
and supplemented, is a new charter except in name; particularly
notable is its transfer of the balance of power from the councils
and various self-perpetuating commissions to the mayor.

The mayor is elected for a term of four years and is not eligible
to the office for the next succeeding term. With the advice and
consent of the select council he appoints the directors of the
departments of public safety, public works,4 health and charities,
supplies and (since 1907) wharves, docks and ferries, and the three
members of the civil service commission. He may appoint three
persons to examine any department and for reasons given in writing
may remove any officer whom he has appointed. His veto power
extends to items in appropriation bills, but any item or ordinance
may be passed over his veto within five days of such veto by an affir-
mative vote of three-fifths of the members elected to each council.
The select council is composed of one member from each of the 47
wards, and in the common council each ward has one member for
every four thousand names on the last completed assessment list
(including names of those paying poll taxes as well as those paying
taxes on real or personal property) ; in 1909 there were 80 members
of the common council. The several administrative departments

* A document purporting to be a charter, bearing the date of the
2Oth of May 1691, and signed by Thomas Lloyd, deputy-governor,
was discovered in 1887, but the great seal is missing and there is no
evidence that the charter was even in operation. The minutes of
" a meeting of the Council held at Philadelphia on the third day of
Sixth Month 1691 " mention " Humphrey Morrey the present
Mayor of the city of Philadelphia "; and this would seem to show
that there was a regular municipal government in 1691. See
Philadelphia: Its Founding and Seals: Report of the Committee
. . . to determine the Year of the Physical and Legal Founding of the
City of Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1908).

4 In 1905 the state legislature took the appointment of these officers
from the mayor and vested it in the councils, but this legislation
was repealed in 1906.

372

PHILADELPHIA

are: public safety, public works, receiver of taxes, city treasurer,
city controller, law, education, charities and corrections, sup-
plies, wharves, docks and ferries, civil service commission and
sinking fund commission (composed of the mayor, the city
controller and a commissioner elected by a majority vote of the
city councils). Members of the select council are elected for
three years— one-third each year; members of the common council
for two years — one half each year ; and the receiver of taxes, the city
treasurer, the city controller, and the city solicitor, who is the head
of the department of law, for a term of three years. The police
constitute a bureau of the department of public safety, and at their
head is a superintendent appointed by the director of the depart-
ment with the approval of the select council. The department of
education is administered by a central board appointed (at large)
by the judges of the courts of common pleas.

The assessed value of taxable property in the city increased from
$153,369.048 in 1856 to $536,667,834 in 1880, to $880,935,265 in
1900, and to $1,358,675,057 in 1910. The city's yearly expenditure
increased from $5,170,680 in 1856 to $14,640,479 in 1880, to
$30,628,246 in 1900, and to $48,012,630 in 1909. The principal
items of expenditure in 1909 were: for public schools $8,242,218;
for the bureau of water, $2,827,200; for streets and highways,
$4,219,260; for police, $3,810,535; and for protection against fire,
$I,873,72O. The receipts for the same year were $44,372,927, of
which $18,851,442 were from the property tax (municipal and
state), and $4,396,124 were from the water tax. The city's indebted-
ness increased rapidly for a period of twenty-five years following
consolidation. At the beginning of 1856 the funded debt was
$16,781,470, by the beginning of 1870 it had grown to $42,401,933,
and by the beginning of 1880 to $70,970,041. By the new state
constitution adopted in 1873 no municipality is permitted to create
a debt exceeding 7 % of the assessed value of its taxable property,'
in 1879 the state legislature passed an act to prevent the city from
living beyond its income, and as a consequence of these restrictions
the funded debt, less loans held by the sinking fund, was reduced
by the beginning of 1895 to $33,139,695. The great expense of
installing the new filter plant, developing the park system, and
making other improvements has, however, caused it to grow again ;
at the beginning of 1910 the total funded debt was $95,483,820 and
the net funded debt was $84,901,620.

History. — The patent granted to William Penn for the territory
embraced within the present commonwealth of Pennsylvania
was signed by Charles II. on the 4th of March 1681 and Penn
agreed that " a quantity of land or ground plat should be laid
out for a large town or city in the most convenient place upon
the river for health and navigation," and that every purchaser
of 500 acres in the country shall be allowed a lot of 10 acres in
the town or city, " if the place will allow it." In September
Penn appointed William Crispin, Nathaniel Allen and John
,Bezan a commission to proceed to the new province and lay
out the city, directing them to select a site on the Delaware
where " it is most navigable, high, dry and healthy; that is
where most ships can best ride, of deepest draught of water,
if possible to load or unload at the bank or key side without
boating or lightering of it." Crispin, a kinsman of the pro-
prietor, died on the voyage out, but William Heage had been
named a fourth commissioner some time after the appointment
of the others and the three survivors arrived in the province
toward the close of the year. They had been preceded by
Penn's cousin, Captain William Markham, as deputy-governor,
and were soon followed by the surveyor-general, Thomas Holme.
Although the Swedes had established a settlement at the mouth
of the Schuylkill not later than 1643 and the site now selected
by the commissioners was held by three brothers of the Swaenson
family, these brothers agreed to take in exchange land in what
is now known as Northern Liberties, and as early as July 1682
Holme, according to modified instructions from Penn for making
the lots smaller than originally intended, laid out the city
extending from the Delaware river on the east to the Schuylkill
river on the west, a distance of about 2 m., and from Vine
Street on the north to Cedar (now South) Street on the south,
a distance of about i m. Penn landed at New Castle on the
Delaware on the 27th of October 1682 and two days later came
up as far as Upland, now Chester, 13 m. south of Philadelphia,
but when he came to his newly founded city is not known. He
is known, however, to have presided at a meeting of the pro-
vincial council held here on the zoth of March 1683, and from
that time Philadelphia was the capital of Pennsylvania until

1 If the debt of a city already exceeded the 7 % limit it could be
increased only by permission of the legislature.

1799, when Lancaster became the capital. During nearly the
whole of this period it was also the most important city com-
mercially, politically and socially in the colonies. Quaker
influence remained strong in the city, especially up to the be-
ginning of the ipth century; and it was predominant in Phila-
delphia long after it had given way before the Scotch-Irish in
the rest of Pennsylvania. But even in Philadelphia the academy
(later the university of Pennsylvania) soon came under the
control of the Protestant Episcopal Church. The first Contin-
ental Congress met in Carpenters' Hall on the sth of September
1774; the second in the old state house (Independence Hall)
on the loth of May 1775; and throughout the War of Indepen-
dence, except from the 26th of September 1777 to the i8th of
June 1778, when it was in possession of the British,2 Philadelphia
was the virtual capital of the colonies; it was a brilliant social
city, especially during the British possession. The national
convention which framed the present constitution of the United
States sat in Philadelphia in 1787, and from 1790 to 1800 the
city was the national capital. Here Benjamin Franklin and
David Rittenhouse made their great contributions to science,
and here Washington delivered his farewell address to the people
of the United States. Here, in July and August 1789, the
clerical and lay delegates from the Protestant Episcopal Churches
in the United States met and formally organized the Protestant
Episcopal Church in the United States. Here the first bank
in the colonies — the Bank of North America — was opened in
1781, and here the first mint for the coinage of the money of the
United States was established in 1792. The city was visited
with an epidemic of yellow fever in 1793 and again in 1798;
and in 1832 nearly 1000 inhabitants died of Asiatic cholera.

The original boundaries remained unchanged for 172 years,
but the adjoining territory as it became populated was erected
into corpo rated districts in the following order: South wark
(1762), Northern Liberties (1771), Moyamensing (1812), Spring
Garden (1813), Kensington (1820), Penn (1844), Richmond
(1847), West Philadelphia (1851) and Belmont (1853). In 1854
all these districts, together with the boroughs of Germantown,
Frankford, Manayunk, White Hall, Bridesburg and Aramingo,
and the townships of Passyunk, Blockley, Kingsessing, Rox-
borough, Germantown, Bristol, Oxford, Lower Dublin, Moreland,
Byberry, Delaware and Penn was abolished and the boundaries
of Philadelphia were extended to the county lines by a single
act of the state legislature. The consolidation was in part the
outcome of a demand for efficiency in preserving order. There
had been occasional outbreaks of disorder: on the i7th of May
1838 an anti-aboh'tion mob had burned Pennsylvania Hall,
which had been dedicated three days before to the discussion
of abolition, temperance and equality; in May 1844 anti-
Catholic rioters had burned St Michael's and St Augustine's
churches, and minor riots had occured in 1835, 1842 and 1843.
Philadelphia was from the first strongly anti-slavery in sentiment,
and it was here in December 1833 that the American Anti-
Slavery Society was organized, and in 1856, on the anniversary
of the battle of Bunker Hill, that the first national convention
of the Republican party met. During the Civil War the arsenal
and the Southwark navy yard were busy manufacturing material
for the Federal armies, the city was crowded with wounded
soldiers, and here in 1864 was held the great sanitary fair for
the benefit of the United States sanitary commission, an organiza-
tion for the relief and care of wounded and sick soldiers. In
1876, the centennial year of American independence, a great
exhibition of the industries of all nations was held in Fairmount
Park from the loth of May to the loth of November, and about
fifty buildings were erected for the purpose. In October
1882 the city celebrated the bi-centennial of the landing of
William Penn, and in October 1908 the 2 2 sth anniversary of its
foundation.

1 Lord Howe, who had been in command of the British, embarked
for England on the 24th of May, and on the l8th of this month was
held for his farewell entertainment the famous Mischianza, a feast
of gaiety with a tournament somewhat like those common in the
age of chivalry, which was in large part planned by Captain John
Andre.

PHILADELPHIANS— PHILARET

373

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — J. T. Scharf and T. Westcott, History of
Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1884), the standard history; J. F.
Watson, Annals of Philadelphia, revised by W. P. Hazard (Phila-
delphia, 1898), often the record of tradition; E. P. Allinson and B.
Penrose, Philadelphia 1681-1887; a- History of Municipal Develop-
ment (Philadelphia, 1887); J. H. Young (ed.), Memorial History
of the City of Philadelphia (New York, 1895) ; Lillian I. Rhoades,
The Story of Philadelphia (New York, 1900); T. Williams,
" Philadelphia," in L. P. Powell's Historic Towns of the Middle
States (New York, 1899) ; F. M. Etting, An Historical Account of the
Old State House (Philadelphia, 1891) ; E. K. Price, History of the
Consolidation of Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1873); and Agnes
Repplier, Philadelphia, the Place and People (New York, 1898).

PHILADELPHIANS, a sect of religious mystics, founded in
London in the latter part of the I7th century. In 1652 Dr John
Pordage (1607-1681), rector of Bradfield, Berkshire, gathered
together a few followers of Jakob Boehme, the chief of whom
was Jane Lead or Leade (nee Ward; 1623-1704). Pordage was
ejected from his living by the Triers in 1655, but was restored
in 1660. Mrs Leade had been from girlhood of a mystical
temperament, and experienced phantasms which she recorded
in a diary entitled A Fountain of Gardens, beginning in 1670,
in which year the Philadelphian society was definitely organized.
She drew up for it " The Laws of Paradise," which show that
the enterprise was designed " to advance the Kingdom of God
by improving the life, teaching the loftiest morality, and enforc-
ing the duty of universal brotherhood, peace and love." Its
members had a strong faith in what they called the " Divine
Secrets," the wonders of God and nature, the profound spiritual
experiences of regeneration and soul-resurrection, and the
second Advent. In 1693 some of Mrs Leade's writings were
translated into Dutch, and by this means and her acquaintance
with Francis Lee (1661-1719), an Oxford scholar who studied
medicine at Leiden and became her son-in-law, a connexion
was opened up with Germany and Holland. In 1703 the Phila-
delphians drew up their confession, but they made no further
progress and soon declined. The Holland branch withdrew,
and the English government forbade the society to meet. For
many years, however, a considerable number of people regarded
Mrs Leade's visions, which were published in a long series of
writings, as proofs of her divine calling. In her later years she
had a severe struggle with poverty, which was relieved by a
pension granted by Baron Kniphausen.

PHILAE, an islet in the Nile above the First Cataract, of great
beauty and interest, but since the completion of the Assuan
dam in 1902 submerged except for a few months yearly during
High Nile (July to October), when the water is allowed to run
freely through the sluices of the Assuan dam. Philae is the
nearest island to the point where the ancient desert road from
Assuan rejoins the river south of the cataract. It marks also
the end of the cataract region. Below it the channel is broad
and straight with rocky granite islands to the west. The name
in Egyptian was Pilak, " the angle (?) island ": the Arabs call
it Anas el Wagud, after the hero of a romantic tale in the Arabian
Nights. Ancient graffiti abound in all this district, and on
Bigeh, a larger island adjoining Philae, there was a temple as
early as the reign of Tethmosis III. The name of Amasis II.
(570-535 B.C.) is said to have been found at Philae, and it is
possible that there were still older buildings which have been
swallowed up in later constructions. About 350 B.C. Nekhtnebf,
the last of the native kings of Egypt, built a temple to Isis,
most of which was destroyed by floods. Ptolemy Philadelphus
reconstructed some of this work and began a large temple which
Ptolemy Euergetes I. completed, but the decoration, carried
on under later Ptolemies and Caesars, was never finished. The
temple of Isis was the chief sanctuary of the Dodecaschoenus,
the portion of Lower Nubia generally held by the Ptolemies
and Romans. The little island won great favour as a religious
resort, not only for the Egyptians and the Ethiopians and others
who frequented the border district and the market of Assuan,
but also for Greek and Roman visitors. One temple or chapel
after another sprang up upon it dedicated to various gods,
including the Nubian Mandulis. Ergamenes ( Arkamane) , king
of Ethiopia, shared with the Ptolemies in the building. Besides

the temple of Isis with its birth-temple in the first court, there
were smaller temples or shrines of Arsenuphis, Mandulis, Imuthes,
Hathor, Harendotes (a form of Horus) and Augustus (in the
Roman style), besides unnamed ones. There were also monu-
mental gateways, and the island was protected by a stone quay
all round with the necessary staircases, &c., and a Nilometer.
The most beautiful of all the buildings is an unfinished kiosque
inscribed by Trajan, well known under the name of " Pharaoh's
Bed." Graffiti of pilgrims to the shrine of Isis are dated as late
as the end of the 5th century A.D. The decree of Theodosius
(A.D. 378) which suppressed pagan worship in the empire was
of little effect in the extreme south. In A.D. 453 Maximinus,
the general of the emperor Marcian, after inflicting a severe defeat
on the Nobatae and Blemmyes who were settled in Lower Nubia,
and thence raided Upper Egypt, made peace on terms which
included permission for these heathen tribes to visit the temple
and even to borrow the image of Isis on certain occasions. It
was not till the reign of Justinian, A.D. 527-565, that the temple
of Philae was finally closed, and the idols taken to Constantinople.
Remains of Christian churches were disclosed by the thorough
exploration carried out in 1895-1896 in view of the Barrage
scheme, under the direction of Captain Lyons. The accumula-
tions of rubbish on the island were cleared away and the walls
and foundations of the stone buildings were all repaired and
strengthened before the dam was completed. The annual
flooding now appears to be actually beneficial to the stonework,
by removing the disintegrating salts and incrustations. The
tops of most of the buildings and the whole nucleus of the
temple of Isis to the floor remained all the year round above
the water level until the dam was raised another 26 ft. — a work
begun in 1907 — when the temples were entirely submerged
except during July-October. But the beauty of the island and
its ruins and palm trees, the joy of travellers and artists, is
almost gone.

See H. G. Lyons, A Report on the Island and Temples of Philae
(Cairo, 1896), with numerous plans and photographs; a second
report, A Report on the Temples of Philae (1908), deals with the
condition of the ruins as affected by the immersions occasioned by
the filling of the Assuan dam ; Baedeker's Egypt ; and on the effects
of the submersion, &c., reports in Annales du service des antiquites,
vols. iv. v. (F. LL. G.)

PHILARET [THEODORE NIKITICH ROMANOV] (? 1553-1633),
patriarch of Moscow, was the second son of the boyar Nikita
Romanovich. During the reign of his first cousin Theodore I.
(1584-1598), Theodore Romanov distinguished himself both as
a soldier and a diplomatist, fighting against the Swedes in
1590, and conducting negotiations with the ambassadors of the
emperor Rudolph II. in 1 593-1 594. On the death of the childless
tsar, he was the popular candidate for the vacant throne; but
he acquiesced in the election of Boris Godunov, and shared the
disgrace of his too-powerful family three years later, when Boris
compelled both him and his wife, Xenia Chestovaya, to take
monastic vows under the names of Philaret and Martha respec-
tively. Philaret was kept in the strictest confinement in the
Antoniev monastery, where he was exposed to every conceivable
indignity; but when the pseudo-Demetrius overthrew the
Godunovs he released Philaret and made him metropolitan of
Rostov (1605). In 1609 Philaret fell into the hands of pseudo-
Demetrius II., who named him patriarch of all Russia, though
his jurisdiction only extended over the very limited area which
acknowledged the impostor. From 1610-1618 he was a prisoner
in the hands of the Polish king, Sigismund III., whom he refused
to acknowledge as tsar of Muscovy on being sent on an embassy
to the Polish camp in 1610. He was released on the conclusion
of the truce of Deulino (Feb. 13, 1619), and on the and of June
was canonically enthroned patriarch of Moscow. Henceforth,
till his death, the established government of Muscovy was a
diarchy. From 1619 to 1633 there were two actual sovereigns,
Tsar Michael and his father, the most holy Patriarch Philaret.
Theoretically they were co-regents, but Philaret frequently
transacted affairs of state without consulting the tsar. He
replenished the treasury by a more equable and rational system
of assessing and collecting the taxes. His most important

374

PHILATELY— PHILEMON

domestic measure was the chaining of the peasantry to the soil,
a measure directed against the ever increasing migration of the
down-trodden serfs to the steppes, where they became free-
booters instead of tax-payers. The taxation of the tsar's
slyuzhnuie lyudi, or military tenants, was a first step towards
the proportional taxation of the hitherto privileged classes.
Philaret's zeal for the purity of orthodoxy sometimes led him
into excesses: but he encouraged the publication of theological
works, formed the nucleus of the subsequently famous Patri-
archal Library, and commanded that every archbishop should
establish a seminary for the clergy, himself setting the example.
Another great service rendered by Philaret to his country was
the reorganization of the Muscovite army with the help of foreign
officers. His death in October 1633 put an end to the Russo-
Polish War (1632-33), withdrawing the strongest prop from an
executive feeble enough even when supported by all the weight
of his authority.

See R. N. Bain, The First Romanovs (London, 1905) ; S. M. Solovev,
Hist, of Russia (Rus.), vol. ix. (St Petersb. 1895, &c.) (R. N. B.)

PHILATELY (Gr. <£tXos, loving, and dreXifr, free of tax), the
study and collection of postage-stamps and other marks of pre-
payment issued by post-offices. The fancy for collecting postage-
stamps began a short time after the issue of the first British
penny and two-penny stamps in 1840 (see POST and POSTAL
SERVICE). Dr Gray, an official of the British Museum, began
collecting them soon after their appearance, and an advertise-
ment in an issue of The Times of 1841 asks for gifts of cancelled
stamps for a young lady. In 1842 the new hobby was ridiculed
in Punch. It was not until about 1860, however, that stamp
collecting began to be systematically carried on with full regard
to such minutiae as the different kinds of paper, water-marks,
perforation, shade of colour and distinctive outline. About
1862 a teacher in Paris directed that foreign stamps should be
collected and pasted upon the pages of his pupils' atlases and
geographies according to countries, and this may have been the
first form of the systematic classification of stamps in a collection.
Of existing collections the oldest were begun between 1853 and
1860, by which year French collectors had assumed especial
prominence,. Professional dealers now made their appearance,
and in 1861 philatelic literature, now of vast extent, was in-
augurated by the publication in Strasburg of a catalogue of
stamps issued up to that time. The Paris collectors were the
first to classify stamps, measure them by the gauge, note the
water-marks and separate the distinct issues of each country.
Collecting with due regard to the relationship of different issues
is called plating. The first English catalogue was issued in
1862, followed in December of the same year by The Stamp
Collector's Review and Monthly Advertiser, published in Liverpool,
the first philatelic periodical, the second, The Stamp Collector's
Magazine, appearing in 1863. In 1863 also appeared Le Timbre-
Paste, a Brussels journal. Up to 1910 over 800 philatelic
periodicals had appeared.

Although small bodies of enthusiasts had banded together
in England, France and the United States for the study and
collection of postage-stamps as early as 1865, it was not until
1869 that the first great club, the Philatelic Society of London,
still the most important in the world, was founded. Other
societies in Great Britain are the Junior Philatelic of London,
and those of Birmingham, Manchester, Edinburgh and Leith.
The leading society in America is the American Philatelic
Association; in France the Societe fran^aise de timbrologie; in
Germany the Inlernalionaler Philatelisten-Verein. More than
400 such organizations are now in existence, the majority of
them in the United States and Germany. At a philatelic con-
gress, held in London in 1910, the formation of .a universal union
of philatelic societies " to discourage unnecessary or speculative
issues " was considered.

Not only the stamps themselves were collected, but " entires,"
i.e. postcards, envelopes with the stamps still adhering, &c.
Marks of prepayment at last became so numerous that, about
1880, specialists began to appear, who restricted their collections
to the stamps of some particular country or continent, or to

postcards or newspaper-wrappers alone. The most extensive
and valuable stamp collection in the world, that of Baron P.
von Ferrary of Paris, was begun about 1865. This collection,
which cost its owner at least £250,000, contains a cancelled and
an uncancelled specimen of each stamp. The next greatest
collection is that bequeathed to the British nation in 1891 by
T. K. Tapling, M.P., now in the British Museum. Among other
important collections may be mentioned those in the German
Postal Museum in Berlin, of King George V. of England, W. B.
Avery, H. J. Duveen and the earl of Crawford. The largest
sum realized for an entire collection was £27,500, which was paid
for that of M. P. Castle, consisting of European stamps only.
The value of a stamp depends partly upon its age, but much
more upon its rarity, which again is dependent upon the number
of the particular stamps originally issued. Most stamps have
a quoted value, but some possess a conventional value only,
such as those of which only one or two specimens are known to
exist; for instance, the one-cent stamp of the 1856 issue of British
Guiana (one known copy); the Italian 15 centesimi stamp of
1865 converted by an overprint into 20 centesimi (one copy);
the Cape of Good Hope triangular, printed by mistake on paper
intended for stamps of other colonies (four copies) ; and the 2 cent
stamps of the earliest issue of British Guiana (ten copies). The
best known of the very rare stamps are the id. and 2d. " Post-
Office " Mauritius, for which higher prices have been paid than
for any other stamps, although 23 copies are known to exist
out of the loco issued. For a fine specimen of these Mauritius
stamps £2000 has been offered. Two of them have been sold
for £2400. Philatelic exhibitions such as those held in London
in 1890 and 1897 and in Manchester in 1909 have proved
popular.

" Reprints " are reimpressions, taken from the original plates,
of obsolete stamps, and have a much smaller value than speci- <
mens of the original issue. Forgeries of the rarer stamps are
common but are easily detected. Modern postage-stamp albums
are often beautiful specimens of the printer's art, reproductions
of every known stamp being given in the original colours.

See W. J. Hardy and E. D. Bacon, The Stamp Collector (London,
1898); Oliver Firth, Postage Stamps and Their Collection, (1897);
F. J. Melville, A B C of Stamp Collecting (1903) ; Caiman and Collin,
Catalogue for Advanced Collectors (New York, 1902); Hastings
E. Wright and A. B. Creeke, History of the Adhesive Stamps of the
British Isles (London, 1899); J. K. Tiffany, Stamp Collector's Library
Companion (Chicago, 1889); Luff, The Postage Stamps of the United
States (New York, 1902) ; W. E. Daniells, History of British Post-
marks (London, 1898); L. Salefranque, Le Timbre a travers I'histoire
(Rouen, 1890) ; R. Senf , Illustrierter Postwerthzeichenkatalog (Leipzig,
annually) ; Krotzsch, Permanentes Handbuch der Postfreimarkenkunde
(Leipzig, annually); periodicals: The London Philatelist (monthly);
Illustrierte Brief marken-Zeitung (Leipzig).

PHILEMON (c. 361-263 B.C.), Greek poet of the New Comedy,
was born at Soli in Cilicia, or at Syracuse. He settled at Athens
early in life, and his first play was produced in 330. He was a
contemporary and rival of Menander, whom he frequently
vanquished in poetical contests. Posterity reversed the verdict
and attributed Philemon's successes to unfair influence. He
made a journey to the east, and resided at the court of Ptolemy,
king of Egypt, for some time. Plutarch (De Cohibenda Ira, 9)
relates that on his journey he was driven by a storm to Cyrene,
and fell into the hands of its king Magas, whom he had formerly
satirized. Magas treated him with contempt, and finally dis-
missed him with a present of toys. Various accounts of his death
are given; a violent outburst of laughter, excess of joy at a
dramatic victory, or a peaceful end while engaged in composing
his last work (Apuleius, Florida, 16; Lucian, Macrob. 25;
Plutarch, An Seni, p. 725). Of the ninety-seven plays which
he is said to have composed, the titles of fifty-seven and
considerable fragments have been preserved. Some of these
may have been the work of his son, the younger Philemon,
who is said to have composed fifty-four comedies. The
Merchant and The Treasure of Philemon were the originals
respectively of the Mercator and Trinummus of Plautus. The
fragments preserved by Stobaeus, Athenaeus and other writers
contain much wit and good sense. Quintilian (Instil, x. i, 72)

PHILEMON, EPISTLE TO— PHILETAS

375

assigned the second place among the poets of the New Comedy
to Philemon, and Apuleius, who had a high opinion of him, has
drawn a comparison between him and Menander.

See A. Meineke, Menandri et Philemonis reliquiae (1823, including
Bentley's emendations); T. Kock, Comicorum eraecorum fraementa,
vol. iii. (1884).

PHILEMON, EPISTLE TO, a scripture of the New Testament.
Onesimus, a slave, had robbed (w. n, 18-19) and run away
from his master Philemon, a prosperous and influential Christian
citizen of Colossae (Col. iv. 9), either offence rendering him liable
to be crucified. Voluntarily or accidentally, he came across
Paul, who won him over to the Christian faith. In the few
tactful and charming lines of this brief note, the apostle sends
him back to his master with a plea for kindly treatment. After
greeting Philemon and his wife, with Archippus (possibly their
son) and the Christians who met for worship at Philemon's house
(vv. 1-2), Paul rejoices over (vo. 4-7) his correspondent's
character; it encourages him to make an appeal on behalf of
the unworthy Onesimus (8-21), now returning (Col. iv. 9) along
with Tychicus to Colossae, as a penitent and sincere Christian,
in order to resume his place in the household. With a line or
two of personal detail (22-25) the note closes.

Rome would be a more natural rendezvous for fugitivarii
(runaway slaves) than Caesarea (Hilgenfeld and others), and
it is probable that Paul wrote this note, with Philippians and
Colossians, from the metropolis. As Laodicea is close to Colossae
it does not follow, even if Archippus be held to have belonged
to the former town (as Lightfoot argues from Col. iv. 13-17),
that Philemon's residence must have been there also (so A.
Maier, Thiersch, Wieseler, &c.). Paul cannot have converted
Philemon at Colossae (Col. ii. i), but elsewhere, possibly at
Ephesus; yet Philemon may have been on a visit to Ephesus,
for, even were the Ephesian Onesimus of Ignatius (Eph. ii.) the
Onesimus of this note, it would not prove that he had always
lived there. No adequate reason has been shown for suspecting
that the note is interpolated at any point. The association of
Timotheus with Paul (v. i) does not involve any official tinge,
which would justify the deletion of /cat Tijii60eos 6 a5f\<bbs //ou in
that verse, and of ri^Siv in w>. 1-2 (so Holtzmann), and Hausrath's
suspicions of the allusion to Paul as a prisoner and of 11 . 12 are
equally arbitrary. The construction in m. 5-6 is difficult, but
it yields to exegetical treatment (cf. especially Haupt's note)
and does not involve the interpolation of matter by the later
redactor of Colossians and Ephesians (Holtzmann, Hausrath1
and Bruckner, Reihenfolge d. paid. Brief e, 200 seq.).

The brevity of the note and its lack of doctrinal significance
prevented it from gaining frequent quotation in the early
Christian literature, but it appears in Marcion's canon as well
as in the Muratorian, whilst Tertullian mentions, and Origen
expressly quotes it. During the igth century, the hesitation
about Colossians led to the rejection of Philemon by some critics
as a pseudonymous little pamphlet on the slave question —
an aberration of literary criticism (reproduced in Ency. Bib.,
3693 seq.) which needs simply to be chronicled. It is interesting
to observe that, apart from the letter of commendation for
Phoebe (Rom. xvi.), this is the only letter in the New Testa-
ment addressed, even in part, to a woman, unless the second
epistle of John be taken as meant for an individual.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — In addition to most commentaries on Colossians
and to Dr M. R. Vincent's edition of Philippians, compare special
exegetical studies by R. Rollock (Geneva, 1602), G. C. Storr (1781),
J. K. I. Demme, Erkldrung d. Philemon-Briefes (1844) ; H. A. Peter-
mann, Ad fidem versionum . . . cum earum textu orig. graece (Berlin,
1844) ; M. Rothe, Pauli ad Philem. epistolae interpretatip histprico-
exegetica (Bremen, 1844); and H. J. Holtzmann, Zeitschrift fur
wissen. Theologie (1873), pp. 428 sqq., besides the essays of J. G. C.
Klotzsch, De occasipne et indole epistolae ad Philem. (1792); D. H.
Wildschut, De in dictionis et sermonis elegantia in epistola ad Philem.
(1809) ; and J. P. Esser, Der Brief an Philemon (1875). An up-to-date
survey of criticism is furnished by Dr J. H. Bernard in Hastings's
Dictionary of the Bible, iv. 832-834, and a good exposition may be
found in Z. Weber's Der Brief an d. Philemon, ein Vorbild fur die

1 History of the New Testament Times (1895), iv. 122-123. See,
on this, Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon, iv. 531-532-

christl. Behandlung sozialer Fragen (1896), as well as in Dr A. H.
Drysdale's devotional commentary (London, 1906). (J. MT.)

PHILEMON and BAUCIS, the hero and heroine of a beautiful
story told by Ovid (Melam. viii. 610-715), the scene of which
is laid in Phrygia. Zeus, accompanied by Hermes, visited earth
in human form; tired and weary, they sought shelter for the
night, but all shut their doors against them except an aged
couple living in a humble cottage, who afforded them hospitality.
Before their departure the gods revealed themselves, and bade
their hosts follow them to the top of a mountain, to escape the
punishment destined to fall on the rest of the inhabitants. The
country was overwhelmed by a flood; the cottage, which alone
remained standing, was changed into a magnificent temple.
The gods appointed Philemon and Baucis priest and priestess,
and granted their prayer that they might die together. After
many years they were changed into trees — Philemon into an
oak, Baucis into a lime. The story, which emphasizes the
sacred duty of hospitality, is probably of local Phrygian origin,
put together from two widely circulated legends of the visits
of gods to men, and of the preservation of certain individuals
from the flood as the reward of piety. It lingers in the account
(Acts xiv.) of the healing of the lame man by Paul at Lystra, the
inhabitants of which identified Paul and Barnabas with Zeus
and Hermes, " come down in the likeness of men."

Similar stories are given in T. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie (Eng.
trans., 1883, ii. 580, and iii. 38).

PHILES, MANUEL (c. 1275-1345), of Ephesus, Byzantine
poet. At an early age he removed to Constantinople, where
he was the pupil of Georgius Pachymeres, in whose honour he
composed a memorial poem. Philes appears to have travelled
extensively, and his writings contain much information concern-
ing the imperial court and distinguished Byzantines. Having
offended one of the emperors by indiscreet remarks published
in a chronography, he was thrown into prison and only released
after an abject apology. Philes is the counterpart of Theodorus
Prodromus in the time of the Comneni; his character, as shown
in his poems, is that of a begging poet, always pleading poverty,
and ready to descend to the grossest flattery to obtain the favour-
able notice of the great. With one unimportant exception, his
productions are in verse, the greater part in dodecasyllabic
iambic trimeters, the remainder in the fifteen-syllable " political "
measure.

Philes was the author of poems on a great variety of subjects: on
the characteristics of animals, chiefly based upon Aelian and Oppian,
a didactic poem of some 2000 lines, dedicated to Michael Palaeo-
logus; on the elephant; on plants; a necrological poem, probably
written on the death of one of the sons of the imperial house; a
panegyric on John Cantacuzene, in the form of a dialogue; a con-
versation between a man and his soul; on ecclesiastical subjects,
such as church festivals, Christian beliefs, the saints and fathers
of the church; on works of art, perhaps the most valuable of all his
pieces for their bearing on Byzantine iconography, since the
writer had before him the works he describes, and also the most
successful from a literary point of view ; occasional poems, many of
which are simply begging letters in verse.

Editions: the natural history poems in F. Lehrs and F. Dubner,
Poetae bucolici et didactici (Didot series, 1846) ; Manuelis Philae
Carmina inedita, ed. A. Martini (1900) ; Manuelis Philae Carmina
ed. E. Miller (1855-1857). See also C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der
byzantinischen Litteratur (1897).

PHILETAS of Cos, Alexandrian poet and critic, flourished
in the second half of the 4th century B.C. He was tutor to the
son of Ptolemy I. of Egypt, and also taught Theocritus and the
grammarian Zenodotus. His thinness made him an object of
ridicule; according to the comic poets, he carried lead in his
shoes to keep himself from being blown away. Over-study of
Megarian dialectic subtleties is said to have shortened his life.
His elegies, chiefly of an amatory nature and singing the praises
of his mistress Battis (or Bittis), were much admired by the
Romans. He is frequently mentioned by Ovid and Propertius,
the latter of whom imitated him and preferred him to his rival
Callimachus, whose superior mythological lore was more to the
taste of the Alexandrian critics. Philetas was also the author
of a vocabulary called "A.TO.KTO., explaining the meanings of rare

37^

PHILIDOR— PHILIP (KINGS OF MACEDONIA)

and obscure words, including words peculiar to certain dialects;
and of notes on Homer, severely criticized by Aristarchus.

Fragments edited by N. Bach (1828), and T. Bergk, Poetae lyrici
graeci; see also E. W. Maass, De tribus Philetae carminibus (1895).

PHILIDOR, FRANCOIS ANDRfi DANICAN (1726-1795),
French composer and chess-player, was born at Dreux, on the
7th of September 1726, of a musical family. The family name
was Danican, but that of Philidor, added in the middle of the
1 7th century, eventually supplanted the older name. Francois
Andre received a musical education as a member of the corps
of pages attached to the orchestra of the king; and subsequently
he earned his living by giving lessons and copying music. Much
of his time was, however, devoted to chess, at which he soon
became an expert. He spent many years in travelling on the
Continent and in England, meeting and defeating the most
noted players of the time, and is regarded as the strongest player
and greatest theoretician of the i8th century. Returning to
France in 1754, he resolved to devote himself seriously to musical
composition, and after producing several works of minor im-
portance brought out at Paris, in the year 1759, his successful
light opera, Blaise le Savetier, which was followed by a number
of others, notably Le Soldat magicien (1760), Le Jardinier et son
seigneur (1761), Le Sorcier (1762), and Tom Jones (1764). He
died in London on the 3ist of August 1795.

PHILIP (Gr. •KXiTnros, fond of horses, from <j>i\fiv, to love,
and IITTTOS, horse ; Lat. Philippus, whence e.g. M. H. Ger. Philippes,
Dutch Filips, and, with dropping of the final s, It. Filippo, Fr.
Philippe, Ger. Philipp, Sp. Felipe), a masculine proper name,
popularized among the Christian nations as having been that
of one of the apostles of Christ. Notices of distinguished men
who have borne this name are arranged below in the following
order: (i) Biblical; (2) Kings of Macedonia, France, Germany
and Spain; (3) other rulers.

PHILIP, one of the twelve apostles, mentioned fifth in all
the lists (Matt. x. 3; Mark iii. 18; Luke vi. 14; Acts i. 13). He
is a mere name in the Synoptists, but a figure of some prominence
in the Fourth Gospel. There he is said to have been " of Beth-
saida, the city of Andrew and Peter," and to have received his
call to follow Jesus at Bethany, having previously been, it would
seem, a disciple of the Baptist (John i. 43, 44; cf. 28). Philip
was at that time the means of bringing Nathanael to Jesus
(John i. 45), and at a later date he, along with Andrew, carried
the request of the inquiring Greeks to the Master (John xii. 22).
Philip and Andrew alone are mentioned by name in connexion
with the feeding of the five thousand (John vi. 5, 7), and Philip
is also one of the few interlocutors in John xiv. Slight though
these references are, all agree in presenting Philip as of an inquir-
ing and calculating character, slow to take the initiative, but,
when convinced of the path of duty, thoroughly loyal in following
it. After the resurrection he was present at the election of
Matthias as successor to Judas, but he does not again appear
in the New Testament history; it is, however, implied that he
still continued in Jerusalem after the outbreak of the first
persecution.

Little reliance can be placed on the traditional accounts of
Philip, owing to the evident confusion that had arisen between
him and the evangelist of the same name, who appears in the
book of Acts (see below). According to Polycrates, bishop of
Ephesus, in his controversial letter written to Victor of Rome
towards the end of the and century (ap. Euseb. H. E., iii. 31,
v. 24), the graves of Philip " of the twelve apostles," and of
his two aged virgin daughters were in (the Phrygian) Hierapolis;
a third daughter, " who had lived in the Holy Ghost," was buried
at Ephesus. With this may be compared the testimony of
Clement of Alexandria, who incidentally (Strom, iii. 6) speaks
of " Philip the Apostle " as having begotten children and as
having given daughters in marriage. On the other hand,
Proclus, one of the interlocutors in the " Dialogue of Caius," a
writing of somewhat later date than the letter of Polycrates,
mentions (ap. Euseb. H. E., iii. 31) " four prophetesses, the
daughters of Philip at Hierapolis in Asia, whose tomb and that
of their father are to be seen there," where the mention of the

daughters prophesying identifies the person meant with the
Philip of Acts (cf. Acts xxi. 8). The reasons for setting aside
this latter identification, and for holding that the Philip who lived
at Hierapolis was the Apostle are clearly stated by Lightfoot,
Colossians (2) note 3, p. 45 seq., and fresh confirmation of his view
has recently been afforded by the discovery of an inscription
at Hierapolis, showing that the church there was dedicated to
the memory " of the holy and glorious apostle and theologian
Philip " (Ramsay, Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia, vol. i.,
pt. ii. p. 552). .

See also Corssen, " Die Tochter des Philippus " in the Zeitschrift
fur die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft (1901), p. 289 sqq. The other
view, that the Philip of Hierapolis is the Philip of Acts, is taken by
Zahn, Forschungen zur Geschichte des neutestamentlichen Kanons
(1900), vi. 158 sqq.

A later stage of the tradition regarding Philip appears in
various late apocryphal writings which have been edited by
Tischendorf in his A eta apostolorum apocrypha, and in his
Apocalypses apocryphae. According to the Ada Philippi, a
work belonging at the earliest to the close of the 4th century
(see Zahn, op. cit. p. 18 sqq.), Philip, with Bartholomew and his
own sister Mariamne, exercised a widespread missionary activity,
preaching not only throughout Asia Minor, but also in Hellas
the city of the Athenians, in Scythia, and in Gaul, &c. According
to one account he died a natural death; according to another
he was hanged or crucified, head downwards. An apocryphal
gospel, which describes the progress of the soul through the next
world, bears his name (Hennecke, Neutestamentliche Apokryphen,
1904, p. 40 seq.).

Since the 6th century Philip has been commemorated in the
West, along with St James the Less, on the ist of May, their
relics being deposited in the same church in Rome; in the Eastern
Church Philip's day is the I4th of November, and that of James
the Less the 23rd of October.

PHILIP, " the evangelist," is first mentioned in the Acts
(vi. 5) as one of " the seven " who were chosen to attend to
certain temporal affairs of the church in Jerusalem in conse-
quence of the murmurings of the Hellenists against the Hebrews.
After the martyrdom of Stephen he went to " the city of
Samaria," where he preached with much success, Simon Magus
being one of his converts. He afterwards instructed and baptized
the Ethiopian eunuch on the road between Jerusalem and Gaza;
next he was " caught away " by the Spirit and " found at Azotus "
(Ashdod), whence " passing through he preached in all the cities
till he came to Caesarea " (Acts viii.). Here some years after-
wards, according to Acts xxi. 8, 9, where he is described as " the
evangelist " (a term found again in the New Testament only
in Eph. iv. n; 2 Tim. iv. 5), he entertained Paul and his com-
panion on their way to Jerusalem; at that time " he had four
daughters which did prophesy." At a very early period he
came to be confounded with the apostle Philip (see above) ; the
confusion was all the more easy because, as an esteemed member
of the apostolic company, he may readily have been described
as an apostle in the wider sense of that word (see further Salmon,
Introd.tolheNew Testament, 7thed.,p. 313 sqq.). A late tradition
describes him as settling at Tralles in Asia Minor, where he be-
came the overseer or ruler of the church. " Philip the deacon "
is commemorated on the 6th of June.

PHILIP I., king of Macedonia, a semi-legendary prince, son
of Argaeus, was, according to Herodotus (viii. 137-139) and
Thucydides (ii. 100), the third of the Macedonian kings. In the
texts of Dexippus and Eusebius he ranks sixth, Caranus, Coenus
and Thurimas (or Turimmas) being there regarded as the pre-
decessors of Perdiccas I., whom Herodotus and Thucydides
regard as the first king of Macedonia. Eusebius and Dexippus
assign to Philip I. a reign of 38 and 35 years respectively. There
is, however, no real evidence for his existence. (E. R. B.)

PHILIP II. (382-336 B.C.), king of Macedonia, the son of
Amyntas II., and the Lyncestian Eurydice, reigned 350-336.
At his birth the Macedonian kingdom, including the turbulent
peoples of the hill-country behind, was very imperfectly con-
solidated. In 370 Amyntas died, and the troubled reign of

PHILIP (KINGS OF MACEDONIA)

Philip's eldest brother, Alexander II., was cut short in 368 by
his assassination. His murderer, Ptolemy of Alorus, ruled as
regent for the young Perdiccas, Amyntas's second son. In 367
Philip was delivered as hostage to the Thebans, then the leading
power of Greece (by whom does not seem clear). During the
three years he spent at Thebes the boy no doubt observed and
learnt much. When he returned to Macedonia (364) Perdiccas
had succeeded in getting rid of Ptolemy; but he fell in 360-359
before an onset of the hill tribes instigated by the queen-mother
Eurydice, leaving only an infant son. Various pretenders sprang
up and the kingdom fell into confusion. Philip seized the throne
and drove back his rivals. He now began the great task of his
life — the creation of the Macedonian national army. The first
experiment he made with this new organism was brilliantly
successful. The hill tribes were broken by a single battle in 358,
and Philip established his authority inland as far as Lake
Ochrida. In the autumn of the same year he took the Athenian
colony, Amphipolis, which commanded the gold-mines of Mt
Pangaeus. Their possession was all-important for Philip, and
he set there the new city, called after him, Philippi. Athens
was temporarily pacified by assurances that Amphipolis would
be handed over to her later on. The work of fashioning the
Macedonian army occupied Philip for the next few years, whilst
his diplomacy was busy securing partisans within the states of
Greece. He avoided as yet a forward policy, and having taken
Pydna and Potidaea soon after Amphipolis, he made them over
to the Olynthian confederation (see OLYNTHUS). His marriage
with the fierce witch-woman, Olympias, daughter of the Epirote
king, falls in this period, and in 356 she bore him his greater son,
Alexander. In 353 Philip was ready for strong action. He first
attacked Ahdera and Maronea, on the Thracian sea-board, and
then took Methone, which belonged to Athens. An overt breach
with Athens was now inevitable. In the same summer he in-
vaded Thessaly, where the Aleuadae of Larissa ranged themselves
on his side against the tagus Lycophron," tyrant " of Pherae.
Pherae called in the help of the Phocian mercenaries, who had
profaned Delphi, and Philip met with a check. He had, however,
the advantage of now being able to present himself to the Greeks
as the champion of Apollo in a holy war, and in 352 the Mace-
donian army won a complete victory over the Pheraeans and
Phocians. This battle made Philip tagus of Thessaly, and he
claimed as his own Magnesia, with the important harbour of
Pagasae. Hostilities with Athens did not yet take place, but
Athens was threatened by the Macedonian party which Philip's
gold created in Euboea.

From 352 to 346 Philip did not again come south. He was
active in completing the subjugation of the Balkan hill-country
to the west and north, and in reducing the Greek cities of the
coast as far as the Hebrus (Maritza). For the chief of these,
indeed, Olynthus, he continued to profess friendship till its
neighbour cities were in his hands. Then, in 349, he opened war
upon it. Athens, to whom Olynthus appealed, sent no adequate
forces, in spite of the upbraidings of Demosthenes (see his
Olynthiacs), and in the spring of 347 Olynthus fell. Philip razed
it to the ground (see OLYNTHUS). Macedonia and the regions
adjoining it having now been securely consolidated, Philip
celebrated his " Olympian " games at Dium. In 347 Philip
advanced to the conquest of the eastern districts about the
Hebrus, and compelled the submission of the Thracian prince
Cersobleptes. Meanwhile Athens had made overtures for peace
(see the De falsa legatione of Demosthenes), and when Philip,
in 346, again moved south, peace was sworn in Thessaly. The
time was come for Philip to assert himself in Greece, and the
Phocians, who still dominated Delphi and held Thermopylae,
could furnish a pretext to the champion of Pan-Hellenism and
Apollo. The Phocian mercenaries at Thermopylae were bought
off and Philip crossed into central Greece. Here he made Thebes
his ally and visited the Phocians with crushing vengeance.
The Pythian games of 346 were celebrated at the delivered
Delphi under Philip's presidency. Pan-Hellenic enthusiasts
already saw Philip as the destined captain-general of a national
crusade against Persia (Isocrates, Philippus, about 345). And

377

such a position Philip had determined to secure: the Macedonian
agents continued to work throughout the Greek states, and in
the Peloponnesus Sparta soon found herself isolated. Euboea,
too, submitted to Macedonian influence, and even received some
garrisons. But more work had to be done in the Balkan high-
lands. In 344, or one of the following years, the Macedonian
arms were carried across Epirus to the Adriatic. In 342 Philip
led a great expedition north " comparable to nothing in antiquity
since Darius' famous march to Scythia." In 341 his army was
.still campaigning in eastern Thrace, when Philip felt compelled
to show his presence in Thessaly. During these years, although
Athens had not overtly broken the peace of 346, there had been
various diplomatic bickerings and hostile intrigues between the
two powers (cf. the Philippics of Demosthenes). Athens had
even sent emissaries to the Persian court to give warning of the
proposed national crusade. She now egged on the cities of the
Propontis (Byzantium,Perinthus, Selymbria), who felt themselves
threatened by Philip's Thracian conquests, to declare against
him. The sieges of Perinthus and Byzantium (340, 339) ended
in Philip's meeting with a signal check, due in some measure to
the help afforded the besieged cities by Athens and her allies.
Philip's influence all over Greece was compromised. But before
marching south he led another expedition across the Balkans
into the country now called Bulgaria, and returned to Pella with
much spoil but severely wounded in the thigh. In 338 he once
more crossed into central Greece. The pretext was the con-
tumacy shown by the Locrian town Amphissa to the rulings
of the Amphictyonic Council. Philip's fortification of Elatea
filled Athens with alarm. Thebes was induced to join Athens;
so were some of the minor Peloponnesian states, and the allies
took the field against Philip. This opposition was crushed by
the epoch-making battle of Chaeroneia, which left Greece at
Philip's feet. In the following year (337) Philip was in the
Peloponnesus, and a congress of the Greek states at the Isthmus
(from which, however, Sparta held sullenly aloof) recognized
Philip as captain-general for the war against Persia. Philip
returned to Macedonia to complete his preparations; an advanced
force was sent into Asia in the spring of 336. But Philip's plans
were suddenly blasted by his assassination in the same year
during the marriage festival of his daughter at Aegae, the old
capital of Macedonia. He left, however, in the Macedonian
army a splendid instrument which enabled his son within ten
years to change the face of the world.

Philip stands high among the makers of kingdoms. Restless
energy, determination, a faculty for animating and organizing
a strong people, went with unscrupulous duplicity and a full-
blooded vehemence in the pleasures of sense. Yet Philip was not
untouched by ideal considerations, as is proved by the respect,
no doubt sincere, which he showed for Hellenic culture, by the
forbearance and deference with which he treated Athens, the
sacred city of that culture and his mortal foe. A special interest
belongs to the Macedonian kingdom as it was shaped by Philip,
since it forestalls a system which was not to find the time ripe
for it in European history till many centuries later — the national
kingdom quickened with the culture developed by the ancient
city-states. The national kingdoms founded by the Northern
races, after the fall of the Roman Empire, under the influence
of the classical tradition, are the beginnings of the modern
European system; Philip of Macedon foreshadows Theodoric,
Charlemagne and William the Conqueror. But this first national
kingdom within the sphere of Greek culture could not ultimately
live between the surge of the Northern barbarians and the
Roman power.

See the authorities under GREECE: History. A vivid and masterly
sketch of Philip's personality and work is given in D. G. Hogarth's
Philip and Alexander (1897). (E. R. B.)

PHILIP III. [ARRHIDAEUS], king of Macedonia, was the
feeble-minded son of Phiiip II. of Macedonia by a Thessalian
wife. He was chosen by the Macedonian army at Babylon in
323 to be nominal king conjointly with the infant Alexander,
and was killed in Macedonia by order of Olympias (317).
(See MACEDONIAN EMPIRE.)-

378 PHILIP (KINGS OF MACEDONIA)— PHILIP II. (FRANCE)

PHILIP IV., king of Macedonia, was the son of Cassander,
king of Macedonia: he reigned only one year (297-296).

PHILIP V.f king of Macedonia, son of Demetrius II. and
Chryseis, was an infant at his father's death in 230-229. His
cousin, Antigonus Doson, administered the kingdom as regent
till his death in 221-220, when Philip was eighteen years old.
Philip now ascended the throne and reigned till 179. His
reign was occupied in the vain struggle to maintain the old
Macedonian supremacy in the Balkan Peninsula, which became
hopeless after the intervention of Rome and the decisive
battle of Cynoscephalae (197). See Rome: History, § II.
" The Republic " (period B, § b). (E. R. B.)

PHILIP I. (1052-1108), king of France, eldest son of Henry I.
of France and Anne, daughter of Jaroslav I. (d. 1054), grand
duke of Kiev, came to the throne, when a child of eight, by the
death of his father on the 4th of August 1060. He had been
crowned at Reims, in the presence of a number of magnates,
on the 23rd of May 1059. Philip passed most of his early years
in and around Paris, where the castles of lawless barons, such
as that of Montlhery, threatened even his personal safety. His
minority came to an end in 1066. In the long reign that fol-
lowed he showed no great ability or energy, and a looseness of
morals which embroiled him with the Church. Before he was
fifty years of age he became " fond of nothing but good cheer
and sleep." But he increased the lands of his house around
Paris, maintained order in them, and held his own against
William I. and William II. of England, whose power in France
far exceeded his own. This he accomplished for the most part
by taking advantage of the quarrels among his vassals. When
Baldwin VI. of Flanders died, in 1070, his son Arnulf was
attacked by his uncle Robert the Frisian, count of Holland.
Philip interfered, at the prayer of Arnulf 's mother, Richildis;
but the allies were defeated near Cassel on the 22nd of February
1071 and Arnulf slain. After a second war peace was sealed,
apparently, by the marriage of Philip to Robert's step-daughter
Bertha, daughter of Gertrude of Saxony and Florence, count
of Holland. In 1074 a new rupture led to Philip seizing Corbie,
part of the dower of his aunt Adele, who had married Baldwin IV.
of Flanders. By this he secured a sort of outpost in the direction
of Flanders. The other main episodes of his reign were the
quarrel over the Angevin inheritance and his wars with the dukes
of Normandy. In the struggle between Fulk Rechin and his
brother Geoffrey the Bearded for the inheritance of their uncle,
Geoffrey Martel (d. 1060), count of Anjou, Philip received from
Fulk in 1069. as the price of his neutrality, Chateau Landon
and the Gatinais. This acquisition linked the county of Sens,
acquired in 1055, with the rest of the domain round Paris,
Melun and Orleans. War with William I. was chronic but
intermittent. In 1076 Philip forced him to raise the siege of
Dol in Brittany. Peace was made in 1077, and in December
1079 they together besieged Robert Curthose in the castle of
Gerberoy. On the 8th of May 1080 the siege was raised and
peace made. War with William began again in 1081 over the
county of Vexin, which Philip had seized on the retirement of
its count, Simon of Valois, to a monastery in 1076. William
demanded reparation for the raid of Philip's vassals and the
cession of Pontoise, Chaumont-en-Vexin and Mantes, but died
after sacking Mantes in the same year. In 1098 there was war
between Philip and William Rufus in both Maine and the Vexin.
William came in person from Maine to lead the attack in the
Vexin in September, and crossed the Seine, penetrating to
within 30 m. of Paris on the west; but the campaign brought no
results. In his last years Philip left the duty of repelling the
attacks of his Norman and other enemies to his son Louis,
associating him with himself, as " king-designate," some time
between the 24th of May 1098 and the 25th of September noo.

It was his second marriage which was the cause of Philip's
greatest difficulties. On the isth of May 1092 he carried off
Bertrada, daughter of Simon, baron de Montfort, wife of Fulk
Rechin, and prepared to marry her, though his wife Bertha was
still living. The bishops, headed by Ivo, bishop of Chartres,
refused to attend the ceremony of 'marriage, but one was found

to perform it. Philip's open simony had long been a cause of
friction with the papacy. When he added bigamy and adultery,
Urban II. excommunicated him. The bishop of Chartres, in
consequence, refused to bring his vassals to help Philip's ally,
Robert, duke of Normandy, against his brother William in 1094.
Bertha died in that year, but Fulk was still living, and the
sentence was renewed at the council of Autun on the isth of
October. Philip replied by summoning the bishops to Paris
to try Ivo of Chartres for treason. He gained a respite from
the papal sentence by promises of submission, but the sentence
was renewed by Urban at the council of Clermont in 1095, in
1096, and in 1097, and at Poitiers in noi, despite the protest
of William IX., count of Poitiers, who entered the church with
his knights to prevent his suzerain from being excommunicated
on his lands. Philip was reconciled with the Church in 1 104, and
took an oath not to have any converse or society with Bertrada
except in the presence of " non-suspect " persons. But they
seem to have gone on living together, and even visited Fulk
Rechin (Bertrada's husband) in company on the isth of October
1 1 06. Philip died at the end of July 1108.

His reign is chiefly remarkable for the steady growth of the \
royal domain. In addition to the gains mentioned, he bought
in 1 101 a large slice of territory, including Bourges and Dun-le-
Roi, from Eudes Arpin, viscount of Bourges, who was going
on the crusade; and toward the end of his reign took Montlhery,
whose lord beset the southern approach to Paris. By his first
queen he had four children: Louis VI., who succeeded him; Henry,
who died young; Charles; and Constance, who married Hugh I.,
count of Champagne, and later Bohemund I., prince of Antioch.
By Bertrada de Montfort he had three children: Philip, count of
Monies; Fleury or Florus, who married the heiress of Nangis;
and Cecilia, who married, first Tancred, prince of Galilee and
Antioch, and secondly Pons de Saint Gilles, count of Tripoli.

The materials for the reign of Philip I. are in the Recueil des
historiens des Gaules et de la France, yols. xi. to xvi. See especially
the critical examination by Dom Brial of the historians who have
spoken of Philip I. at the beginning of vol. xvi Consult also
E. A. Freeman, Norman Conquest, iv., passim, and William Rufus,
ii. 165-302; A. Luchaire, Louis le Gros (Paris, 1890), and " Les
Premiers Capetiens " in E. Lavisse's Histoire de France (II. ii., pp.
168—175). More recent is the Recueil des actes de Philippe I., edited
by M. Pron (1908), and B. Monod's Essai sur les rapports de Pascal II.
avec Philippe I. (Paris, 1907). For notices of the principal chronicles
of the time see A. Molinier, Les Sources de Vhistoire de France (II.,
esp. p. 307 et seq.).

PHILIP II. (1165-1223), known as PHILIP AUGUSTUS, king of
France, son of Louis VII. and Adela, daughter of Theobald II.,
count of Champagne, was born on the 2ist of August 1165.
On the ist of November 1179 he was associated with his father
as king by being crowned at Reims, and at once his father's
illness threw the responsibility of government on him, the death
of Louis on the igth of September 1180 leaving him sole king.

The boy-king found himself and his kingdom in a difficult;
and humiliating position. His long strip of royal domain was
hemmed in by the Angevin Empire on the west and by the kingdom
of Aries on the south-east. Henry II. of England was feudal
lord of the greater part of France, practically all west of a line
which began at Dieppe and ended at the foot of the Pyrenees
more than half-way across to the Mediterranean, while at one
point it nearly touched the Rhone. Philip's predecessors had
consolidated the Capetian power within these narrow limits, but
he himself was overshadowed by the power of his uncles, William,
archbishop of Reims; Henry I., count of Champagne; and Theo-
bald V., count of Blois and Chartres. He secured an ally against
them, and an addition to the royal domain, by marrying, on the
28th of April 1180, Isabella or Elizabeth, daughter of Baldwin V.,
count of Hainaut, and of Marguerite, sister of Philip of Alsace,
the reigning count of Flanders, who ceded Arras, St Omer, Aire
and Hesdin, and their districts, as Isabella's dowry, a district
afterwards called Artois. On the 28th of June 1180 Philip made
a treaty with Henry II. at Gisors, and his reign thus opened
auspiciously. But from 1181 to 1185 he had to struggle against
a feudal league of his Champagnard uncles and other great

PHILIP II. (FRANCE)

barons, whose most active member was Stephen I., count of
Sancerre (1152-1191). Though attacked from both north and
south, the king's activity enabled him to compel the count of
Sancerre to implore peace in uSi. On the death of Isabel of
Vermandois, wife of Count Philip of Flanders, in 1182, Philip
claimed Vermandois and seized Chaune and St Quentin, and
forced his father-in-law, Baldwin of Hainaut, to support him
by threatening to divorce Queen Isabel. The count of Flanders
was obliged to sign the treaty of Boves in July 1185, which gave
the king, in addition to the expectation of Artois, his wife's
dower, sixty-five castles in Vermandois and the town of Amiens.
By 1 1 86 Hugh, duke of Burgundy, the only member of the
coalition not yet subdued, was forced to submit. Then, secure
at home, the king turned against Henry II., and by the truce of
Chateauroux in June 1187, gained Issoudun and the seigniory of
Freteval in the Vend6mois. Though the truce was for two years,
Philip assembled an army in 1 188 to invade Normandy, demand-
ing Gisors and the conclusion of the marriage which had been
arranged between his sister Alice and Richard of England, who
had meanwhile deserted his father. But the news came that
Saladin had taken Jerusalem and Richard took the cross.
Shortly afterwards Philip took advantage of a rising against his
quondam friend Richard, who was duke of Aquitaine, to seize
the county of Berry. At a conference at Bonmoulins on the
1 8th of November Richard again abandoned his father, and after
a second conference at La Ferte Bernard, Philip invaded Maine
and forced Henry II. to conclude the treaty of Azay on the 4th of
July 1189, by which the English king did homage and sur-
rendered the territories of Gracy and Issoudun. Henry died two
days later. Pledges of mutual good faith and fellowship were
renewed between Philip and Richard of England on the 3Oth of
December 1189, and they both prepared to go on the crusade.
Before setting out Philip arranged for the government of
France during his absence by his famous testament of 1190, by
which he proposed to rule France as far as possible from Palestine.
The power of the regents, Adela, the queen-mother, and William,
archbishop of Reims, was restricted by a council composed mostly
of clerks who had the king's confidence. An annual report on
the state of the kingdom was to be sent him. On the way to
Palestine the two kings quarrelled. At the siege of Acre Philip
fell ill, and on the 22nd of July, nine days after its fall, he an-
nounced his intention of returning home. He reached Paris at
Christmas 1191, having concluded on his way an alliance with
the emperor Henry VI. against Richard, despite his pledges not
to molest his lands. When Leopold I., duke of Austria, took
Richard prisoner and delivered him to the emperor, Philip did
his utmost by offers of money to prolong his captivity, and,
allied with the English king's brother John, attacked Richard's
domains, but upon Richard's return the Normans rallied enthusi-
astically to his aid. Philip was defeated at Freteval on the 3rd
of July 1 194, but he continued the war, generally with ill success,
for the next five years. Again a formidable coalition was formed
against him, including Baldwin IX., count of Flanders and Hain-
aut, Renaud of Dammartin, count of Boulogne, Louis, count of
Blois, and Raymond VI., count of Toulouse. In Germany, Otto
of Brunswick, afterwards the emperor Otto IV., allied himself
with Richard, while Philip was supported by Otto's rival, Philip
of Swabia. Richard's death, in April 1199, removed his arch-
enemy, and Richard's successor, John, concluded the treaty of
Le Goulet with Philip on the 22nd of May 1200, ceding to him
the county of Evreux, Gracy and Issoudun, and the suzerainty
of Berry and Auvergne. John renounced his suzerainty over
Brittany and the guardianship of his nephew, Arthur; he engaged
not to aid the count of Flanders or Otto IV. without Philip's
consent, paid him a relief of 20,000 marks, and recognized himself
as his vassal for his continental fiefs. Philip's son Louis, after-
wards Louis VIII., married Blanche of Castile, John's niece.
But in 1 202 the war was renewed, John having seized some castles
from the family of Lusignan, whose head was the count of La
Marche, and taken for his queen a prospective bride, Isabelle
Taillefer, from Hugh, son of Hugh IX., count of La Marche. At
an interview at Le Goulet on the 25th of March, Philip.demanded

379

the cession of Anjou, Poitou and Normandy to his ward, Arthur.
John refused; he was summoned to Paris before the royal
judges, and failing to appear was sentenced at the end of April
1 202 to lose all his fiefs. Brittany, Aquitaine and Anjou were
conferred on Arthur. Philip invaded Normandy, took Lyons-
la- Foret and Eu, and, establishing himself in Gournay, besieged
Arques. But John, joined by William des Roches and other
lords of Maine and Poitou, jealous at the increase of Philip's
power, defeated and took Arthur prisoner at Mirebeau. Philip
abandoned the siege of Arques in a fit of fury, marched to the
Loire, burning everywhere, and then returned to Paris. But
John soon alienated the Poitevin barons, and William des
Roches signed a treaty with Philip on the 22nd of March 1203.
Then Philip continued his great task, the conquest of Normandy,
capturing the towns around the fortress of Chateau-Gaillard which
Richard had built to command the valley of the Seine. Pope
Innocent III. tried to bring about peace, but Philip was obdurate, '
and after murdering Arthur of Brittany John took refuge in
England in December 1203. The fall of Chateau-Gaillard, after
a siege which lasted from September 1203 to April 1204, decided
the fate of Normandy. Rouen, bound by ties of trade to Eng-
land, resisted for forty days; but it surrendered on the 24th of
June 1204. The conquest of Maine, Touraine, Anjou and Poitou
in 1204 and 1205 was little more than a military promenade,
though the castles of Loches and Chinon held out for a year.
Philip secured his conquest by lavishing privileges on the con-
vents and towns. He left the great lords, such as William des
Roches, in full possession of their feudal power. In 1206 he
marched through Brittany and divided it amongst his adherents.
A truce for two years was made on the 26th of October 1 206 by
which John renounced all claims in Normandy, Maine, Brittany,
Touraine and Anjou, but it did not last six months. Then
Poitou was thoroughly subdued, and another truce was made in
1208, little more than southern Saintonge and Gascony being
left in the hands of John. Philip had reduced to a mere remnant
the formidable continental empire of the Angevins, which had
threatened the existence of the Capetian monarchy.

Philip then undertook to invade England. In the assembly
of Soissons on the 8th of April 1213 he made every preparation
for carrying out the sentence of deposition pronounced by the
pope against John. He had collected 1 500 vessels and summoned
all his barons when Innocent III., having sufficiently frightened
John, sent Pandulf with the terms of submission, which John
accepted on the I3th of May.

Disappointed of his hopes of England, Philip turned his arms
against Ferdinand, count of Flanders. Ferdinand, son of
Sancho I., king of Portugal, owed his county to Philip, who,
hoping to find him a docile protege, had married him to Jeanne,
heiress of Flanders, daughter of Count Baldwin IX., who became
emperor of the East, using the weak Philip of Namur, her guar-
dian, to accomplish that end. They were married in January 1212.
On the morrow of the marriage Louis, afterwards Louis VIII.,
seized Aire and St Omer in right of his mother, Isabella, and
on this account Ferdinand refused his feudal duty in the English
expedition. Moreover, the trade interests of his subjects, who
got their raw wool from England, drew him to an alliance with
England. Philip's attack brought this about on the 22nd of
May 1213. He invaded Flanders and took the chief towns
within a week; but he had part of his fleet burned by the English
at Damme, and had to burn the rest to save it from falling into
their hands. He returned to Paris, and Ferdinand retook most
of the towns which had been taken by the king. A war of fire
and pillage began, in which Philip and his son Louis burned their
way through Flanders, and Ferdinand did the same through
Artois.

In 1214 came the great crisis of Philip's life. All the forces
against which he had been struggling united to overwhelm him.
Paris was to be attacked from Flanders and Guienne at the same
time. A league including his rebel vassals, Renaud of Dammartin,
count of Boulogne, and Ferdinand, count of Flanders, with the
emperor Otto IV. and a number of German princes of the Rhine
region, had been formed in the north-east, while John of England

38o

PHILIP II. (FRANCE)

made one more attempt to recover his heritage at the head of an
army of mercenaries aided by the fickle baronage of Poitou.
John landed at La Rochelle on the i6th of February 1214, and
was at first successful. On the ipth of June he laid siege to La
Roche-aux-Moines, the fortress which defended Angers and com-
manded the Loire valley; but on the approach of a royal army
under Prince Louis on the 2nd of July his Poitevin barons
refused to risk a pitched battle, and he fled hastily to La Rochelle.
The Angevin Empire in France was lost. Meanwhile Philip
himself won his greatest victory at the bridge of Bouvines, among
the morasses of Flanders. At first taken by surprise, he turned
the abortive attack into a complete rout. Renaud and Ferdinand
were taken prisoner, and Otto IV. fled from the battlefield.
The army of the allies was utterly destroyed (July 27, 1214).
Nothing shows the progress of the Capetian monarchy more
than the enthusiasm and joy of the people of France, as described
by William the Breton, over this crowning victory. The battle
of Bouvines, a decisive battle for the history of Germany as well
as for France and England, sealed the work of Philip Augustus.
The expedition of his son Louis to conquer England can hardly
be considered as an incident of his reign, though he was careful
to safeguard the rights of the French Crown. More important
was the Albigensian crusade, in which he allowed Louis to take
part, though he himself, preoccupied with the king of England,
had refused time after time to do anything. He treated Simon
de Montfort as if he were a royal bailli; but it was not in virtue
of any deep-laid scheme of his that in the end Amaury de Mont-
fort, Simon's son, resigned himself to leave his lands to the Crown
of France, and gave the Crown a power it had never before
possessed in Languedoc.

Even more than by his conquests Philip II. marks an epoch
in French history by his work as an organizer and statesman. He
surrounded himself with clerks and legists of more or less humble
origin, who gave him counsel and acted as his agents. His
baillis, who at first rather resembled the itinerant justices of
Henry II. of England, were sent into the royal domain to super-
vise the conduct of the prevdts and hear complaints, while in the
newly acquired lands in the south local feudal magnates were
given similar powers with the title of senechal. Feudal service
was more and more compounded for by a money payment,
while additional taxes were raised, all going to pay the mercen-
aries with whom he fought Richard I. and John. The extension
of the system of sauvegarde, by which abbeys, towns or lay
vassals put themselves under the special protection of the king,
and that of pariage, by which the possessor surrendered half the
interest in his estate to the king in return for protection or some
further grant, increased the royal power. The small barons
were completely reduced to submission, whilst the greater
feudatories could often appoint a castellan to their own castles
only after he had taken an oath to the king. Philip supported
the clergy against the feudal lords, and in many cases against
the burgesses of the towns, but rigidly exacted from them the
performance of their secular duties, ironically promising to aid
the clergy of Reims, who had failed to do so, " with his prayers
only " against the violence of the lords of Rethel and Roucy.
He clung to his right of regale, or enjoyment of the revenues of
bishoprics during their vacancy, though it was at times com-
muted for a fixed payment. The attempt to raise a tithe for
the crusade in 1189 failed, however, before a general resistance
owing to an unfair assessment.

It has been said with some justice that Philip II. was the first
king of France to take the bourgeoisie into partnership. He
favoured the great merchants, granting them trade privileges
and monopolies. The Jews he protected and plundered by turns,
after the fashion of medieval kings. Amongst the subject towns
administered by prevdts a great extension of the " custom of
Lorris " took place during his reign. But it is as the ally and
protector of the communes that he takes his almost unique place
in French history. Before him they were resisted and often
crushed; after him they were exploited, oppressed, and finally
destroyed. In the case of Senlis he extended the jurisdiction
of the commune to all crimes committed in the district. It is

true that he suppressed some communes in the newly conquered
fiefs, such as Normandy, where John had been prodigal of
privileges, but he erected new communes in his own private
domain, quite contrary to the custom of other kings. He seems
to have regarded them as a kind of garrison against feudal
unruliness, while the rents they furnished increased his financial
resources. He created no new types of commune, however,
except Peronne, which received a maximum of political inde-
pendence, the twenty-four electors, who named the juris and
other officers, being elected by the corps de metiers.

The newly organized powers of the Crown were in evidence
everywhere, interfering in the family affairs of the great feuda-
tories and taking advantage of minorities, such as that of
Theobald IV. of Champagne. The great feudatories accepted
his legislation on dower in 1214 and 1219 and the Itablissement
of 1 209 making co-heirs of fiefs hold direct from the king and not
from one of their number. The Tournois was substituted for
the Angevin money in Normandy after 1204. The army which
safeguarded this active monarchy consisted chiefly of mercenaries.
The old feudal ost was but rarely convoked. The communes,
though they appear as taking part in the battle of Bouvines, com-
pounded for their service by a money payment as early as 1194.

Philip's policy of building up a strong monarchy was pursued
with a steadiness of aim which excluded both enthusiasm and
scruple. But he seems to have prided himself on a certain human-
ity , or even generosity of temper, which led him to avoid putting his
enemies to death, though he did not scruple to condemn Renaud
of Dammartin to the most inhuman of imprisonments. He was
impulsive and could display extraordinary activity at times, but
he possessed also a certain coldness and caution. He shrank
from no trickery in carrying out his ends, and had no room for
pity. He could not even trust his own son with any power,
and was brutal in his relations with his queen, Ingeborg. He is-
described by Paien Gatineau as " a well-knit, handsome man,
bald (from his illness at Acre), of agreeable face and ruddy
complexion, loving good cheer, wine and women. Generous to
his friends, he was miserly to those who displeased him; very
skilled in the art of the engineer, catholic in his faith, far-seeing,
obstinate in his resolution. His judgment was sound and quick.
He was also quick in his anger, but easily appeased." As the
result of his steadiness of aim and patient sagacity, at the end of
his reign the Crown was victorious over the feudal nobility and
the royal domain extended to the frontiers along with royal
authority. Artois, the Amienois, Valois, Vermandois, the greater
part of the Beauvaisis, Normandy, Maine, Anjou, Touraine, and
an important part of Poitou and Saintonge, were added to the
domain during his reign. The number of privates was increased
from thirty-eight to ninety-four, and the royal revenue increased
from 19,000 livres a month to 1200 livres a day.

Philip Augustus died on the i4th of July 1223. He was thrice
married. His first wife, Isabella, by whom he had one son,
Louis, died in 1189 or 1190. After her death he married Ingib-
jorg or Ingeborg (q.v.), daughter of Valdemar I. of Denmark.
This unlucky marriage was negotiated, it is said, chiefly to acquire
the old claims of Denmark over England, to be used as a weapon
against Richard I. However that may be, he soon repudiated
this Danish princess, for whom he seems to have conceived an
unconquerable aversion on the very morrow of his marriage to'
her, and in 1196, in defiance of the pope, who had refused to
nullify his union with Ingeborg, married Agnes, daughter of
Bertold IV., duke of Meran. This led to his excommunication
and brought the interdict upon France, and did more to weaken
him than any other act of his. In 1 200 he was forced to put away
Agnes and to recognize Ingeborg as his lawful wife, but he kept
her in prison until 1213. By Agnes (d. 1201) he had a son Philip,
called " Hurepel," count of Clermont, and a daughter Mary, who
married Philip, count of Namur (d. 1213), and then Henry II.,
duke of Brabant. Ingeborg lived until 1236.

See A. Luchaire in E. Lavisse's Histoire de France, tome iii.
83-284 (Paris, 1904), and literature there indicated; L. Deslisle,
Catalogue des actes de Philippe Auguste (Paris, 1856 and 1901) ;.
A. Cartellieri, Philip II. August, Bd. I. Bis zum Tode Ludwigs VII f

PHILIP III.— IV. (FRANCE)

(Leipzig, 1899), Bd. II. Der Kreuzzug (1906); and W. H. Hutton,
Philip Augustus (in the Foreign Statesmen series, London, 1896).
A. Molinier, Les Sources de Vhistoire de France (tome iii. pp. 1-38),
gives a complete bibliography of the sources for Philip s reign,
including the history of the Third Crusade.

PHILIP III. (1245-1285), surnamed " the Bold " (le Hardi),
king of France, son of Louis IX. and Margaret, daughter of
Raymond -Berenger IV., count of Provence, was born on the
3rd of April 1245. His funeral monument at St Denis depicts
a man with beardless, square-cut features, but lacking character
and animation. The authenticity of this effigy is fairly well
borne out by what is known of him from other sources. He had
many of the virtues of St Louis, but neither decision of character
nor devotion to duty. He was pious, charitable, of unimpeach-
able morality, quick-tempered but placable, no great scholar,
and only energetic as a hunter. The absence in him of the qualities
that fit a man to rule made his court the arena of intriguing
factions, which in reality ruled France during his reign of fifteen
years. Matthew of Vendome, abbot of St Denis, an old servant
of Louis IX., acted as Philip's counsellor, so the chroniclers state,
throughout the reign; but he is only a shadowy figure, and it is
difficult to reconcile the statement that " everything was done
according to his will " with the known facts. It was probably
with administration, and not policy, that Matthew was chiefly
concerned. In one instance at least his advice was openly
flouted. Coming to the throne by the death of his father on the
25th of August 1270, Philip began his reign by falling entirely
under the influence of Pierre de la Brosse, who had been surgeon
and valet-de-chambre to his father, upon whom he lavished
lands and honours, making him lord (sieur) of Langeais, Chatillon-
sur-Indre and Damville. Even Edward I. of England and William
Dampierre, count of Flanders, strove to win his favour by gifts.
But his fall was assured when Philip, who in 1271 lost his first
wife, Isabella, daughter of James I., king of Aragon, married
in 1274 Marie, daughter of Henry III., duke of Brabant. She
was young and beautiful, and supplied a centre round which
those who wished the downfall of the favourite grouped them-
selves. In June 1278 he was charged with various crimes,
including one of poisoning the king's eldest son, and hanged at
Montfaucon. His death left the parties of Marie, the queen, and
Margaret, the queen-mother, to struggle for the mastery. The
first subject of dispute was the inheritance of the count of
Provence, Raymond-Berenger IV., father of Margaret and of
Eleanor, wife of Henry III. of England. Upon his death, in 1245,
his youngest daughter, Beatrice, wife of Charles of Anjou, the
king's uncle, succeeded to his lands, to the exclusion of her elder
sisters, who claimed some portion of them for themselves. In
1281 war nearly broke out on this question. Margaret and her
friends formed the league of Macon against Charles of Anjou,
but the king managed to keep them at peace. The settlement of
the claims of the king of England in Aquitaine by the treaty of
Amiens in 1279 was a victory for the party of Margaret.

Agenais and southern Saintonge, which fell to the Crown by
the death of Alfonse of Poitiers in 1276, as part of his vast
possessions in Aquitaine and Languedoc, were ceded to Edward
I. of England in accordance with the treaty of Paris 1259.
Another portion of the heritage of Alfonse, the Venaissin, was
ceded to the papacy to redeem an old promise. In general the
strong will of Charles of Anjou directed Philip's policy. He
secretly urged his nephew's candidature for the imperial crown,
left vacant by the death of Richard of Cornwall, king of the
Romans, in 1272, but without success. In May 1275 the party
of Marie secured for Philip, the king's second son, the hand of
Jeanne, the heiress of Navarre and Champagne, along with the
guardianship of the kingdom of Navarre during the minority of
Jeanne. But early in 1276 Jeanne's mother, Blanche, the widow
of Henry III. of Navarre and Champagne, married Edmund,
first earl of Lancaster, brother of Edward I.; and she and her
English husband kept Champagne until, in 1284, Jeanne came
of age.

An expedition of Philip against Castile in aid of the children
of his sister, Blanche, proved abortive. Regardless of this
warning, he was induced in 1284 to take up the quarrel of his

uncle Charles in Sicily, after the Sicilian Vespers in 1282. Two
assemblies of barons and prelates were held at Bourges in Novem-
ber 1283 and February 1284 to deliberate on the question. This
was a mere matter of form; Marie of Brabant and her party had
decided the matter beforehand, and the crown of Aragon, which
the French pope Martin IV. had declared forfeited by Peter, was
accepted for Charles of Valois, Philip's third son. The project
was strongly opposed by Matthew of Venddme, who was in
correspondence with the king of England on the subject. It was
the first warlike expedition undertaken by the house of Capet
outside France. It proved a disastrous failure. The French
army laid siege to Gerona on the 26th of June 1285. The town
surrendered on the 7th of September, but disease and the defeat
of the fleet by the Aragonese navy at Las Farmiguas Islands led
to a retreat, during which, on the sth of October, the king died.
In the same month the garrison placed at Gerona surrendered.
It is typical of Philip's character and career that he should die
thus, in an expedition undertaken against the interests of his
kingdom, at the instigation of his ambitious uncle.

Philip was twice married. On the 28th of May 1262 he
married Isabella, daughter of James I., king of Aragon, who died
in 1271. By her he had four children: Louis, who died in 1276;
Philip, born in 1268; Charles of Valois, born on the i2th of March
1270; and Robert, who died young. By his second wife, Marie
(d. 1322), daughter of Henry III. of Brabant, whom he married
in 1274, he had three children: Louis, count of Evreux; Margaret,
who married in 1299 Edward I., king of England; and Blanche,
who married Rudolph III., duke of Austria.

See Ch. V. Langlois, Le Regne de Philippe le Hardi (Paris, 1887);
and in E. Lavisse's Histoire de France, tome iii., ii. 113-117 (Paris,
1901); Fr. Walter, Die Politik der Kurie unter Gregor X. (Berlin,
1894); Registers of Gregory X. and Nicholas III., published by the
French school at Rome; R. Sternfeld, Ludwigs des Heiligen Kreuzzug
nach Tunis und die Politik Karls I. von Sizilien (1896); P. Fournier,
Le Royaume d'Arles (Paris, 1891). For complete bibliography of
sources see A. Molinier, Les Sources de Vhistoire de France, tome
iii. 171-187 (Paris, 1903).

PHILIP IV. (1268-1314), called " le Ed " or " the Fair," king
of France, was the son of Philip III. and his wife, Isabella of
Aragon. His reign, which began in October 1285, is one of
the most momentous in the history of medieval Europe, yet
it belongs rather to the history of France and to that of the
papacy than to the biography of the king. Little is known of the
personal part played by Philip in the events associated with his
name, and later historians have been divided between the view
which regards him as a handsome, lethargic nonentity and that
which paints him as a master of statecraft who, under a veil of
phlegmatic indifference and pious sentiment, masked an inflexible
purpose, of which his ministers were but the spokesmen and
executors. The first view seems to be borne out by the language
of contemporary chroniclers. To his enemy, Bernard Saisset, he
was neither man nor beast, but a statue, " the handsomest man
in the world, but unable to do anything but stare fixedly at people
without saying a word." Guillaume de Nogaret, his minister,
draws a far more flattering picture, enlarging on his charm, his
amiability, his modesty, his charity to all men, and his piety;
and the traits of this over-coloured portrait are more or less
repeated by Yves, a monk of St Denis. There is, however, no
word of any qualities of will or initiative. All of which suggests
a personah'ty mentally and physically phlegmatic, a suggestion
strengthened by the fact that Bartholomaeus de Neocastro
(quoted by Wenck) describes him as corpulent in 1 290.

Yet this was the king who with equal implacability brought
the papacy under his yoke, carried out the destruction of the
powerful order of the Temple, and laid the foundations of the
national monarchy of France. In this last achievement Professor
Finke finds the solution of a problem which Langlois had declared
to be insoluble. In 1302, in the midst of a hostile assembly,
Philip cursed his sons should they consent to hold the Crown of
any one but God1; and in this isolated outburst he sees the key
to his character. " Philip was not a man of violent initiative,
the planner of daring and fateful operations; otherwise there
1 Wenck, p. 49.

382

PHILIP V. (FRANCE)

would have been some signs of it. His personality was that of a
well-instructed, outwardly cold, because cool and calculating
man, essentially receptive, afire for only one idea: the highest
possible development of the French monarchy, internally and
externally, as against both the secular powers and the Church.
His merit was that he carried through this idea in spite of dangers
to himself and to the state. A resolution once arrived at he
carried out with iron obstinacy." Certainly he was no roi
faineant. His courage at the battle of Mons-en-Pevele was the
admiration of friend and foe alike. It was against the advice of
his tutor, Aegidius Colonna, that on coming to the throne he
chose as his counsellors men of the legal class, and the names
of his great ministers — Guillaume de Nogaret, Enguerrand de
Marigny, Pierre Flotte (d. 1302) — attest the excellent quality
of his judgment. He was, too, one of the few monarchs who have
left to their successors reasoned programmes of reform for the
state.

The new materials from the Aragonese archives, published by
Finke, give the same general impression of " uncanny " reticence
on Philip's part; when other contemporary kings would have
spoken he keeps silence, allowing his ministers to speak for him.
Isolated passages in some of the Aragonese letters included in
the collection, however, throw a new light on contemporary
estimate of his character, describing him as all-powerful, as
" pope and king and emperor in one person." l

The reign of Philip IV. is of peculiar interest, because of the
intrusion of economic problems into the spheres of national
politics and even of religion. The increased cost of government
and the growing wealth of the middle class, rather than the
avarice of the king and the genius of his ministers, were respon-
sible for the genesis and direction of the new order. The greatest
event of the reign was the struggle with Pope Boniface VIII.
(q.v.). The pope, in his opposition to the imposition of royal
taxation upon the clergy, went so far in the bull Clericis laicos
of 1296 as to forbid any lay authority to demand taxes from the
clergy without his consent. When Philip retaliated by a decree
forbidding the exportation of any coin from France, Boniface
gave way to save the papal dues, and the bulls issued by him in
1 297 were a decided victory for the French king. Peace between
the two potentates followed until 1301. After the arrest, by
'Philip's orders, of Bernard Saisset (q.v.), bishop of Pamiers, in
that year, the quarrel flamed up again; other causes of difference
existed, and in 1302 the pope issued the bull Unam sanctam, one
of the most extravagant of all statements of papal claims. To
ensure the support of his people the king had called an assembly
of the three estates of his kingdom at Paris in April 1302; then
in the following year Guillaume de Nogaret seized the person of
the pope at Anagni, an event immortalized by Dante. Boniface
escaped from his captors only to die (October n), and the short
pontificate of his saintly successor, Benedict XL, was occupied in
a vain effort to restore harmony to the Church. The conclave
that met at Perugia on his death was divided between the parti-
sans of the irreconcilable policy of Boniface VIII. and those of a
policy of compromise with the new state theories represented by
France. The election was ultimately determined by the diplo-
macy and the gold of Philip's agents, and the new pope, Clement
V., was the weak-willed creature of the French king, to whom he
owed the tiara. When in 1309 the pope installed himself at
Avignon, the new relation of the papacy and the French
monarchy was patent to the world. It was the beginning of
the long " Babylonish captivity " of the popes. The most
notable of its first-fruits was the hideous persecution of
the Templars (q.v.), which began with the sudden arrest of the
members of the order in France in 1307, and ended with
the suppression of the order by Pope Clement at the council of
Vienne in 1313.

It is now tolerably clear that Philip's motives in this sinister
proceeding were lack of money, and probably the deliberate

1 Finke, ii. no. 78, p. 122. Anon, to the commanderies of
Gardeyne and Ascho: " Pus el es rey et papa et emperador! Car
tot lo mon sap, quel papa no es negun et que el fa tot go ques vol
del papa et de la esglea.

wish to destroy a body which, with its privileged position and
international financial and military organization, constituted a
possible menace to the state. He had already persecuted and
plundered the Jews and the Lombard bankers, and repeated
recourse to the debasing of the coinage had led to a series of small
risings. But under his rule something was done towards
systematizing the royal taxes, and, as in England, the financial
needs of the king led to the association of the people in the work
of government.

In 1294 Philip IV. attacked Edward I. of England, then busied
with the Scottish War, and seized Guienne. Edward won over
the counts of Bar and of Flanders, but they were defeated and
he was obliged to make peace in 1297. Then the Flemish cities
rose against the French royal officers, and utterly defeated the
French army at Courtrai in 1302. The reign closed with the
French position unimproved in Flanders, except for the transfer
to Philip by Count Robert of Lille, Douai and Bethune, and their
dependencies. Philip died on the 2gth of November 1314. His
wife was Jeanne, queen of Navarre (d. 1304), through whom that
country passed under the rule of Philip on his marriage in 1284;
three of his sons, Louis X., Philip V. and Charles IV., succeeded
in turn to the throne of France, and a daughter, Isabella, married
Edward II. of England.

See the Chronique of Geoffrey of Paris, edited by M. Bouquet, in
vol. xxii. of the Recueil des historiens des Gaules et de la France. Of
modern works see E. Boutaric, La France sous Philippe le Bel
(1861); G. Digard, Philippe le Bel et le Saint-Siege (1900); C. V.
Langlois in E. Lavisse's Histoire de France, vol. iii. (1901) ; K. Wenck,
Philipp der Schone von Frankreich (Marburg, 1905) ; H. Finke,
Papsttum and Untergang des Templerordens, 2 vols. (Munster i.
W. 1907), esp. I. ch. ii.

PHILIP V. (c. 1294-1322), " the Tall," king of France, second
son of Philip the Fair and Jeanne of Navarre, received the county
of Poitiers as an appanage, and was affianced when a year old
to Jeanne, daughter and heiress of Otto IV., count of Burgundy.
The marriage took place in 1307 when he was thirteen years of
age. When his elder brother, Louis X., died, on the 5th of July
1316, leaving his second wife, Clemence of Hungary, with child,
Philip was appointed regent for eighteen years by the parliament
of Paris, even in the event of a male heir being born. Clemence's
son, born on the isth of November, lived only four days, and
Philip immediately proclaimed himself king, though several of
the great barons declared that the rights of Jeanne, daughter of
Louis X. by his first wife, Margaret of Burgundy, ought to be
examined before anything else was done. The coronation at
Reims, on the gih of January 1317, took place with the gates of
the city closed for fear of a surprise. The states-general of the
2nd of February 1317, consisting of the nobles, prelates, and the
burgesses of Paris, approved the coronation of Philip, swore to
obey him, and declared that women did not succeed to the Crown
of France. The university of Paris approved this declaration,
but its members did not take the oath. The Salic law was not
involved, and it was later that the lawyers of the i4th century
tried to connect this principle to an article of the Salic law, which
accords inheritance in land (i.e. property) to males. In the
Frankish law the article refers to private property, not to public
law. The death of Philip's son Louis, in 1317, disarmed the
opposition of Charles, count of La Marche, who now hoped to
succeed to the Crown himself. Odo or Eudes IV., duke of Bur-
gundy, was married to Jeanne, Philip's daughter, and received
the county of Burgundy as her dower. The barons all did homage
except Edward II. of England, and Philip's position was secured.
The war with Flanders, which had begun under Philip IV. the
Fair, was brought to an end on the 2nd of June 1320. The revolt
of the Pastoureaux who assembled at Paris in 1320 to go on a
crusade was crushed by the seneschal of Carcassonne, whither
they marched. One of the special objects of their hatred,
the Jews, were also mulcted heavily by Philip, who extorted
150,000 livres from those of Paris alone. He died at Long-
champ on the night of the 2nd of January 1322.

Philip was a lover of poetry, surrounded himself with Provencal
poets and even wrote in Provencal himself, but he was also one
of the most hard-working kings of the house of Capet. The

PHILIP VI. (FRANCE)— PHILIP (OF SWABIA)

383

insecurity of his position made him seek the support of national
assemblies and of provincial estates. His reign in some ways
resembled that of Edward I. of England. He published a series
of ordinances organizing the royal household and affecting the
financial administration, the " parlement " and the royal forests.
He abolished all garrisons in the towns except those on the frontier
and provided for public order by allowing the inhabitants of his
towns to arm themselves under the command of captains. He
tried hard to procure a unification of coinage and weights and
measures, but failed owing to the opposition of the estates, who
were afraid of the new taxation necessary to meet the loss
involved in raising the standard of the coinage, and who held
to their local measures and currency partly from conservatism,
partly as a relic of local liberty. Philip as a reformer was in
many ways before his time, but his people failed to understand
him, and he died under the reproach of extortion.

See P. Lehugeur, Histoire de Philippe le Long (Paris, 1897); E.
Lavisse, Histoire de France (Tome III, 2); and sources indicated
in A. Molinier, Repertoire des sources de I'histoire de France (Paris,
I903)- '

PHILIP VI. (1293-1 3 50), king of France, was the son of Charles
of Valois, third son of Philip III., the Bold, and of Margaret of
Sicily, and was thus the nephew of Philip IV., the Fair, whose
sons, Louis X., Philip V. and Charles IV., died successively without
leaving male heirs. He succeeded to the throne on the death
of his cousin, Charles IV., in 1328. Before his accession Philip
had enjoyed considerable influence, for he was count of Valois,
Anjou, Maine, Chartres and Alenfon. He had married in
1313 Jeanne (d. 1348), daughter of Robert II. of Burgundy, a
determined woman who was long known as the real ruler of
France. An expedition to Italy in 1319-20 against Galeas
Visconti brought him little glory; he was more successful in a
small expedition to Guienne, undertaken against a revolted
vassal who was supported by the English.

When Charles IV. died, in February 1328, his wife was enceinte,
and it became necessary to appoint a regency until the birth of
the child, who would, if a son, succeed to the throne. At the
assembly of barons called to choose a regent, Edward III. of
England, the nephew and nearest male relation of Charles IV.,
put in a claim. Edward III., however, descended from the
royal house of France by his mother Isabel, and the barons,
probably actuated by an objection to the regency of an English
king, decided that neither a woman, " nor by consequence her
son, could succeed to the kingdom of France," and Philip of
Valois, in spite of his belonging to a junior branch of the family,
was elected regent. On the birth of a girl to the queen widow
the regency naturally led to the throne of France, and Philip was
crowned at Reims on the 29th of May 1328. Navarre had not
accepted the regency, that kingdom being claimed by her husband
for Jeanne, countess of Evreux, the eldest daughter of Louis X.,
the count of Evreux himself being, like Philip of Valois, a
grandson of Philip the Bold. The new king secured the friendship
of the count by allowing Jeanne's claim to Navarre, in return
for a renunciation of any right to Champagne. Edward III. of
England, after more than one citation, tendered verbal homage
for part of Guienne at Amiens in 1329, but he declined to place
his hands between those of Philip VI., and thus formally to
acknowledge him as his liege lord. Two years later, however,
he forwarded the acknowledgment by letters patent. Mean-
while Philip VI. had won a victory, which he turned into a
massacre, at Cassel (August 23, 1328) over Bruges and the
other towns of West Flanders, which under the leadership of
Jakob van Artevelde had thrown off the authority of their
count, Louis of Nevers. The count of Flanders was reinstated,
and maintained his authority by a reign of terror.

Much harm was done to Philip VI. 's authority by the scandal
arising out of the prosecution of Robert of Artois, count of
Beaumont, who was the king's brother-in-law. The count had
presented to the parlement of Paris forged deeds in support of
his claim to the county of Artois, held by his aunt, Mahaut,
countess of Burgundy. The sudden death of Mahaut, and of
her daughter and heiress, Jeanne, widow of Philip V., lent colour

to other suspicions, and Robert was driven from France and his
goods confiscated. He found refuge, first in Brabant and then
at the English court, where he was received as a relative and a
victim of false accusations.

Philip VI. enjoyed powerful alliances. In Italy he was allied
with his uncle, Robert of Anjou, king of Sicily, and with his
former enemy, Galeas Visconti; in the north with the duke of
Brabant and the princes of the Netherlands; on the cast with the
reigning princes of Lorraine and Savoy; with the king of Bohemia
and with Pope John XXII. at Avignon, and his successor,
Benedict XII. In 1336 it seemed that the Crusade, for which
Philip VI. had long been preparing, would at last start; but the
relations with Edward III. of England, which had always "been
strained, became worse, and within a year France was embarked
on the struggle of the Hundred Years' War. The causes which
led to war, the conflict for commercial supremacy in Flanders,
disputed rights in Guienne, the help given by France to the
Scots, and the unnatural situation of an English king who was
also a vassal of the French Crown are dealt with elsewhere (see
FRANCE: History). The immediate rupture in Flanders was
due chiefly to the tyranny of the count of Flanders, Louis of
Nevers, whom Philip VI. had reinstated. Edward III. had won
over most of Philip's German and Flemish allies, and the English
naval victory at Sluys (June 24, 1340), in which the 'French
fleet was annihilated, effectually restored English preponderance
in Flanders. A truce followed, but this was disturbed after
a short duration by the disputed succession to the duchy of
Brittany. Edward III. supported John of Montfort; Philip IV.
his own nephew, Charles of Blois. A truce made at Malestroit in
1343 at the invitation of the pope, was rudely broken by Philip's
violence. Olivier de Clisson, who with fourteen other Breton
gentlemen, was suspected of intrigue with Edward III., was
invited to a great tournament in Paris. On their arrival they
were seized by Philip's orders, and without form of trial beheaded.
Then followed Edward III.'s invasion of Normandy and the
campaign of Crecy (<?.».). Philip's army was destroyed ; he
himself was wounded and fled from the field. He sought in
vain to divert Edward from the siege of Calais by supporting
the Scots in their invasion of England; but eventually a truce
was arranged, which lasted until 1351. Philip VI. died at
Nogent-le-roi on the I2th of August 1350.

Philip VI. met his necessities by the imposition of the hated
gabelle or salt tax, which was invented by his legal advisers.
The value of the coinage fluctuated continuously, to the great
hindrance of trade; and although at a meeting of the States-
General it was asserted that the king could levy no extraordinary
taxes without the consent of the estates, he obtained heavy
subsidies from the various provinces. Towards the close of his
reign he acquired from Humbert II., comte de Vienne, the pro-
vince of Dauphine, and Montpellier from the king of Majorca.
These acquisitions made the ultimate annexation of Provence a
certainty. Philip married a second wife, Blanche of Navarre.
By his first wife he left two sons — his successor, John II., and
Philip of Orleans, count of Valois.

See Continuations de la chronique de Guillaume de Nangis edited
in 1843 by Gdraud for the Soc. del' hist, de France; Grandes chroniques
de Saint Denis, vol. v. (1837), edition by Paulin Paris; E. De'prez,
Les Preliminaires de la guerre de cent ans, 1328-1343 (Paris, 1902),
based on texts from the English Record Office and the Vatican;
Paul Viollet, Histoire des institutions politiques de la France vol. ii.
(Paris, 1898); and E. Lavisse, Hist. de. France, vol. iv. pt. i. (1902),
by A. Colville. Further references will be found in Nos. 3095-3112
and 3165-3240 of A. Molinier's Sources de I'histoire de France, vol. iv.
(Paris, 1904).

PHILIP (c. 1177-1208), German king and duke of Swabia, the
rival of the emperor Otto IV., was the fifth and youngest son
of the emperor Frederick I. and Beatrix, daughter of Renaud III.,
count of Upper Burgundy, and consequently brother of the
emperor Henry VI.. He entered the church, was made provost
of Aix-la-Chapelle, and in 1190 or 1191 was chosen bishop of
Wurzburg. Having accompanied his brother Henry to Italy
in 1191, Philip forsook his ecclesiastical calling, and, travelling
again to Italy, was made duke of Tuscany in 1195 and received

384

PHILIP I.— II. (SPAIN)

an extensive grant of lands. In 1196 he became duke of Swabia,
on the death of his brother Conrad; and in May 1197 he married
Irene, daughter of the eastern emperor, Isaac Angelus, and widow
•of Roger II., king of Sicily, a lady who is described by Walther
von der Vogelweide as " the rose without a thorn, the dove
without guile." Philip enjoyed his brother's confidence to a very
great extent, and appears to have been designated as guardian
of the young Frederick, afterwards the emperor Frederick II.,
in case of his father's early death. In 1197 he had set out to
fetch Frederick from Sicily for his coronation when he heard of
the emperor's death and returned at once to Germany. He
appears to have desired to protect the interests of his nephew
and" to quell the disorder which arose on Henry's death, but
events were too strong for him. The hostility to the kingship
of a child was growing, and after Philip had been chosen as
defender of the empire during Frederick's minority he con-
sented to his own election. He was elected German king at
Muhlhausen on the 8th of March 1198, and crowned at Mainz
•on the 8th of September following. Meanwhile a number of
princes hostile to Philip, under the leadership of Adolph, arch-
bishop of Cologne, had elected an anti-king in the person of
•Otto, second son of Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony. In the war
that followed, Philip, who drew his principal support from south
Germany, met with considerable success. In 1199 he received
further accessions to his party and carried the war into his
•opponent's territory, although unable to obtain the support of
Pope Innocent III., and only feebly assisted by his ally Philip
Augustus, king of France. The following year was less favourable
to his arms; and in March 1201 Innocent took the decisive step
•of placing Philip and his associates under the ban, and began to
work energetically in favour of Otto. The two succeeding years
were still more unfavourable to Philip. Otto, aided by Ottakar I.,
king of Bohemia, and Hermann I., landgrave of Thuringia, drove
him from north Germany, thus compelling him to seek by
abject concessions, but without success, reconciliation with
Innocent. The submission to Philip of Hermann of Thuringia
in 1204 marks the turning-point of his fortunes, and he was soon
joined by Adolph of Cologne and Henry I., duke of Brabant.
-On the 6th of January 1205 he was crowned again with great
-ceremony by Adolph at Aix-la-Chapelle, though it was not till
1 207 that his entry into Cologne practically brought the war to a
•close. A month or two later Philip was loosed from the papal
ban, and in March 1208 it seems probable that a treaty was
•concluded by which a nephew of the pope was to marry one of
Philip's daughters and to receive the disputed dukedom of
Tuscany. Philip was preparing to crush the last flicker of the
rebellion in Brunswick when he was murdered at Bamberg, on the
2ist of June 1208, by Otto of Wittelsbach, count palatine in
Bavaria, to whom he had refused the hand of one of his
daughters. He left no sons, but four daughters; one of whom,
Beatrix, afterwards married his rival, the emperor Otto IV.
Philip was a brave and handsome man, and contemporary
writers, among whom was Walther von der Vogelweide, praise his
mildness and generosity.

See W. von Giesebrecht, Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit,
Bd. V. (Leipzig, 1888); E. Winkelmann, Philipp von Schwaben
and Otto IV. von Braunschweig (Leipzig, 1873-1878); O. Abel,
Konig Philipp der Hohenstaufen (Berlin, 1852) ; Regesta imperil. V.,
edited by J. Ficker (Innsbruck, 1881); R- Schwemer, Innocenz III.
und die deutsche Kirche wdhrend des Thronstreites von 1198—1208
(Strassburg, 1882); and R. Riant, Innocent III., Philippe de Souabe,
et Boniface de Montferrat (Paris, 1875).

PHILIP I., the Handsome (1478-1506), king of Spain,"son of
the emperor Maximilian I., and husband of Joanna the Mad,
daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, was the founder of the
Habsburg dynasty in Spain, and was born at Bruges on the
22nd of July 1478. In 1482 he succeeded to the Burgundian
possessions of his mother Mary, daughter of Charles the Bold,
under the guardianship of his father. In 1496 he married Joanna.
The marriage was one of a set of family alliances with Austria
and Portugal designed to strengthen Spain against France.
The death of John, the only son of Ferdinand and Isabella,
opened the succession to the Spanish Crown to Joanna. In

1502 she and her husband received the homage of the cortes
of Castile and of Aragon as heirs. Philip returned to Flanders
before the close of the year. His life with Joanna was rendered
extremely unhappy by his infidelity and by her jealousy, which,
working on a neurotic temperament, precipitated her insanity.
The princess gave way to paroxysms of rage, in which she was
guilty of acts of atrocious violence. Before her mother's death,
in 1504, she was unquestionably quite insane, and husband and
wife lived apart. When Isabella died, Ferdinand endeavoured
to lay hands on the regency of Castile, but the nobles, who
disliked and feared him, forced him to withdraw. Philip was
summoned to Spain, where he was recognized as king. He
landed, with his wife, at Corunna on the 28th of April 1506,
accompanied by a body of German mercenaries. Father and
son-in-law had interviews at Remesal, near Pueblo de*6enabria,
and at Renedo, the only result of which was an indecent family
quarrel, in which Ferdinand professed to defend the interests
of his daughter, who he said was imprisoned by her husband.
A civil war would probably have broken out between them;
but Philip, who had only been in Spain long enough to prove
his incapacity, died suddenly at Burgos, apparently of typhoid
fever, on the 25th of September 1506. His wife refused for long
to allow his body to be buried or to part from it. Philip was
the father of the emperors Charles V. and Ferdinand I.

PHILIP II. (1527-1598) king of Spain, was born at Valladolid
on the 2ist of May 1527. He was the son of the emperor
Charles V., and of his wife Isabella of Portugal, who were first
cousins. Philip received his education in Spain. His tutor,
Dr Juan Martinez Pedernales, who latinized his name to Siliceo,
and who was also his confessor, does not appear to have done
his duty very thoroughly. The prince, though he had a good
command of Latin, never equalled his father as a linguist.
Don Juan de Zuniga, who was appointed to teach him the use
of arms, was more conscientious; but he had a very poor pupil.
From his earliest years Philip showed himself more addicted to
the desk than the saddle and to the pen than to the sword.
The emperor, who spent his life moving from one part of his
wide dominions to another and in the camps of his armies,
watched his heir's education from afar. The trend of his letters
was to impress on the boy a profound sense of the high destinies
to which he was born, the necessity for keeping his nobles apart
from all share in the conduct of the internal government of his
kingdom, and the wisdom of distrusting counsellors, who would
be sure to wish to influence him for their own ends. Philip
grew up grave, self-possessed and distrustful. He was beloved
by his Spanish subjects, but utterly without the power of
attracting men of other races. Though accused of extreme
licentiousness in his relations with women, and though he lived
for years in adultery with Dona Maria de Osorio, Philip was
probably less immoral than most kings of his time, including his
father, and was rigidly abstemious in eating and drinking. His
power of work was unbounded, and he had an absolute love of
reading, annotating and drafting despatches. If he had not
become sovereign of the Low Countries, as heir of Mary of Bur-
gundy through his father, Philip would in all probability have
devoted himself to warfare with the Turks in the Mediterranean,
and to the conquest of northern Africa. Unhappily for Spain,
Charles, after some hesitation, decided to transmit the Nether-
lands to his son, and not to allow them to go with the empire.
Philip was summoned in 1548 to Flanders, where he went un-
willingly, and was ill regarded. In 1551 he was back in Spain,
and intrusted with its government. In 1 543 he had been married
to his cousin Mary of Portugal, who bore him a son, the unhappy
Don Carlos, and who died in 1545. In 1554, when Charles was
meditating his abdication, and wished to secure the position of
his son, he summoned Philip to Flanders again, and arranged the
marriage with Mary, queen of England, who was the daughter
of his sister Catherine, in order to form a union of Spain, the
Netherlands and England, before which France would be power-
less. The marriage proved barren. The abdication of his father
on the i6th of January 1556 constituted Philip sovereign of
Spain with its American possessions, of the Aragonese inheritance

PHILIP III.— IV. (SPAIN)

385

in Italy, Naples and Sicily, of the Burgundian inheritance — the
Netherlands and Tranche Comte, and of the duchy of Milan,
which his father separated from the empire for his benefit. It
was a legacy of immense responsibilities and perils, for France
was bound in common prudence to endeavour to ruin a power
which encircled her on every side save the sea and threatened
her independence. France was for a time beaten at the battles
of St Quentin and Gravelines, and forced to make the Peace of
Cateau Cambresis (April 2, 1559). But the death of Mary of
England on the iyth of November 1558 had deprived Philip
of English support. The establishment of Elizabeth on the
English throne put on the flank of his scattered dominions
another power, forced no less than France by unavoidable
political necessities to be his enemy. The early difficulties of
Elizabeth's reign secured him a deceitful peace on that side for a
time. His marriage with Elizabeth of Valois on the 22nd of
June 1559, and the approach of the wars of religion, gave him a
temporary security from France. But the religious agitation
was affecting his own Flemish possessions, and when Philip
went back to Spain, in August 1559, he was committed to a life-
long struggle in which he could not prove victorious except by
the conquest of France and England.

If Philip II. had deserved his name of the Prudent he would
have made haste, so soon as his father, who continued to inter-
vene in the government from his retreat at Yuste in Estremadura,
was dead, to relieve himself of the ruinous inheritance of the
Low Countries. It was perhaps impossible for him to renounce
his rights, and his education, co-operating with his natural
disposition, made it morally impossible for him to believe that he
could be in the wrong. Like the rest of his generation, he was
convinced that unity of religion was indispensable to the mainten-
ance of the authority of the State and of good order. Family
pride, also, was carried by him to its highest possible pitch.
Thus external and internal influences alike drove him into con-
flict with the Netherlands, France and England; with the first
because political and religious discontent combined to bring
about revolt, which he felt bound in duty to crush; with the second
and third because they helped the Flemings and the Hollanders.
The conflict assumed the character of a struggle between Pro-
testantism and Roman Catholicism, in which Philip appeared
as the champion of the Church. It was a part he rejoiced to play.
He became, and could not but become, a persecutor in and out of
Spain; and his persecutions not only hardened the obstinacy of
the Dutch, and helped to exasperate the English, but they
provoked a revolt of the Moriscoes, which impoverished his
kingdom. No experience of the failure of his policy could shake
his belief in its essential excellence. That whatever he did was
done for the service of God, that success or failure depended
on the inscrutable will of the Almighty and not on himself, were
his guiding convictions, which he transmitted to his successors.
The " service of God and his majesty " was the formula which
expressed the belief of the sovereign and his subjects. Philip
must therefore be held primarily responsible for the insane
policy which brought Spain to ruin. He had a high ideal of his
duty as a king to his own people, and had no natural preference
for violent courses. The strong measures he took against
disorderly elements in Aragon in 1591 were provoked by extreme
misconduct on the part of a faction. When he enforced his
claim to the crown of Portugal (1579-1581) he preferred to placate
his new subjects by paying attention to their feelings and their
privileges. He even made dangerous political concessions to
secure the support of the gentry. It is true that he was ready to
make use of assassination for political purposes; but he had been
taught by his lawyers that he was " the prince," the embodied
state, and as such had a right to act for the public good, legibus
solutus. This was but in accordance with the temper of the times.
Coligny, Lord Burghley and William the Silent also entered into
murder plots. In his private life he was orderly and affectionate
to his family and servants. He was slow to withdraw the confi-
dence he had once given. In the painful episode of the imprison-
ment and death of his firstborn son, Don Carlos, Philip behaved
honourably. He bore the acute agony of the disease which
xxi. 13

killed him with manly patience, and he died piously at the
Escorial on the i3th of September 1598.

As an administrator Philip had all the vices of his type, that ot
the laborious, self-righteous man, who thinks he can supervise
everything, is capable of endless toil, and jealous of his authority,
and who therefore will let none of his servants act without his
instructions. He set the example of the unending discussions in
committee and boundless minute writing which finally choked
the Spanish administration.

The Histoire de Philippe II. of M. H. Forneron (Paris, 1881),
contains many references to authorities and is exhaustive, but the
author has some violent prejudices. Philip II., by Martin Hume
(London, 1897), is more just in its treatment of Philip's personal
character, and gives a useful bibliography. The main sources for.
the political history are the Documentos Intditos para la historia de
Espafla (Madrid, 1842, &c.), vols. i., iii., vi., vii., xv., xxi., xxiv.,
xl., xcviii., ci., ciii., ex., cxi. and others; L. P. Gachard, Actes des
etats generaux des Pays Bas, 1576-1585 (Brussels, 1861-1866); and
the Calendars of State Papers, Foreign Series, Elizabeth (London,
1863-1901). See also Martin Hume, Two English Queens and
Philip (1908).

PHILIP III. (1578-1621), king of Spain, son of Philip II. and
his fourth wife, Anne, daughter of the emperor Maximilian II.,
was born at Madrid on the I4th of April 1578. He inherited the
beliefs of his father, but no share of his industry. The old king
had sorrowfully confessed that God had not given him a son
capable of governing his vast dominions, and had foreseen that
Philip III. would be led by his servants. This calculation was
exactly fulfilled. The new king put the direction of his govern-
ment entirely into the hands of his favourite, the duke of Lerma,
and when he fell under the influence of Lerma 's son, the duke of
Uceda, in 1518, he trusted himself and his states to the new
favourite. The king's own life was passed amid court festivities,
on which enormous sums of money were wasted, or in the practice
of childish piety. It was said that he was so virtuous as hardly
to have committed a venial sin. He cannot be justly blamed for
having been born to rule a despotic monarchy, without even
the capacity which would have qualified him to manage a small
estate. He died at Madrid on the 3ist of March 1621. The
story told in the memoirs of the French ambassador Bassom-
pierre, that he was killed by the heat of a brasero (a pan of hot
charcoal), because the proper official to take it away was not at
hand, is a humorous exaggeration of the formal etiquette of the
court.

R. Watson and W. Thompson, History of Philip III. (1786),
give the most available general account of his reign; see also the
continuation of Mariana s History of Spain by Minana (Madrid,
1817-1822).

PHILIP IV. (1605-1665), king of Spain, eldest son of Philip
III. and his wife Margaret, sister of the emperor Ferdinand II.,
was born at Valladolid on the 8th of April 1605. His reign,
after a few passing years of barren successes, was a long story
of political and military decay and disaster. The king has been
held responsible for the fall of Spain, which was, however, due
in the main to internal causes beyond the control of the most
despotic ruler, however capable he had been. Philip certainly
possessed more energy, both mental and physical, than his father.
There is still in existence a translation of Guicciardini which
he wrote with his own hand in order to qualify himself for
government by acquiring a knowledge of political history. He
was a fine horseman and keen hunter. His artistic taste was
shown by his patronage of Velasquez, and his love of
letters by his favour to Lope de Vega, Calderon, and other
dramatists. He is even credited, on fairly probable testimony,
with a share at least in the composition of several comedies.
His good intentions were of no avail to his government. Coming
to the throne at the age of sixteen, he did the wisest thing he
could by allowing himself to be guided by the most capable man
he could find. His favourite, Olivares, was a far more honest
man than the duke of Lerma, and was more fit for the place of
prime minister than any Spaniard of the time. But Philip IV.
had not the strength of mind to free himself from the influence of
Olivares when he had grown to manhood. The amusements
which the favourite had encouraged became the business of the

386

PHILIP V. (SPAIN)— PHILIP THE BOLD

king's life. When, in 1643, the disasters falling on the monarchy
on all sides led to the dismissal of Olivares, Philip had lost the
power to devote himself to hard work. After a brief struggle
with the task of directing the administration of the most ex-
tensive and the worst organized monarchy in Europe, he sank
back into his pleasures and was governed by other favourites.
His political opinions were those he had inherited from his
father and grandfather. He thought it his duty to support
the German Habsburgs and the cause of the Roman Catholic
Church against the Protestants, to assert his sovereignty over
Holland, and to extend the dominions of his house. The utter
exhaustion of his people in the course of a hopeless struggle with
Holland, France and England was seen by him with sympathy,
but he considered it an unavoidable misfortune and not the result
of his own errors, since he could not be expected to renounce
his rights or to desert the cause of God and the Church. In
public he maintained a bearing of rigid solemnity, and was seen
to laugh only three times in the course of his life. But in private
he indulged in horseplay and very coarse immorality. His
court was grossly vicious. The early death of his eldest son,
Baltasar Carlos, was unquestionably due to debauchery
encouraged by the gentlemen entrusted by the king with his
education. The lesson shocked the king, but its effect soon
wore off. Philip IV. died broken-hearted on the I7th of
September 1665, expressing the hope that his surviving son,
Carlos, would be more fortunate than himself.

The best accounts of Philip IV. will be found in the Estudios del
reinado de Felipe IV., by Don A. Cdnovas del Castillo (Madrid,
1889), and in the introduction by Don F. Silvela to his edition of
the Cartas de Sor Maria de Agreda y del rey Felipe IV. (Madrid,
1885-1886).

PHILIP V. (1683-1746), king of Spain, founder of the present
Bourbon dynasty, was the son of the Dauphin Louis and his
wife, Maria Anna, daughter of Ferdinand Maria, elector of
Bavaria. He was born at Versailles on the igth of December
1683. On the extinction of the male line of the house of Habs-
burg in Spain he was named heir by the will of Charles II. He
had shared in the careful education given to his elder brother,
Louis, duke of Burgundy, by F6nelon, and was himself known
as duke of Anjou. Philip was by nature dull and phlegmatic.
He had learnt morality from Fenelon's teaching, and showed
himself throughout his life strongly adverse to the moral laxity
of his grandfather and of most of the princes of his time. But
his very domestic regularity caused him to be entirely under the
influence of his two wives, Maria Louisa of Savoy, whom he
married in 1702, and who died in February 1714, and Elizabeth
Farnese of Parma, whom he married in December of the same
year, and who survived him. He showed courage on the field
of battle, both in Italy and Spain, during the War of the Spanish
Succession, and was flattered by his courtiers with the title of
El Animoso, or the spirited. But he had no taste for military
adventure. If he had a strong passion, it was to provide for his
succession to the throne of France, if his nephew, Louis XV.,
should die, and he indulged in many intrigues against the house
of Orleans, whose right to the succession was supposed to be
secured by Philip's solemn renunciation of all claim to the
French throne, when he became king of Spain. It was in
pursuit of one of these intrigues that he abdicated in 1724 in
favour of his son Louis. But Louis died in a few months,
and Philip returned to the throne. At a later period he tried
to abdicate again, and his wife had to keep him in a species of
disguised confinement. Throughout his life, but particularly
in the later part of it, he was subject to prolonged fits of melan-
cholia, during which he would not even speak. He died of
apoplexy on the gth of July 1746.

The best account of Philip's character and reign is still that given
by Coxe in his Memoirs of the Kings of Spain of the House of Bourbon
(London, 1815).

PHILIP THE BOLD (1342-1404), duke of Burgundy, fourth
son of John II. of France and Bonne of Luxemburg, was born
on the 1 5th of January 1342. He earned his surname by his
bravery while fighting by his father's side on the field of Poitiers.
After the defeat of King John he accompanied him into captivity

in England. In 1360 he received the title of duke of Touraine,
and in June 1363 was entrusted with the government of Burgundy,
which John had united to the crown at the death of the last
duke of the Capetian family, Philip of Rouvre, in 1361. In
September 1363 John bestowed on Philip the title of duke of
Burgundy, together with that of first peer of France. John
was anxious not to displease the Burgundians, who were accus-
tomed to their independence; and, moreover, with Philip as
duke of Burgundy he was in a better posture to resist the king
of Navarre, Charles the Bad, who laid claim to the duchy. The
donation, which was at first kept secret in spite of a request
made in 1363 for its confirmation by the emperor Charles IV.,
was ratified at the accession of Charles V. of France; but in
consequence of Philip's preoccupation with the Grand Com-
panies, which had invaded France, it was not until November
1364 that he definitely took possession of the duchy. Charles
continued to show favour to his brother, appointing him (in 1366)
his lieutenant in Champagne and marrying him to Margaret,
daughter and heiress of Louis of Male, count of Flanders,
and widow of Philip of Rouvre. Edward III. of England was
negotiating for the marriage of this princess with his son Edmund,
earl of Cambridge; but Charles prevailed upon Pope Urban V.
to refuse the dispensation necessary on grounds of kinship, and
even consented to give up Lille, Douai and Orchies to Flanders
on condition that Margaret should marry his brother. Philip
eventually won the day, thanks to the support of the late
count's mother, and the marriage took place with high revel
at Ghent on the ipth of June 1369.

During the succeeding years Philip proved a faithful ally
to Charles. He took part in the almost bloodless campaign
against the duke of Lancaster, who had landed at Calais; in
1377 he took several towns in French Flanders from the English;
and in 1379 relieved Troyes, which had been besieged by the
English. On Charles's death Philip found himself, with his
brothers, the dukes of Anjou and Berry, in charge of the govern-
ment of France in the name of Charles VI., who was a minor;
and in the absence of the duke of Anjou, who left France in
1382 to conquer the kingdom of Naples, Philip occupied the
most powerful position in the realm. He persuaded the young
king to intervene in Flanders, where the citizens of Ghent,
whose rebellious spirit had necessitated Philip's intervention
in 1379, had again revolted under Philip van Artevelde and had
expelled Louis of Male. On the 27th of November 1382 the
Franco-Burgundian chivalry crushed the rebels at Rosebecke,
and on his return the duke of Burgundy took part in repress-
ing the popular movements which had broken out in Paris and
other French towns. In 1383 an insurrection in Flanders
supported by England gave rise to another French expedition;
but in January 1384 the death of Louis of Male made Philip
master of the countships of Flanders, Artois, Rethel and
Nevers; and in the following year the citizens of Ghent decided
to submit. At this period Philip sought to ingratiate himself
with the emperor, who was a near neighbour, and of whom he
held a part of his dominions, by giving two of his daughters
in marriage to two princes of the house of Bavaria; he also
took an important part in bringing about the marriage of a
princess of the same family, Isabel, to King Charles VI.

Hostilities, however, were renewed between France and
England. A formidable expedition was prepared under the
direction of the duke of Burgundy, and a fleet of 1400 sail
assembled at Sluys; but the enterprise failed owing to the
dilatoriness of the duke of Berry. The fatiguing and inglorious
expedition in the Netherlands, into which the duke dragged
Charles for the purpose of supporting his kinswoman, Joan of
Brabant, against the duke of Gelderland, shook Philip's credit
with his nephew, who on his return declared himself of age and
confided the government to the ancient councillors of his father,
the " Marmousets." The king's madness (1392) restored his
uncles to power, and particularly Philip, who after assuring
peace by treating with the duke of Brittany and by concluding a
truce of twenty-eight years with England, made strenuous efforts
to put an end to the Great Schism, visiting Pope Benedict XIII.

PHILIP THE GOOD

387

at Avignon in 1395 in the hope of obtaining a voluntary
resignation from him. But the growing influence of the king's
brother, Louis of Orleans, who was on terms of great intimacy
with Queen Isabel and was accused of being her lover, was a
serious obstruction. Discord broke out in the council, and but
for the intervention of the dukes of Berry and Bourbon the two
princes would have come to an open struggle. For a brief
period Philip was dispossessed of authority, but he regained
it in 1402 and kept it till his death, which took place on the
27th of April 1404. The cathedral of St Benigne at Dijon
contains his remains, and his tomb (formerly in the Chartreuse
of Dijon) is now in the museum in the H6tel-de-ville.

Although he had to curb the independent spirit of the seigneurs
of Franche-Comte, and in spite of frequent collisions with his
vassals in Flanders and with the citizens of Besancon (who in
1386 extracted from him a promise to respect their privileges),
Philip appears to have governed his territories with sagacity
and a certain moderation, and he was particularly successful in
employing the resources of France in the interests of Burgundy.
He granted numerous privileges to the inhabitants of Dijon, and
created in 1386 two chambres des comptes, one at Dijon and the
other at Lille. He was, in the phrase of a contemporary,
" kindly and amiable to high and low and those of middle rank,
liberal as an Alexander, noble and pontifical, in court and state
magnificent." But his liberality and his love of display in-
volved him in enormous expense, and he left so many debts that
his widow was compelled to renounce her personal estate to avoid
the responsibility of discharging them. By his wife Margaret
(d. 1405) he had a numerous family: John the Fearless, who
succeeded him; Charles and Louis, who both died in infancy;
Anthony, count of Rethel, and Philip, count of Nevers, both
killed at Agincourt; Margaret, who married William of Bavaria,
count of Ostrevant; Catherine, wife of Leopold, duke of
Austria; Mary, wife of Amadeus VIII. of Savoy; and Bonne,
who was betrothed to John of Bourbon and died young.

(R. Po.)

PHILIP THE GOOD (1396-1467), duke of Burgundy, son of
John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, and Margaret of Bavaria,
was born at Dijon on the I3th of June 1396, and succeeded his
father on the loth of September 1419. The natural outcome of
the assassination of John the Fearless (q.v.) was to drive his suc-
cessor to the English side. In 1419 Philip signed with Henry V.
of England the treaty of Arras, by which he recognized Henry
as regent and future heir of the kingdom of France, and in 1420
gave his adherence to the treaty of Troyes. Early in December
1420 Philip entered Paris with the king of England, and sub-
sequently took part in the defeat of the French at Mons-en-
Vimeu. By a treaty concluded by Philip at Amiens in April
1423 with the dukes of Brittany and Bedford, John, duke of
Bedford, married Philip's sister Anne, and Arthur of Brittany,
earl of Richmond, became the husband of Philip's sister Mar-
garet. A few years later discord arose among the allies. When
the duke of Bedford besieged Orleans the inhabitants offered
to surrender, but to the duke of Burgundy; whereupon Bedford
retorted that " he did not beat the bushes for others to take the
birds." When this speech reached Philip's ears he withdrew
his troops in dudgeon, and concluded a truce with France
(1429). Bedford, however, succeeded in conciliating him by
promises and presents, and in 1430 Philip took part in the
campaign against Compiegne.

But another conflict arose between the duke of Burgundy
and the English. Jacqueline, countess of Hainaut, the divorced
wife of the duke of Brabant and the heiress of Holland and
Zeeland, had married the duke of Gloucester, who attempted
to take forcible possession of his wife's territories. Philip,
however, himself claimed Brabant as having been bequeathed
to him by his cousin Philip, the late duke, with the result that
the Burgundians repulsed the troops of the duke of Gloucester,
and Jacqueline was forced to recognize the duke of Burgundy
as her lieutenant and heir. Moreover, the duchess of Bedford
had died in 1433. Charles VII., who in spite of the efforts of
the cardinal of Ste-Croix and the conferences held by him at

Auxerre and Semur had hitherto refused to return to France,
finally decided to take part in the conferences which were
opened at St Vaast d'Arras on the 6th of August 1435, anjd to
which the whole of Christendom attached very high import-
ance, all the princes of Europe and the pope and the council
of Basel being represented. Philip consented to a reconcilia-
tion with the king of France, and agreed to recognize him as
his legitimate sovereign on condition that he should not be
required to pay him homage during his lifetime. Charles, on
his part, solemnly craved pardon for the murder of John the
Fearless through the mouth of the dean of the church in Paris,
and handed over to the duke the counties of Macon, Auxerre,
Bar-sur-Seine and Ponthieu, and the towns on and near the
Somme (Roye, Montdidier, Peronne), reserving the option of
redeeming the Somme towns for 400,000 gold crowns. Philip
proved a faithful ally of the king, aiding him in re-entering Paris
and preparing an expedition against Calais, which, however,
failed through the ill-will of his Flemish subjects (1436). In
1440 he paid the ransom of Charles of Orleans (the son of his
father's old enemy), who had been a prisoner in England since
the battle of Agincourt; received him with great honour at
Gravelines; and married him to Mary of Cleves, upon whom he
bestowed a handsome dowry. In 1442 Philip entered into a
conspiracy to give the duke of Orleans a larger share in the
affairs of the kingdom. To Ren6 of Anjou, the duke of Lor-
raine, he showed himself less generous, setting up another
claimant to the duchy of Lorraine in the person of Anthony of
Vaudemont, and taking Ren6 prisoner in 1431; it was not until
1436 that he consented definitively to release Rene on con-
dition that he should abandon several strong places and pay an
enormous ransom. In 1445, at the conferences of Chalons-sur-
Marne, the duchess of Burgundy renounced these claims in her
husband's name in order to assure the execution of the treaty
of Arras.

Philip was frequently disturbed by the insubordination of
the Flemish communes. He had to quell seditions at Liege
(1430), Ghent (1432) and Antwerp (1435). In 1438 he was
driven with the duchess out of Bruges by the revolted citizens,
a revolt which he repressed with great severity. In 1448 the
citizens of Ghent rose in rebellion, but, disappointed of French
support, they were defeated at Ruppelmonde and in 1453
were overwhelmed at the battle of Gavre, where they left
20,000 dead on the field. At a banquet shortly afterwards
Philip vowed that he would lead a crusade against the Turks,
who had seized Constantinople, and the knights of his court
swore to follow his example.1 The expedition, however, did not
take place, and was but a pretext for levying subsidies and for
knightly entertainments. In 1459 Philip sent an embassy
under the duke of Cleves into Italy to take part in the con-
ferences preparatory to a fresh expedition against the Turks,
but this enterprise likewise fell to the ground. In 1456 the
duke of Burgundy had given an asylum to the Dauphin Louis
(afterwards Louis XL), who had quarrelled with his father
and had been forced to leave France. The " fox who would
rob his host's hen-roost," as the old king called Louis, repaid
his protector by attempting to sow discord in the ducal family
of Burgundy, and then retired to the castle of Genappe in
Brabant. At Charles VII. 's death, however, Philip was one of
the first to recognize the new king, and accompanied him to
Paris. During the journey Louis won over the seigneurs of
Croy, the principal counsellors of the duke of Burgundy,
and persuaded Philip to allow him to redeem the Somme
towns for the sum stipulated in the treaty of Arras. This
proceeding infuriated Philip's son Charles, count of Charo-
lais, who prevailed upon his father to break his pledge and
declare war on the king of France. On the I2th of April 1465
Philip handed over to his son the entire administration of his

1 This was the singular vow known as " the vow of the pheasant,"
from the fact that Philip placed his hand solemnly on a pheasant,
which had been brought to him by his herald, and vowed that
he would fight the Turks and challenge their sultan to single
combat.

388

PHILIP (OF HESSE)

estates. The old duke died at Bruges on the isth of June
1467, and was buried at Dijon.

Philip was a great lover of pomp and luxury and a friend of
letters, being the patron of Georges Chastelain, Olivier de la
Marche and Antoine de la Salle, and the founder of the col-
lection of MSS. known as the " Bibliotheque. de Bourgogne "
(now at Brussels), and also of the university of D61e (1421).
He administered his estates wisely; promoted commerce and
industry, particularly in Flanders; and left his son a well-
lined treasury. He was thrice married: in 1409 to Michelle
(d. 1422), daughter of Charles VI. of France; in 1424 to Bonne
of Artois (d. 1425); and in 1429 to Isabel (d. 1472), daughter of
John I., king of Portugal. On the occasion of his third marriage
Philip founded the order of the Golden Fleece. He was succeeded
by Charles, afterwards known as Charles the Bold, his only sur-
viving son by Isabel. He had several illegitimate children,
among them being Corneille, called the Grand Bastard, who was
killed in 1452 at the battle of Ruppelmonde.

(R. Po.)

PHILIP, LANDGRAVE OF HESSE (1504-1567), son of the
landgrave William II., was born at Marburg on the I3th of
November 1504. He became landgrave on his father's death
in 1509, and having been declared of age in 1518, was married
in 1523 to Christina, daughter of George, duke of Saxony
(d. 1539). In 1522 and 1523 he assisted to quell the rising of
Franz von Sickingen (q.v.), who had raided Hesse five years
previously, and in 1525 he took a leading part in crushing the
rebellion of the peasants in north Germany, being mainly
responsible for their defeat at Frankenhausen. About this
time Philip adopted the reformed faith, of which he was after-
wards the zealous and daring defender. Indifferent to theo-
logical, or even to patriotic, considerations, his plans to protect
the reformers rested upon two main principles — unity among the
Protestants at home and military aid from abroad. The
schemes he put forward as one of the heads of the league of
Schmalkalden, aimed primarily at overthrowing the house of
Habsburg; to this end aid was sought from foreigner and
native, from Protestant and Catholic alike. Envoys were sent
repeatedly to France, England and Denmark; Turkey and
Venice were looked to for assistance; the jealousy felt towards
the Habsburgs by the Bavarian Wittelsbachs was skilfully
fomented; and the German Protestants were assured that
attack was the best, nay the only, means of defence. Before
the formation of the league of Schmalkalden Philip was very
intimate with Zwingli, and up to the time of the reformer's
death, in 1531, he hoped that material aid would be forthcoming
from his followers. In 1526 he had aided John the Constant,
elector of Saxony, to form an alliance of reforming princes;
and in 1529 he called together the abortive conference at Mar-
burg, hoping thus to close the breach between Lutherans and
Zwinglians. More aggressive was his action in 1528. De-
ceived by the forgeries of Otto von Pack (q.v.), he believed in
the existence of a conspiracy to crush the reformers, and was
only restrained from attacking his enemies by the influence of
John of Saxony and Luther. He succeeded, however, in com-
pelling the archbishop of Mainz and the bishops of Wiirzburg
and Bamberg to contribute to the cost of his mobilization.
Philip was freely accused of having employed Pack to concoct
the forgery; and, although this charge is doubtless false, his
eager acceptance of Pack's unproved statements aroused con-
siderable ill-feeling among the Catholics, which he was not slow
to return. In 1529 the landgrave signed the " protest " which
was presented to the diet at Spires, being thus one of the original
" Protestants; " in 1530 he was among the subscribers to the
confession of Augsburg; and the formation of the league of
Schmalkalden in the same year was largely due to his energy.

His next important undertaking, the restoration of Ulrich,
duke of Wiirtemberg (q.v.) to his duchy, was attended with
conspicuous success. Wiirtemberg had passed into the posses-
sion of the Habsburgs, but after Philip's brief and victorious
campaign in 1 534 the humiliation of Charles V. and his brother,
the German king, Ferdinand I., was so complete that it was

said the landgrave had done more for Protestantism by this
enterprise than a thousand of Luther's books would do. After
this victory Philip entertained the idea of coming to terms
with Charles V. on the basis of extensive concessions to the
Protestants; but he quickly returned to his former plans for
leading a general attack on the Habsburgs. The Concord of
Wittenberg, made in 1536, was favourable for these schemes,
but after five years spent in assiduous preparation war was
prevented by the serious illness of the landgrave and the
lukewarmness of his allies. Recovering from his malady, he
had returned to his intrigues when an event happened which
materially affected the fortunes of the Reformation. His union
with Christina was not a happy one, and having fixed his
affections upon Margaret von der Saal (d. 1566), he obtained
an opinion from Protestant theologians that bigamy was not
forbidden by Holy Writ. Luther and Melancthon at length
consented to the marriage, but stipulated that it should be
kept secret, and it was celebrated in March 1540. The marriage,
however, became known, and a great outcry arose against
Philip, whose friends quickly deserted him. He objected to
Luther's counsel to deny the existence of a second marriage;
abused John Frederick, elector of Saxony, for not coming to
support him; and caused bigamy to be publicly defended.
Alarmed, however, by the strength of his enemies, and by
their evident determination to punish him as a bigamist, he
in June 1541 made a treaty with Charles V. at Regensburg.
In return for a general pardon he undertook to break off
relations with France and England and loyally to support the
emperor.

During these years Philip had been forwarding the progress
of the Reformation in Hesse. This was begun about 1526, when
an important synod was held at Homburg; the university of
Marburg was founded in the interests of the reformers in 1527;
and after the diet of Spires in 1529 the work was conducted with
renewed vigour. The Catholic worship was suppressed, and the
secularized church revenues supplied an endowment of the new
university.

The peace between the emperor and the landgrave was soon
broken. In 1542 Philip persuaded the league of Schmalkalden
to attack Henry II., duke of Brunswick- Wolfenbuttel, ostensibly
in the interests of the Protestant towns of Brunswick and Goslar.
The duchy was quickly overrun, and Henry — a Catholic prince —
driven out; but the good understanding between the emperor
and the landgrave was destroyed, and the relations between
Protestants and Catholics became worse than before. Nor was
the fissure in the Protestant ranks closed, and Charles took
advantage of this disunion to conquer Gelderland and to mature
his preparations for overthrowing the league of Schmalkalden.
Unlike John Frederick of Saxony, Philip divined, or partly
divined, the emperor's intentions, and urged repeatedly that the
forces of the league should be put in order. This advice passed
unheeded, and when Charles suddenly showed his hand, and in
July 1546 issued the imperial ban against the landgrave and the
elector, it was sesn that the two princes were almost isolated.
Fighting began along the upper Danube, and when indecision
and want of funds had ruined the league's chances of success,
Philip returned to Hesse and busied himself with seeking help
from foreign powers; while in April 1547 John Frederick was
captured at Miihlberg. After this defeat the landgrave was
induced to surrender to Charles in June by his son-in-law,
Maurice, now elector of Saxony, and Joachim II., elector of
Brandenburg, who promised Philip that he should be pardoned,
and were greatly incensed when the emperor refused to assent
to this condition. There is, however, no truth in the story that
the word einiges was altered by an imperial servant into ewiges,
thus making the phrase " without any imprisonment " in the
treaty of surrender to read " without perpetual imprisonment."
Philip was sentenced to detention for fifteen years, and as he was
heartily disliked by Charles his imprisonment was a rigorous
one, and became still more so after he had made an attempt to
escape. His acceptance of the Interim in 1 548 did not bring him
freedom; but this came in consequence of the humiliation of

PHILIP, J.— PHILIP, K.

Charles V. at the hands of Maurice in 1552; and after the con-
clusion of the peace of Passau in this year he returned to Hesse.
Although less active than formerly, the landgrave did not cease
to intrigue on behalf of the Protestants while continuing the work
of reforming and organizing the Church in Hesse. In 1562
he aided the Huguenots with troops, and he was frequently in
communication with the insurgents in the Netherlands; but his
efforts to form a union of the Protestants were fruitless. Philip,
who is sometimes called the Magnanimous, died at Cassel on the
3ist of March 1567. By Christina he had four sons and five
daughters, and according to his directions the landgraviate was
partitioned at his death between his sons. He had also by
Margaret von der Saal seven sons, who were called counts of
Dietz, and one daughter.

See Ch. von Rommel, Philipp der Grossmiithige (Giessen, 1830) ;
Briefwechsel Landgraf Philipps mil Bucer, edited by M. Lenz (Leipzig,
1881-1890); Politisches Archiv des Landgrafen Philipp, edited by
F. Kiich (Leipzig, 1904) ; L. G. Mogen, Historia captivitatis Philippi
Magnanimi (Frankfort, 1766); W. Falckenheiner, Philipp der
Grossmiithige im Bauernkriege (Marburg, 1887); H. Schwarz,
Landgraf Philipp von Hessen und die Packschen Handel (Leipzig,
1881); J. Wille, Philipp der Grossmiithige von Hessen und die Resti-
tution Ulrichs von Wiirttemberg (Tubingen, 1882); W. W. Rockwell
Die Doppelelie des Landgrafen Philipp von Hessen (Marburg, 1904) ;
A. Heidenhain, Die Unions politik Philipps von Hessen (Halle, 1890) ;
K. Varrentrapp, Landgraf Philipp von Hessen und die Universitdt
Marburg (Cassel, 1904) ; Von Drach and Konnecke, Die Bildnisse
Philipps des Grossmiitigen (Cassel, 1905) ; Festschrift zum Ge-
ddchtnis Philipps, published by the Verein fur hessische Geschichte
und Landeskunde (Cassel, 1904) ; and Philipp der Grossmiitige,
Beitrdge zur Geschichte seines Lebens und seiner Zeit, published by the
Historischer Verein fur das Grossherzogtum Hessen (Marburg, 1904).

PHILIP, JOHN (1775-1851), British missionary in South
Africa, was born on the i4th of April 1775, at Kirkcaldy, Fife, the
son of a schoolmaster in that town. After having been apprenticed
to a linendraper, and for three years a clerk in a Dundee business
house, he entered the Hoxton (Congregational) Theological
College, and in 1804 was appointed to a Congregational chapel
in Aberdeen. In 1818 he joined the Rev. John Campbell in his
second journey to South Africa to inspect the stations of the
London Missionary Society, and reported that the conduct of the
Cape Colonists towards the natives was deserving of strong
reprobation. In 1822 the London Missionary Society appointed
him superintendent of their South African stations. He made
his headquarters at Cape Town, where he also established and
undertook the pastorate of the Union Chapel. His indignation
was aroused by the barbarities inflicted upon the Hottentots
and Kaffirs (by a minority of the colonists), and he set himself to
remedy their grievances; but his zeal was greater than his
knowledge. He misjudged the character both of the colonists
and of the natives, his cardinal mistake being in regarding the
African as little removed from the European in intellect and
capacity. It was the period of the agitation for the abolition
of slavery in England, where Philip's charges against the
colonists and the colonial government found powerful support.
His influence was seen in the ordinance of 1828 granting all free
coloured persons at the Cape every right to which any other
British subjects were entitled. During 1826-1828 he was in
England, and in the last-named year he published Researches
in South Africa, containing his views on the native question.
His recommendations were adopted by the House of Commons,
but his unpopularity in South Africa was great, and in 1830 he
was convicted of libelling a Cape official. The British govern-
ment, however, caused the Cape government to conform
to the views of Philip, who for over twenty years exercised
a powerful, and in many respects unfavourable, influence over
the destinies of the country. One of Philip's ideals was the
curbing of colonial " aggression " by the creation of a belt of
native states around Cape Colony. In Sir Benjamin D'Urban
Philip found a governor anxious to promote the interests of the
natives. When however at the close of the Kaffir War of 1834-35
D'Urban annexed the country up to the Kei River, Philip's
hostility was aroused. He came to England in 1836, in company
with a Kaffir convert and a Hottentot convert, and aroused
public opinion against the Cape government. His views

triumphed, D'Urban was dismissed, and Philip returned to the
Cape as unofficial adviser to the government on all matters
affecting the natives. For a time his plan of buffer states was
carried out, but in 1846 another Kaffir rising convinced him of
the futility of his schemes. The Kaffir chief who had accom-
panied him to England joined the enemy; and many of his
converts showed that his efforts on their behalf had effected no
change in their character. This was a blow from which he did
not recover. The annexation of the Orange River Sovereignty
in 1848 followed, finally destroying his hope of maintaining
independent native states. In 1849 he severed his connexion
with politics and retired to the mission station at Hankey, Cape
Colony, where he died on the 27th of August 1851.

See SOUTH AFRICA : History ; G. M 'C. Theal's History of SouthAfrica
since 1795 (London, ed. 1908); Missionary Magazine (1836-1851);
R. Wardlaw's Funeral Sermon, 1852.

PHILIP, KING (c. 1630-1676), chief sachem of the Wam-
panoag Indians in America, and the son of Massasoit (d. 1662) —
as the English, mistaking this title (great chief) for a proper
name, called Woosamequin (Yellow Feather) — who for forty
years was the friend and ally of the English colonists at
Plymouth. To Massasoit's two sons, Wamsutta and Metacomet,
the English gave the names respectively of Alexander and
Philip. Alexander succeeded his father as sachem, and in the
same year, while in Marshfield, whither he had gone to explain
certain alleged unfriendly acts toward the English, was taken
ill; he died on his way home. Philip, who succeeded Alexander,
suspected the English of poisoning his brother. The English
had grown stronger and more numerous, and had begun to meddle
in the internal affairs of the Indians. In 1667 one of Philip's
Indians accused him to the English of attempting to betray them
to the French or Dutch, but this charge was not proved. In
1671 the Plymouth authorities demanded that the Wampanoags
should surrender their arms; Philip consented, but his followers
failed to comply, and measures were taken to enforce the promise.
Philip thereupon went before the general court, agreed to pay an
annual tribute, and not to sell lands or engage in war with other
Indians without the consent of the Plymouth government. In
1674, when three Wampanoags were executed at Plymouth for
the alleged murder of Sassamon, an Indian convert who had
played the part of informer to the English, Philip could no
longer hold his followers in check. There were outbreaks in the
middle of June 1675, and on the 24th of June the massacre of
whites began. There was no concerted movement of the various
tribes and the war had not been previously planned. The
Nipmuck Indians rose in July; the tribes along the Connecticut
river in August; those in the present states of Maine and New
Hampshire in September and October, and the Narragansets
in December, when (on the igth) they were attacked and seriously
crippled, in what is now the township of South Kingstown,
Rhode Island, by the English (under Governor Josiah Winslow
of Plymouth), who suspected their loyalty.

The colony of Connecticut took quick measures of defence,
guarded its frontier, maintained its alliance with the Mohegans,
and suffered little injury. Massachusetts and Plymouth were
slower in acting and suffered great loss. Rhode Island raised
no troops, and suffered severely. Early in the autumn Philip
went nearly as far west as Albany in an unsuccessful attempt to
get aid from the French and the Mohawks and supplies from the
Dutch traders. At Deerfield on the i8th of September about
60 English were killed and the settlement was abandoned. In
the spring of 1676 it became evident that the Indian power was
waning. The warriors had been unable to plant their crops;
they were weaker numerically and more poorly armed than the
English, and the latter had also made an alliance with the friendly
Naticks and the Niantics. On the ist of August 1676 Philip's
wife and nine-year old son were captured, and on the nth of
August an Indian traitor guided the English to the sachem's
hiding place in a swamp at the foot of Mount Hope (in what is
now the township of Bristol, Rhode Island), where early the next
morning he was surprised, and while trying to escape was killed
by an Indian. The head of Philip was sent to Plymouth and set

39°

PHILIPPA OF HAINAUT— PHILIPPIANS

on a pole in a public place, where it remained for a quarter of a
century; his right hand was given to his slayer, who preserved it
in rum and won many pennies by exhibiting it in the New
England towns. The struggle was now over in southern New
England, but it continued along the north-eastern frontier till
the spring of 1678, and nearly every settlement beyond the
Piscataqua was destroyed. In the colonies of Plymouth,
Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Connecticut six hundred
men (or about 9% of the fighting population), besides many
women and children, had been killed; thirteen settlements had
been completely destroyed, and about forty others were partly
burned. Plymouth had incurred a debt greater than the value
of the personal property of her people. The Indians suffered
even worse: in addition to the large number of men, women and
children slain, great numbers, among them the wife and son of
Philip, were sold into slavery in the Spanish Indies and the
Bermudas. Many others migrated from New England to New
York; and the few remaining Indians, feeble and dispirited, were
no longer a power to be reckoned with. Philip was an Indian
patriot and statesman, not a warrior; he united the tribes in their
resistance to the colonists, but was not a great leader in battle.

See George M. Bodges, Soldiers in King Philip's War (Leo-
minster, Mass., 1896); John Gorham Palfrey, History of New
England, vol. iii. (Boston, 1864); and especially George W. Ellis
and John E. Morris, King Philip's War (New York, 1906). See
also Entertaining Passages Relating to King Philip's War (Boston,
1716; new edition, edited with notes by H. M. Dexter, Boston,
1865), the account by Colonel Benjamin Church (1639-1718), one of
the principal leaders of the English, of the warfare in south-eastern
New England, in which he took part ; it is one of the most famous
and realistic accounts of early Indian warfare.

PHILIPPA OF HAINAUT (c. 1314-1369), queen of the English
king Edward III., was the daughter of William the Good, count
of Holland and Hainaut, and his wife Jeanne de Valois, grand-
daughter of Philip III. of France. Edward visited the court of
Count William in 1326 with his mother Isabella, who immediately
arranged a marriage between him and Philippa. After a dispen-
sation had been obtained for the marriage of the cousins (they
were both descendants of Philip III.) Philippa was married by
proxy at Valenciennes in October 1327, and landed in England
in December. She joined Edward at York, where she was
married on the 3oth of January 1328. Her marriage dower had
been seized by the queen dowager Isabella to pay a body of
Hainauters, with whose help she had compassed her husband's
deposition. The alliance ensured for Edward in his French wars
the support of Philippa's influential kindred; and before starting
on his French campaign he secured troops from William the
Good, as well as from the count of Gelderland, the count of
Julick, and the emperor Louis the Bavarian. Her mother
Jeanne de Valois, visited her in 1331 and further cemented the
community of interests between England and Flanders. Before
J33S Philippa had established a small colony of Flemish weavers
at Norwich, and she showed an active interest in the weaving
trade by repeated visits to the town. She also encouraged coal-
mining on her estates in Tynedale. Her eldest son, Edward the
Black Prince, was born in 1330, and she subsequently bore six
sons and five daughters. In November 1 34 2 she became guardian
of John of Gaunt and her younger children, with their lands.
Her agents are said to have shown great harshness in collecting
the feudal dues with which to supply her large household. The
anecdotes of her piety and generosity which have been preserved
are proof, however, of her popularity. She interceded in 1331
with the king for some carpenters whose careless work on a
platform resulted in an accident to herself and her ladies, and on
a more famous occasion her prayers saved the citizens of Calais
from Edward's vengeance. There is a generally accepted story,
based on the chronicles of Jehan le Bel and Froissart, that she
summoned the English forces to meet the Scottish invasion of
1346, and harangued the troops before the battle of Neville's
Cross. She certainly exercised considerable influence over her
husband, whom she constantly accompanied on his campaigns;
and her death on the isth of August 1369 was a misfortune for
the kingdom at large, since Edward from that time came under

the domination of the rapacious Alice Ferrers. Philippa was the
patron and friend of Froissart, who was her secretary from 1361
to 1366. Queen's College, Oxford, was not, as is stated in
Skelton's version of her epitaph, founded by her, but by her
chaplain, Robert of Eglesfield. Her chief benefactions were
made to the hospital of St Katharine's by the Tower, London.

See Agnes Strickland, Lives of the Queens of England, vol. i.
In addition to the account given in his Chroniques, Froissart wrote
a formal eulogy of her, which has been lost.

PHILIPPEVILLE, a seaport of Algeria, chief town of an
arrondissement in the department of Constantine, and 54 m.
N. by E. of that city, on the Bay of Stora, in 36° 53' N. 6° 54' E.
It is connected by railway with Constantine, Batna and Biskra.
The town derives its importance from being the port of Constan-
tine. The harbour works, with every vessel in port, having
been destroyed by a storm in 1878, a more commodious harbour
was built, at a cost of about £1,200,000. From Cape Skikda, on
the east a mole or breakwater projects 4592 ft. to the W.N.W.,
while from Chateau Vert on the west another mole runs out
1312 ft. to the north, leaving an entrance to the port about 656 ft.
wide. The protected area comprises an outer and an inner
basin. The depth of water at the entrance is about 33 ft., along-
side the quays about 20 ft. The quays are faced with blocks
of white marble brought from the quarries at Filfila, 16 m.
distant. Pop. (1906), of the town 16,539, °f the commune 26,050,
of the arrondissement, which includes 12 communes, 147,607.

Philippeville occupies the site of successive Phoenician and
Roman cities. By the Romans, under whom it attained a high
state of prosperity, it was named Rusicada. In the middle ages
the town ceased to be inhabited. The site was purchased from
the Arabs by Marshal Valee in 1838 for £6. Some parts of the
Roman theatre remain, but the stones of the amphitheatre,
which stood without the walls of the modern town, and which the
French found in an almost perfect state of preservation, were
used by them for building purposes, and the railway was cut
through the site. On a hill above the town are the Roman
reservoirs, which have been restored and still supply the town
with water. They are fed by a canal from the Wadi Beni Meleh.
The Roman baths, in the centre of the modern town, serve as
cellars for military stores.

PHILIPPI (Turk. Filibejik), a city of ancient Macedonia, on a
steep hill near the river Gangites (mod. Angista), overlooking
an extensive plain and at no great distance from the coast of the
Aegean, on the highway between Neapolis (Kavalla) and Thessa-
lonica. Originally called Crenides (Fountains), it took its
later name from Philip II. of Macedon, who made himself master
of the neighbouring gold mines of the Hill of Dionysus, and
fortified the city as one of his frontier-towns. In 42 B.C., after
the victory gained over the senatorial party by Octavius and
Antony, it became a Roman colony, Colonia Julia Philippensis,
which was probably increased after the battle of Actium (Col.
Aug. Julia Phil.). The inhabitants received the Jus Italicum,
and Philippi was one of the specially designated " first cities "
(Acts xvi. 12; see Marquardt, Rom. Staatsverwaltung, i. 187).
The city was twice visited by St Paul, whose Epistle to
the Philippians was addressed to his converts here. The site,
now uninhabited, is marked by ruins — the substructions of an
amphitheatre, parts of a great temple — which have furnished
interesting inscriptions. A little to the east is the huge stone
monument of C. Vibius, known to the Turks as Dikelitashlar and
to the Greeks as the Manger of Bucephalus.

See Heuzey and Daumet, Mission arch, en Macedoine, Paris (1865),
and other authorities in bibliography of MACEDONIA; Corp. Inscr.
Lot. iii. i. (J. D. B.)

PHILIPPIANS, EPISTLE TO THE, a book of the New Testa-
ment. Communications had already passed between the Chris-
tians of Philippi and Paul, not only when he was at Thessalonica
(iv. 15-16), but at some subsequent period (iv. 18), when Epaph-
roditus had brought him a present of money from them. It is
possible that this gift was accompanied by a letter. At any rate
the extant epistle is the answer to one received from the Philippian
Christians, who had evidently desired information about the

PHILIPPIANS

391

apostle's health and prospects (i. 1 2) , assured him of their prayers
(i. 19), and wondered whether he, their pride and glory (icaiixwa)>
would return to them (i. 25 seq.).

After a brief greeting (i. I, 2), Paul assures them of his loving
interest in their present attainments and future progress in the
faith of the gospel (i. 3-11); then, relieving their anxiety about his
own prospects, he expresses the confident hope that he will be
released and thus be able to return to them (i. 12-26). Meantime
they were to avoid any pride or factiousness which might break
their unity1 as a church (i. 27-!!. 18), and they are promised a visit
from two of Paul's coadjutors,2 who are well known to them (ii. 19—30).
At this point the letter suddenly swerves3 into a passionate warning
against some errorists of Judaism (iii. i-iv. i), after which the
appeal for unity at Philippi is reiterated (iv. 2-9),* and the epistle
closes with some personal details (iv. 10—23).

Paul is a prisoner when he writes, and the place of composition
may therefore be Caesarea or Rome (Acts xxviii. 16, 30-31).
The evidence upon the whole seems to point to the latter. The
phrase oida. Kalaapos (iv. 22) suits Rome better than Caesarea,
and, while irpairupiov (i. 13) does not necessarily imply the
capital, it is most naturally understood of Rome.6 But the
whole tone of the epistle suggests that Paul expected a speedy
end to his case. Now at Caesarea this was out of the question.
His appeal to Caesar involved a protracted process, and it is
very difficult to put expressions like those e.g. of ii. 23 into such
a situation. The critical outlook of Philippians does not corre-
spond with the position of the apostle at Caesarea, nor can the
latter town be said to have been a centre of vigorous Christian
propaganda (i. 17). Finally, the contention that no visit of
Timothy to Rome is known is an argument from silence which
is of little more weight than the plea of Spitta that the cupidity
of Felix (Acts xxiv. 26) was excited by the arrival of the money
from Philippi (Phil. iv. 16).

A further examination of the epistle shows that it must have
been written towards the close of the Saria 6X?j of Acts xxviii. 30,
not in the earlier part of the Roman captivity. Paul is on
the edge and eve of the great decision. Behind him (i. 12-13)
lies a period during which considerable progress has been made
in the local preaching and extension of the gospel, nor does the
language of the apostle suggest that this fresh departure in the
propaganda was stimulated by the mere novelty of his arrival.
Furthermore, the relations between the Philippians and himself
presuppose, on any fair estimate, an interval of time which
cannot be crushed into a few months. News of his arrival must
have reached them; money was collected (ii. 25, iv. 18) and then
forwarded by Epaphroditus, who fell sick after he reached the
capital; news of this again floated back to Philippi, and subse-
quently Paul heard of the Philippians' concern (ii. 26). Not till
then did he compose this letter.

Philippians is thus the last extant letter we possess from Paul,
unless some of the notes embedded in the pastoral epistles are
to be dated subsequent to its composition. It unites the close
of his career in Rome with the beginning of his mission work in
Europe (iv. 15; cf. Acts xvi. 12), and illustrates not merely the
situation of the apostle at Rome, but the terms of exceptional
affection which existed from first to last between him and the

1 For the strong Christian consciousness of solidarity, presupposed
in the Philippians, see Von Dobschutz's Christian Life in the Primitive
Church (1904), pp. 93 seq.

2 The touch of acerbity in ii. 21 (after i. 14) is probably to be
explained by the fact that " Paul had found some of the brethren
reluctant to undertake a journey to Macedonia, or to perform some
other service which he desired, and the words only express the
momentary disappointment of a man who was imprisoned and ready
to die for the gospel " (Drummond). Cf. Renan's Antichrist (Eng.
trans, p. 48).

8 The so-called logion in (Justin's?) De resurrect. 9 : iifn\KOi kv
ovpavy T-jJi/ KaToiKijffiv inrapxav, seems a mere echo of iii. 2O.

4 On iv. 8 Von Soden notes (History of Early Christian Literature,
p. 114) that " it is as if we heard the ripple of the waves at the
meeting of the two streams which have their source in Zion and the
Parthenon."

5 If the expression meant (a) the praefecti praetorio or officials
charged with the care of prisoners under trial, i.e. the supreme
imperial court, or (b) the praetorian guard, or (c) their barracks,
this would almost follow. But conceivably it might mean the
palace, i.e. of Herod (Acts xxiii. 35). The balance of probabilities
falls, however, in favour of the court hypothesis.

Macedonian churches. The main argument for putting it earlier
is derived from the admitted affinities between it and Romans,
the Colossian and Ephesian epistles containing, it is held, a more
advanced christology (so Lightfoot especially, and Hort, Judaistic
Christianity, pp. 115-129). But such considerations are not
decisive. Paul wrote from time to time, not in the execution
of a literary plan, but as different objects or interests called out
his powers. The Philippians did not require, and therefore did
not receive, the same elaborate warnings as the Asiatic churches.
Hence on the one hand it is unreal to lay stress on coincidences
with Romans, as if these necessarily implied that both epistles
must have been composed shortly after one another, while again
the further stage of thought on Christ and the Church, which is
evident in Colossians, does not prove that the latter must have
followed the former. Upon the whole, the internal evidence of
the epistle strongly favours its position as the last of the captivity
epistles.

The attempts made during the igth century to disprove the
Pauline authorship now possess merely an historic interest, nor
have the various hypotheses of more or less extensive inter-
polation won any serious support.6 More significance attaches
to the view that the epistle is made up of two separate notes,
written to Philippi at different times. The fusion of the two is
found in the abrupt hiatus of iii. i, and evidence is led from
supposed inconsistencies between the earlier and the latter parts
of the epistle. But the flexibility of a letter-writer, under
different moods of feeling, which would naturally lead to rapid
transitions, may be adduced as some explanation of the latter
phenomena. The exegesis does not absolutely necessitate a parti-
tion of the epistle, which (so Heinrichs and Paulus) would make
iii. i-iv. 20 a special letter addressed to some inner circle of the
apostle's friends (in spite of iv. 10 seq.), or take iii.-iv. (Hausrath,
History of N. T. Times, iv. 162 seq. and Bacon, Story of St Paul,
pp. 367 seq.) as earlier than i.-ii. Besides, as Pfleiderer points out,
the hypothesis is shipwrecked on the difficulty of imagining that
" each of the epistles had but one essential part: the first, in
particular, lacking an expression of thanks for the gift from the
Philippians, which must nevertheless, according to ii. 25, have
already taken place." In his letter to the Philippians (iii. 2)
Polycarp indeed observes that Paul wrote ejrtoroXds to them;
but, even if the plural could not be taken as equivalent to a
single despatch, it would not necessarily support the partition
theory of the canonical Philippians. Polycarp may have known
of more than one Pauline note to Philippi, no longer extant, or
he may be referring loosely to 2 Thessalonians, which was ad-
dressed to a neighbouring Macedonian church. The exegetical
arguments are, in short, the final court of appeal, and their verdict
tells rather in favour of the epistle's integrity. The simplest
account of iii. i is to suppose that Paul started afresh to complete
or supplement what he had already written, possibly because
some fresh tidings from Philippi had reached him in the interval.
Psychologically the change from ii. 19 seq., with its note of fare-
well, to the impassioned outburst of iii. 2 seq., is not incredible in
an informal letter from a man like Paul. The hiatus is striking,
but it cannot be held to necessitate an editorial dovetailing of
two separate epistles. It is doubtful, therefore, if the ingenious
attempts to analyse Philippians have proved much more con-
vincing than the similar movement of literary criticism upon the
first Philippic of Demosthenes, where research has swung back
in the main to a conservative position (cf. A. Baron in Wiener
Studien, 1884, 173-205).

The first clear echoes of the epistle are heard in Polycarp,
though it was probably known to Clement of Rome and Ignatius
(cf. the evidence tabulated in The New Testament in the Apostolic

6 To the details furnished in the present writer's Historical New
Testament (2nd ed., 1901, pp. 634-635) may be added references to
Volter's Paulus u. seine Briefe (1905), pp. 286-323, Belser's Einlei-
tung in der N. T. (2nd ed., 1905), pp. 555 seq., and Schmiedel's
paragraphs in Ency. Bib. (3147-3148). Pfleiderer (Primitive
Christianity, i. 254 seq.) now hesitates on ii. 6 seq. alone like
Bruckner and Schmiedel. The objections to Paul's authorship
on the score of style and grammar are finally set aside by the
philologist Nageli in Der Wortschatz des A pastels Paulus 1905),
pp. 80-82.

392

PHILIPPICS— PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

Fathers, 1905, pp. 53 seq., 71 seq., 94 seq., with R. J. Knowling's
Testimony of St Paul to Christ, pp. in seq. and Gregory's Canon
and Text of N. T., 1907, pp. 205-206).

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The ablest among recent editions of the Greek
text are those of R. A. Lipsius (Hand-Commentar zum N. T., 2nd ed.,
1892), E. Haupt (in Meyer's Kommenlar, 1902) and H. A. A. Kennedy
(Expositor's Creek Testament, 1903), to which may be added the
older commentaries of C. J. Ellicott (sth ed., 1888), J. B. Lightfoot
(6th ed., 1891) and A. Klopper (1893), which in some respects are
not yet superseded. Other modern editions by M. R. Vincent
(Internal. Crit. Commentary, 1897), H. C. G. Moule (Cambridge
Greek Testament, 1897) and J. M. S. Baljon (1904) are worthy of
notice, as well as the Roman Catholic commentaries by P. Beelen
(Louvain, 1852) and A. Bisping (1866). The earlier work on the
epistle is adequately summarized by B. Weiss in his Der Philipper-
brief ausgelegt u. die Geschichte seiner Auslegung kritisch dargestellt
(1859). There are brief popular commentaries in German by A.
Neander (Eng. trans., 1851, Edinburgh), K. Braune (in Lange's Bibel-
Werk, 2nd ed., 1875), Von Soden (1890), K. J. Miiller (1899) and
W. Lueken (in Die Schriften des N. T., 1906); in English by C. J.
Vaughan, M. F. Sadler (1889), J. Agar Beet, G. C. Martin (Century
Bible) and Principal Drummond (Internal. Handbooks to TV. T.,
1899). In addition to the literature cited in the course of this
article, consult the general studies by M. Hasselmann (Analyse
pragmatique de I'epitre aux Phil., 1862); A. Sabatier (Encycl. des
sciences relig. x. 569-573); J. Gibb (Hastings's Diet. Bible, iii.
840-844); Sir W. M. Ramsay (Si Paul the Traveller, ch. x., xv.
§ 4) and R. R. Smith (The Epistle of St. Paul's First Trial, Cam-
bridge, 1899); besides the older essays of Rettig (Quaestiones philip-
pienses, Giessen, 1831) and C. Muller (Comment, de locis quibusdam
epistolae ad Phil., 1844). The case against the Pauline authorship
was stated most fully by F. C. Baur (Paulus, Eng. trans., ii. 45 seq.
and in Theol. Jahrb., 1849, pp. 501 seq., 1852, pp. 133 seq.) ; E. Hinsch
(Zeitschrift fur wiss. Theol., 1873, pp. 59 seq.); S. Hoekstra (Theol.
Tijdschrift, 1875, pp. 416 seq.); J. P. Straatman (De Gemeente te
Rome, 1878, pp. 201 seq.); C. Holsten (Jahrb. fur protest. Theologie,
1875, pp. 425 seq. 1876, pp. 58 seq., 282 seq.); and Van Manen
(Handeleiding voor de oudchrist. Letterkunde, 1900, pp. 49-51, 82-84;
also in Ency. Bib., 3703-3713). The most thorough replies have been
those of Lunemann (Pauli ad Philipp. epistola contra Baurium
defensa, 1847) ; Ernesti (Studien und Kritiken, 1848, pp. 858-924,
1851, pp. 591-632); B. Bruckner (Epistola ad Phil. Paulo auctori
vindicate contra Baurium, 1848); A. Resch (De I'Authent. de I'epitre
aux Ph., 1850); Grimm (Zeitschrift fur wiss. Theologie, 1873, pp. 33
seq.); Hilgenfeld (ibid., 1884, pp. 498 seq.); C. Weizsacker (Apostolic
Age, i. 218 seq., 279 seq., ii. 131) and Clemen (Paulus, i. 130-138).
The religious ideas of the epistle are best stated in English by
Principal Rainy (Philippians, Expositor's Bible) and H. C. G. Moule
(Philippian Studies, 1897). Of the numberless monographs on
ii. 6 seq., the most full is Tholuck's Dispulatio christologica de loco
Pauli, Phil. ii. 6-9; and discussions of special excellence may be
found in A. B. Bruce, The Humiliation of Christ (3rd ed., 1889,
pp. 15 seq., 357 seq.); Weiffenbach's Zur Auslegung d. Stelle Phil,
ii. 5-1 1 (Karlsruhe, 1884); and E. H. Gifford, The Incarnation
(reprinted from the Expositor, 1896). (J. MT.)

PHILIPPICS, in classical literature, a series of orations
delivered by Demosthenes against Philip of Macedon. The
name was applied to the speeches of Cicero against Mark
Antony, and " Philippic " has passed into general use in the
sense of an impassioned invective or declamation.

PHILIPPICUS, East Roman emperor, 711-713, was the son of
the patrician Nicephorus, and became distinguished as a soldier
under Justinian II. His proper name, which indicates his
Armenian origin, was Bardanes. Relying on the support of the
Monothelite party, he made some pretensions to the throne on
the outbreak of the first great rebellion against Justinian; these
led to his relegation to Cephalonia by Tiberius Absimarus, and
subsequently to his banishment, by order of Justinian, to
Cherson. Here Bardanes, taking the name of Philippicus,
successfully incited the inhabitants to revolt, and on the assas-
sination of Justinian he at once assumed the purple. Among his
first acts were the deposition of Cyrus, the orthodox patriarch
of Constantinople, in favour of John, a member of his own sect,
and the summoning of a conciliabulum of Eastern bishops, which
abolished the canons of the sixth general council. Meanwhile
Terbelis, king of the Bulgarians, plundered up to the walls of
Constantinople, and shortly afterwards the Saracens made similar
inroads from the Asiatic side. The reign of Philippicus was
brought to a close through a conspiracy headed by two of his
generals, who caused him to be blinded.

See Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (ed. Bury,
London, 1896), v. 183-184.

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS, or THE PHILIPPINES, an archipelago
belonging to the United States of America, situated about 500 m.
off the S.E. coast of Asia between 4° 40' and 21° 10' N. and
between 116° 40' and 126° 34' E. It is bounded W. and N. by
the China Sea, E. by the Pacific Ocean, and S. by the Celebes Sea
and the coastal waters of Borneo. Of the large islands, Luzon
(40,969 sq. m.) is the most northerly, and Mindanao (36,292
sq. m.), the most southerly. Between Luzon and Mindanao are
Samar (5031 sq. m.), Negros (4881 sq. m.), Panay (4611 sq. m.),
Mindoro (3851 sq. m.), Leyte (2722 sq. m.), Cebu (1762 sq. m.),
Bohol (1441 sq. m.) and Masbate (1236 sq. m.). Farther west
and separated from the southern portion of this chain is the long
narrow island of Palawan or Paragua (4027 sq. m.). The total
land area of the Philippines is about 115,026 sq. m., and 92% of
this is included in the eleven islands named above. There are
twenty others, which have an area ranging from 106 sq. m. to
682 sq. m., and the total number of islands enumerated within
the archipelago is 3141; of these 2775 contain less than i sq. m.
each.

Physical Features. — The islands are mainly of volcanic origin, and
their surface is much broken by hills, isolated volcanoes and
mountain ranges, trending north and south, north-west and south-
east, or north-east and south-west. Extending for 350 m. along
the east coast of central and northern Luzon is the Sierra Madre
range, rising in occasional peaks to more than 4500 ft. and seldom
less than 3500 ft. On the west coast are the Caraballos Occidentales
north from the Gulf of Lingayen and the Zambalcs southward from
that gulf to Manila Bay. The Caraballos Occidentales range is
very complex; the central ridge is in some parts a rolling plateau,
but it rises in Mt Data to 7364 ft., and numerous lofty spurs project
from it. Much of the Zambales range has an average height of
4000 ft. or more, and several peaks are more than 5000 ft. high.
Between the Sierra Madre and Caraballos Occidentales is the valley
of the Cagayan river, about 50 m. wide, and east of the Zambales
range is a lowland basin, about 150 m. long and 50 m. wide, and
not more than loo ft. above the sea except near its centre, where
the extinct volcano of Arayat rises to 3564 ft. The greater part
of southern Luzon is occupied by isolated volcanoes and irregular
masses of hills and mountains. Mt Mayon (7916 ft.), near the
south-eastern extremity, is an active volcano with an almost
perfect cone. Of less prominence are Mt Banajao (7382 ft.), Mt
Isarog (6634 ft.) and Mt Masaraga (5244 ft.). The island of Min-
danao is traversed north to south by mountain ranges, which
rise in their summits to heights exceeding 4000 ft. That along
the east coast is longest and least broken, and between it and the
next range inland is the level valley of the Agusan river, from 40
to 50 m. wide. Farther west and south-west is the valley of the
Rio Grande Mindanao, the largest river on the island, and between
the lower course of this river and the south coast is a mountain
range with a north-west and south-east trend. On the east border
of the south portion of the basin of the Rio Grande Mindanao is
Mt Apo (10,312 ft.), an extinct volcano and the highest elevation
in the archipelago.

Each of the larger islands between Luzon and Mindanao, except
Samar and Bohol, is traversed longitudinally by a single mountain
range with occasional spurs. In Leyte there are several isolated
volcanic cones, two of which, in the north part, exceed 4000 ft.
In Mindoro the range is broad, extending from coast to coast,
and it culminates in Mt Halcon (about 8800 ft.). In Negros is
Mt Canlaon (8192 ft.), a volcano, and several summits exceeding
6000 ft. In Panay is Mt Madiaas (7264 ft.) and several other peaks
exceeding 4000 ft.^ The highest peaks in Masbate are about 2500 ft.
high, and in Cebu not much more than 2000 ft. In Samar there
are irregular masses of hills. The southern portion of Bohol is
very hilly, but the northern portion is more level. Palawan, 275 m.
long and about 15 m. wide, is traversed throughout its length
by a range of mountains with an average height of4OOO to 5000 ft.
and a few summits about 6000 ft. high. Submarine mountain
ranges connect not only the islands within the archipelago, but also
the archipelago itself with Borneo and Celebes, so that only shallow
channels connect the interior waters with the Pacific Ocean and the
China Sea. The coast-line of the Philippines, more than 11,000 m.
in length, is fringed with coral reefs and broken by numerous gulfs
and bays.

The Cagayan river, in north Luzon, is the largest in the archi-
pelago. It is about 220 m. long and drains to the northward
about 10,000 sq. m., or nearly one-fourth of the island. The Rio
Grande de Mindanao (known in its upper course as the Rio Pulangua)
drains to the south and west a larger area in central and southern
Mindanao and is second in size. It and the Agusan, which drains
to the northward the mountain valley in east Mindanao, are each
over 200 m. in length. The principal rivers of the lowland basin
of central Luzon are the Pampanga and the Agno. The Pampanga
rises in the highlands on the north-east border, flows south by west,
and discharges through several channels into Manila Bay. The

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PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

393

Agno rises in the mountains on the north border, flows south,
south-west and north-west, and discharges through several channels
into the Gulf of Lingayen. Each of these has a great number of
small tributaries, and along the coast of this lowland basin are
many small tide water streams. The Pasig is a short but commer-
cially important stream connecting Laguna de Bay with Manila Bay.
The Rio Bicol, which rises in Lake Bato and flows N.N.W. into San
Miguel Bay, is the principal river of south Luzon. Samar, Panay,
Negros, Leyte, Bohol and Cebu are drained by many streams, and a
few of those in Samar, Panay and Negros are of considerable size.

In the lowland basin of central Luzon, 6 m. inland from Manila
Bay, is Laguna de Bay, the largest body of fresh water in the
Philippines. It is 32 m. long from north-west to south-east
and its coast-line, broken on the north by two hilly peninsulas, is
108 m. long. Lake Taal, a few miles south-west of Laguna de Bay,
occupies the crater of a great volcano. It is 175 m. long and
12 m. wide. The country rises gently to it on all sides, and on an
island near its centre is the active volcano of Taal, 1050 ft. high.
In north Luzon is Lake Cagayan. In Mindanao there are lakes
Lanao, Liguasan and Buluan in the west-central portion and
lakes Mainit, Pinaya, Dagun, Sadocum and Linao in the valley
of the Agusan. There are small lakes in some of the other islands.

Geology. — The Philippines appear to be the remnants of a some-
what complex system of mountain arcs, which from their similarity
of form and direction seem to be in some way connected with the
mountain ranges of Annam. The oldest rocks exposed are gneiss,
talc-schist and serpentine, with intrusive masses of gabbro and
diabase. These are overlaid by a limestone, upon which rests con-
formably a series of sandstones with coal seams. The age of these
beds is unknown. In some of the islands nummulitic limestone
(Eocene) occurs. Coral limestones, probably of Middle Tertiary
age, are also found, sometimes 4000 ft. above the sea, and marine
deposits of a very late geological period occur near the coast and in
the low-lying depressions. Volcanic rocks of modern date cover
extensive areas, especially in the southern part of Luzon and in
Mindanao. In Luzon trachytic tuffs are sometimes interstratified
with nummulitic limestone, thus showing that the eruptions had
already begun in the Eocene period.

Volcanoes and Earthquakes. — There are twelve active volcanoes in
the archipelago. They are Babuyan Claro, Camiguin de Babuyanes
and Didicas in the Babuyanes Islands off the north coast of Luzon ;
Cagua or Caua in north Luzon; Taal, Mayon and Bulusan in south
Luzon; Canlaon and Magaso in Negros; Camiguin de Mindanao in
the island of Camiguin, off the north coast of Mindanao; and Apo
and Calayo in Mindanao. Only a few eruptions have been recorded
of any of these, however, except Taal and Mayon, and there has
been no great eruption of Taal since 1754. But there were 26
eruptions of Mayon in the igth century, and those of 1814 and
1897 were of great violence. That of 1897 began practically without
warning on the 23rd of June, became alarming on the 24th and
destructive on the 25th, and ceased on the 3Oth. Streams of lava
completely destroyed several villages and injured others, as well as
the town of San Fernando. The lava flow extended more than
7 m. eastward, and a rain of ashes extended too m. to the east and
75 m. to the west. There are eight other volcanoes, which although
extinct or dormant have well-preserved cones. They are Arayat,
Banajao, San Cristobal, Isarog and Malinao in south Luzon, and
Macaturin and Matutum in Mindanao. •

Earthquakes are frequent and occasionally violent. In the
seven years 1902-1908 the microseismograph at Manila recorded
796 local earthquakes. In the 47 years ending March 1909 the
various regions of the archipelago were visited by about 60 strong
earthquakes; 1 6 of these, in ten different regions, occurred in the
decade from 1890 to 1900. There were 8 in the year 1897 alone, and
one of these ruined the town of Zamboanga in west Mindanao and
caused considerable loss of life by falling buildings and immense
sea waves. A new island appeared at this time off the coast of
Borneo, near Labuan. The principal centres of disturbance are
in the valley of the Agusan, m the region of Mayon volcano, in
the region of Taal volcano, on Masbate Island, and along the north
shore of Luzon. The islands of Cebu, Bohol, Negros and Palawan
are rarely shaken.

Fauna. — The Philippines, politically speaking, and the Philip-
pines, zoologically speaking, are not identical areas; Balabac,
Palawan and the Calamianes being characterized by the occurrence
of numerous Bornean forms which are conspicuously absent from
the remaining islands. Although the Philippines are commonly
held to form an eastern extension of the Indo-Malayan sub-region,
there is a large amount of specialization in the fauna of the islands
eastward of the Palawan group. Mammals are scarce. No mar-
supials occur. The edentates are represented by the pangolin
(Manis sp.?) of the Palawan group. In the seas are found the
dolphin, cachalot and dugong. Wild hogs of at least two species
occur. The beautiful axis deer of Sulu has apparently been brought
there by man. Red or brown deer occur in Basilan, Mindanao,
Leyte, Samar and the Calamianes Islands. The number of species
and their respective ranges have not been satisfactorily determined.
In Masbate, Panay, Guimaras and Negros there is a dark-coloured
species marked with buff spots. Deer are absent in Palawan,
Tawi Tawi, Tablas, Romblon, Sibuyan and Siquijor. Humped

cattle are raised on most of the islands. They are killed for their
flesh, hides and horns, and little attention is paid to their milk-
giving properties. The water-buffalo, or caraboa, occurs in a
wild state in Luzon, Mindoro, the Calamianes group, Masbate,
Negros and Mindanao, but the wild herds are believed to have
originated from domesticated animals. The domesticated water-
buffalo is sluggish in its movements, and will not work through
the heat of the day; but it is a wonderful swimmer, and makes
its way through the worst quagmire with ease. It is universally
used as a draught animal and beast of burden. The most inter-
esting of the ruminants is the timarau (Bubalus mindorensis, Heude),
peculiar to Mindoro. Unlike the water-buffalo, it does not bathe
in water or wallow in mud. It is extremely wild, feeding by night
and sleeping by day in the densest jungle. It sometimes charges
the hunter without provocation, and is very dangerous when
wounded. It attacks and kills the much larger wild buffalo. All
attempts to domesticate it have failed. A chevrotain is found
in Balabac. The house rat, introduced by man, is a common
nuisance, and mice occasionally seriously damage sugar-cane and
rice. Squirrels are confined to the eastern chain of islands from
Basilan to Samar and to the Palawan-Calamianes group. In the
southern islands there is a tiny species, the size of a mouse. Very
large flying-squirrels are found in Palawan and Mindanao. Squirrel-
shrews occur in the Palawan-Calamianes group, and true shrews
at various points in the archipelago. Among the Carnivores
are the binturong and an otter, both found in the Palawan-
Calamianes group; two civet cats, which range throughout the
archipelago, and a wild cat of small size, which has been found
in Palawan, Panay, Negros and Luzon. Bats are very numerous,
and a number of the species are peculiar to the Philippines.
Galeopithecus^ and Tarsius range from Basilan to Samar; the former
occurs also in Bohol. In spite of all ^that has been said to the
contrary, but one species of monkey {Macacus philippinensis,
Geoff.) has been discovered in the Philippines. It occurs on every
island of any importance. Its flesh is occasionally eaten by the
natives. Albino specimens of this monkey are not uncommon,
but the pure white monkeys, not albinos, said to inhabit Mindanao,
are mythical. The large fruit bats (Pteropus) occur in immense
colonies, and are sometimes eaten by the natives.

Especial importance attaches to the unexpected discovery by
Whitehead of a new and peculiar mammalian fauna, inhabiting
a small plateau on the top of Mt Data, in north Luzon, at an altitude
of more than 7000 ft. Specimens of 15 species were obtained,
embracing 5 new genera (Calaemomys, Chrotomys, Rhynchomys,
Batomys and Carpomys). Eight of the species were new and
strikingly peculiar. Their zoological relationships are probably
with Celebes and with Australia. Other discoveries include a few
new squirrels and bats, and the occurrence of a lemur (Nycticebus
lardigradus) in Tawi Tawi.

The islands are as rich in birds as they are poor in mammals, the
total number of species recorded up to 1906 being 693, of which
about one-half are peculiar to the Philippines. A study of their
geographical distribution has demonstrated that the islands may
be divided into fairly well-marked groups, in each of which the
birds show a degree of specialization closely correlated with
diversity of environment and completeness and probable duration
of separation from adjacent groups. Balabac, Palawan and the
Calamianes show a very strong Bornean element. Mindoro stands
by itself. Luzon and the small neighbouring islands have 51 peculiar
forms. A close relationship exists between the birds of the entire
eastern chain of islands. Numerous genera and some families
which are absent from the central islands range from Luzon to
Basilan. These genera usually have distinct representative species
in Luzon, Samar and Leyte, Mindanao, and in some cases in Basilan
also. The greatest differences occur between Luzon and Samar
and Leyte. The latter islands have 22 peculiar species.

Sulu and Tawi Tawi belong zoologically to the Philippines, but
have 12 well-marked peculiar species, and many of the character-
istic Mindanao-Basilan forms are lacking. Panay, Guimaras,
Negros and Masbate constitute a sharply denned area, characterized
not only by the occurrence of 30 peculiar species, but by the absence
of important genera, and even whole families represented in the
eastern islands. Most of the mammals characteristic of the latter
region are lacking. It is a curious fact that Cebu stands quite
by itself, although the deep channel separating it from Negros
narrows at one point to about 4 m. Cebii , possesses 9 striking
species of birds not known to exist elsewhere, and lacks many of
the characteristic forms of the central and eastern islands. The
zoological position of Bohol has not been satisfactorily determined,
but all existing evidence indicates that it must be grouped with
Samar and Leyte.

Among the more interesting birds may be mentioned the " mound
builder " (Megapodius cumingi, Dillwyn), which buries its large
eggs in the soft sand along the sea beach, or under great mounds of
earth and dead leaves, often at a depth of three or more feet below
the surface. The young are forced to dig their way out and shift
for themselves. The eggs are highly prized by the natives. The
jungle fowl abounds. There are 35 species of pigeons and doves,
many of them most beautifully coloured and all edible. Snipe,
plover, turnstones and other shore birds are abundant during

394

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

the cool season, and herons, bitterns and ducks at all times. The
birds of prey, 45 species, of which 22 are peculiar to the group,
vary in size from a tiny falcon not larger than a sparrow (Micro-
hierax), to an immense monkey-catching eagle (Pithecophaga
geferyi. Grant), which is strong enough to seize monkeys as they
leap from tree to tree. There are 21 species of kingfishers, 15
being peculiar. Of the 12 species of hornbills not one occurs
outside of the Philippines. Frog-mouths, bee-birds, night-hawks
and swifts are found in considerable variety. One of the last
(Collocalia troglodytes, Gray) constructs the edible nests so highly
prized by the Chinese. The best nests are obtained on the precipi-
tous sides of the Penon de Coron, between Culion and Busuanga.

There may also be mentioned 21 cuckoos, I cockatoo, 20 parrots
and parakeets, 20 woodpeckers, barbets, broadbills, starlings,
orioles, weaver-finches, larks, nuthatches, 28 beautifully coloured
sun-birds, and 23 flower-peckers, titmice, shrikes, swallow-shrikes,
tailor-birds, thrushes, fruit-thrushes, fairy blue-birds, fire-birds,
42 fly-catchers, 4 swallows, and 5 species of most beautifully coloured
ant-thrushes, as well as a large number of birds for which English
names cannot be readily supplied.

Reptiles and batrachians are abundant, but have been little
studied. Pythons occur throughout the group, and sometimes
attain enormous size. There are numerous venomous serpents,
but the mortality from snake-bite is low. Geckoes may be seen
on the walls and ceilings of any house. Flying lizards abound
in the forests. Large iguanas are numerous. Their eggs are prized
by the natives, and the flesh of one species, known as ibit or pelubid,
is highly esteemed. Crocodiles are extremely numerous in many
of the streams, and are occasionally found in the sea along the
coasts. Specimens have been obtained measuring 18 ft. in length.
Land turtles of small size are common. Very large sea turtles
are often captured by the fishermen, and their flesh is highly appre-
ciated as an article of food. A considerable business is done in
tortoise-shell. Frogs occur in great variety. One small species
appears in immense numbers with the oncoming of the rainy season,
and at night the noise of its outcry almost deadens other sounds.

Fishes, especially marine fishes, are numerous and varied. About
500 species of food fishes have been found, and common among
them are the bangos or milkfish, the banak or mullet, mackerel,
herring, anchovies, groupers, snappers, pompano, tarpon and
bonito. The " dalag, which is found in the paddy-fields during
the wet season, is a favourite with the natives.

The Philippines are famous for the variety, beauty and abun-
dance of their land molluscs. Fresh-water and marine molluscs
are also very numerous. While most of the species are of interest
chiefly to the conchologist, there are a number of edible forms.
The shells of Placuna placenta, L., split into thin flat plates and,
cut into small squares, are almost universally used in place of
window glass. The valves of the giant clam (Tridachna) some-
times attain a length of 5 ft. and weigh hundreds ol pounds. Pearl-
oysters are abundant in the southern waters of the archipelago.
Pearl-fishing is an important industry in the Sulu Islands. The
shells of the pearly nautilus are commonly used by the Visayans
for drinking cups. From the great opercula of certain marine
forms bracelets and other ornaments are carved, while the hard
serrated edges of other species are sometimes employed in place
of knives for harvesting rice. The land molluscs have been
thoroughly classified, but much still remains to be done with the
marine species.

Arthropoda are very abundant and as yet little known. Shrimps,
crabs and lobsters form an important source of food supply. Mos-
quitoes are numerous in the wet lowlands. Bees are abundant,
and wild honey and wax are gathered in considerable quantities.
The number of species of ants is very large. Some of them infest
dwelling-houses and swarm over the food. The termites, or so-
called white ants," inflict great damage on wooden buildings.
Plagues of locusts occasionally, during a drought, ruin growing
crops; in damp wet weather these insects are destroyed by a fungus
growth (Empusa gryllae) within their bodies.

Land-leeches swarm in the damp lowland forests. The coral
beds of Mindanao and the^Sulu Archipelago are of unsurpassed
beauty, and Guimaras, Cebu and Siquijor are completely covered
with a thick cap of coral limestone.

Flora. — The rich and varied flora of the Philippines is essentially
Malayan, intermixed with Chinese and Australian elements, but
with sufficient individuality to constitute a sub-region, there being
at least 769 species peculiar to the archipelago. More than two-
thirds of the land surface is covered with forests. In the lowlands
and on the lower mountain slopes the forests are composed chiefly
of broad-leaved trees, common among which are the bamboo, the
coco and other palms, and the banyan tree; but on the higher
mountain slopes pines are most abundant. About 750 species of
wood are of commercial or local value, among them are woods
well suited for structural purposes, inside finishing, cabinet work
and carriage making. Plants valuable for their fibre number
about 300, and among them is the abaca (Musa texilis), from the
leaves of which Manila hemp is made. There are gutta-percha,
india-rubber and other trees and plants yielding gums, the banana,
mango, and many other trees and plants yielding fruits; and various
trees and plants yielding nuts, spices, oils and medicines.

Climate. — A uniformly high temperature, excessive humidity,
heavy rainfalls and violent tropical storms, known as typhoons or
bagiiios, are characteristic of the Philippine climate. At Manila
the mean annual temperature is about 80° F., the range of mean
monthly temperature 6-48°, from 77° in January to 83-48° in May;
and the range of extremes (during the period from 1881 to 1902)
39-96° from 60-08° in January 1881 to 100-04° in May 1889. In
accordance with the monthly variations in temperature at Manila
the year is divided into three seasons: temperate (November,
December, January and February), hot (April, May and June) and
intermediate (March, July, September and October). Throughout
the archipelago the mean annual temperature varies much more
with the altitude than with the latitude, but the range in mean
monthly temperatures increases from 3-96° F. at Davao, Mindanao,
in 7° l' N. to 12-6° at Santo Domingo, Batan Islands, in 20° 28'
N. The equability of the temperature also decreases appre-
ciably from the sea-coast to the interior. The maximum
daily range of temperature at Manila varies from 13-8° in June to
17-7° in December. At Manila the monthly average of relative
humidity ranges from 70-7° in April to 85-5° in September, and the
annual average is 79-4°. The mean annual rainfall in this city is
about 76 in., and nearly three-fourths of it is from the middle of
June to the middle of October, when the winds blow from the
south-west. During the period from 1865 to 1902 the annual rain-
fall varied from 35-6 in. in 1885 to 117-3 m- in l867 when in the
month of September alone there was a fall of 57-8 in. In July,
August and September two-thirds of the days are rainy, but in
February, March and April only one-tenth of them are rainy. On
the Pacific coast of Luzon, Samar, Leyte and Mindanao the rainy
season is from November to May, when the winds blow from the
east or the north-east. In the year ending August 1903 the amounts
of rainfall at 41 observation stations widely distributed throughout
the archipelago varied from 16-2 in. at Zamboanga in west Mindanao
to 152 in. at Masinloc, on the west coast of central Luzon. The
Philippines are visited on the average by twenty or more typhoons
annually. About one-fifth of them occur in September. During
January, February, March and April they are rare; in May, June
and July they become increasingly common, and in August there
is a falling off in the number, which reaches its maximum in
September, gradually decreasing in October, November and De-
cember. In the famous typhoon of the 2oth of October 1882, the
vortex of which passed over Manila, an immense amount of damage
was done in the city. Two thousand persons lost their lives in
Samar and Leyte during the great storm of 1897. The typhoon
warnings sent out from the Manila observatory annually save
heavy loss of life and property.

Soil. — The soil, usually of a reddish-brown colour, is for the most
part disintegrated lava mixed with decayed vegetation; occasion-
ally there is also a mixture of disintegrated coral limestone.

Agriculture. — Agriculture is the principal industry. In 1903
about 40 % of the working population were engaged in agricultural
pursuits. The industry is, however, in a primitive condition.
The native farmers are lazy and slow to appreciate the advantages
of the methods recommended by the Americans. Only 9-5 % of
all the land in the archipelago was included in " farms " in 1903,
and less than one-half of the farm land was under cultivation.
La Lagnna, Luzon, was the only province in which more than
50 % of the land was included in " farms," and Cebii the only island
in which more than 25 % of the land was included in farms; in the
jarge island of Mindanao only 1-4 %, in Masbate only 1-6'%, and
in Mindoro only 3-9 %. There were 815,453 " farms " or individual
holdings, but more than one-fifth of these were small parcels or
gardens containing less than an acre each ; about one-half contained
less than 2j acres each, and the average size was 8-57 acres. More
than four-fifths of them were worked by owners, and the remainder
chiefly by share tenants. The principal crops are hemp (abaca),
sugar, tobacco, coco-nuts and rice. Most of the hemp (538,200
acres in 1902) is grown in south Luzon and in Samar and Leyte,
but smaller crops are produced in Cebu, Mindoro, Marinduque,
north Mindanao and south Negros; the crop became of commercial
importance about 1855, and in 1907 the yield for export amounted
to 112,895 tons. About two-thirds of the sugar is produced in
Negros, but it is an important crop in the provinces of Pampanga
and Tarlac, within the lowland basin of Luzon, also in the province
of Batangas on the south coast of Luzon, in the south and east of
Panay, and in Cebu. The production increased from about 6000
tons in 1855 to 300,000 tons in 1893, and for many years prior to
1887 it was a more important crop than hemp, but since the American
occupation the crop has been smaller. The total acreage in 1902
was 177,620 acres, and in 1007 the yield for export was 118,395
tons. Approximately one-half of the tobacco, 77,632 acres yielding
37,485 Ib in 1902, is grown in the valley of the Cagayan river,
and most of the remainder, which is of inferior quality, in the
neighbouring provinces of Union, Ilocos Norte and Abra, and in
Panay, Cebu, Masbate and Negros. The natives chew betel nuts
instead of tobacco, and to the production of these nuts they devote
more than 60,000 acres. The rich soil of the lowlands of the pro-
vince of Laguna is especially well adapted to the culture of the
coco-nut palm, and since the American occupation considerable
land in this province that had formerly been devoted to sugar

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

395

has been planted with these trees. They thrive well also in most
low districts along the coasts; in 1902 about 375,000 acres were
devoted to the culture of them.

Rice is the staple food of the natives. When the Philippines
were discovered by the Spaniards it was the only cultivated crop
of importance, and until the igth century it was the chief article
of export, but as the culture of the more profitable crops of hemp,
sugar and coco-nuts was extended it became an article of import.
As late as 1902, however, about one-half of the land under cultiva-
tion was sown to rice. It is grown most extensively in the lowlands
of the south half of Luzon, in north Panay and in Negros, but the
culture of either the lowland or the upland varieties for local con-
sumption is very general. In some districts Indian corn is the
staple food instead of rice, and the production of this cereal in small
quantities for livestock is general. It is grown most extensively
in the valley of the Cagayan river, in 1902 the total acreage in the
archipelago was about 254,470. For several years prior to 1891,
coffee, grown principally in the provinces of Cavite, Batangas
and Lepanto-Bontoc, Luzon, was nearly as important a crop as
tobacco, but between 1891 and 1898 most of the coffee plantations
were destroyed by insects and disease. A small quantity of coffee
is grown in the province of Benguet, Luzon, and is of superior
quality. Cotton, the cultivation of which was discouraged by the
Spanish government as a means of increasing the cultivation of
tobacco, is a very small crop, except in the provinces of Ilocos
Norte, and Ilocos Sur on the west coast of north Luzon; in 1902
there were in these provinces about 5525 acres of cotton. Many
tropical fruits grow wild but their quality is often inferior; those
cultivated most extensively are mangoes and bananas. Grapes,
blackberries, figs and strawberries have been introduced from the
United States and are grown successfully in the province of Benguet.
The natives care little for the garden vegetables common to Europe
and America, but in the vicinity of Manila and other large centres
of population the Chinese grow many of these for consumption by
European and American inhabitants.

With the exception of the water-buffalo, which is indispensable
for agricultural purposes, the domestic animals are very inferior
in quality and few in numbers. The horses, which are of Mexican,
Spanish and Chinese origin, are small and poorly cared for; some
American horses have been introduced for the purpose of improving
the breed. The neat cattle, which are of Australian and Indian
origin, are raised chiefly for beef, their hides and their horns;
about nine-tenths of them were destroyed by the rinderpest and
the war at the close of the igth century. Swine are numerous but
they are of a kind known in the United States as " razorbacks."
There are many goats but only a few sheep. In one district
near Manila duck-raising is of considerable importance, but
the principal branch of the poultry industry consists in the
raising of game-cocks for cock-fighting, which is the national
sport.

Mineral Resources. — Numerous mineral deposits have been
discovered, but little has been determined with respect to their
value. Sub-bituminous coal is widely distributed. That near the
surface is generally poor in quality and the difficulties of deep mining
may be great because of folds and faults in the rocks. There are,
however, promising fields near Danao, in Cebii; on the island of
Polillo, oft the east coast of Luzon; in the south part of Mindoro;
on Batan Island, off the south-east coast of Luzon; on Dinagat
Island, off the north coast of Mindanao; and in the north-east
corner of Negros. Gold has been found in small quantities in nearly
all the provinces. There is some rude gold mining by the natives.
As the result of favourable indications extensive gold-mining
operations have been instituted in the provinces of Benguet and
Ambos Camarines in Luzon, and on the island of Masbate. Copper
is scarcely less widely distributed than gold, but the production
of it awaits smelters and better facilities for transportation. There
are extensive deposits of iron ore (magnetite and hematite) in the
province of Bulacan, Luzon. Iron ore has been found in other
provinces of Luzon and in the islands of Cebu, Panay and Marin-
duque. There are outcrops of lead in Marinduque and Cebii, and
in Marinduque considerable silver is associated with the lead.
Among other minerals are sulphur, lime, gypsum and phosphate.

Manufactures. — The manufacturing industry consists mainly in
preparing agricultural products for market, and in the production
by the natives of wearing apparel, furniture, household utensils, and
other articles required to supply their primitive wants. The most
important factories are those for the manufacture oT cigars and
cigarettes, but most cigars and some of the cigarettes are made by
hand. In the manufacture of sugar most of the mills in use extract
only about three-fourths of the juice from the cane; in 1902 about
73 % of it was manufactured by 528 mills operated by steam;
I7 % by 47° mills operated by hand or by a carabao; and 10 % by
77 mills operated by water-power. In the principal rice-producing
districts the rice is threshed and cleaned by machines, but in other
districts more primitive methods are employed. Most of the cloth
which the natives wear the women weave in their own homes.
There are three principal varieties: sinamay, which is made from
selected hemp fibres and is worn by both men and women ; jusi,
which is made from a mixture of hemp and pineapple-plant fibres
with or without the addition of some cotton and silk and is used

for making women's dresses and men's shirts; pina, which is made
from the fibres in the leaf of the pineapple-plant and is used for
making women's garments, handkerchiefs and scarfs. Nipa, made
from the fibre of the agave or maguey plant and worn by women,
is less common. Hats are made of palm leaves, alaca leaves, banana
leaves, split bamboo and various grasses. Mats, rugs and carpets
are made principally of split bamboo ; chairs and beds of bahnag
and other woods and of rattan. Alcohol is distilled from nipa,
coco-nuts, buri (Corypha umbraculifera), cauong (Caryota onusta),
pugahan (Caryota urens) and Indian corn. Other manufactures
of the natives include vehicles of various kinds, harnesses, indigo,
coco-nut oil, soap, salt and lime.

Communications and Commerce. — The first railway in the Philip-

Eines was the line from Manila to Dagupan (120 m.) which was built
y an English corporation under a guaranty of the Spanish govern-
ment and was opened in 1892. There was no further construction
for ten years. But in 1902 and 1903 the Philippine government,
as established in 1902 by an act of the Congress of the United
States, granted franchises for the extension of the Manila-Dagupan
railway to Cabanatuan (55 m.) and to Antipolo (24 m.). The first
of these branches was completed in 1905, the second in 1906. In
February 1905 Congress authorized the Philippine government
to aid and encourage the construction of railways by guaranteeing
4 % interest on bonds; the duty on imported materials used in the
construction of railways and the internal revenue on Philippine
forest products used for that purpose have also been removed.
With this assistance the Manila Railroad Company, organized
under the laws of the state of New Jersey, agreed to construct
about 600 m. of railway in Luzon; and the Philippine Railroad
Company, organized under the laws of the state of Connecticut,
agreed to construct about 300 m. in Panay, Cebu and Negros.
In 1909 there were in operation more than 300 m. in Luzon, 60 m.
in Cebu and 50 m. in Panay. At the beginning of the American
occupation the roads were very bad and in many of the islands
there were none; but in 1909 there were at least 400 m. of good
roads. The Cagayan river, which is navigable for native boats
1 60 m. from its mouth, and for rafts 40 m. farther up, is an important
highway of commerce in north Luzon. Many miles of inland
water communication with small boats or bamboo rafts are afforded
by the Pampanga, Agno, Abra, Pasig and Bicol rivers in Luzon, and
by the Agusan and Rio Grande de Mindanao in Mindanao. There
are few harbours which admit vessels drawing more than 15 ft. of
water, but many which admit smaller vessels, and at the close of
1909 there were 151 steamboats and 424 sailboats engaged in the
coasting trade. Manjla is the principal port of entry, and since
the American occupation Manila harbour has been made accessible
to vessels drawing 30 ft. of water. Cebu in Cebu and Iloilo in Panay
are ports of entry second and third in rank, although small in com-
parison with Manila; there are others of minor importance.

The foreign commerce of the Philippines consists chiefly in
the exportation of Manila hemp, dried coco-nut meat (copra), sugar
and tobacco, both in the leaf and in cigars and cigarettes; and in
the importation of cotton goods, rice, wheat-flour, fresh beef,
boots and shoes, iron and steel, illuminating oil, liquors, paper and
paper goods. The value of the exports increased from $19,751,068
in the year ending the 3Oth of June 1900 to $32,816,567 in the year
ending the 3Oth of June 1908, and the value of the imports increased
during the same period from $20,601,436 to $30,918,357. A very
large part of the trade is with the United States and Great Britain.
The imports from Great Britain exceed those from the United States,
but the exports to the United States are much greater than those
to Great Britain, and the total trade with the United States is
greater than that with any other country. In 1909 8-05 % of the
imports were from the United States and 17-8 % of the exports
were to the United States; in 1908 16-4 % of the imports were
from the United States and 31-4 % of the exports were to the
United States. In 1909 free trade was established between the United
States and the Philippines in all goods which are the growth, product
or manufacture of these countries, with the exception of rice, except
that a limit to the free importation from the Philippines to the
United States in any one year is fixed on cigars at 15,000,000;
on wrapper tobacco and on filler tobacco, when mixed with more
than 15 % of wrapper tobacco, at 300,000 ft; on filler tobacco at
1,000,000 ft and on sugar at 300,000 gross tons. In the case of
manufactures the law provides that only those articles which do
not contain more than 20 % in value of foreign materials shall be
admitted free.

Population. — The total population of the archipelago as
enumerated in the census of 1903 was 7,635,426. Of this
number 6,987,868 were classed as civilized and 647,740 as wild;
7,579,288 or 99-2% were native-born and 56,138 were foreign-
born; 7,539,632 were of the Malayan or brown race, 42,097 were
of the yellow race, 24,016 were of the black race, 14,271 were of
the white race, and 15,419 were of mixed races. Of the black
race 23,511, or 97-8%, were Negritos, who are believed to be the
aborigines of the Philippines. Nearly all of them live in a
primitive state in the interior of Luzon, Panay, Mindanao and

396

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

Negros. They are very short of stature, 4 ft. 10 in. being about
the average height of a full-grown man, and the women are
shorter. Their colour is black, their skull decidedly round, their
hair thick and frizzly, their legs thin and almost without calves,
and their toes so prehensile that they can use them nearly as well
as their fingers. They tattoo themselves and wear very little
clothing, usually only a geestring. They have no fixed abodes
but roam about in groups of a few families. They are skilful
with the bow and in throwing stones, and they can easily kindle
a fire, even in the wet season, by rubbing together two pieces
of dry bamboo. Their food consists principally of game, roots
and wild fruits. The women, who do all the work, collect wax
and honey, which are their principal staples in trade. Few
Negritos live to be fifty years of age. The brown race, which
came from the south in successive waves of immigration beginning
in prehistoric times, is composed of twenty-three distinct tribes
varying widely in culture, language and appearance; their
languages however belong to one common stock and there is a
general resemblance in physical features and in quality of mind.
The great bulk of the population, approximately 90%, is included
in seven Christian tribes as follows: Visayan, 3,219,030; Tagalog,
1,460,695; Ilocano, 803,942; Bicol, 566,365; Pangasinan, 343,686;
Pampangan, 280,984; and Cagayan, 159,648. The Visayans are
the principal inhabitants of the islands in the central part of the
archipelago (Panay, Cebu, Negros, Leyte, Bohol, Samar, Masbate
and Paragua) and on the north and east coasts of Mindanao;
they were perhaps the most civilized people in the archipelago
when discovered by the Spaniards, by whom they were originally
called Pintados because they were in the habit of painting their
bodies; but since then their progress has been less rapid than
that of the Tagalogs — who constitute the bulk of the population
of Manila and central Luzon and the majority of the population
of Mindanao — who are now the most cultured of the brown races
in the Philippines. Most of the Ilocanos are in the western half of
north Luzon; most of the Bicols in south Luzon; most of the
Pangasinans in the province of Pangasinan, which borders on the
Gulf of Lingayen; most of the Pampangans in the province of
Pampanga, which borders the north shore of Manila Bay; and
most of the Cagayans in the valley of the Cagayan river. More
than three-fourths of the wild population is included in the More,
Igorot and Negrito tribes. The Igorots (197,938 wild and
13,582 civilized) are the chief representatives of the early Malay
immigration to the archipelago. They are the principal inhabi-
tants of the provinces of Lepanto-Bontoc and Benguet in north
Luzon and are numerous in the mountain districts of neighbour-
ing provinces. Among the wildest of them head-hunting is still
a common practice; but the majority are industrious farmers
laying out their fields on artificial terraces and constructing
irrigation canals with remarkable skill. The Moros (275,224
wild and 2323 civilized) were the last of the Malays to migrate
to the islands; they came after their conversion to the Mahom-
medan religion, and their migration continued until the Spanish
conquest. More than one-half of them are in Mindanao and they
are the principal inhabitants of the small islands of Jolo, Basilan,
Siassi and Tawi Tawi south-west of Mindanao. Slavery is
common among them. They are generally miserably poor,
cruel and haughty. Nearly three-fourths of the foreign-born
and 97-5% of the representatives of the yellow race come from
China. The mixture of the races is principally that of the Chinese
with the Malays or the Spaniards with the Malays. More than
half the representatives of the white race (1903) were Americans.
Most of the inhabitants live in groups of villages. In 1903 there
were 13,400 villages and nearly three-fourths of them contained
fewer than 600 inhabitants each. Laoag in north Luzon with a
population of 19,699, Iloilo in Panay with a population of 19,054,
Cebu with a population of 18,330, and Nueva Caceres in south
Luzon (10,201), were the only towns with a population exceed-
ing 10,000; and Manila (219,928) was the only city. After the
1903 census many towns were enlarged by annexation of suburbs.
Government, — At the beginning of the American occupation,
in August 1898, a purely military government was established;
but in May 1899 the military authorities began the re-establish-

ment of civil courts, and in July of the same year they began the
organization of civil municipal governments. To continue the
work of organizing and establishing civil government the president
of the United States appointed in February 1900 a Philippine
Commission of five members, with William H. Taft as chairman.
On the ist of September 1900 this body assumed the legislative
functions of the central government at Manila; on the 4th of
July 1901 the executive authority was, by order of the president,
transferred from the military governor to Judge Taft, whom he
had appointed civil governor; on the 6th of September 1901 the
Philippine Commission, by authority of the president, established
the four executive departments, of interior, commerce and
police, finance and justice, and public instruction; and on the
29th of October 1901 the president appointed a .vice-governor.
The Congress of the United States, in an act approved on the
ist of July 1902, ratified and confirmed the government as
thus established, but required that future appointments by the
president of the governor, vice-governor, members of the com-
mission and heads of the executive departments should be made
with the consent of the Senate. The organic act contained a
bill of rights, provided for the establishment of a popular
assembly two years after the completion of a census of the
Philippines, and more definitely provided for the organization
of the judiciary. The first popular assembly, of 80 members,
was opened at Manila on the i6th of October 1907, and since then
the legislature has been composed of two branches, the Philippine
Commission (five Americans and four, formerly three, Filipinos),
and the Philippine Assembly. The members of the Assembly
are elected by districts (the population of which is approximately
equal) for a term of two years. A voter must be twenty-three
years of age, must have been a resident of the municipality for six
months, must not be a citizen or subject of any foreign country,
and must possess at least one of the following qualifications:
have been an office-holder under Spanish rule, own real estate
worth 500 pesos, pay taxes amounting annually to 30 pesos,
or be able to speak, read and write either Spanish or English.
The legislature meets annually; a regular session is limited to
90 days, and a special session to 30 days.

Justice is administered principally by a supreme court, courts
of first instance, and courts of justices of the peace. The supreme
court consists of seven members, four Americans and three
Filipinos; and the chief justice and associate justices of the
supreme court are appointed by the president of the United States
with the consent of the Senate. The judges of the courts of first
instance are appointed by the governor with the consent of the
Philippine Commission. A judgment of the supreme court of
the Philippines which affects any statute, treaty, title, right or
privilege of the United States may be reversed, modified or
affirmed by the Supreme Court of the United States; an appeal
to the Supreme Court of the United States may also be had
in any cause in which the value in controversy exceeds $25,000.

The most common form of provincial government is that by a
governor, who is elected biennially by the municipal councillors
in convention, and a secretary, a treasurer, a supervisor, and a
fiscal or prosecuting attorney, who are appointed by the Philip-
pine Commission. Each municipality is governed by a president,
a vice-president, and a municipal council, all of whom are elected
biennially by the qualified electors of the municipality. The
Philippine " municipality " is an administrative area, often
sparsely settled, is often called a town, and may be compared to
a New England township; the municipalities are the units into
which the provinces are divided. Each municipality is made up
of barrios or small villages (about 13,400 in the entire archipelago)
and of one, or more, more thickly peopled areas, each called a
poblacion, and resembling the township " centre " of New
England.

Education. — The establishment of an efficient system of elementary
schools has been an important part of the work of the American
administration. Under Spanish rule the Church established
colleges and seminaries for training priests, but the Spanish system
of secular schools for elementary instruction, established in 1863,
accomplished little; the schools were taught by unqualified native
teachers and the supervision of them was very lax. The American

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

397

system, established by the Philippine Commission in 1901, provides
a course of instruction (in the English language) for n years:
4 primary, 3 intermediate and 4 secondary. In the intermediate
and secondary departments there is a choice of six courses; general,
teaching, farming, tool work, housekeeping and household arts and
business. The administrative head of the system Is the director
of education, who is appointed by the commission, and who arranges
the course of study, approves the plans for school houses, determines
in what towns secondary schools shall be established and in what
towns American teachers shall teach, divides the archipelago into
school divisions and appoints a division superintendent in each,
and supervises the examination of teachers and the application
of insular school funds. Associated with him is an advisory board
also appointed by the commission. In each school division, of
which there were 35 in 1908, the division superintendent appoints
the native teachers, prepares for the municipal councils estimates
of school expenses, and approves all expenditures from municipal
school funds. In each municipality there is a school board con-
sisting of the president of the municipality and from four to six
other members as the division superintendent shall determine:
one-half of them are elected by the municipal council and one-half
are appointed by the division superintendent. In 1902 there were
928 American teachers employed in the Philippine schools; the
employment of American teachers is only a temporary policy,
however, and by 1908 the number has been reduced to 795. In
1910 there were more than 6000 Filipino teachers who were teaching
English to more than 500,000 pupils. The total number of children
of school age in the islands probably reaches 2,000,000. The
insular government also makes annual appropriations for the
maintenance of Filipino students at educational institutions in the
United States; in 1908 the number so provided for was 130. Besides
the elementary schools there are at Manila the Philippine Normal
School, the Philippine School of Arts and Trades, the Philippine
School of Commerce and the school for the instruction of the
deaf and blind, and in 1908 the Philippine legislature passed an
act for the establishment of a university of the Philippines.

Finance. — Revenue is derived largely from customs duties and
internal revenue taxes. In 1909 the receipts were $22,739,000,
the expenditure $23,337,000, and the total bonded indebtedness
$16,000,000. (N. D. M.)

History. — The Philippine Islands were discovered by Magellan
in March 1521. The first island on which he landed was Malhou ,
between Samar and Dinagat. Then sailing south he touched
at Mindanao, from which he sailed north-west, past Bohol to
Cebu. Here he found a good harbour in the bay on which the
city of Cebu now stands. He made an alliance with the natives,
who undertook to supply him with provisions. With his new
allies he crossed to the little island of Mactan, where he was killed
in a skirmish. A Portuguese by birth, he had been sailing in the
employ of King Charles I. of Spain (the emperor Charles V.),
with the object of proving that the Moluccas lay within that part
of the world which Pope Alexander VI. and the treaty of Torde-
sillas (June 7, 1494) had given to Spain and not to Portugal.
Magellan named his discovery the Archipelago of San Lazarus.
The Spaniards, however, called the group the Islas de Ponienle
(Western Islands). The Portuguese called them the Islas de
Oriente. The distinction was not accidental. To the Portuguese
they constituted the eastern boundary of their world. From the
Spanish point of view the islands were on the extreme western
verge of the national domain. In 1529, by the treaty of Zara-
gosa, Spain relinquished to Portugal all claims to the Moluccas and
agreed that no Spaniard should trade or sail west of a meridian
drawn 297 leagues east of the Moluccas. This was a plain
renunciation of any rights over the Philippines, which lie several
degrees west of the Moluccas. This fact, however, was ignored
and in 1542 an attempt to conquer the Philippines was made by
Ruy Lopez de Villabos (c. 1500-1544). Villabos chose to honour
the heir-apparent of the Spanish throne by naming some of the
islands which he discovered, west and north of Magellan's
discovery, the Islas Filipinas. After the accession of Philip II.
(iSSS-1 598) a much more important expedition was fitted out on
the Mexican coast, under the direction of the distinguished
conquistador, Miguel Lopez de Legaspi (1524-1572). In the
sailing directions, issued in 1561, for the use of this expedition
the phrase " las Islas Filipinas " was used as applying to the
entire archipelago. Starting on the 2nd of November 1564,
from Navidad, with four ships built and equipped on the spot,
Legaspi began an enterprise which entitles him to a place among
the greatest of colonial pioneers. He was accompanied by five
Augustinian friars and four hundred men. In 1565 he founded,

on the island of Cebu, San Miguel, the first permanent Spanish
settlement in the islands, destined to become the Villa de Santi-
simo Nombre de Jesus, later the city of Cebu. In 1571 the city
of Manila was founded and became the insular capital. Legaspi 's
conquest of the islands was facilitated by the fact that there were
no established native states, but rather a congeries of small
clan-like groups, the headship of which was hereditary. Legaspi
was reinforced from time to time by small contingents of troops
and friars. Although he encountered enormous obstacles,
including famine and mutiny, the hostility and treachery of the
natives and of foreigners, and the neglect of the home govern-
ment, he laid a sure foundation for permanent Spanish occupation.
By a combination of tact, courage and resourcefulness he won the
hearts of the natives, repelled the Portuguese and, notwithstand-
ing the great distance from Spain, established the new colony
on a practical basis. Before his death in 1572 he had explored
and pacified a large part of the island territory, had established
trade, and had arrested the progress of Mahommedanism.

The conquest of the Philippines was essentially a missionary
conquest. Inspired by apostolic zeal the friars braved the
terrors of life in the remote villages, raised the natives The Friars
from barbarianism and taught them the forms of and the
Christianity. As a result of their labours the Chris- OHIclals-
tian Filipinos stand unique as the only large mass of Asiatics
converted to Christianity in modern times. The friars promoted
the social and economic advancement of the islands, cultivated
the native taste for music, introduced improvements in agricul-
ture and imported Indian corn and cacao from America. Tobacco
was introduced by the government.

The colonial government was patterned on that of Spanish
America. The powers of the governor-general were limited
only by the audiencia or supreme court, of which he was presi-
dent, and by the residencia or official investigation at the expira-
tion of his term. The islands were subdivided into provinces
under alcaldes maiores who exercised both executive and judicial
functions. The favouritism and corruption that honeycombed
the civil service of Spain frequently resulted in placing in respon-
sible positions persons who were entirely unfit. Hairdressers
were made into alcaldes, and sailors were transformed into
gobernadors by the miraculous grace of royal decrees. The
provinces were subdivided into pueblos, each under a native
gobernadorcillo, elected annually. The permanent offices could
be bought, sold and inherited. The mistake was made of paying
very low salaries to the officials, who took this as a justification
for illegal exactions. The difficulty of securing proper officials
gradually resulted in the more important civil functions being
handed over to the friars, who frequently exercised a benevolent
despotism. In more than half of the twelve hundred villages
there was no other Spaniard beside the priest. The Spanish
language was practically unknown. It was far easier for the
monks to learn the native dialects than to teach their parishioners
Spanish. For two centuries and a half after the conquest there
is little narrative history worth recording. There were border
wars with rebellious savage tribes, attacks made by Chinese
pirates seeking plunder or refuge, volcanic eruptions, earth-
quakes, tornadoes and ,the periodical visits of marauders from
the southern islands.

In 1762, however, as an incident of the war between Spain and
England, a British fleet of thirteen ships, under the command of
Admiral Samuel Cornish (d. 1770) and Brigadier- British
General William Draper (1721-1787), was sent to Occupation
the Philippines. The available Spanish army con- »' Manila.
sisted of about 600 men, while the attacking force numbered
6830. After a bombardment, Manila fell and on the 5th of
October the British entered the city. By the terms of the
capitulation the whole of the archipelago was surrendered to
the British and an indemnity of 4,000,000 pesos was to be paid.
As there was no governor-general at the time, the British were
obliged to treat with the acting-governor, the Archbishop Manuel
Antonio Rojo; but his authority was set aside by a war-party who
rallied around Simon Anda y Salazer, a member of the audiencia.
Anda proclaimed himself governor-general and practically

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

succeeded in confining the British to Manila. At the close of
the war the Philippines were returned to Spain. Manila was
evacuated in March 1764.

For the first quarter of a century after the Spanish conquest
the islands were allowed free trade. Then came the familiar
Economic restrictions, limiting commerce to a fixed amount
Develop- annually, and effectively checking economic develop-
la*at- ment. In 1591 direct trade between the Philippines
and South America was prohibited. In 1593 trade between the
Philippines and Mexico, the only route open between the colony
and Spain, was limited to two ships annually, the ships not to
exceed 300 tons burden. The result was that the command of
the Acapulco galleon was rarely worth less than $50,000. The
passenger fare from Manila to Acapulco, at the end of the i8th
century, was $1000. This monopoly lasted until the Mexican
War of Independence forced the Spanish government to regard
the Philippines as being in the East instead of the West. Spain's
colonial policy was not based on an exaltation of the commercial
ideal. However much the administrators may have fallen short
in actual practice, the Spanish ideal was to preserve and civilize
the native races, rather than to establish lucrative trading posts
where the natives might be easily exploited. la America the
laws which provided elaborate safeguards for the protection of
the Indians were, to a large degree, nullified by the lust for gold
and silver and the consequent demand for labourers in the mines.
In the Philippines the humane policy of the home government
had no such powerful obstacles to contend with. Business was
not developed. The natives were allowed to live the indolent life
of the tropics. Compared with the results of English or Dutch
colonization the conversion and civilization of the Filipinos is a
most remarkable achievement. Notwithstanding the undeniable
vices, follies and absurd illiberalities of the Spanish colonial
regime, the Philippines were the only group in the East Indies
that improved in civilization in the three centuries following
their discovery. The chief defect in the Spanish Philippine
policy was that while it made converts it did not make citizens.
Self-reliance, free-thought and mental growth were not encour-
aged. Progress in scientific knowledge was effectively blocked
by the friars. Their presses confined their activities to the
production of catechisms, martyrologies and handbooks in the
native languages after the fashion of the presses of Mexico. Five
hundred such works were printed and distributed in Manila
alone before 1800. To reach the masses, unfamiliar with
Spanish, manuals of devotion and outlines of Christian doctrine
were translated into the various native languages. Of the Bible
itself, no part was translated or published. A knowledge of
reading and writing was generally diffused throughout the group.
The era of discontent may be said to have begun in 1825 when
the loss of her colonies on the mainland of America caused Spain
a. f to take a more immediate interest in the Philippines,
Discontent. ar>d increased emigration to the islands. Between
1840 and 1872 thirty newspapers were founded. The
introduction of secular books and papers, more or less surrepti-
tiously, helped to spread the seeds of sedition. In 1852 the
Spanish Filipino Bank was established. In 1856 foreign trade,
hitherto confined to Manila, was permitted to enter the port of
Iloilo, and foreign traders were allowed to open branch houses
outside of the capital. The change in Spain's economic policy,
including an attempt to exploit the coalfields and to encourage
both agriculture and commerce, helped to awaken hitherto
dormant elements. In 1601 the Jesuits had opened a college
in Manila for the education of Spanish youth. In 1768 they
had been expelled. In 1859 they were permitted to return
on the understanding that they were to devote themselves to
education.

The Spanish Revolution of 1868 caused a further influx of
Spaniards and also the introduction of the pernicious " spoils
system." With every change of ministry in Madrid came a new
lot of hungry politicians anxious to fill even the more humble
colonial offices. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, followed
by the establishment of direct steam communication between
Spain and the Philippines, sounded the death knell of the peaceful

missionary era and brought about the definite entry of the
islands into the world of commerce and progress.

The friars, by perpetuating medieval conditions in a country
that was now being opened to contact with the civilized world,
increased the feeling of discontent. The natural result was a
violent conflict. The more advanced Filipinos desired the fulfil-
ment of the decrees of the Council of Trent whereby the incum-
bencies in Christianized towns and villages should be held by
regular clergy and not by friars. Filipinos had for generations
been ordained into priesthood although not received into
monastic orders. This measure was really aimed at the political
and economic supremacy of the Spanish-born friars, who had
by this time acquired 400,000 acres of agricultural land, more
than half of it in the vicinity of Manila. The agrarian question
added to the growing discontent. All the revolutions began in
the province of Cavite, where the friars owned 125,000 acres.
In 1872 the secret agents of the friars induced the native garrison
at Cavite to mutiny and thus give the friars an excuse to press for
vigorous action. The mutiny was not successful, but Father
Burgos, the leader of the reform party, was publicly garrotted
with three other native priests; and the native clergy were
declared to be incompetent to have the cure of souls. Several
of the richest and best educated Filipinos were convicted of
treason and banished.

With the increased facilities for European travel Filipinos
began to visit Europe and return with new and broader notions
of life. The most distinguished of the travellers was pitai
Jose Rizal (1861-1896). Born in Calainha, in the
province of Luzon, of pure Tagalog parentage, he attended
the newly reopened Jesuit university in Manila. He was then
sent to Europe to complete his studies, first in Madrid, where he
became a doctor of medicine, and later in Germany, where he
received the degree of Ph.D. He came into touch with advanced
methods of scientific research, acquired great ability as a writer,
keen perception of truth and an unflinching realization of the
defects of his own people, and the unpleasant but essential fact
that to have better government they must first deserve it. His
propaganda, aimed at the small body of Filipinos who had suffi-
cient education to appreciate political satire, was very effective.
His most famous novel, Noli me tangere, was published in 1886.
In this he drew a masterly picture, not only of the life and
immorality of the friars but also of the insolent Filipino chiefs
or caciques, subservient to the powers above, tyrannical to those
below, superstitious, unprogressive and grasping. Caciquism
or " bossism," government by local aristocrats, was the prime
feature of village life in the islands during the entire period
of Spanish rule and existed long before their arrival.

The campaign of Rizal, Marcelo del Pilar, Graciano Lopez
Jaena and Apolinario Mabini, the leaders in the "Young
Filipino Party," was a protest against both the domination
of the friars and economic and administrative faeLI
caciquism. To escape the vengeance of the friars, piiipiaa
Rizal was obliged to flee to Europe. In 1892 he
returned to the islands on the assurance of the governor, Eulogio
Despujols y Dusay, that he might live there in peace. His
enemies, however, succeeded in having him arrested on a charge
of treason. Meanwhile he had organized a reform party under
the title of Liga Filipino.. Its object had been to procure, by
pacific means, several reforms in the government of the islands,
the chief of which were the expulsion of the friars, and the witji-
drawal of the governor-general's arbitrary power to deport
Filipinos. The friars importuned Despujols for Rizal's life but
he persistently refused their demand, and met the case half-way
by banishing Rizal to Mindanao. Incensed by the failure of their
plot, the friars obtained the recall of Despujols.

The new governor, Ram6n Blanco, was like Despujols and
many of his predecessors, humane at heart, but he could do little
more than hold in check the tyrannical schemes of
the clergy. The banishment of Rizal convinced the Ka'ipuaaa
reform party that peaceful endeavour was futile.
A secret organization, the Katipunan, was therefore started
to secure reforms by force of arms. It was founded by Andres

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

399

?896.

Bonifacio, a schoolmaster of Cavite. In 1895-1896 the friars
acting as spies for the government, obtained the banishment
of many hundreds of natives.

On the day after the Katipunan conspiracy had been brought
prematurely to light by a traitor, three hundred prominent
Filipinos were lodged in prison. This precipitated
the rev°lt- The insurrectos attacked the civil guard
outside the city, but were unsuccessful. A week later
some hundreds of insurgents attacked the powder magazine at
San Juan del Monte, but were completely routed. Four of their
chiefs were taken prisoners and executed in Manila. Ten days
after the plot was discovered Manila and five other provinces
were officially proclaimed in a state of siege. The insurrectos
concentrated all their energies upon Cavite province. Several
villages fell into their hands. The insurgent commander-in-chief
was Emilio Aguinaldo. He was born in 1869 in Cavite, son of a
native farmer of considerable ability, and of a half-caste mother
whose father was a Chinaman. After attending the Tagalog
school at Cavite he entered the Jesuit College in Manila but did
not graduate. In 1893 he became municipal alcalde of Cavite,
and later joined the Katipunan.

The government was in a difficult position. General Blanco
had extremely few European troops at his disposal, and it was
doubtful how far native troops could be trusted. Reinforce-
ments were on the way from Spain, but the demands of Cuba had
already depleted the Peninsula of the best fighting material.
Blanco, blamed for not acting at once, was recalled. In
December 1896 General Camilo Garcia de Polavieja (b. 1838)
arrived as his successor, with General Jose Lachambre (b. 1846)
as chief of staff. Before Blanco left he had released Rizal and
allowed him to go to Spain, but the friars caused his arrest and
he was sent back to Manila, where he was executed by Polavieja's
orders in December 1896.

Lachambre took the field in Cavite with energy and succeeded
in quelling the rebellion in that province. He was then despatched
north. Numerous small battles were fought with Aguinaldo
and the insurgents, who were repeatedly defeated only to re-
appear in other places. Polavieja's demand for more troops
having been refused, he resigned, and was succeeded in the spring
of 1897 by General Fernando Prime de Rivera. Hostilities
continued, but the wet season set in, making operations extremely
difficult. Before Primo de Rivera could make much headway
against the insurgents affairs in Cuba became so serious that the
Spanish government cabled him that pacification was most
urgently desired. As a result he suspended operations and signed
the treaty of Biacabato (Dec. 12, 1897), by which Aguinaldo
and thirty-five of his chief followers were allowed to retire to
Hongkong with a cash indemnity of 400,000 pesos. The Madrid
government refused to confirm the terms of peace, and the peace
rejoicings in Manila were followed by the persecution of all
those who were known to have sympathized with the movement.

On the isth of February 1898 in Havana harbour, the U.S.S.
" Maine " was blown up. On the isth of March Primo de
Spanish- Rivera, learning that theAmerican Commodore George
American Dewey was mobilizing his fleet in the harbour of
War- Hongkong, called a council at which the Spanish

Admiral Patricio Montojo (b. 1839) stated that, in the event of
a conflict, his own fleet would be inevitably destroyed. Primo
de Rivera was now recalled and General Basilio Augusti (b. 1840)
took his place. With a new governor-general all plans had to be
reconsidered. Before suitable defences could be made, word
came from Hongkong that Dewey had started for Manila and
Montojo hurriedly sailed from Subig Bay to Cavite, barely in
time to anchor before Dewey arrived. Few among his crew
understood handling a gun properly, and owing to the poor care
which his vessels had received they were actually inferior to
the individual vessels of the American squadron. Commodore
Dewey arrived in the Bay of Manila on the ist of May, and totally
destroyed or disabled the Spanish fleet. The surrender of the
city was refused. The Americans occupied Cavite. The battle
of Manila Bay and the defeat of the Spanish fleet destroyed the
prestige of Spain throughout the islands. Insurrections began

in nearly every province. Aguinaldo and his friends were
allowed to come to Cavite in an American transport. With the
approval of Commodore Dewey, who allowed arms to be supplied
him, Aguinaldo successfully renewed his campaign against the
Spaniards until practically all Luzon, except the city of Manila
and suburbs, was in his control. Reinforcements arrived, and
on the i3th of August Manila was taken by the Americans, under
General Wesley Merritt (b. 1836).

The refusal of General Merritt to permit Aguinaldo's troops
to enter Manila created resentment on the part of the Filipinos.
A so-called constitutional convention was held at Malolos, and
a constitution was adopted. At the same time the Visayan
Republic was organized, and it professed allegiance to Aguin-
aldo's government. Neither Aguinaldo's government nor the
Visayan government was able to maintain order, and the whole
country was subject to the looting of robber bands. The treaty
of peace between the United States and Spain, by which the
Philippine Islands passed into the hands of the former, was
signed in Paris on the loth of December 1898, but it was not
confirmed by the Senate until the 6th of February 1899. During
this period the Filipino army remained under arms. On the 4th
of February hostilities broke out between the Americans and
the Filipinos. The latter were defeated on the sth, at Paco,
with heavy loss. The American troops, now under General
E. S. Otis (b. 1838), following up the enemy, drove Revolt
them out of Malolos and then withdrew to against the
Manila to await reinforcements, which brought Americans.
the total American force up to about 60,000 men. It is
unnecessary to trace in detail the gradual conquest of the
islands, or the hundreds of engagements, often small, between
the rebels and the Americans. Owing to the nature of the
country, and the hope of securing independence from a possible
overthrow of the Republican party in the United States, the
war was prolonged for two or three years. With the capture
of Aguinaldo on the 23rd of March 1901, the resistance became
little more than that of guerrillas.

Civil government was introduced as fast as possible. During
1899 the Schurman commission, headed by Dr Jacob G.
Schurman of Cornell University, was sent by TheTaft
President McKinley to report on the state of affairs. Commis-
In February 1900 a second and more powerful Bl°"'
commission was appointed, consisting of Judge W. H. Taft,
Professor D. C. Worcester (b. 1866), General L. E. Wright
(b. 1846), Mr H. C. Ide (b. 1844), and Professor Bernard Moses
(b. 1846). Under the presidency of Mr Taft it began to exercise
a legislative jurisdiction in September 1900. Its first act was
to appropriate $1,000,000 for the construction and improve-
ment of roads. It next provided for the improvement of
Manila harbour, which involved an expenditure of $3,000,000.
The fifth act extended to the islands the benefits of a civil
service based on merit. In 1901 a general school law was
passed under which 1000 American school teachers were intro-
duced. They were scattered among 500 towns, to teach 2500
Filipino teachers English and modern methods of school
teaching. Other legislation provided for the organization of
a judiciary, a supreme court, the enactment of a code of civil
procedure, the establishment of a bureau of forestry, a health
department, and an agricultural bureau and a bureau of con-
stabulary, made up of native soldiers officered by white men.
Ladronism was very widely distributed under Spanish rule,
and the old guardio, civil committed outrages almost equal
to those of the brigands themselves. The new constabulary
has been eminently successful in maintaining law and order.
Great progress has been made in the scientific mapping of the
islands.

On the 4th of July 1901 the office of military governor was
abolished, the military forces being largely recalled, and the
part remaining being made henceforth subordinate civil
to the civil authorities. Mr Taft became governor- Govern-
general. A general amnesty was granted to all •»•"<•
rebels and political prisoners who would take the oath of
allegiance to the United States. On the ist of July 1902 President

400

PHILIPPOPOLIS— PHILIPPSBURG

Roosevelt signed an act establishing the civil governmen
of the Philippines and providing for a new legislative body
A census was authorized and was taken in 1903. The act o
1902 also authorized the purchase of land belonging to the
friars. Although among such an ignorant and diversified body
as that of the Filipinos public opinion can hardly be saic
to exist, there is no doubt that the hatred of the friars was
practically universal. When the revolution came the members
of the four orders had to flee for their lives, although the people
who killed or imprisoned those they could catch were generally
good Catholics. As the insular government could not safely
allow the friars to return to their parishes the friars' lands
were bought for $7,000,000. Mr Taft managed the delicate task
of conducting negotiations with the Vatican without arousing
the hostility of either Catholics or Protestants. On the ist oi
February 1904 General L. E. Wright became governor. He
was succeeded in 1905 by Mr H. C. Ide, who was succeeded
by General James T. Smith in 1906. The elections for the
first Philippine Assembly were held on the 3oth of July 1907,
and 31 Nationalists, 16 Progressists, 33 Independents and others
were elected. The total vote cast was about 100,000. In
many districts the Nationalists' candidates promised that if
they were returned immediate independence would follow.
When the Assembly met it became apparent that the great
majority were more anxious to act as a dignified branch of the
legislature than to maintain consistency with their pre-election
declarations. The legislature convened for its second session
on the ist of February 1909. During this session 72 laws were
passed, of which 23 had been introduced by the Commission
and 49 by the Assembly. Among the acts was one providing
for the continuance of Spanish as the official language of the
courts until 1913; an act providing for bankruptcy; and an
act fixing the age of majority at 21 years.

Governor Smith left the islands in May 1909 and was suc-
ceeded by W. Cameron Forbes. On the 6th of August 1909
the Payne and Colton bills became law, greatly promoting trade
between the Islands and the United States (see Communications
and Commerce). On the 2nd of November 1909 delegates
were elected for the second Philippine Assembly. (H. Bi.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY.— See, in general, A. P. C. Griffin, A List of Books
on the Philippine Islands in the Library of Congress (Washington,
1903), with references to periodicals; T. H. Pardo de Tavera,
Biblioteca fUipina (ibid. 1903); W. E. Retana, Aparato biblio-
grdfico de la historia general de Filipinas (3 vols., Madrid, 1906);
idem. Archive de bibliofilo filipino (Madrid, 1895); J. A. Robertson,
Bibliography of the Philippine Islands (Cleveland, Ohio, 1908). For
statistics, general description' and material on administration, see
Census of the Philippine Islands in 1903 (4 vols., Washington,
I905); Pronouncing Gazetteer and Geographical Dictionary of the
Philippine Islands (Washington, 1902) ; Ethnological Survey Publi-
cations of the Department of the Interior (Manila, 1904 sqq.);
Reports of the Philippine Commission (Washington, 1901 sqq.)'
Sir John Bowring, A Visit to the Philippine Islands (London,
1859); D. C. Worcester, The Philippine Islands and their People
(New York, 1898) ; F. W. Atkinson, The Philippine Islands (Boston,
1905); C. H. A. F. Lindsay, The Philippines under Spanish and
American Rules (Philadelphia, 1906); A. H. S. Landor, The Gems
of the East (New York, 1904) ; M. A. Hamm, Manila and the Philip-
pines (London, 1898); J. A. LeRoy, Philippine Life in Town and
Country (ibid. 1905); J. B. Devins, An Observer in the Philippines
(Boston, 1905); R. R. Lala, Philippine Islands (New York, 1899);
H. C. Potter, The East To-day and To-morrow (ibid 1902)- F
Btumentritt, Die Philippinen (Hamburg, 1900); H. P. Willis'
Our Philippine Problem, a Study of American Colonial Policy
(New York, 1905); Edith Moses, Unofficial Letters of an Official's
Wife (ibid. 1908); W. B. Freer, The Philippine Experiences of an
American Teacher (ibid. 1906); J. G. Schurman, Philippine Affairs
(ibid 1902) ; W. H. Taft, Civil Government in the Philippines (ibid.
1902) ; and Special Report to the President on the Philippines (Wash-
'/$tOIV9?8): and R" C' McGregor, Manual of Philippine Birds
(New York 1909). For the history of the islands, see E. H. Blair
and J A Robertson, The Philippine Islands, 1401-1808 (« Vols
Cleveland, 1903-1909); J. Montero y Vida\, Historia general de Fili-
ff™ T(,3«,r1Sw- ,M*drid' I8,87TI895); Juan de la Concepcion
-,SH4Tl7 V" Historia. general de Phihpinas (14 vols., Manila,
788-1792); Caspar de San Agustin (1650-1724), Conquistas de
las islas Phihpinas (2 vols., Valladolid, 1890); Le Gentil
Voyage dans les mers de I'Inde (Paris, 1781); F. Colin Labor
evangelica mimstenos apostolicos de los obreros de la compania
de Jesus, fundacwn, y progresses de su provincia en islas Filipinas

(3 vols., Barcelona, 1900-1902); J. Martinez de Ziiniga, Historia de
las islas Philipinas (Sampaloc, 1803; Eng. trans., London, 1814)-
J. J. Delgado, Historia general sacro-profana, politico, y natural de!,
islas del Poniente, llamadas Filipinas (Manila, 1892); E. G. Bourne,
Discovery, Conquest and Early History of the Philippine Island's
(Cleveland, 1907); F. Combes (1620-1665), Historia de Mindanao
y Jolo (Madrid, 1897) ; J. M. Castillo y Jimenez, El Katipunan 6 el
filibusterismo en Filipinas (Madrid, 1897); E. R. Delmas, La In-
surrection de Filipinas en 1806 y 1807 (2 vols., Barcelona, 1899);
F. D. Millet, The Expedition to the Philippines (London, 1899)'
and J. Pellicena y Lopez, La Verdad sobre Filipinas (Manila, 1900).'

PHILIPPOPOLIS (Bulgarian, Plovdiv; Turkish, Felibe), the
capital of Eastern Rumelia, and of the department of Philip-
popolis, Bulgaria; situated in the midst of picturesque granite
eminences on the right bank of the river Maritza, 96 m. E.S.E.
of Sofia and 97 m. W.N.W. of Adrianople. Pop. (1906) 45,572,
of whom a large majority are Bulgarians, and the remainder
chiefly Turks, Greeks, Jews, Armenians or gipsies. Philip-
popolis is on the main railway from Vienna to Constantinople,
via Belgrade and Sofia. The Maritza is navigable up to this
point, and^as the city has communication by rail both with the
port of Dedeagatch on the Mediterranean and that of Burgas
on the Black Sea, and is situated in a remarkably fertile country,
it has become the chief commercial centre of southern Bulgaria,
and is the seat of both Greek and Bulgarian archbishops.
The residences of the richer Greeks and Bulgarians occupy the
slopes of the largest eminence, the Jambaz-tepe, in the centre
of the city; between it and the Nobtet-tepe, from the summit
of which there is a magnificent view of the city, is the Armenian
quarter; near the bridge over the Maritza is the poorer Turkish
quarter; and south-west of the Jambaz-tepe there is a suburb
of villas. On the Bunari-tepe a monument has been erected
by the Russians in commemoration of the war of 1877, and near
this is the new palace of the king of Bulgaria. The Sahub-
tepe is crowned by a clock-tower. Not far from it are the
beautiful Exhibition Park laid out in 1892 and the fine Journaia-
Jami Mosque. Near the Maritza are the remains of the ancient
konak (palace) of the Turkish pashas, the public park formed
by the Russians in 1877, the gymnasium, and the new Greek
cathedral. The city has a large commerce in rice, attar of roses,
and cocoons; other exports being wheat, wine, tobacco, alcohol
and hides.

Eumolpia, a Thracian town, was captured by Philip of
Macedon and made one of his frontier posts; hence its name
of Philippopolis, or "Philip's City." Under the Romans
Philoppopolis or Trimontium became the capital of Thracia;
and, even after its capture by the Goths, when 100,000 persons
are said to have been slain, it continued to be a flourishing
city till it was again sacked by the Bulgarians in 1205. It
passed under Turkish rule in 1363; in 1818 it was destroyed by
an earthquake; and in 1846 it suffered from a severe con-
flagration. During the war of 1877-78 the city was occupied
by the Russians (see also BULGARIA: History).

PHILIPPSBURG, a town of Germany, in the grand duchy of
Baden, situated on a sluggish arm of the Rhine, 15 m. N. of
Karlsruhe, on the railway Bruchsal-Germersheim. Pop. (1905)
2625. It has manufactures of tobacco and cigars, and some
.rade in cattle and hops. Philippsburg, formerly an important
'ortress, originally belonged to the ecclesiastical principality
of Spires, and was named Udenheim. In 1338 it was surrounded
with walls by bishop Gerhard. A later bishop of Spires,
Philipp Christoph von Sotern, made the place his residence early
n the 1 7th century, strengthened the fortifications, and renamed
t Philippsburg after himself. At the peace of Westphalia in
1648 the French remained in possession of the town, but in
1679 it was restored to Germany, and though again captured
)y the French in 1688 it was once more restored in 1697. ID
1734 the dilapidated fortress fell an easy prey to the French
under Marshal Berwick, who, however, lost his life beneath
ts walls. It was restored to Germany in 1735, and was again
>esieged by the French in 1799. The town was assigned to
iaden in 1803.

See Nopp, Geschichte der Stadt Philippsburg (Philippsburg, 1881).

PHILIPPUS, M. J.— PHILISTINES

401

PHILIPPUS, MARCUS JULIUS, Roman emperor A.D. 244
to 249, often called " Philip the Arab," was a native of Bostra
in Arabia Trachonitis. Having entered the Roman army, he
rose to be praetorian praefect in the Persian campaign of Gordian
III., and, inspiring the soldiers to slay the young emperor, was
raised by them to the purple (244). Of his reign little is known
except that he celebrated the secular games with great pomp
in 248, when Rome was supposed to have reached the thousandth
year of her existence. A rebellion broke out among the legions
of Moesia, and Decius, who was sent to quell it, was forced by
the troops to put himself at their head and march upon Italy.
Philip was defeated and slain in a battle near Verona. Accord-
ing to Christian writers, he was a convert to Christianity.

See Aurelius Victor, Caesares, 28; Eutropius, ix. 3; Zonaras,
xii. 19.

PHILIPS, AMBROSE (c. 1675-1749), English poet, was born
in Shropshire of a Leicestershire family. He was educated at
Shrewsbury school and St John's College, Cambridge, of which
he became a fellow in 1699. He seems to have lived chiefly
at Cambridge until he resigned his fellowship in 1708, and his
pastorals probably belong to this period. He worked for Jacob
Tonson the bookseller, and his Pastorals opened the 6th volume
of Tonson's Miscellanies (1709), which also contained the
pastorals of Pope. Philips was a stanch Whig, and a friend
of Steele and Addison. In Nos. 22, 23, 30 and 32 (1713) of the
Guardian he was injudiciously praised as the only worthy suc-
cessor of Spenser. The writer of the papers, who is supposed to
have been Thomas Tickell, pointedly ignored Pope's pastorals.
In the Spectator Addison applauded him for his simplicity, and for
having written English eclogues unencumbered by the machinery
of classical mythology. Pope's jealousy was roused, and he
sent an anonymous contribution to the Guardian (No. 40) in
which he drew an ironical comparison between his own and
Philip's pastorals, censuring himself and praising Philips's worst
passages. Philips is said to have threatened to cane Pope with
a rod he kept hung up at Button's coffee-house for the purpose.
It was at Pope's request that Gay burlesqued Philips's pastorals
in his Shepherd's Week, but the parody pleased by the very
quality of simplicity which it was intended to ridicule. Samuel
Johnson describes the relations between Pope and Philips as a
" perpetual reciprocation of malevolence." Pope lost no
opportunity of scoffing at Philips, who figured in the Bathos
and the Dunciad, as Macer in the Characters; and in the " In-
structions to a porter how to find Mr Curll's authors " he is a
" Pindaric writer in red stockings." In 1718 he started a Whig
paper, The Freethinker, in conjunction with Hugh Boulter, then
vicar of St Olave's, Southwark. He had been made justice of
the peace for Westminster, and in 1717 a commissioner for the
lottery, and when Boulter was made archbishop of Armagh,
Philips accompanied him as secretary. He sat in the Irish
parliament for Co. Armagh, was secretary to the lord chan-
cellor in 1726, and in 1733 became a judge of the prerogative
court. His patron died in 1742, and six years later Philips
returned to London, where he died on the i8th of June 1749.

His contemporary reputation rested on his pastorals and
epistles, particularly the description of winter addressed by him
from Copenhagen (1709) to the earl of Dorset. In T. H. Ward's
English Poets, however, he is represented by two of the simple
and charming pieces addressed to the infant children of Lord
Carteret and of Daniel Pulteney. These were scoffed at by
Swift as " little flams on Miss Carteret," and earned for Philips
from Henry Carey the nickname of " Namby-Pamby."

Philips's works are an abridgment of Bishop Racket's Life of
John Williams (1700); The Thousand and One Days; Persian Tales

(1722), from the French of F. P6tis de la Croix; three

plays: The Distrest Mother (1712), an adaptation of Racine's Andro-
maque; The Briton (1722); Humfrey, duke of Gloucester (1723).
Many of his poems, which included some translations from Sappho,
Anacreon and Pindar, were published separately, and a collected
edition appeared in 1748.

PHILIPS, JOHN (1676-1708), English poet and man of letters,
son of Dr Stephen Philips, archdeacon of Shropshire, was born
at his father's vicarage at Bampton, Oxfordshire, on the 3oth of
December 1676. He was educated at Winchester and Christ

Church, Oxford. He was a careful reader of Virgil and of Milton.
In 1701 his poem, The Splendid Shilling, was published without
his consent, and a second unauthorized version in 1705 induced
him to print a correct edition in that year. The Splendid Shilling,
which Addison in The Taller called " the finest burlesque poem
in the British language," recites in Miltonic blank verse the
miseries consequent on the want of that piece of money. Its
success introduced Philips to the notice of Robert Harley and
Henry St John, who commissioned him to write a Tory counter-
blast to Joseph Addison's Campaign. Philips was happier in
burlesquing his favourite author than in genuine imitation of
a heroic theme. His Marlborough is modelled on the warriors
of Homer and Virgil; he rides precipitate over heaps of fallen
horses, changing the fortune of the battle by his own right arm.
Cyder (1708) is modelled on the Georgics of Virgil. Cerealia,
an Imitation of Milton (1706), although printed without his
name, may safely be ascribed to him. In all his poems except
Blenheim he found an opportunity to insert a eulogy of tobacco.
Philips died at Hereford on the i$th of February 1708/9. There
is an inscription to his memory in Westminster Abbey.

See The Whole Works of ... John Philips . . . To which is
prefixed his life, by Mr [G.J Sewell (3rd ed., 1720); Johnson, Lives
of the Poets ; and Biographia Britannica.

PHILIPS, KATHARINE (1631-1664), English poet, daughter
of John Fowler, a merchant of Bucklersbury, London, was born
on the ist of January 1631. Her father was a Presbyterian,
and Katharine is said to have read the Bible through before she
was five years old. On arriving at years of discretion she broke
with Presbyterian traditions in both religion and politics,
became an ardent admirer of the king and his church policy,
and in 1647 married James Philips, a Welsh royalist. Her
home at the Priory, Cardigan, became the centre of a "society
of friendship," the members of which were known to one another
by fantastic names, Mrs Philips being " Orinda," her husband
" Antenor," Sir Charles Cotterel " Poliarchus." The " match-
less" Orinda, as her admirers called her, posed as the apostle
of female friendship. That there was much solid worth under her
affectations is proved by the respect and friendship she inspired.
Jeremy Taylor in 1659 dedicated to her his " Discourse on the
Nature, Offices and Measures of Friendship," and Cowley, Henry
Vaughan the Silurist, the earl of Roscommon and the earl of
Cork and Orrery all celebrated her talent. In 1662 she went
to Dublin to pursue her husband's claim to certain Irish estates,
and there she completed a translation of Corneille's Pompee,
produced with great success in 1663 in the Smock Alley Theatre,
and printed in the same year both in Dublin and London. She
went to London in March 1664 with a nearly completed transla-
tion of Corneille's Horace, but died of smallpox on the 22nd of
June. The literary atmosphere of her circle is preserved in the
excellent Letters of Orinda to Poliarchus, published by Bernard
Lintot in 1705 and 1709. " Poliarchus " (Sir Charles Cotterel)
was master of the ceremonies at the court of the Restoration, and
afterwards translated the romances of La Calprenede. Mrs
Philips had two children, one of whom, Katharine, became the
wife of Lewis Wogan of Boulston, Pembrokeshire. According
to Mr Gosse, this lady may have been " Joan Philips," the
author of a volume of Female Poems . . . written by Ephelia,
which are in the style of Orinda, and display genuine feeling
with very little reserve.

See E. W. Gosse, Seventeenth Century Studies (1883). Poems,
By the Incomparable Mrs K. P. appeared surreptitiously in 1664
and an authentic edition in 1667. Selected Poems, edited with an
appreciation by Miss L. I. Guiney, appeared in 1904; but the best
modern edition is in Saintsbury's Minor Poets of the Caroline Period
(vol. i., 1905).

PHILISTINES,1 the general name for the people of Philistia
(Ass. PalaUu, PiliStu; Eg. p-r-s-t), a district embracing the rich
lowlands on the Mediterranean coast from the neighbourhood

1 " Philistine," as a term of contempt, hostility or reproach,
appears first in English, in a sense equivalent to " the enemy,"
as early as the beginning of the 1 7th century, and later as a slang
term for a bailiff or a sheriff's officer, or merely for drunken or
vicious people generally. In German universities the townsfolk

402

PHILISTINES

of Jaffa (Joppa) to the Egyptian desert south of Gaza (on the
subsequent extension of the name in its Greek form Palaestina,
see PALESTINE).

1. Egyptian Evidence. — The name is derived from the Purasati,
one of a great confederation from north Syria, Asia Minor and
the Levant, which threatened Egypt in the XXth Dynasty. They
are not among the hordes enumerated by Rameses II. or Mer-
neptah, but in the eighth year of Rameses III. (c. 1200-1190) the
Purasati hold a prominent place in a widespread movement
on land and sea. The Syrian states were overwhelmed and the
advance upon Egypt seemed irresistible. Rameses, however,
collected a large fleet and an army of native troops and mer-
cenaries and claimed decisive victories. The Egyptian monu-
ments depict the flight of the enemy, the heavy ox-carts with
their women and children, and the confusion of their ships.
But the sequel of the events is not certain. Even if the increas-
ing weakness of the Egyptian Empire did not invite a repetition
of the incursion, it could have allowed the survivors to settle
down, and about a century later one of the peoples formerly
closely allied with the Purasati is found strongly entrenched
at Dor, and together with the more northerly port of Byblos
treats with scant respect the traditional suzerainty of Egypt.1
That some definite political changes ensued in this age have been
inferred on other grounds, and the identification of the Purasati
with the Philistines may permit the assumption that the latter
succeeded in occupying the district with which they have always
been associated.

The Egyptian monuments represent the Purasati with a very
distinctive feather head-dress resembling that of the Lycians
and Mycenaeans. Their general physiognomy is hardly Cilician
or Hittite, but European. Their arms comprise two short
swords, a longer spear, a round shield, and they sometimes wear
a coat of mail; a curious feature is their tactics of fighting in a
circle of protecting shields. The chariots resemble the Hittite
with two crossed receptacles for the weapons, but obviously
these were not used by the Purasati alone. On archaeological
grounds the Purasati have been connected with the people of
Keftiu, i.e. Mycenaeans of Crete, although a wider application
of this term is not to be excluded.

See further, G. Maspero, Struggle of the Nations, pp. 461 sqq. ;
W. M. Miiller, Asien u. Ruropa, pp. 354 sqq. ; Mitteil. d. vorderasiat.
Gesell. pp. 1-42 (1900), pp. 113 sqq. (1904); H. R. Hall, British
School of Athens, viii. 157 sqq., x. 154 sqq.; Proc. Soc. Bibl. Arch.
xxxi. (1909) passim; R. Weill, Rev. arcMol., i. 52 sqq. (1904);
R. Dussaud, Rev. de Vhist. des relig., ii. 52 sqq. (1905). More re-
cently, A. Wiedemann, Orient, lit. Zeit. (1910), cols. 49 sqq. dis-
putes the identification of Keft with Crete.

2. History. — Biblical tradition, too, has recognized the
Philistines as immigrants from Caphtor (Amos ix. 7). They
appear in the pre-Mosaic age (Gen. xxi. 32, 34, xxvi.), at the
Exodus of the Israelites (Ex. xiii. 17, xv. 14), and the invasion
of Palestine. They are represented as a confederation of five
cities (Ashdod, Ascalon [Ashkelon], Ekron, Gath and Gaza)
which remained unconquered (Joshua xiii. 2 seq., Judges iii. 3;
contrast Joshua xv. 45-47, xix. 43). The institution of the
Hebrew monarchy (c. 1000 B.C.) follows upon periods of Philistine
oppression (Judges iii. 31, x. 7, n, xiii. 1-5; see SAMSON; ELI;
SAMUEL; SAUL; DAVID). The subjugation of them is ascribed

were called by the students Philister; they were " outsiders," the
enemy of the chosen people. It is supposed that this use arose
in 1693 in Jena after a " town and gown " row in which a student
had been killejl and a sermon preached on the text " the Philistines
be upon you, Samson " (see Quarterly Review, April 1899, 438, note,
quoted in the New English Dictionary). " Philistine " thus became
the name of contempt applied by the cultured to those whom they
considered beneath them in intellect and taste, and was first so
used in English by Carlyle, and Matthew Arnold (Essays in Criticism,
" Heinrich Heine," 1865) gave the word its vogue and its final
connotation, as signifying " inaccessible to and impatient of
ideas." — [En.]

1 So the Papyrus first published by W. Gol6nischeff (Rec. de
travaux, xxi. 74 sqq.), on which see A. Erman, Zeit. f. aegypt.
Sprache, pp. 1-14 (1900); W. M. Mtiller, Mitteil. d. vorderasiat.
Gesell. pp. 14 sqq. (1900) ; J. H. Breasted, Hist, of Eg. pp. 513 sqq. ;
Historical Records, iv. 274 sqq. ; H. W. Hogg, in the Theolog. Series I.
of the publications of university of Manchester, p. 90 seq.

to Samuel (i Sam. vii. 13), Saul (xiv. 47), and David (2 Sam.
viii. i; for Solomon see i Kings x. 20); but they evidently
recovered their independence, and we find that twice within a
short time the northern Israelites laid siege to the border fortress
of Gibbethon (i Kings xv. 27, xvi. 15). Although this place
has not been identified, it is mentioned in a list of Danite cities
with Aijalon, Ekron, Eltekeh and Timnah (Joshua xix. 44, xxi.
23), names of importance for the history. Somewhat later the
evidence becomes fuller, and much valuable light is thrown upon
the part which the Philistine coast played in the political history
of Palestine. Gaza, the most southerly and famous of the
Philistine towns, was the terminus of the great caravan-route
from Edom and south Arabia, with whose Bedouin it was
generally on good terms. It was " the outpost of Africa, the
door of Asia " (G. A. Smith), the stepping-off point for the
invasion of Egypt, and the fortress which, next in importance
to Lachish, barred the maritime road to Phoenicia and Syria.2
It is necessary to realize Gaza's position and its links with trading
centres, since conditions in the comparatively small and half-
desert land of Judah depended essentially upon its relations with
the Edomites and Arabian tribes on the south-east and with
the Philistines on the west.3 Jehoshaphat's supremacy over
Philistines and Arabians (2 Chron. xvii. n, partly implied in
i Kings xxii. 47) is followed by the revolt of Libnah (near
Lachish) and Edom against his son Jehoram (2 Kings viii. 20, 22).
The book of Chronicles mentions Philistines and Arabians, and
knows of a previous warning by a prophet of Mareshah (east
of Lachish; 2 Chron. xx. 37, xxi. 16). In like manner, the
conquests of Uzziah over Edom and allied tribes (2 Kings xiv.
22, see 2 Chron. xxvi. 7) and over Gath, Ashdod and Jabneh
(ibid. v. 6) find their sequel in the alliance of Samaria and Damas-
cus against Ahaz, when Edom recovered its independence (so read
for " Syria " in 2 Kings xvi. 6), and the Philistines attacked
Beth-shemesh, Aijalon, Timnath, &c. (2 Chron. xxviii. 17 seq.).4
These notices at least represent natural conditions, and the
Assyrian inscriptions now are our authority. Tiglath-pileser
IV. (734 B.C.) marched down and seized Gaza, removing its gods
and goods. Its king Hanun had fled to Musri, but was pursued
and captured; Ascalon, Judah and Edom appear in a list of
tributaries. Mu§ri was entrusted to the care of the Arabian
Idibi'il (of the desert district), but continued to support anti-
Assyrian leagues (see HOSHEA), and again in 720 (two years after
the fall of Samaria) was in alliance with Gaza and north Palestine.
Assyria under Sargon defeated the southern confederation at
Rapihi (Raphia on the border of Egypt) and captured Hanun;
the significance of the victory is evident from the submission
of the queen of Aribi (Arabia), the Sabaean Itamara, and Musri.
This Musri appears to have been a district outside the limits of
Egypt proper, and although tribes of the Delta may well have
been concerned, its relations to Philistia agree with the inde-
pendent biblical account of the part played previously by Edom
and Arabian tribes (see MIZRAIM). But the disturbances con-
tinued, and although desert tribes were removed and settled in
Samaria in 715, Mus.ri and Philistia were soon in arms again.
Ashdod (see Isa. xx.) and Gath were taken and sacked, the
people removed, and fresh colonies were introduced. Judah,
Edom and Moab were also involved, but submitted (711 B.C.).
Scarcely ten years passed and the whole of Palestine and Syria
was again torn with intrigues. Sennacherib (Sargon's suc-
cessor in 705) marched to the land of the " Hittites," traversed

8 See G. A. Smith, Hist. Geog. of the Holy Land, chs. ix. seq.;
and M. A. Meyer, History of the City of Gaza (New York, 1907).
For the traditions associating Gaza with Crete, see the latter,
Index, s.v. Minos; the resemblance between the Minaeans of South
Arabia and Cretan Minos has afforded grounds for all kinds of
speculations, ancient (Pliny vi. 157) and modern.

3 Between the central Judaean plateau and the latter lay the
" lowlands " (Shgphelah), a district open equally to Judaeans and
Philistines alike.

* Cf. Gaza and Edom against Judah in Amos i. 6, and, for the
part played by Damascus, the later vicissitudes under the Nabat-
aeans (Josephus, Ant. xiii. 13. 3). It is difficult to date the alliance
of Syria and Philistia against Israel in Isa. ix. 1 1 seq. (on the text,
see the commentaries).

PHILISTINES

403

the coast and, descending from Sidon, took Jaffa, Beth-dagon,
Beneberak, Ekron and Timnah (all in the district ascribed to the
southern Dan). At Eltekeh (also in Dan) the allies were defeated.
Farther south came the turn of Ascalon, Lachish and Libnah;
Judah under Hezeldah suffered severely, and its western cities
were transferred to the faithful vassals of Ekron, Ashdod and
Gaza. The immediate subsequent events are obscure (see
further HEZEKIAH). In the 7th century Gaza, Ascalon, Ashdod
and Ekron were Assyrian vassals, together with Judah, Moab
and Edom — in all, twenty-two kings of the " Hittites " — and
the discovery of Assyrian contract-tablets at Gezer (c. 650)
may indicate the presence of Assyrian garrisons. But as the
Assyrian power declined Egyptian monarchs formed plans of
aggrandizement. Herodotus mentions the Scythian invasion
and sack of the temple of Aphrodite Urania (Astarte) at Ascalon,
also the prolonged siege of Ashdod by Psammetichus, and the
occupation of Kadytis (? Gaza) by Necho (i. 105, ii. 157 sqq.,
iii. 5). But the Babylonian Empire followed upon traditional
lines and thrust back Egypt, and Nabonidus (553 B.C.) claims
his vassals as far as Gaza. The Persians took over the realm
of their predecessors, and Gaza grew in importance as a seat of
international commerce. Nehemiah speaks not of Philistines,
but of Ashdodites (iv. 7), speaking an " Ashdodite " dialect
(xiii. 24) ; just as Strabo regards the Jews, the Idumaeans, the
Gazans and the Ashdodites as four cognate peoples having the
common characteristic of combining agriculture with commerce.
In southern Philistia at least, Arabian immigration became
more pronounced. In the time of Cambyses Arabs were settled
at Jenysos south of Gaza (Herod, iii. 5), and when Alexander
marched upon Egypt, Gaza with its army of Arabs and Persians
offered a strenuous resistance. Recent discoveries near Tell
Sandahannah (or Mareshah) have revealed the presence of
North Arabian (Edomite) names about the 2nd century B.C.1
On the history of the district see further JEWS; MACCABEES;
PALESTINE.

3. Philistine Traditions. — The interdependence of the south
Palestinian peoples follows from geographical conditions which
are unchangeable, and the fuller light thrown upon the last
decades of the 8th century B.C. illuminates the more fragmentary
evidence elsewhere.2 Hence the two sieges of the Philistine
Gibbethon by the Israelites (above) obviously have some signifi-
cance for Judaean history, but the Judaean annals unfortunately
afford no help (see ASA). Again, the Aramaean attack upon
Israel by Hazael of Damascus leads to the capture of Gath
(2 Kings xii. 17), and this, together with the statement that he
took " the Philistine " from Jehoahaz of Israel (ibid. xiii. 22,
Lucian's recension), bears upon Judah, but the statements are
isolated. Somewhat later, the Assyrian king Adad-nirari IV.
claimed tribute from Edom, Philistia and Beth-Omri (the
Israelite kingdom) ; the curious omission of Judah has suggested
that it was then included with the second or third of these (see
JEWS, § 12). The Philistines naturally had a prominent place
in popular tradition, and the story of Isaac and the Philistine
Abimelech (Gen. xxvi., cf. xxi. 32) is of great interest for its
unbiased representation of intercourse, enmity, alliance and
covenant. But it is important to notice that a parallel story
(xx.) is without this distinctively Philistine background, and
this variation is significant. One account of the Israelite
invasion conceived a conquest of earlier giant inhabitants
(Anaklm) who survived in Gaza, Gath and Ashdod (Joshua xi.
21 seq., contrast xiii. 3), but were driven out from Hebron by
Caleb (Joshua xv. 14, cf. Num. xiii. 22, 28). The Philistines
themselves are called the remnant of the Anaklm (Jer. xlvii. 5,
so the Septuagint), or as Caphtorlm replace the earlier Avvim

1 Peters andThiersch, Painted Tombs in the Necropolis of Marissa
(1905).

2 Thus, the capture of Gezer by Egypt (i Kings ix. 16) was pre-
sumably only part of some more extensive operations, but their
relation to Shishak's great Palestine campaign is uncertain; see
A. Alt, Israel u. Aegypten, pp. 19-38 (Leipzig, 1909). It would
be unsafe to infer much from the Eg. reference to the " messenger
(wpty, meaning ambiguous)" of Canaan and Philistia (Bull. Mus.
Cairo, i. 98).

(Deut. ii. 23, see Joshua xiii. 3). Samuel's great defeat of the
Philistines leads to " peace between Israel and the Amorites "
(i Sam. vii. 14); and the migration of the Danites is placed after
Samson's conflicts with the Philistines (Judges xviii. seq.), or is
due to the pressure of Amorites (i. 34). Even in David's fights
with the Philistines in Judah, Jerusalem is Jebusite, neighbour-
ing non-Israelite cities are Hivite or Amorite (Joshua ix. 7,
2 Sam. xxi. 2), and his strange adversaries find a close parallel in
the semi-mythical sons of Anak (2 Sam. xxi. 16, 18, 20, 22).
This fluctuation, due partly to the different circles in which the
biblical narratives took shape, and partly to definite reshaping
of the traditions of the past, seriously complicates all attempts
to combine the early history of Israel with the external evi-
dence. The history of the Philistine district goes back long
before the time of the Purasati (c. 1200 B.C.), and if the
references to Philistines in pre-Mosaic times are treated as
anachronisms, those which can be applied to the I2th-nth
century do not at once acquire an historical value.3 The refer-
ences of the time of the Exodus, the Invasion and the " Judges "
— whatever chronological scheme be adopted — must be taken
in connexion with a careful examination of all the evidence.
It is inherently not improbable that a recollection has been
preserved of Philistine oppressions in the nth century, but it
is extremely difficult to sketch any adequate sequence of events,
and among the conflicting traditions are situations equally
applicable to later periods of hostility. Biblical history has
presented its own views of the Israelite and Judaean monarchies;
Israel has its enemies who come pouring forth from the south
(i Sam. xiii. 17, 18), while the founder of the Judaean dynasty
has intimate relations with a Philistine king Achish (or Abime-
lech, Ps. xxxiv.), or, from another point of view, clears the
district of a prehistoric race of giants. In the stories of Samson
and Samuel, the Philistines are located in the maritime plain,
whereas, in the oldest traceable account of Saul's rise (apparently
shortly before 1000 B.C.) they hold Israel (i Sam. ix. 16, xiii. 3 seq.,
7, xiv. i, n, 21). But there is no historical continuity between
the two situations, and the immediate prelude to the achieve-
ments of Saul and Jonathan is lost. The biblical evidence does
not favour any continued Philistine domination since the time
of Rameses III., who indeed, later in his reign, made an expedi-
tion, not against the Purasati, but into North Syria, and, as
appears from the Papyrus Harris, restored Egyptian supremacy
over Palestine and Syria. Upon the (incomplete) external
evidence and upon a careful criticism of the biblical history of
this period, and not upon any promiscuous combination of the
two sources, must depend the value of the plausible though
broad reconstructions which have been proposed.4

Considerable stress is often laid upon Goliath's armour of
bronze and his iron weapon, but even David himself has helmet,
sword and coat-of-mail at his disposal (i Sam. xvii.), and suits
of armour had already been taken from Mesopotamia by Teth-
mosis III. Chariots of iron are ascribed to the Canaanites (Joshua
xvii. 16, 18, Judges i. 19, iv. 3); but if early references to iron
are treated as unhistorical (Gen. iv. 22, Num. xxxi. 22,xxxv. 16,
Deut. iv. 20, viii. 9, xix. 5, xxvii. 5, xxviii. 48, xxxiii. 25, Joshua
vi. 19, 24) Goliath's iron spear-head must be judged together
with the whole narrative in the light of a consistent historical
criticism.6

3 The inhabitants of Ascalon besieged by Rameses II. are repre-
sented as Hittites. For an attempt to treat the pre-Mosaic refer-
ences as historical, see A. Noordtzij, De Filistijnen (Kampen, 1905).

4 See on these, W. M. Mtiller, Mitteil. d. vorderasiat. Gesell.
p. 39 seq.; G. F. Moore, Ency. Bib., art. " Philistines," col. 3720
seq., and cf. H. W. Hogg, op. cit. p. 91. For the suggestion that
the " Philistines " have in certain cases taken the place of another
ethnic, see S. A. Cook, Crit. Notes on 0. T. History, pp. 43 seq.,
127 seq., 131 seq., 136 seq., 144; cf., from another point of view,
T. K. Cheyne, Decline and Fall of Kingdom of Judah (1908), pp. xx. sqq.

6 The introduction of iron has been ascribed to about looo B.C.
(Macalister, Quart. Statem. p. 321 [1905], as against p. 122 [1904];
H. Vincent, Canaan d'apres V exploration recente, p. 235 seq.). It
need hardly be said that the height and might of Goliath must be
regarded in the same way as Num. xiii. 32; Deut. ii. n. The men
of the heroic age are giants, as were the 'Ad and Thamud to the
later Arabs.

PHILISTUS

4. Conclusions. — The Philistines appear in the Old Testament
as a Semitic or at least a thoroughly Semitized people. Their
proper names show that before and even during the Persian
age their languages differed only dialectically from Hebrew.
Among the exceptions must be reckoned Achish (Sept. &KXOW),
with which has been compared Ikausu, a king of Ekron (7th
century) and the " Keftian" name Akashau of the XlXth
Egyptian dynasty. Names in -ath (Goliath; Ahuzzath, Gen.
xxvi.) are not restricted to Philistines, and Phicol (ibid.) is
too obscure to serve as evidence. The religion is not novel.
The male god Dagon has his partner Astarte (qq.v.), and
Baal-zebub, a famous oracle of Ekron (2 Kings i.) finds
a parallel in the local " baals " of Palestine.1 Even when
the region seems to be completely Hellenized after the
Persian age, it is not so certain that Greek culture pervaded
all classes (see G. F. Moore, Ency. Bib. col. 3726), although
a certain amount of foreign influence probably made itself
felt upon the coast-towns at all times. The use of the
term dXX6<£v\ot in Maccabaean and later writings (cf. the
contemptuous hatred of Ben Sira, Ecclesiasticus 1. 26, and the
author of Jubilees xxiv. 30 sqq.) correctly expresses the con-
ditions of the Greek age and the Maccabaean wars, and naturally
any allusion to the situations of many centuries previously is
quite unnecessary. Similarly, the biblical evidence represents
the traditions in the form which they had reached in the writer's
time, the true date of which is often uncertain. Antagonism
between Philistines and Israelites was not a persisting feature,
and, although the former are styled " uncircumcised " (chiefly
in the stories in the book of Samuel), the term gained new force
when the expulsion of uncircumcised aliens from the sanctuary
of Jerusalem was proclaimed in the writings ascribed to Ezekiel
(ch.xliv.).2

In fact the question arises whether the history of the Philistines
is not that of a territorial designation, rather than that of the
lineal descendants of the Purasati, who, if one of the peoples
who took part in the events of the XXth Dynasty, may well have
bequeathed their name. The Mediterranean coast-land was
always exposed to incursions of aliens, and when Carians appear
as royal and temple guards at Jerusalem (2 Kings xi. 4), it is
sufficient to recall old Greek traditions of a Carian sea-power
and relations between Philistia and Greek lands.3 Even the
presence of Carians and lonians in the time of Psammetichus I.
may be assumed, and when these are planted at Defneh it is
noteworthy that this is also closely associated with a Jewish
colony (viz. Tahpanhes, Jer. xliii. seq.). Although the Purasati
appear after the I5th-i4th centuries, now illuminated by the
Amarna tablets, their own history is perhaps earlier.4 But there
is no reason at present to believe that their entrance caused any
break in the archaeological history. The apparently " Aegean "
influence which enters into the general " Amarna " period seems
to begin before the age of the Amarna tablets (at Lachish), and
it passes gradually into later phases contemporary with the
1 See further, F. Schwally, Zeit. Wissens. Theol. xxxiv. 103-108.
A few Hebrew words have been regarded as Philistine loan-words,
so notably pillegesh, "concubine (TraXXanri, iraXXoxts, Lat. pellex),
and seren (r&pawos) the title applied to the five lords of the Philistine
confederation; seren otherwise means "axle," and may have been
applied metaphorically like the Arab, kotb (W. R. Smith). On the
other hand, a common origin in Asia Minor is also possible for
these words.

* In the prophetical writings the Philistines are denounced
(with Ammon, Moab and Edom) for their vengeance upon Judah
(Ezek. xxv. 15-17). With Tyre and Sidon they are condemned for
plundering Judah, and for kidnapping its children to sell to the
Greeks (Joel iii. 4-8; cf. Amos i. 6-12; I Mace. iii. 41). They are
threatened with a foe from the north (Jer. xxv. 20; Isa. xiv. 29-31 ;
see ZEPHANIAH), as also is Phoenicia (Jer. xlvii. 2-7) upon whom
they depend (cf. Zech. ix. 3-8). Judah is promised reprisals
(Zeph. ii. 7 ; Obad. 19), and a remnant of the Philistines may become
worshippers of Yahweh (Zech. ix. 7). The historical backgrounds of
these passages are disputed.

' See J. L. Myres, Journal of Hellenic Studies, xxvi. 84 sqq.
(1906); especially pp. 108, 127 sqq.

* This is suggested by the recent discovery at Phaestos in Crete
of a disk with evidence for a native script; see A. T. Evans, Scripta
Minoa (Oxford, 1909), pp. 22 sqq.; E. Meyer, Sizungsberichte of
the Berlin Academy for the 2 1st of October 1909.

Israelite monarchy. There is a fairly continuous intercourse
with external culture (Cypriote, early and late Greek), and, if
Gath be identified with Tel es-Safi, Bliss and Macalister, who
excavated it, found no trace of any interruption in its history.
Only at Gezer — perhaps Philistine, 2 Sam. v. 25 — has there
been found evidence for a strange race with several distinctive
features. Bricked vault tombs were discovered containing
bodies outstretched (not contracted); the deposits were of an
unusually fine character and comprised silve , alabaster and
even iron. The culture appears to find Carian and Lydian
parallels, and has been ascribed provisionally to the i3th-ioth
centuries. So far, however, of the cities lying within or im-
mediately exposed to Philistine influence, the discoveries at
Gezer are unique.6

According to the biblical traditions the Philistines are the
remnant of Caphtor (Jer. xlvii. 4, Amos ix. 7), and the Caphtorim
drove out the aboriginal Awa from Gaza and district, as the
Horites and Rephaim were displaced by Edom and Ammon
(Deut. ii. 23). These Caphtorim, together with Ludim (Lydians)
and other petty peoples, apparently of the Delta, are once
reckoned to Egypt (Gen. x. I4).6 By Caphtor the Septuagint
has sometimes understood Cappadocia, which indeed may be
valid for its age, but the name is to be identified with the
Egyptian K(a)ptar, which in later Ptolemaic times seems to
mean Phoenicia, although Kefliu had had another connotation.
The Cherethites, associated with the Philistine district (i Sam.
xxx. 14, 16, Ezek. xxv. 16, Zeph. ii. 5 seq.), are sometimes recog-
nized by the Septuagint as Cretans, and, with the Pelethites
(often taken to be a rhyming form of Philistines), they form
part of the royal body-guard^of Judaeah kings (2 Sam. viii. 18,
xv. 18. xx. 7, i Kings i. 38, 44; in 2 Sam. xx. 23 the Hebrew text
has Carites). However adequate these identifications may
seem, the persistence of an independent clan or tribe of Chere-
thites-Cretans to the close of the 7th century would imply an
unbroken chain of nearly six hundred years, unless, as is in-
herently more probable, later immigrations had occurred within
the interval. But upon the ethnological relations either of the
south Palestinian coast or of the Delta it would be unsafe to
dogmatize. So far as can be ascertained, then, the first mention
of the Philistines belongs to an age of disturbance and change
in connexion with movements in Asia Minor. Archaeological
evidence for their influence has indeed been adduced,7 but it is
certain that some account must be taken also of the influence
by land from North Syria and Asia Minor. The influences,
whether from the Levant, or from the north, were not confined
to the age of Rameses III. alone, and the biblical evidence,
especially, while possibly preserving some recollection of the
invasion of the Purasati, is in every case late and may be shaped
by later historical vicissitudes. It is impossible that Palestine
should have remained untouched by the external movements
in connexion with the Delta, the Levant and Asia Minor, and
it is possible that the course of internal history in the age immedi-
ately before and after 1000 B.C. ran upon lines different from
the detailed popular religious traditions which the biblical
historians have employed. (See further PALESTINE: History.)

For older studies, see F. Hitzig, Urgeschichte der Philister (1845),
with the theory of the Pelasgic origin of the Philistines; K. Stark,
Gaza u. d. philist. Ktiste (1852), and (with special reference to earlier
theories) W. Robertson Smith's art. in Ency. Brit., 9th ed.

(S. A. C.)

PHILISTUS, Greek historian of Sicily, was born at Syracuse
about the beginning of the Peloponnesian War (432 B.C.). He
was a faithful supporter of the elder Dionysius, and commander

6 See R. A. S. Macalister, Quarterly Stat. of the Palestine Explor.
Fund, pp. 319 sqq. (1905), pp. 197 sqq. (1907), and J. L. Myres,
ibid. pp. 240 sqq. (1907). On the other hand, H. Thiersch would
connect the painted pottery of Tel es-§afi, &c., with the Philistines
(Jahrbuch d. Arch. Inst. col. 378 sqq., Berlin, 1908); cf. also H. R.
Hall, Proc, Soc. Bibl. Arch. xxxi. 235.

ef. 13 seq. may be a secondary addition " written from specially
intimate acquaintance with the (later ?) Egyptian geography '
(J. Skinner, Genesis, p. 214).

7 See D. G. Hogarth, Ionia and the East, pp. 28 seq. (Oxford,
1909) ; Evans, Scripta Minoa, pp. 77 sqq.

PHILLAUR— PHILLIPS, A.

of the citadel. In 386 he excited the jealousy of the tyrant
by secretly marrying his niece, and was sent into banishment.
He settled at Thurii, but afterwards removed to Adria, where
he remained until the death of Dionysius (366). He was then
recalled by the younger Dionysius, whom he persuaded to
dismiss Plato and Dion. When Dion set sail from Zacynthus
with the object of liberating Syracuse from the tyrannis, Philistus
was entrusted with the command of the fleet, but he was defeated
and put to death (356). During his stay at Adria, Philistus
occupied himself with the composition of his SiKeXi/cd, a history
of Sicily in eleven books. The first part (bks. i.-vii.) comprised
the history of the island from the earliest times to the capture
of Agrigentum by the Carthaginians (406); the second, the
history of the elder and the younger Dionysius (down to 363).
From this point the work was carried on by Philistus's fellow
countryman Athanas. Cicero (ad. Q. Fr. ii. 13), who had a
high opinion of his work, calls him the miniature Thucydides "
(pusillus Thucydides). He was admitted by the Alexandrian
critics into the canon of historiographers, and his work was
highly valued by Alexander the Great.

See Diod. Sic. xiii. 103, xiv. 8, xv. 7, xvi. n, 16; Plutarch, Dion,
11-36; Cicero, Brutus, 17, De oratore, ii. 13; Quintilian, Instil.
x. I, 74; fragments and life in C. W. Mtiller, Fragmenta historicorum
graecorum, vol. i. (1841); C. Wachsmuth, Einleitung in das Studium
der alien Geschichte (1895); E. A. Freeman, History of Sicily (1891—
1894); A. Holm, Geschichte Sicitiens im Altert. (1870-1898).

PHILLAUR, a town of British India, in Jullundur district,
Punjab, on the north bank of the river Sutlej, 8 m. N. of
Ludhiana. Pop. (1901), 6986. Founded by the Mogul emperor
Shah Jahan, it was long of importance as commanding the
crossing of the Sutlej. At the Mutiny in 1857 the fort contained
the siege train, which was sent safely to Delhi; but the sepoy
regiment in the cantonment shortly afterwards mutinied and
escaped. The fort is now occupied by the police training school
and the central bureau of the criminal identification department.

PHILLIMORE, SIR ROBERT JOSEPH (1810-1885), English
judge, third son of a well-known ecclesiastical lawyer, Dr Joseph
Phillimore, was born at Whitehall on the 5th of November 1810.
Educated at Westminster and Christ Church, Oxford, where a life-
long friendship with W. E. Gladstone began, his first appointment
was to a clerkship in the board of control, where he remained
from 1832 to 1835. Admitted as an advocate at Doctors'
Commons in 1839, he was called to the bar at the Middle Temple
in 1841, and rose very rapidly in his profession. He was engaged
as counsel in almost every case of importance that came before
the admiralty, probate or divorce courts, and became success-
ively master of faculties, commissary of the deans and chapters
of St Paul's and Westminster, official of the archdeaconries of
Middlesex and London,and chancellor of the dioceses of Chichester
and Salisbury. In 1853 he entered parliament as member for
Tavistock. A moderate in politics, his energies were devoted
to non-party measures, and in 1854 he introduced the bill for
allowing viva voce evidence in the ecclesiastical courts. He sat
for Tavistock until 1857, when he offered himself as a candidate
for Coventry, but was defeated. He was appointed judge of
the Cinque Ports in 1855, Queen's Counsel in 1858, and advocate-
general in admiralty in 1862, and succeeded Dr Stephen Lushing-
ton (1782-1873) as judge of thecourt of arches five years later.
Here his care, patience and courtesy, combined with unusual
lucidity of expression, wop general respect. In 1875, in accordance
with the Public Worship Regulation Act, he resigned, and was
succeeded by Lord Penzance. When the Judicature Act came
into force the powers of the admiralty court were transferred
to the High Court of Justice, and Sir Robert Phillimore was
therefore the last judge of the historic court of the lord high
admiral of England. He continued to sit as judge for the new
admiralty, probate and divorce division until 1883, when he
resigned. He wrote Ecclesiastical Law of the Church of England,
a book which still holds its ground, Commentaries on International
Law, and a translation of Lessing's Laocoon. He married, in
1844, Charlotte Anne, daughter of John Denison of Ossington
Hall, Newark. He was knighted in 1862, and created a baronet
in 1881. He died at Shiplake, near Henley-on-Thames, on

405

the 4th of February 1885. His eldest son, Sir Walter G. F.
Phillimore (b. 1845), also distinguished as an authority on
ecclesiastical and admiralty law, became in 1897 a judge of
the high court.

PHILLIP, JOHN (1817-1867), Scottish painter, was born at
Aberdeen, Scotland, on the igth of April 1817. His father, an
old soldier, was in humble circumstances, and the son became
an errand-boy to a tinsmith, and was then apprenticed to a
painter and glazier. Having received some technical instruction
from a local artist named William Mercer, he began, at the age
of about fifteen, to paint portraits. In 1834 he made a very
brief visit to London. About this time he became assistant to
James Forbes, an Aberdeen portrait-painter. He had already
gained a valuable patron. Having been sent to repair a window
in the house of Major P. L. Gordon, his interest in the works of
art in the house attracted the attention of their owner. Gordon
brought the young artist under the notice of Lord Panmure,
who in 1836 sent him to London, promising to bear the cost of
his art education. At first Phillip was placed under T. M. Joy,
but he soon entered the schools of the Royal Academy. In 1839
he figured for the first time in the royal academy exhibition with
a portrait and a landscape, and in the following year he was
represented by a more ambitious figure-picture of " Tasso in
Disguise relating his Persecutions to his Sister." For the next
ten years he supported himself mainly by portraiture and by
painting subjects of national incident, such as " Presbyterian
Catechizing," " Baptism in Scotland," and the " Spaewife."
His productions at this period, as well as his earlier subject-
pictures, are reminiscent of the practice and methods of Wilkie
and the Scottish genre-painters of his time. In 1851 his health
showed signs of delicacy, and he went to Spain in search of a
warmer climate. He was brought face to face for the first time
with the brilliant sunshine and the splendid colour of the south,
and it was in coping with these that he first manifested his
artistic individuality and finally displayed his full powers. In
the " Letter-writer of Seville " (1854), commissioned by Queen
Victoria at the suggestion of Sir Edwin Landseer, the artist is
struggling with new difficulties in the portrayal of unwonted
splendours of colour and light. In 1857 Phillip was elected an
associate of the Royal Academy, and in 1859 a full member. In
1855 and in 1860 further visits to Spain were made, and in each
case the painter returned with fresh materials to be embodied
with increasing power and subtlety in the long series of works
which won for him the title of " Spanish Phillip." His highest
point of execution is probably reached in " La Gloria " (1864)
and a smaller single-figure painting of the same period entitled
" El Cigarillo." These Spanish subjects were varied in 1860
by a rendering of the marriage of the princess royal with the
crown prince of Prussia, executed by command of the queen,
and in 1863 by a picture of the House of Commons. During his
last visit to Spain Phillip occupied himself in a careful study of
the art of Velazquez, and the copies which he made fetched large
prices after his death, examples having been secured by the royal
and the royal Scottish academies. The year before his death he
visited Italy and devoted attention to the works of Titian. The
results of this study of the old masters are visible in such works
as " La Loteria Nacional, " left uncompleted at his death. During
this period he resided much in the Highlands, and seemed to be
returning to his first love for Scottish subjects, painting several
national scenes, and planning others that were never completed.
He died in London on the 27th of February 1867.

His works were collected in the International Exhibition of
1873, and many of them are engraved by T. Oldham Barlow. In
addition to the paintings already specified the following are among
the more important: " Life among the Gipsies of Seville " (1853),
" El Paseo " (1855), " Collection of the Offertory in a Scotch Kirk "
('855), " A Gipsy Water-carrier in Seville " (1855), " The Prayer
of Faith shall save the Sick " (1856), " The Dying Contrabandist "
(1856), " The Prison Window " (1857), " A Huff " (1859), " Early
Career of Murillo " (1865), " A Chat round the Brasero " (1866).

PHILLIPS, ADELAIDE (1833-1882), American contralto
singer, was born at Stratford-on-Avon, England, her family
emigrating to America in 1840. Her mother taught dancing,

406

PHILLIPS, E.— PHILLIPS, S.

and Adelaide began a career on the Boston stage at ten years
old. But in 1850 her talent for singing became evident, and
through Jenny Lind and others she was sent to London and to
Italy to study. In 1855 she returned to America an accom-
plished vocalist; and for many years she was the leading
American contralto, equally successful in oratorio and on the
concert platform. She died at Carlsbad on the 3rd of October
1882.

PHILLIPS, EDWARD (1630-1696), English author, son of
Edward Phillips of the crown office in chancery, and his wife
Anne, only sister of John Milton, the poet, was born in August
1630 in the Strand, London. His father died in 1631, and Anne
Phillips eventually married her husband's successor in the crown
office, Thomas Agar. Edward Phillips and his younger brother,
John, were educated by Milton. Edward entered Magdalen
Hall, Oxford, in November 1650, but left the university in 1651
to be a bookseller's clerk in London. Although he entirely
differed from Milton in his religious and political views, and
seems, to judge from the free character of his Mysteries of Love
and Eloquence (1658), to have undergone a certain revulsion
from his Puritan upbringing, he remained on affectionate terms
with his uncle to the end. He was tutor to the son of John
Evelyn, the diarist, from 1663 to 1672 at Sayes Court, near
Deptford, and in 1677-1679 in the family of Henry Bennet,
earl of Arlington. The date of his death is unknown, but his
last book is dated 1696.

His most important work is Theatrum poetarum (1675), a list of
the chief poets of all ages and countries, but principally of the English
poets, with short critical notes and a prefatory Discourse of the
Poets and Poetry, which has usually been traced to Milton's hand.
He also wrote A New World in Words, or a General Dictionary
(1658), which went through many editions; a new edition of Baker's
Chronicle, of which the section on the period from 1650 to 1658 was
written by himself from the royalist standpoint; a supplement
(1676) to John Speed's Theatre of Great Britain; and in 1684
Enchiridion linguae latinae, said to have been taken chiefly from
notes prepared by Milton. Aubrey states that all Milton's papers
came into Phillips's hands, and in 1694 he published a translation
of his Letters of State with a valuable memoir.

His brother, JOHN PHILLIPS (1631-1706), in 1652 published
a Latin reply to the anonymous attack on Milton entitled Pro
Rege et populo anglicano. He appears to have acted as un-
official secretary to Milton, but, disappointed of regular political
employment, and chafing against the discipline he was under,
he published in 1655 a bitter attack on Puritanism entitled a
Satyr against Hypocrites (1655). In 1656 he was summoned
before the privy council for his share in a book of licentious
poems, Sportive Wit, which was suppressed by the authorities
but almost immediately replaced by a similar collection, Wit
and Drollery. In Montelion (1660) he ridiculed the astrological
almanacs of William Lilly. Two other skits of this name, in
1661 and 1662, also full of course royalist wit, were probably by
another hand. In 1678 he supported the agitation of Titus Dates,
writing on his behalf, says Wood, " many lies and villanies."
Dr Oates's Narrative of the Popish Plot indicated was the first
of these tracts. He began a monthly historical review in 1688
entitled Modern History or a Monthly Account of all considerable
Occurrences, Civil, Ecclesiastical and Military, followed in 1690 by
The Present State of Europe, or a Historical and Political Mercury,
which was supplemented by a preliminary volume giving a
history of events from 1688. He executed many translations
from the French, and a version (1687) of Don Quixote,

An extended, but by no means friendly, account of the brothers
is given by Wood, Athen. oxon. (ed. Bliss, iv. 764 seq.), where a
long list of their works is dealt with. This formed the basis of
William Godwin's Lives of Edward and John Phillips (1815), with
which is reprinted Edward Phillips's Life of John Milton.

PHILLIPS, JOHN (1800-1874), English geologist, was born
on the 25th of December 1800 at Marden in Wiltshire. His
father belonged to an old Welsh family, but settled in England
as an officer of excise and married the sister of William Smith,
the " Father of English Geology." Both parents dying when
he was a child, Phillips came under the charge of his uncle; and
after being educated at various schools, he accompanied Smith on
his wanderings in connexion with his geological maps. In the

spring of 1824 Smith went to York to deliver a course of lectures
on geology, and his nephew accompanied him. Phillips accepted
engagements in the principal Yorkshire towns to arrange their
museums and give courses of lectures on the collections contained
therein. York became his residence, where he obtained, in
1825, the situation of keeper of the Yorkshire museum and
secretary of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society. From that
centre he extended his operations to towns beyond the county;
and in 1831 he included University College, London, in the sphere
of his activity. In that year the British Association for the
Advancement of Science was founded at York, and Phillips was
one of the active minds who organized its machinery. He
became in 1832 the first assistant secretary, a post which he held
until 1859. In 1^834 he accepted the professorship of geology
at King's College, London, but retained his post at York. In
1834 he was elected F.R.S.; in later years he received hon.
degrees of LL.D. from Dublin and Cambridge, and D.C.L. from
Oxford; while in 1845 he was awarded the Wollaston Medal by
the Geological Society of London. In 1840 he resigned his charge
of the York museum and was appointed on the staff of the
geological survey of Great Britain under De la Beche. He spent
some time in studying the Palaeozoic fossils of Devon, Cornwall
and West Somerset, of which he published a descriptive memoir
(1841); and he made a detailed survey of the region of the
Malvern Hills, of which he prepared the elaborate account that
appears in vol. ii. of the Memoirs of the Survey (1848). In 1844 he
became professor of geology in the university of Dublin. Nine
years later, on the death of H. E. Strickland, who had acted as
substitute for Dean Buckland in the readership of geology in
the university of Oxford, Phillips succeeded to the post of deputy,
and at the dean's death in 1856 became himself reader, a post
which he held to the time of his death. During his residence
in Oxford he took a leading part in the foundation and arrange-
ment of the new museum erected in 1859 (see his Notices of Rocks
and Fossils in the University Museum, 1863; and The Oxford
Museum, by H. W. Acland and J. Ruskin, 1859; reprinted with
additions 1893). Phillips was also keeper of the Ashmolean
museum from 1854-1870. In 1859-1860 he was president of
the Geological Society of London, and in 1865 president of the
British Association. He dined at All Souls College on the 23rd
of April 1874, but on leaving he slipped and fell down a flight
of stone stairs, and died on the following day.

From the time he wrote his first paper " On the Direction of the
Diluvial Currents in Yorkshire " (1827), down to the last days of
his life, Phillips continued a constant contributor to the literature
of science. The pages of the Philosophical Magazine, the Journal
of the Geological Society, the Geological Magazine and other publica-
tions contain valuable essays by him. He was also the author
of numerous separate works, which were of great benefit in extend-
ing a sound knowledge of geology. Among these may be specially
mentioned : Illustrations of the Geology of Yorkshire (in two parts, 1829
and 1836; 2nd ed. of pt. I in 1835, 3rd ed., edited by R. Etheridge,
in 1875); A- Treatise on Geology (1837-1839); Memoirs of William
Smith (1844); The Rivers, Mountains and Sea-Coast of Yorkshire
('853) ; Manual of Geology, Practical and Theoretical (1855); Life
on the Earth: its Origin and Succession (1860); Vesuvius (1869);
Geology of Oxford and the Valley of the Thames (1871). To these
should be added his Monograph of British Belemnitidae (1865),
for the Palaeontographical Society, and his geological map of the
British Isles (1847).

See Biographical Memoir, with portrait, in Geol. Mag. (July 1870).

PHILLIPS, SAMUEL (1814-1854), English journalist, the son
of a Jewish tradesman in London, was born on the 28th of
December 1814. He was educated at University College,
London, and then at Gottingen. Having renounced the Jewish
faith, he returned to England and entered Sidney Sussex College,
Cambridge, with the design of taking orders. His father's death,
however, prevented this, and in 1841 he took to literary work.
He wrote a novel, Caleb Stukely (1862), and other tales, and
about 1845 began a connexion with The Times as literary critic.
In the following year he purchased the John Bull newspaper,
and edited it for a year. Two volumes of his Essays from The
Times appeared in 1852 and 1854. Phillips took an active part
in the formation of the Crystal Palace Company, and wrote
their descriptive guides. In 1852 the university of Gottingen

PHILLIPS, S.— PHILLIPS, WENDELL

407

conferred upon him the honorary degree of LL.D. He died
at Brighton on the i4th of October 1854.

PHILLIPS, STEPHEN (1868- ), British poet and dramatist,
was born on the 28th of July 1868 at Somertown near Oxford,
the son of the Rev. Stephen Phillips, precentor of Peterborough,
Cathedral. He was educated at Stratford and Peterborough
Grammar Schools, and entered Queen's College, Cambridge;
but during his first term at Cambridge, when F. R. Benson's
dramatic company visited the town, he joined it, and for six
years played various small parts. In 1890 a slender volume of
verse was published at Oxford with the title Primavera, which
contained contributions by him and by his cousin Laurence
Binyon and others. In 1894 he published Eremus, a long poem
of loose structure in blank verse of a philosophical complexion.
In 1896 appeared Christ in Hades, forming with a few other
short pieces one of the slim paper-covered volumes of Elkin
Mathews's " Shilling Garland." This poem arrested the at-
tention of watchful critics of poetry, and when it was followed
by a collection of Poems in 1897 the writer's position as a new
poet of exceptional gifts was generally recognized. This volume
contained a new edition of " Christ in Hades," together with
" Marpessa," " The Woman with the Dead Soul," " The Wife "
and shorter pieces, including the fine lines " To Milton, Blind."
The volume won the prize of £100 offered by the Academy news-
paper for the best new book of its year, ran through half a dozen
editions in two years, and established Mr Phillips's rank as poet,
which was sustained by the publication in the Nineteenth Century
in 1898 of his poem " Endymion." George Alexander, the
actor-manager, moved perhaps by a certain clamour among the
critics for a literary drama, then commissioned Mr Phillips to
write him a play, the result being Paolo and Francesca (1900),
a drama founded on Dante's famous episode. Encouraged by
the great success of the drama in its literary form, Mr Alexander
produced the piece at the St James's Theatre in the course of
1901. In the meantime, Mr Phillips's next play, Herod: a
Tragedy, had been produced by Beerbohm Tree on the 3151 of
October 1900, and was published as a book in 1901 ; Ulysses, also
produced by Beerbohm Tree, was published in 1902; The Sin of
David, a drama on the story of David and Bathsheba, translated
into the times and terms of Cromwellian England, was published
in 1904; and Nero, produced by Beerbohm Tree, was published
in 1906. In these plays the poet's avowed aim was, instead of
attempting to revive the method of Shakespeare and the Eliza-
bethans, to revitalize the method of Greek drama. Paolo and
Francesca (which admitted certainly one scene on an Elizabethan
model) was the most successful, the subject being best adapted
to the lyrical cast of Mr Phillips's poetical temperament ; but all
contained fine poetry, skilfully stage-managed by a writer who
had practical experience of stage craft.

See the section on Stephen Phillips in Poets of the Younger Genera-
tion, by William Archer (1902); also the articles on " Tragedy and
Mr Stephen Phillips," by William Watson, in the Fortnightly Review
(March 1898); " The Poetry of Mr Stephen Phillips," in the Edin-
burgh Review (January 1900) ; " Mr Stepuen Phillips," in the Century
(January 1901), by Edmund Gosse; and " Mr Stephen Phillips,"
in the Quarterly Review (April 1902), by Arthur Symons.

For bibliography up to July 1903, see English Illustrated Magazine
new series, vol. xxix. p. 442.

PHILLIPS, THOMAS (1770-1845), English portrait and
subject painter, was born at Dudley in Warwickshire on the
1 8th of October 1770. Having acquired the art of glass-
painting at Birmingham he visited London in 1790 with an
introduction to Benjamin West, who found him employment
on the windows in St George's Chapel at Windsor. In 1792
Phillips painted a view of Windsor Castle, and in the next two
years he exhibited the " Death of Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury,
at the Battle of Castillon," " Ruth and Naomi," " Elijah re-
storing the Widow's Son," " Cupid disarmed by Euphrosyne,"
and other pictures. After 1796, however, he mainly con-
fined himself to portrait-painting. It was not long before
he became the chosen painter of men of genius and talent,
notwithstanding the rivalry of Hoppner, Owen, Jackson and
Lawrence; and he left behind portraits of nearly all the illus-

trious characters of his day. In 1804 he was elected associate
and in 1808 member of the Royal Academy. In 1824 Phillips
succeeded Fuseli as professor of painting to the Royal Academy,
an office which he held till 1832. During this period he de-
livered ten Lectures on the History and Principles of Painting,
which were published in 1833. He died on the zoth of April
1845-

PHILLIPS, WENDELL (1811-1884), American orator and
reformer, was born in Boston on the 29th of November 1811.
His father, John Phillips (1770-1823), a man of wealth
and influence, graduated at Harvard College in 1788, and
became successively " town advocate and public prosecutor,"
and in 1822 first mayor of Boston, then recently made into a city.
Wendell Phillips himself attended the public Latin school,
entered Harvard College before he was sixteen, and graduated
in 1831 in the same class with the historian John Lothrop
Motley. He graduated at the Harvard law school in 1834,
and was admitted to the bar in Boston. He soon came under
the influence of the anti-slavery movement, witnessing in 1835
the mobbing, in Boston, of William Lloyd Garrison. On the
8th of December 1837 a meeting was held at Faneuil Hall to
express the sentiments of the people on the murder of Elijah P.
Lovejoy, at Alton, Illinois, for defending his press from a pro-
slavery mob. In the course of the meeting a speech was made
in opposition to its general current by James T. Austin (1784-
1870), attorney-general of the state, who said that Lovejoy
had died " as the fool dieth," and compared his murderers to
the men who threw the tea into Boston harbour just before the
War of Independence. The speech seemed likely to divide the
audience, when Wendell Phillips took the platform. " When
I heard," he said, " the gentleman lay down principles which
placed the murderers of Alton side by side with Otis and Han-
cock, with Quincy and Adams, I thought these pictured lips
(pointing to their portraits) would have broken into voice to
rebuke the recreant American, the slanderer of the dead." This
appeal not merely determined the sentiment of the meeting,
it gave Wendell Phillips his first fame and determined his
career. Although loving his profession, and this especially
for the opening it gave in the direction of public life, he prac-
tically stepped outside the sphere dearest to young Americans,
and lived henceforth the life of an agitator, or, like his father,
that of a " public prosecutor." Accepting unhesitatingly the
leadership of Garrison, and becoming like him gradually a
disunionist, he lived essentially a platform life, interested in a
variety of subjects, but first and chiefly an abolitionist. In
1865, however, after the Civil War, he broke with Garrison
over the question of discontinuing the Anti-Slavery Society,
and from that date until the society was disbanded in 1870 he,
instead of Garrison, was its president. He was not, moreover,
like his great leader, a non-resistant, nor was he, on the other
hand, like John Brown, borne on by irresistible necessity to
overt action. Nor did he find, like his fellow-worker, Theodore
Parker, the leisure to keep up his scholarship and lead in part
the life of a student. Early study and travel had indeed fur-
nished him with abundant material for rhetorical illustration;
and he was also a great reader of newspapers, but he used to
say that he knew in his whole life but one thing thoroughly,
namely, the history of the English Civil War, and there were
few occasions when he could not draw from it the needful illus-
tration. His style of eloquence was direct and brilliant, but
eminently self-controlled. He often surprised his hearers by
the quietness of his beginnings, and these were very often the
speeches which turned out most brilliant and most irresistible
ere the close. He may be said to have introduced the direct
and colloquial manner upon the American public platform, as
distinct from the highly elaborated and often ornate style
which had been established by Edward Everett; nor has there
ever been a reversion since his day to the more artificial
method. He was capable at times, nevertheless, of highly
sonorous periods with superb climaxes; yet his favourite
style was the conversational. His logic, while never obtruded,
was rarely at fault; but he loved the flash of the rapier, and

408

PHILLIPS, W.— PHILLPOTTS

was never happier than when he had to face down a mob and
utterly foil it by sheer superiority in fencing. The two volumes
of his speeches, as edited by James Redpath, were fortunately
made from verbatim reports, and they wisely enclose in paren-
theses those indications of favour or dissent from the audience
which transformed so many of his speeches into exhibitions of
gladiatorial skill. He was a tribune of the people, associated
unflinchingly not merely with the unpopular but with the
unpolished; always carrying about him not merely a certain
Roman look, but a patrician air. After slavery had fallen
Phillips associated himself freely with reformers occupied in
other paths, herein separating himself from the other patrician
of the movement, Edmund Quincy, who always frankly said
that after slavery was abolished there was nothing else
worth fighting for. Among other things, Phillips contended,
during his later years, for prohibition, woman suffrage and
various penal and administrative reforms. He was not always
the best judge of character, and was sometimes allied in these
movements with men who were little more than demagogues.
But the proof he gave by his transfer of energies that the work
of reform was never quite finished — this was something of
peculiar value, and worth the risk of some indiscretions. The
life of a reformer did not in itself make him thoroughly
happy; he chafed more and more under its fatigues, and he
always felt that his natural place would have been among
senators or ambassadors; but he belonged essentially to the
heroic type, and it may well have been of him that Emerson
was thinking when he wrote those fine words: " What forests
of laurel we bring and the tears of mankind to him who stands
firm against the opinion of his contemporaries." His domestic
life was most happy, though his wife was a confirmed invalid,
seldom quitting her room. She was a woman of heroic nature
and very strong convictions. Her husband used to say that
she first made him an abolitionist. They had no children, but
adopted an orphaned daughter of Mrs Eliza Garnaut, a friend,
and this young girl (afterwards the wife of George W. Smalley),
brought much light and joy into the household. Their worldly
circumstances were easy, though they were always ready to
impoverish themselves for the sake of others. Wendell Phillips
died in Boston on the 2nd of February 1884.

See Lorenzo Sears, Wendell Phillips, Orator and Agitator (New
York, 1909) '(T. W. H.)

PHILLIPS, WILLIAM (1775-1828), British mineralogist and
geologist, son of James Phillips, printer and bookseller in
London, was born on the loth of May 1775- He early became
interested in mineralogy and geology, and was one of the
founders of the Geological Society of London (1807). His
Outlines of Mineralogy and Geology (1815) and Elementary Intro-
duction to the Knowledge of Mineralogy (1816) became standard
textbooks. His digest of English geology, A selection of Facts from
the Best Authorities, arranged so as to form an Outline of the Geo-
logy of England and Wales (1818), formed the foundation of the
larger work undertaken by Phillips in conjunction with W. D.
Conybeare, of which only the first part was published, entitled
Outlines of the Geology of England and Wales (1822). This
volume made an era in geology. As a model of careful original
observation, of judicious compilation, of succinct description
and of luminous arrangement it has been of the utmost service
in the development of geology in Britain. In this work Phillips
reprinted his admirable description of the chalk cliffs of Dover
and other parts of East Kent, published in 1819 in Trans. Geol.
Soc. vol. v. Phillips was a member of 'the Society of Friends.
He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1827. He
died on the 2nd of April 1828.

His brother, RICHARD PHILLIPS (1778-1851), was distin-
guished as a chemist, and became F.R.S. in 1822. He was
appointed chemist and curator to the Museum of Economic
(afterwards Practical) Geology, then situated in Craig's Court
(1839). He was the author of papers published in the Annals
of Philosophy and Philosophical Magazine. In 1796 the two
brothers, together with William Allen and Luke Howard, took
part in forming the Askesian Society.

PHILL1PSBURG, a town of Warren county, New Jersey,
U.S.A., on the Delaware river, opposite Easton, Pennsylvania,
and about 51 m. N.N.W. of Trenton, NJ. Pop. (1900) 10,052,
of whom 990 were foreign-born; (1910 U.S. census) 13,903.
Served by the Central of New Jersey and other railways, the
town is situated in the river bottom and on a bluff which
commands beautiful views. The river is spanned here by
several bridges. The town has railway shops and various manu-
factures. In 1905 the value of the factory products was
$6,684,173 (45-8% more than in 1900). Phillipsburg was settled
about 1750. It was only a straggling village when the Morris
Banking and Canal Company was chartered in 1824, but its
growth was accelerated by the canal (no longer used), by the
establishment in 1848 of an iron furnace, and by the completion
of the Central Railroad of New Jersey to this point in 1852;
the town was incorporated in 1861.

PHILLIPSITE, a mineral of the zeolite group; a hydrated
potassium, calcium and aluminium silicate, approximating
to (K2, Ca) Al2(SiO3).r4H2O. It varies somewhat in composition,
and a variety (" pseudophillipsite ") containing rather less
silica has the formula (K2, Ca)2Al4Si5Oi8-9H2O. Crystals are
monoclinic, but only complex cruciform twins are known, these
being exactly like twins of harmotome (<?.».). Crystals of
phillipsite are, however, usually smaller and more transparent
and glassy than those of harmotome. Spherical groups with
a radially fibrous structure and bristled with crystals on the
surface are not uncommon. The hardness is 4%, and the
specific gravity 2-2. The species was established by A. Levy
in 1825 and named after William Phillips. French authors
use the name christianite (after Christian VIII. of Denmark) ,
given by A. Des Cloizeaux in 1847.

Phillipsite is a mineral of secondary origin, and occurs with
other zeolites in the amygdaloidal cavities of basic volcanic
rocks: e.g. in the basalt of the Giant's Causeway in County
Antrim, and near Melbourne in Victoria; and in lencitite near
Rome. Small crystals of recent formation have been observed
in the masonry of the hot baths at Plombieres and Bourbonne-
les-Bains, in France. Minute spherical aggregates embedded
in red clay were dredged by the " Challenger " from the bottom
of the Central Pacific, where they had been formed by the
decomposition of lava. (L. J.S.)

PHILLPOTTS, HENRY (1778-1869), English bishop, was born
at Bridgwater on the 6th of May 1778, and was educated at
Gloucester College school and at Corpus Christi College, Oxford.
He became a fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford, in 1795, took
orders in 1802, and was select university preacher in 1804.
In 1805 he received the living of Stainton-le-Street, Durham, and
in addition was appointed to Bishop Middleham, Durham, in the
succeeding year. For twenty years he was chaplain to Shute
Barrington, bishop of Durham. He was appoined vicar of
Gateshead in 1808, prebendary of Durham in 1809, and vicar
of St Margaret, Durham, in 1810. After holding the rich living
of Stanhope, Durham from 1820, and the deanery of Chester
from 1828, he was consecrated bishop of Exeter in 1831,
holding with the see a residentiary canonry at Durham. His
published works include numerous speeches and pamphlets,
including those connected with his well-known Roman Catholic
controversy with Charles Butler (1750-1832). He was an
energetic supporter of the Tory party, even when it acted
contrary to his views in passing the Roman Catholic Emancipa-
tion Act of 1829. He died on the i8th of September 1869.
" Henry of Exeter," as he was commonly called, was one of the
most striking figures in the English Church of the i8th century.
His intellect was strong rather than broad, his position being
that of the traditional High Churchman, with little sympathy
either with the Evangelicals or with the Tractarians. On the
one hand the famous Gorham judgment was the outcome of his
refusal to institute to the livinp of Brampford Speke a clergyman
George Cornelius Gorham (1787-1857), who had openly dis-
avowed his belief in baptismal regeneration; on the other he
denounced the equally famous Tract XC. in his episcopal
charge of 1843. As bishop he was a strict disciplinarian, and

PHILO

409

did much to restore order in a diocese of which the clergy
had become extraordinarily demoralized. Though accused of
avarice 'and pluralism, Phillpotts was generous in his gifts to
the church, founding the theological college at Exeter and
spending large sums on the restoration of the cathedral.

PHILO, Jewish Hellenist, and author of an epic poem in
Greek hexameters on the history of Jerusalem. Alexander
Polyhistor (c. 105-35 B-C-) quotes several passages of the poem,
and is the source of the extracts in Eusebius (Praeparatio
evangelica, ix. 20, 24, 37). This is probably the Philo who is
mentioned by Clemens Alexandrinus (Strom, i. 21, 141) and
by Josephus (Contra Apionem, i. 23), who calls him " the elder."

See M. Philippson's work on the Jewish poets Ezechiel and Philo
(Berlin, 1830).

PHILO, often called PHILO JUDAEUS, Jewish philospher,
appears to have spent his whole life at Alexandria, where he
was probably born c. 20-10 B.C. His father Alexander was
alabarch or arabarch (that is, probably, chief farmer of taxes
on the Arabic side of the Nile), from which it may be concluded
that the family was influential and wealthy (Jos. Ant. xviii.
8, i). Jerome's statement (De vir. ill. n) that he was of
priestly race is confirmed by no older authority. The only
event of his life which can be actually dated belongs to A.D. 40,
when Philo, then a man of advanced years, went from Alexandria
to Rome, at the head of a Jewish embassy, to persuade the
emperor Gaius to abstain from claiming divine honour of the
Jews. Of this embassy Philo has left a full and vivid account
(De legatione ad Gaium). Various fathers and theologians
of the Church state that in the time of Claudius he met St Peter
in Rome; 'but this legend has no historic value, and probably
arose because the book De vita contemplaiiva, ascribed to Philo,
in which Eusebius already recognized a glorification of
Christian monasticism, seemed to indicate a disposition towards
Christianity.

Though we know so little of Philo's own life, his numerous
extant writings give the fullest information as to his views of
the universe and of life, and his religious and scientific aims,
and so enable us adequately to estimate his position and impor-
tance in the history of thought. He is quite the most important
representative of Hellenistic Judaism, and his writings give
us the clearest view of what this development of Judaism
was and aimed at. . The development of Judaism in the
diaspora (q.v .) differed in important points from that in Palestine,
where, since the successful opposition of the Maccabee ageTx>
the Hellenization which Antiochus Epiphanes had sought to
carry through by force, the attitude of the nation to Greek
culture had been essentially negative. In the diaspora, on
the other hand, the Jews had been deeply influenced by the
Greeks; they soon more or less forgot their Semitic mother-
tongue, and with the language of Hellas they appropriated
much of Hellenic culture. They were deeply impressed by that
irresistible force which was blending all races and nations into
one great cosmopolitan unity, and so the Jews too on their
dispersion became in speech and nationality Greeks, or rather
" Hellenists." Now the distinguishing character of Hellenism
is not the absolute disappearance of the Oriental civilizations
before that of Greece but the combination of the two with a
preponderance of the Greek element. So it was with the Jews,
but in their case the old religion had much more persistence
than in other Hellenistic circles, though in other respects they
too yielded to the superior force of Greek civilization. This we
must hold to have been the case not only in Alexandria but
throughout the diaspora from the commencement of the Hellen-
istic period down to the later Roman Empire. It was only after
ancient civilization gave way before the barbarian immigrations
and the rising force of Christianity that rabbinism became
supreme even among the Jews of the diaspora. This Hellenistico-
Judaic phase of culture is sometimes called " Alexandrian," and
the expression is justifiable if it only means that in Alexandria
it attained its highest development and flourished most. For

1Euseb., H. E. ii. 17, i; Jer. ut supra; Phot. Bibl. Cod. 105;

Sui'd., s.v. "

here the Jews began to busy themselves with Greek literature
even under their clement rulers, the first Ptolemies, and here
the law and other Scriptures were first translated into Greek;
here the process of fusion began earliest and proceeded with
greatest rapidity; here, therefore, also the Jews first engaged
in a scientific study of Greek philosophy and transplanted that
philosophy to the soil of Judaism. We read of a Jewish philo-
sopher Aristobulus in the time of Ptolemy VI. Philometor, in
the middle of the 2nd century B.C., of whose philosophical
commentary on the Pentateuch fragments have been preserved
by Clement of Alexandria and Eusebius. So far as we can
judge from these, his aim was to put upon the sacred text a
sense which should appeal even to Greek readers, and in par-
ticular to get rid of all anthropomorphic utterances about
God. Eusebius regards him as a Peripatetic. We may suppose
that this philosophical line of thought had its representatives
in Alexandria between the times of Aristobulus and Philo, but
we are not acquainted with the names of any such. Philo
certainly, to judge by his historical influence, was the greatest
of all these Jewish philosophers, and in his case we can follow
in detail the methods by which Greek culture was harmonized
with Jewish faith. On one side he is quite a Greek, on the other
quite a Jew. His language is formed on the best classical
models, especially Plato. He knows and often cites the great
Greek poets, particularly Homer and the tragedians, but his
chief studies had been in Greek philosophy, and he speaks of
Heraclitus, Plato, the Stoics and the Pythagoreans in terms of
the highest veneration. He had appropriated their doctrines
so completely that he must himself be reckoned among the
Greek philosophers; his system was eclectic, but the borrowed
elements are combined into a new unity with so much originality
that at the same time he may fairly be regarded as representing
a philosophy of his own, which has for its characteristic feature
the constant prominence of a fundamental religious idea.
Philo's closest affinities are with Plato, the later Pythagoreans
and the Stoics.2 Yet with all this Philo remained a Jew, and a
great part of his writings is expressly directed to recommend
Judaism to the respect and, if possible, the acceptance of the
Greeks. He was not a stranger to the specifically Jewish
culture that prevailed in Palestine; in Hebrew he was not pro-
ficient, but the numerous etymologies he gives show that he
had made some study of that language.3 His method of exegesis
is in point of form identical with that of the Palestinian scribes,
and in point of matter coincidences are not absolutely rare.4
But above all his whole works prove on every page that he felt
himself to be thoroughly a Jew, and desired to be nothing else.
Jewish "philosophy" is to him the true and highest wisdom;
the knowledge of God and of things divine and human which
is contained in the Mosaic Scriptures is to him the deepest and
the purest.

If now we ask wherein Philo's Judaism consisted we must
answer that it lies mainly in the formal claim that the Jewish
people, in virtue of the divine revelation given to Moses, possesses
the true knowledge in things religious. Thoroughly Jewish
is his recognition that the Mosaic Scriptures of the Pentateuch
are of absolute divine authority, and that everything they
contain is valuable and significant because divinely revealed.
The other Jewish Scriptures are also recognized as prophetic,
i.e. as the writings of inspired men, but he does not place them
on the same lines with the law, and he quotes them so seldom
that we cannot determine the compass of his canon. The

* The fathers of the Church have specially noticed his Platonism
and Pythagoreanism ; an old proverb even says, with some
exaggeration, % H\&.TWV <t>i>wi'lfti fl $l\wi> wXaTwuiftt (Jerome, Photius
and Su'idas, ut supra). Clement of Alexandria directly calls him a
Pythagorean. Eusebius (H. E. ii. 4, 3) observes both tendencies.
Recent writers, especially Zeller, lay weight also on his Stoic affinities,
and with justice, for the elements which he borrows from Stoicism
are as numerous and important as those derived from the other
two schools.

* See the list of these in Vallarsi's edition of Jerome (iii. 731-734),
and compare Siegfried, " Philonische Studien," in Merx's Archiv. ii.
143-163 (1872).

4 See Siegfried, Philo, pp. 142-159.

410

PHILO

decisive and normative authority is to him the " holy laws "
of Moses, and this not only in the sense that everything they
contain is true but that all truth is contained in them. Every-
thing that is right and good in the doctrines of the Greek
philosophers had already been quite as well, or even better,
taught by Moses. Thus, since Philo had been deeply influenced
by the teachings of Greek philosophy he actually finds in the
Pentateuch everything which he had learned from the Greeks.
From these premises he assumes as requiring no proof that the
Greek philosophers must in some way have drawn from Moses,
a view indeed which is already expressed by Aristobulus.
To carry out these presuppositions called for an exegetical
method which seems very strange to us, that, namely, of the
allegorical interpretation of Scripture. The allegorical method
had been practised before Philo's date in the rabbinical schools
of Palestine, and he himself expressly refers to its use by his
predecessors, nor does he feel that any further justification
is requisite. With its aid he discovers indications of the pro-
foundest doctrines of philosophy in the simplest stories of the
Pentateuch.1

This merely formal principle of the absolute authority of
Moses is really the one point in which Philo still holds to
genuinely Jewish conceptions. In the whole substance of his
philosophy the Jewish point of view is more or less completely
modified — sometimes almost extinguished — by what he has
learned from the Greeks. Comparatively speaking, he is most
truly a Jew in his conception of God. The doctrine of mono-
theism, the stress laid on the absolute majesty and sovereignty
of God above the world, the principle that He is to be worshipped
without images, are all points in which Philo justly feels his
superiority as a Jew over popular heathenism. But only over
popular heathenism, for the Greek philosophers had long since
arrived at least at a theoretical monotheism, and their influence
on Philo is nowhere more strongly seen than in the detailed de-
velopment of his doctrine of God. The specifically Jewish (i.e.
particularistic) conception of the election of Israel, the obligation
of the Mosaic law, the future glory of the chosen nation, have
almost disappeared; he is really a cosmopolitan and praises the
Mosaic law just because he deems it cosmopolitan. The true
sage who follows the law of Moses is the citizen not of a particular
state but of the world. A certain attachment which Philo still
manifests to the particularistic conceptions of his race is meant
only " in majorem Judaeorum gloriam." The Jewish people
has received a certain preference from God, but only because
it has the most virtuous ancestry and is itself distinguished for
virtue. The Mosaic law is binding, but only because it is the
most righteous, humane and rational of laws, and even its out-
ward ceremonies always disclose rational ideas and aims. And
lastly, outward prosperity is promised to the pious, even on
earth, but the promise belongs to all who turn from idols to the
true God. Thus, in the whole substance of his view of the
universe, Philo occupies the standpoint of Greek philosophy
rather than of national Judaism, and his philosophy of the world
and of life can be completely set forth without any reference
to conceptions specifically Jewish.

His doctrine of God starts from the idea that God is a Being
absolutely bare of quality. All quality in finite beings has
limitation, and no limitation can be predicated of God, who is
eternal, unchangeable, simple substance, free, self-sufficient,
better than the good and the beautiful. To predicate any
quality (7roi6njs) of God would be to reduce Him to the sphere
of finite existence. Of Him we can say only that He is, not what
He is, and such purely negative predications as to His being
appear to Philo, as to the later Pythagoreans and the Neo-
platonists, the only way of securing His absolute elevation
above the world. At bottom, no doubt, the meaning of these
negations is that God is the most perfect being; and so,
conversely, we are told that God contains all perfection, that
He fills and encompasses all things with His being.

A consistent application of Philo's abstract conception of

1 For details, see Gfrorer, Philo, i. 68 seq. ; Zeller, Phil, der Gr.
(3rd ed., vol. Hi., pt. ii., pp. 346-352); Siegfried, Philo, pp. 160 seq.

God would exclude the possibility of any active relation of God
to the world, and therefore of religion, for a Being absolutely
without quality and movement cannot be conceived as actively
concerned with the multiplicity of individual things. And so in
fact Philo does teach that the absolute perfection, purity and
loftiness of God would be violated by direct contact with imper-
fect, impure and finite things. But the possibility of a connexion
between God and the world is reached through a distinction
which forms the most important point in his theology and cos-
mology; the proper Being of God is distinguished from the
infinite multiplicity of divine Ideas or Forces: God himself is
without quality, but He disposes of an infinite variety of divine
Forces, through whose mediation an active relation of God to
the world is brought about. In the details of his teaching as
to these mediating entities Philo is guided partly by Plato and
partly by the Stoics, but at the same time he makes use of the
concrete religious conceptions of heathenism and Judaism.
Following Plato, he first calls them Ideas or ideal patterns of
all things; they are thoughts of God, yet possess a real existence,
and were produced before the creation of the sensible world,
of which they are the types. But, in distinction from Plato,
Philo's ideas are at the same time efficient causes or Forces
(dvvantis) , which bring unformed matter into order conformably
to the patterns within themselves, and are in fact the media
of all God's activity in the world. This modification of the
Platonic Ideas is due to Stoic influence, which appears also
when Philo gives to the Meat or Swd/ieis the name of Xo-yoi, i.e.
operative ideas — parts, as it were, of the operative Reason.
For, when Philo calls his mediating entities Xixyoi, the sense
designed is analogous to that of the Stoics when they call God
the Logos, i.e. the Reason which operates in the world. But
at the same time Philo maintains that the divine Forces are
identical with the " daemons " of the Greeks, and the " angels "
of the Jews, i.e. servants and messengers of God by means of
which He communicates with the finite world. All this shows how
uncertain was Philo's conception of the nature of these media-
ting Forces. On the one hand they are nothing else than Ideas
of individual things conceived in the mind of God, and as such
ought to have no other reality than that of immanent existence
in God, and so Philo says expressly that the totality of Ideas,
the )c6<7/ios voijris, is simply the Reason of God as Creator (Otov
Xo7os fiSrj KotrfioTToiovvTos) . Yet, on the other hand, they are
represented as hypostases distinct from God, individual entities
existing independently and apart from Him. This vacillation,
however, as Zeller and other recent writers have justly remarked,
is necessarily involved in Philo's premises, for, on the one hand, it
is God who works in the world through His Ideas, and therefore
they must be identical with God; but, on the other hand, God
is not to come into direct contact with the world, and therefore
the Forces through which He works must be distinct from Him.
The same inevitable amphiboly dominates in what is taught as
to the supreme Idea or Logos. Philo regards all individual
Ideas as comprehended in one highest and most general Idea or
Force — the unity of the individual Ideas — which he calls the
Logos or Reason of God, and which is again regarded as operative
Reason. The Logos, therefore, is the highest mediator between
God and the world, the firstborn son of God, the archangel who
is the vehicle of all revelation, and the high priest who stands
before God on behalf of the world. Through him the world
was created, and so he is identified with the creative Word of
God in Genesis (the Greek \byos meaning both " reason " and
" word "). Here again, we see, the philosopher is unable to
escape from the difficulty that the Logos is at once the immanent
Reason of God, and yet also an hypostasis standing between
God and the world. The whole doctrine of this mediatorial
hypostasis is a strange intertwining of very dissimilar threads;
on one side the way was prepared for it by the older Jewish
distinction between the Wisdom of God and God Himself, of
which we find the beginnings even in the Old Testament (Job
xxviii. 12 seq.; Prov. viii., ix.), and the fuller development in the
books of Ecclesiasticus and Wisdom, the latter of which comes
very near to Philo's ideas if we substitute for the term " wisdom "

PHILO

411

that of (divine) " Reason." In Greek philosophy, again, Philo,
.as we have seen, chiefly follows the Platonic doctrines of Ideas
and the Soul of the World, and the Stoic doctrine of God as the
\6yos or Reason operative in the world. In its Stoic form the
latter doctrine was pantheistic, but Philo could adapt it to his
purpose simply by drawing a sharper distinction between the
Logos and the world.

Like his doctrine of God, Philo's doctrine of the world and
creation rests on the presupposition of an absolute metaphysical
contrast between God and the world. The world can be ascribed
to God only in so far as it is a cosmos or orderly world; its
material substratum is not even indirectly referable to God.
Matter (v\rj, or, as the Stoics said, ovala) is a second principle,
but in itself an empty one, its essence being a mere negation of all
true being. It is a lifeless, unmoved, shapeless mass, out of
which God formed the actual world by means of the Logos and
xlivine Forces. Strictly speaking, the world is only formed, not
created, since matter did not originate with God.

Philo's doctrine of man is also strictly dualistic, and is mainly
derived from Plato. Man is a twofold being, with a higher and
a lower origin. Of the pure souls which fill airy space, those
nearest the earth are attracted by the sensible and descend into
sensible bodies; these souls are the Godward side of man. But
on his other side man is a creature of sense, and so has in him a
fountain of sin and all evil. The body, therefore, is a prison, a
coffin, or a grave for the soul which seeks to rise again to God.
From this anthropology the principles of Philo's ethics are
derived, its highest maxim necessarily being deliverance from
the world of sense and the mortification of all the impulses of
sense. In carrying out this thought, as in many other details
of his ethical teaching, Philo closely follows the Stoics. But he
is separated from Stoical ethics by his strong religious interests,
which carry him to very different views of the means and aim
of ethical development. The Stoics cast man upon his own
resources; Philo points him to the assistance of God, without
whom man, a captive to sense, could never raise himself to walk
in the ways of true wisdom and virtue. And as moral effort
can bear fruit only with God's help, so too God Himself is the
goal of that effort. Even in this life the truly wise and virtuous
is lifted above his sensible existence, and enjoys in ecstasy the
vision of God, his own consciousness sinking and disappearing
in the divine light. Beyond this ecstasy there lies but one
further step, viz. entire liberation from the body of sense and
the return of the soul to its original condition; it came from God
and must rise to Him again. But natural death brings this
consummation only to those who, while they lived on earth,
kept themselves free from attachment to the things of sense; all
others must at death pass into another body; transmigration of
souls is in fact the necessary consequence of Philo's premises,
though he seldom speaks of it expressly.

Philo's literary labours have a twofold object, being directed either
to expound the true sense of the Mosaic law, i.e. the philosophy
which we have just described, to his Jewish brethren, or to convince
heathen readers of the excellence, the supreme purity and truth,
of the Jewish religion, whose holy records contain the deepest and
most perfect philosophy, the best and most humane legislation.
Thus as a literary figure Philo, in conformity with his education and
views of life, stands between the Greeks and the Jews, seeking to
gain the Jews for Hellenism and the Greeks for Judaism, yet always
taking it for granted that his standpoint really is Jewish, and just
on that account truly philosophical and cosmopolitan.

The titles of the numerous extant writings of Philo present at
first sight a most confusing multiplicity. More than three-fourths
of them, however, are really mere sections of a small number of
larger works. Three such great works on the Pentateuch can be
distinguished.

I. The smallest of these is the ZrrHifiaTa Kal X«r«r (Quaestianes
et solutiones), a short exposition of Genesis and Exodus, in the
form of question and answer. The work is cited under this title
by Eusebius (H. E. ii. 18, I, 5; Praep. Ev. vii. 13), and by later
writers, but the Greek text is now almost wholly lost, and only
about one-half preserved in an Armenian translation. Genesis
seems to have occupied six books.1 Eusebius tells us that Exodus
filled five books. In the Armenian translation, first published by
the learned Mechitarist, J. Bapt. Aucher, in 1826, are preserved four

1 See, especially Mai, Scriptt. vett. nov. coll. vol. vii. pt. i. pp. 100,
106, 108.

books on Genesis and two on Exodus, but with lacunae. A Latin
fragment, about half of the fourth books on Genesis (Phil. Jud. CII.
quaestt. . . . super Gen.), was first printed at Paris in 1520. Of
the Greek we have numerous but short fragments in various
Florilegia.2 The interpretations in this work are partly literal and
partly allegorical.

II. Philo's most important work 'is the Ni/iuv Upav dXXiryopiat
(Euseb. H. E. ii. 18, i ; Phot. Bibl. Cod. 103), a vast and copious
allegorical commentary on Genesis, dealing with chaps, ii.-iv.,
verse by verse, and with select passages in the later chapters. The
readers in view are mainly Jews, for the form is modelled on the
rabbinic Midrash. The main idea is that the characters which
appear in Genesis are properly allegories of states of the soul (-rpb-xiu.
Ttjs i/ojx>js). All persons and actions being interpreted in this
sense, the work as a whole is a very extensive body of psychology
and ethics. It begins with Gen. ii. i, for the De mundi opificio,
which treats of the creation according to Gen. i., ii., does not belong
to this series of allegorical commentaries, but deals with the
actual history of creation, and that under a quite different literary
form. With this exception, however, the N&nuv dXXiryop/oi includes
all the treatises in the first volume of Mangey's edition, viz. —
NA/wuv Upwv dXXijyopiot irpwroi TUV fitrit rf/v t^ari^tpov (Legum alle-
goriarum, lib. i., M. i. 43-65), on Gen. ii. 1-17. (2) N<5/i. Up. dXX. otvripai
(Leg. all. lib. ii., M. i. 66-86), on Gen. ii. i8-iii. la. (3)N6jt. Up. dXX.
Tpirai (Leg. all. lib. iii., M. i. 87-137), on Gen. iii. 80-19. The
commentaries on Gen. iii. lb-8a, 20-23 are lost. (4) Hcpl TWV x<povf)in
Kal rijs <j>\oyLw}s poiufralas Kal TOV K.TiaQkvras Trpwrov il; avBpwirov KdiV
(De cherubim et flammeo gladio, M. i. 138-162), on Gen. iii. 24 and
iv. I. (5) Ilepi Siv Upovpyovaiv "A/3eX re Kal Kdi'j- (De sacrificiis Abelis
et Caini, M. i. 163-190), on Gen. iv. 2-4. The commentaries on
Gen. iv. 5~7 are lost. (6) Ilepi TOV rd -xtipov r!f Kptlrrovi <j>t\iiv
iiriTiBeoBai (Quod deterius potiori insidiari soleal, M. i. 191—225), on
Gen. iv. 8—15. (7) H«pi T&V TOV 3oK7jcri<76<£ov Kdi'v kyybvuv Kal us
utTavaaTTt* ylvtTai (Deposteritate Caini, &c., M. i. 226-261), on Gen. iv.
16-25; this book, which is wanting in editions prior to Mangey's, is
incorrectly given by him, but much more correctly by Tischendorf,
Philonea, pp. 84-143. None of the preceding is mentioned by its
special title by Euseb. H.E. ii. 18, while he cites all that follow
by their titles. The reason must be that all up to this point, and
no further, are included by him in the N&vuav Upav dXXij-yopiai ; agree-
ing with this we find that these, and these only, are cited under that
general title in the Florilegia, especially the so-called Johannes
Monachus ineditus (see Mangey's notes before each book). We may
therefore conclude with confidence that Philo published the con-
tinuous commentaries on Gen. ii.-iv. under the title Allegories of
the Sacred Laws, and the following commentaries on select passages
under special titles, though the identity of literary character entitles
us to regard the latter as part of the same great literary plan
with the former. (8) n«pi yiyavTwv (De gigantibus, M. i. 262-272),
on Gen. vi. 1-4. (9) "O™ arptirTov TO 8dov (Quod Deus sit immutabilis,
M. i. 272-299), on Gen. vi. 4-12. (10) Utpl yeapyias (De agricultura,
M. i. 300-328), on Gen. ix. 2Oa. (ii) Ilepi jvrovpylas N£* TO otvrtpov
(De plantatione Noe, M. i. 329-356), on Gen. ix. 2ob. (12) Ilepi »Wip
(De ebrietate, M. i. 357-391), on Gen. ix. 21 ; the introduction shows
that this book was preceded by another which put together the
views of the philosophers about drunkenness. (13) Ilepi TOV if inrft Nw«
(De sobrietate, M. i. 392-403), on Gen. ix. 24. (14) Depi avyxvoaas
6ia\iKTur (Dc confusione linguarum, M. i. 404-435), on Gen. xi. i-q.
(15) Ilepi djroiiaaj (DemlgrationeAbrahami, M. i. 436-472), on Gen. xn.
1—6. (16) Ilepi TOV Tit 6 T&V Btlav irpa.yiia.Tuv xX^po^/io; (Quis
rerum divinarum haeres sit, M. i. 473-518), on Gen. xv. 1-18.
(17) nepl rijs eis TO. irpoiraiSeuyuaTa avvooov (De congressu quaerendae
eruditionis causa, M. i. 519-545), on Gen. xvi. 1-6. (18) Ilepi <t>vyaouv
(De profugis, M. i.^ 546-577), on Gen. xvi. 6-14. (19) U<pl TUV
IMTOvopafonevwn Kal Siv IvtKa luTOvo/tafoiTai (De mutatione nominum,
M. i. 578-619), on Gen. xvii. 1-22 ; in this work Philo mentions that
he had written two books, now wholly lost, IlepJ SiaBriKuv (M. i. 586).

(20) Ilepi TOV OfcTrcfiirTovs tlvai TOL>S bvtlpovs (De sornniis, lib. i., M. i.
620-658), on the two dreams of Jacob, Gen. xxviii. and xxxi.

(21) Book ii. of the same (M. i. 659-699), on the dreams of Joseph,
the chief butler, the chief baker, and Pharaoh, Gen. xxxvii. and
xl., xli. Eusebius makes Philo the author of five books on dreams;
three, therefore, are lost.

III. A work of a very different kind is the group of writings
which we may call " An Exposition of the Mosaic law for Gentiles,"
which, in spite of their very various contents, present on nearer
examination indubitable marks of close connexion. In them Philo
seeks to give an orderly view of the chief points of the Mosaic
legislation in the Pentateuch, and to recommend it as valuable to
Gentile readers. The method of exposition is somewhat more
popular than in the allegorical commentaries, for, though that
method of interpretation is not wholly excluded, the main object
is to give such a view of the legislation as Philo accepted as his-
torical. This work has three main divisions: (a) an Account of
the creation (ma no-rait a) which Moses put first to show that his

1 See Opp., ed. Mangey, ii. 648-680; Mai, op. cit., vol. vii. pt. i.
96 seq.; Euseb. Praep. Ev. yii. 13. A fragment on the cherubim,
Exod. xxv. 1 8, has been published by Mai, Class. Auctt. iv. 430 seq.,
by Grossmann (1856) and by Tischendorf (p. 144 seq.).

412

PHILO

legislation was conformed to the will of nature, and that therefore
those who followed it were true cosmopolitans; (b) the Biographies
of the Virtuous — being, so to speak, the living unwritten laws which,
unlike written laws, present the general types of moral conduct;
(c) Legislation Proper, in two subdivisions — (a) the ten principal
chapters of the law, (0) the special laws belonging to each of these
ten. An appendix adds a view of such laws as do not fall under
the rubrics of the decalogue, arranged under the headings of certain
cardinal virtues.

The treatises which belong to this work are the following: (i) Ilepi
TTJS Moniaeus KOff/iOTroitos (De ntundi opificio, M. i. 1—42). This work
does not fall within the number of the allegorical commentaries.
On the other hand, the introduction to the treatise De Abrahamo
makes clear its immediate connexion with the De mundi opificio.
The position of the De mundi opificio at the head of the allegorical
commentaries, which is at present usual in the editions, seems indeed
to go back to a very early date, for even Eusebius cites a passage
from it with the formula dir6 TOV irparov TWV eis TOV ci/zoc (Praep. Ev.
viii. 12 fin., ed. Gaisford). The group of the Bloi oo$£a> is headed
by (2) Bios aotpov TOV Kara oioa0Ka\iav TeXeiw0«*'ros fj irepi vb[u*iv aypcu^wp
[a], o tari. jrepi 'Afipaan (De Abrahamo, M. ii. 1-40). Abraham
is here set forth as the type of oiSoo-KoXixi) dper^, i.e. of virtue as a
thing learned. This biography of Abraham was followed by that
of Isaac as a type of 4>vauiii dper^, i.e. of innate or natural virtue,
which in turn was succeeded by that of Jacob as representing aainrnxri
dpeTi?, i.e. virtue acquired by practice; but both these are now lost.
Hence in the editions the next treatise is (3) Bios iroXrrucos 6Vep Jerri
irepl 'IwoTfa (De Jpsepho, M. ii. 41-79), where Joseph is taken as the
pattern of the wise man in his civil relations. The Biographies of
the Virtuous arej followed by (4) IIepi TUV okua \o-flaiv a Kc<t>a\ata
voitav e'url (De decalogo, M. ii. 180-209) and (5) Hepi rSsv dca^wpoyuecwc
(V tloti vdfjLwv eis rd awriivovra K€(/>dXaia TWV OfKa \6ywv (De
specialists legibus ; the unabridged title is given by Eusebius, H.E. ii.
18, 5). Here under the rubrics of the ten commandments a system-
atic review of the special laws of the Mosaic economy is given ; for
example, under the first and second commandments (divine worship)
a survey is taken of the entire legislation relating to priesthood
and sacrifice; under the fourth (i.e. the Sabbath law, according to
Philo's reckoning) there is a survey of all the laws about feasts;
under the sixth (adultery) an account of matrimonial law; and so
on. According to Eusebius the work embraced four books, which
seem to have reached us entire, but in the editions have been
perversely broken up into a considerable number of separate
tractates, (a) The first book (on the first and second command-
ments) includes the following: De circumcisions (M. ii. 210-212);
De monarchic, lib. i. (ii. 213-222) ; De monarchia, lib. ii. (ii. 222-232) ;
De praemiis sacerdotum (ii. 232-237); De victimis (ii. 237-250);
De sacrificantibus, or De victimas offerentibus (ii. 251—264); De
mercede merelricis nan accipienda in sacrarium (it. 264-269).
(b) The second book (on the third, fourth and fifth commandments,
i.e. on perjury, Sabbath observance, and filial piety) is incomplete
in Mangey (ii. 270—298), the section De septenario (on the Sabbath
and feasts in general) being imperfect, and that De colendis parentibus
being entirely wanting. Mai to a large extent made good the defect
(De cophinifesto et de colendis parentibus, Milan, 1818), but Tischen-
dorf was the first to edit the full text (Philonea, pp. 1-83). (c) The
third book relates to the sixth and seventh commandments (adultery
and murder; M. ii. 299-334). (d) To the fourth book (relating to
the last three commandments) belongs all that is found in Mangey,
ii. 335-374, that is to say, not merely the tractates Dejudice (ii. 344-
348) and De concupiscentia (ii. 348-358), but also those De justitia
(ii. 358-361) and De creatione principum (ii. 361-374). The last-
named is, properly speaking, only a portion of the De justitia,
which, however, certainly belongs to the fourth book, of which the
superscription expressly bears that it treats also irepi di<caio<r&ci)s.
With this tractate begins the appendix to the work De specialibus
legibus, into which, under the rubric of certain cardinal virtues,
such Mosaic laws are brought together as could not be dealt with
under any of the decalogue rubrics. The continuation of this
appendix forms a book by itself. (6) Ilepi rpiuv iptTusv JTOI ictpl
dvSpeios Kai <£iXai^pwirtas Kal /leravoias (De fortitudine, M. ii. 375-
383; De caritate, ii. 383-405; De ppenitentia, ii. 405-407). Finally,
in less intimate connexion with this entire work is another treatise
still to be mentioned, (7) Ilepi o0X«i< Kal iir(.T\.uiuiv (De praemiis et
poenis, M. ii. 408-428) and nepl apSiv (De execrationibus, M. ii.
429-457), two parts which constitute a single whole and deal with
the promises and threatenings of the law.

IV. Besides the above-named three great works on the Penta-
teuch, Philo was the author of a number of isolated writings, of
which the following have reached us either in their entirety or in
fragments, (i) nepi /3£ou Muwews (Vita Mosis, lib. i.-iii., M. ii.
80-179). It is usual to group this, as being biographical in its
character, with the Btot tr<xt>&v, and thus to incorporate it imme-
diately after the De Josepho with the large work on the Mosaic
legislation. But, as has been seen, the B£oi ao<t>S>v are intended to
represent the general types of morality, while Moses is by no means
so dealt with, but as a unique individual. AH that can be said is
that the literary character of the Vita Mosis is the same as that of
the larger work. As in the latter the Mosaic legislation, so in the
former the activity of the legislator himself, is delineated for the

benefit of Gentile readers. (2) Utplrou iravra. airov&aiov elcoi
(Quod omnis probus liber, M. ii. 445-470). In the introduction
to this treatise reference is made to an earlier book which had for
its theme the converse proposition. The complete work was
still extant in the time of Eusebius (H. E. ii. 1 8, 6) : Ilepi TOV ooZ\ov
final irdvro 0aDXox, <J «£?;$ karlv o jrepi TOV Trama airov&alov eXeitfepoc tlvai.
The genuineness of the writing now possessed by us is not undis-

puted: but see Lucius, Der Essenismus (1881), pp. 13-23. (3)
Eis 3>\A.KKov (Adversus Flaccum, M. ii. 517-544) and (4) Ilepi dperow
not irpea/3eios irpos Ta'iov (De legatione ad Gaium, M. ii. 545-600).

These two works have a very intimate connexion. In the first
Philo relates how the Roman governor Flaccus in Alexandria,
towards the beginning of the reign of Caligula, allowed the Alex-
andrian mob, without interference, to insult the Jews of that city
in the grossest manner, and even to persecute them to the shedding
of blood. In the second he tells how the Jews had been subjected
to still greater sufferings through the command of Caligula that
divine honours should be everywhere accorded to him, and how
the Jews of Alexandria in vain sought relief by a mission to Rome
which was headed by Philo. But both together were only parts of
a larger work, in five books, of which the first two and the last
have perished. For it is clear from the introduction to the Adversus
Flaccum that it had been preceded by another book in which the
Jewish persecutions by Sejanus, under the reign of Tiberius, were
spoken of, and the Chronicon of Eusebius (ed. Schoene, ii.
150, 151) informs us that these persecutions of Sejanus were
related in the second book of the work now under discussion. But
from the conclusion of the Legatio ad Gaium, which we still possess,
we learn that it was also followed by another book which exhibited
the TroXii'tfjSia, or change of Jewish fortunes for the better. Thus
we make out five books in all — the number actually given by
Eusebius (H.E. ii. 5, i). (5) Ilepi irpovoias (De providentia). This
work has reached us only in an Armenian translation, which has
been edited, with a Latin translation, by Aucher (see below), 1822.
It is mentioned by its Greek title in Eusebius (H.E. ii. 18, 6; Praep.
Ev. vii. 20 fin., viii. 13 fin., ed. Gaisford). The Armenian text
gives two books, but of these the first, if genuine at all, at any
rate appears only in an abridged and somewhat revised state.'
Eusebius (Praep. Ev. viii. 14) quotes from the second book to an
extent that amounts to a series of excerpts from the whole. The
short passage in Praep. Ev. vii. 21, is also taken from this book;
and it appears that Eusebius knew nothing at all about the first.
(6) 'AXeijai'opos § irepi TOV X6yo>< <-x«'/ >"a 0X070 f&a(De Alexandra et quod
propriam ralionem muta animalia habeant; so Jerome, De Vir. III. c.
ii); the Greek title is given in Euseb. H.E. ii. 18, 6. This also now
exists only in an Armenian translation, which has been edited by
Aucher. Two small Greek fragments occur in the Florilegium
of Leontius and Johannes (Mai, Scr. vet. nav. coll. vii. I, pp. 99, looa).
(7) "tiro8(TiKa, a writing now known to us only through fragments
preserved in Euseb. Praep. Ev. viii. 6, 7. The title, as Bernays2
has shown, means " Counsels," " Recommendations," the reference
being to such laws of the Jews as can be recommended also to non-
Jewish readers. (8) Ilepi 'lovoalum. a title met with in Euseb. H.E. ii.
1 8, 6. The writing is no doubt the same as 'H uirep' lovSaiuv aTro^o-yla,
from which a quotation is given in Euseb. Praep. Ev. viii. ii. To
this place also, perhaps, belongs the De nobilitate (M. ii. 437-444),
which treats of that true noblesse of wisdom in which the Jewish
people also is not wanting.3

V. The doubtful treatises: (i) Ilepi ftlov OtapriTiKov fl IMTUV
apeTuv (De vita contemplativa). This contains the sole original
account of an ascetic community known as the Therapeutae (q.v.)
having their home on the shores of Lake Mareotis. These were
held by Eusebius and many other Christian writers to be the earliest
Christian monks, which of course could not be the case if it was a
genuine work of Philo. On this account, amongst others, it was
held to be spurious by Graetz and P. E. Lucius; and this view
gradually received the assent of most modern scholars. Latterly,
however, L. Massebieau has shown with great thoroughness that
in language and thought alike it is essentially Philonic, and the
genuineness of the book has also been affirmed by P. Wendland,
and especially by F. C. Ccnybeare. (2) Ilepi d<£0ap(r£as Kbapau
(De incorruptibihtate mundi), declared unauthentic by Z. Frankel
and J. Bernays, has been successfully defended by F. Cumont.

(3) n«pi Koanov (De mundo). It is generally agreed that, in L.
Cohn's words, this is " nothing but a compilation from various
portions of the Trepi d#0ap<r(as Kbapov and other Philonic works."

(4) Two discourses, De Sampsone and De lona, extant only in Armen-
ian, and certain other writings of the same kind. These appear
only to have been imputed to Philo by chance, and certainly cannot
claim to be his work. (5) Ilepi TOV travTa airovoalov eixoi eXeWepov
(Quod omnis probus liber sit) has been questioned by Z. _Frankel
and R. Ansfeld; but their arguments would rather point to its being
an early work of Philo, which P. Wendland believes to be the case.
(6) Ilepi irpovolas (De providentia), which we possess as a whole

'See Diels, Doxoeraphi Graeci, 1879, pp. 1-4; Zeller, Phil. d. Gr.
iii. 2, p. 340 (3rd ed).

2 Monatsb. d. Berl. Akad. (1876), pp. 580-609.

* This conjecture is Dahne's, Theol. Stud. u. Krit. (1833), pp. 990,
1037-

PHILO OF BYZANTIUM— PHILODEMUS

only in an Armenian version, consists of two books, the first of which
appears to be in a Christian recension, but there is no reason for
denying its Philonic origin.

EDITIONS. — Till recent days the best edition was that of Mangey
(2 vols., London, 1742) ; the handiest the Holtze duodecimo (Leipzig,
1851). Both are still very useful, but for scholars they will be super-
seded by the enlarged and critical edition of Leopold Cohn and
Paul Wendland (Berlin, 1896^1902). See also papers by Cohn in
Hermes, xxxviii. (1903) and xliii. (1908). There is an English trans-
lation of the old text by C. D. Yonge (4 vols., London, 1854).

LITERATURE. — The best special studies of Philo will be found in
Siegtried, Philo von Alex. (Jena, 1875) ; Drummond, Philo-Judaeus
(London, 1888). For his place in philosophy, see Zeller, Phil, der
Griechen (1881). For his relation to Palestinian speculation, B.
Ritter, Philo und die Halacha (Leipzig, 1879). An excellent general
account will be found in Schiirer, The Jewish People in the time of
Jesus Christ (Eng. trans., 1891), or in Dr Edersheim's article
on Philo in the Dictionary of Christian Biography. For the question
of the genuineness and historical value of the De vita contemplativa,
see L. Massebieau, in Revue de I'histoire des religions, vol. xvi. (Paris,
1887); F. C. Conybeare, Philo: About the Contemplative Life (Oxford,
1895); G. Fayot, Etudes sur les therapeutes (Geneve, 1880); P. E.
Lucius, Die Therapeuten (Strassburg, 1880); P. Wendland, Die
Therapeuten (Leipzig, 1896). Also F. Cumont, Philo, de act. mundi
(1891); J. Bernays in the Abhand. der k. Akad. der Wiss. (1876).

(E. S.*; C. Bi.)

PHILO OF BYZANTIUM, Greek writer on mechanics,
flourished during the latter half of the 2nd century B.C. (according
to some, a century earlier). He was the author of a large work
Mijxal/oo7 owra£is) , of which the fourth and (in epitome)
fifth books are extant, treating of missiles, the construction of
fortresses, provisioning, attack and defence (ed. R. Schone, 1893,
with German translation in H. Kochly's Griechische Kriegs-
schriftstellef, vol. i. 1853; E. A. Rochas d'Aiglun, Poliorcetique
des Grecs, 1872). Another portion of the work, on pneumatic
engines, has been preserved in the form of a Latin translation
(De ingeniis spirilualibus) made from an Arabic version (ed.
W. Schmidt, with German translation, in the works of Heron of
Alexandria, vol. i., in " Teubner Series," 1899; with French
translation by Rochas, La Science des philosophes . . . dans
I'antiquilS, 1882).

A little treatise On the Seven Wonders of the World, wrongly
attributed to Philo, probably belongs to the 6th century A.D. It
is printed in R. Hercher's Aelian (1858).

PHILO OF LARISSA, Greek philosopher of the first half of
the ist century B.C. During the Mithradath wars he left
Athens and took up his residence in Rome. He was a pupil of
Clitomachus, whom he succeeded as head of the Third or New
Academy. According to Sextus Empiricus, he was the founder
of the Fourth Academy, but other writers refuse to admit the
separate existence of more than three academies (see ACADEMY,
GREEK). In Rome he lectured on rhetoric and philosophy, and
collected around him many eminent pupils, amongst whom
Cicero was the most famous and the most enthusiastic. None
of his works is extant; our knowledge of his views is derived
from Numenius, Sextus Empiricus and Cicero. In general, his
philosophy was a reaction against the sceptic or agnostic position
of the Middle and New Academy in favour of the dogmatism of
Plato.

See Grysar, Die A kademiker Philo undAntiochus (1849) ; Hermann,
De Philone Larissaeo (Gottingen, i8si'and 1855).

PHILO, HERENNIUS, of Byblus, Greek grammarian, was
born, according to Sui'das, in A.D. 42. He lived into the reign
of Hadrian, of which he wrote a history, now lost. He was the
author of various works: On the Acquisition and Choice of Books;
On Cities and their Famous Men, epitomized by the grammarian
Aelius Serenus, and one of the chief authorities used by
Hesychius and Stephanus of Byzantium; On Synonyms, of which
there is extant an epitome by Ammonius Grammaticus. But he
is chiefly known for his translation of the Phoenician history of
Sanchuniathon, who was said to have lived before the Trojan
war. Of this work considerable fragments have been preserved,
chiefly by Eusebius in the Praeparatio evangelica (i. 9, 10; iv. 16).
They present a euhemeristic rechauffe of Phoenician theology
and mythology, which is represented as translated from the
original Phoenician. Sanchuniathon is probably an imaginary
personage, whose name is formed from that of the Phoenician
god Sanchon.

Editions of the fragments by J. C. Orelli (1826) and C. Muller,
Frag. hist, grace, vol. iii. In 1836 F. Wagenfeld brought out what
claimed to be a complete translation by Philo (from a MS. discovered
in a convent in Portugal, now considered spurious). There are
English translations by I. P. Cory (1828) and Bishop R. Cumberland
(1720).

PHILOCHORUS, of Athens, Greek historian during the 3rd
century B.C., was a member of a priestly family. He was a seer
and interpreter of signs, and a man of considerable influence.
He was strongly anti-Macedonian in politics, and a bitter oppo-
nent of Demetrius Poliorcetes. When Antigonus Gonatas, the
son of the latter, besieged and captured Athens (261),
Philochorus was put to death for having supported Ptolemy
Philadelphus, who had encouraged the Athenians in their
resistance to Macedonia. His investigations into the usages
and customs of his native Attica were embodied in an Atthis,
in seventeen books, a history of Athens from the earliest times
to 262 B.C. Considerable fragments are preserved in the
lexicographers, scholiasts, Athenaeus, and elsewhere. The work
was epitomized by the author himself, and later by Asinius
Pollio of Tralles (perhaps a freedman of the famous Gaius
Asinius Pollio). Philochorus also wrote on oracles, divination
and sacrifices; the mythology and religious observances of the
tetrapolis of Attica; the myths of Sophocles; the lives of Euri-
pides and Pythagoras; the foundation of Salamis. He compiled
chronological lists of the archons and Olympiads, and made a
collection of Attic inscriptions, the first of its kind in Greece.

Fragments and life in C. W. Muller, Fragmenla historicorum
graecorum, vol. i. (1841); A. Bockh, Gesammelte kleine Schriften, vol.
v. (1871), on the plan of the work ; J. Strenge, Quaesliones philochoreae
(Gottingen, 1868); C. Wachsmuth, Einleitung in das Studium der
alien Geschichte (1895).

PHILOCTETES, in Greek legend, son of Poeas king of the
Malians of Mt Oeta, one of the suitors of Helen and a celebrated
hero of the Trojan War. Homer merely states that he was
distinguished for his prowess with the bow; that he was bitten
by a snake on the journey to Troy and left behind in the island
of Lemnos; and that he subsequently returned home in safety.
These brief allusions were elaborated by the " cyclic " poets,
and the adventures of Philoctetes formed the subject of tragedies
by Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides. In the later form of
the story Philoctetes was the friend and armour-bearer of
Heracles, who presented him with his bow and poisoned arrows
as a reward for kindling the fire on Mt Oeta, on which the hero
immolated himself. Philoctetes remained at Lemnos till the
tenth year of the war. An oracle having declared that Troy
could not be taken without the arrows of Heracles, Odysseus
and Diomedes (or Neoptolemus) were sent to fetch Philoctetes.
On his arrival before Troy he was healed of his wound by
Machaon, and slew Paris; shortly afterwards the city was
taken. On his return to his own country, finding that a revolt
had broken out against him, he again took ship and sailed for
Italy, where he founded Petilia and Cremissa. He fell fighting
on the side of a band of Rhodian colonists against some later
immigrants from Pallene in Achaea. His tomb and sanctuary
were shown at Macalla, on the coast of Bruttium.

Of the Aeschylean and Euripidean tragedies only a few fragments
remain; of the two by Sophocles, one is extant, the other, dealing
with the fortunes of Philoctetes before Troy, is lost. Some' light is
thrown upon the lost plays by Dio Chrysostom, who in one of his
discourses (52) describes his reading of the three tragedies, and in
another (59) gives a prose version of the opening of the Philoctetes
of Euripides. Philoctetes was also the subject of tragedies by
Achaeus of Eretria, Euphorion of Chalcis and the Roman tragedian
Accius. According to F. Marx (Neue Jahrbucher fur das klassische
Altertum, 1904, p. 673-685), Philoctetes did not appear in the original
legend of Troy. He is a form of the Lemnian Hephaestus, who
alighted on the island when flung put of Olympus by Zeus. Like
him, he is lame and an outcast for nine years; like him, he is brought
back in time of need. His connexion with the fall of Troy indicates
that the fire-god himself set fire to the city; in like manner no other
than the fire-god was thought worthy to kindle the pyre of Heracles.

See Homer, Iliad, ii. 718, Odyssey, iii. 190, yiii. 219; Sophocles,
Philoctetes, and J ebb's Introduction; Diod. Sic. iv. 38; Philostratus,
Heroica, 6; Strabo vi. 254; Hyginus, Fab. 36, 102.

PHILODEMUS, Epicurean philosopher and poet, was born
at Gadara in Coele-Syria early in the ist century B.C., and

PHILOLAUS— PHILOLOGY

settled in Rome in the time of Cicero. He was a friend of
Calpurnius Piso, and was implicated in his profligacy by Cicero
(in Pisonem, 29), who, however, praises him warmly for his
philosophic views and for the elegans lascivia of his poems
(cf. Horace, Satires, i. 2. 120). The Greek anthology contains
thirty-four of his epigrams. From the excavations of the
yilla at Herculaneum (q.v.) there have been recovered thirty-
six treatises attributed to Philodemus, and it has been suggested
that the villa was actually owned by him; but this is generally
denied. These works deal with music, rhetoric, ethics, signs,
virtues and vices, and defend the Epicurean standpoint against
the Stoics and the Peripatetics.

The Rhetoric has been edited by Sudhaus (1892-1895); the De
Ira and the De Pietate by Gomperz (1864 to 1865); the De Musica
by Kempke (1884) ; De Vitiis by Ussing (1868) ; De Morte by Mekler
(1886). See Hercul. Volum. (Oxford, 1824 and 1861); Mayor on
Cicero's De Natura deorum (1871).

PHILOLAUS (b. c. 480), Greek philosopher of the Pytha-
gorean school, was born at Tarentum or at Crotona 1 (so Diog.
Laert. viii. 84). He was said to have been intimate with
Democritus, and was probably one of his teachers. After the
death of Pythagoras great dissensions prevailed in the cities of
lower Italy. According to some accounts, Philolaus, obliged
to flee, took refuge first in Lucania and then at Thebes, where
he had as pupils Simmias and Cebes, who subsequently, being
still young men (wavier/cot), were present at the death of Socrates.
Before this Philolaus had returned to Italy, where he was the
teacher of Archytas. He entered deeply into the distinctively
Pythagorean number theory, particularly dwelling on the
properties inherent in the decad — the sum of the first four
numbers, consequently the fourth triangular number, the tetraclys
(see Vit. Pythag. ap. Phot. Bibl. p. 712) — which he called great,
all-powerful, and all-producing. The great Pythagorean oath
was taken by the sacred tetractys. The discovery of the regular
solids is attributed to Pythagoras by Eudemus, and Empedocles
is stated to have been the first who maintained that there are
four elements. Philolaus, connecting these ideas, held that the
elementary nature of bodies depends on their form, and assigned
the tetrahedron to fire, the octahedron to air, the icosahedron
to water, and the cube to earth; the dodecahedron he assigned
to a fifth element, aether, or, as some think, to the universe
(see Plut. de PI. Ph. ii. 6, IK 5^ rov ScadtKaedpov TJJV TOV iravrds
ff<t>aipav and Stob. Ed. Phys. i. 10, 6 ras <r<j>a.ipas 6X*6s). This
theory, however superficial from the standpoint of observation,
indicates considerable knowledge of geometry and gave a great
impulse to the study of the science. Following Parmenides,
Philolaus regarded the soul as a " mixture and harmony " of
the bodily parts; he also assumed a substantial soul, whose
existence in the body is an exile on account of sin.

Philolaus was the first to propound the doctrine of the motion
of the earth; some attribute this doctrine to Pythagoras, but
there is no evidence in support of their view. Philolaus supposed
that the sphere of the fixed stars, the five planets, the sun, moon
and earth, all moved round the central fire, which he called the
hearth of the universe, the house of Zeus, and the mother of
the gods (see Stob. Ed. Phys. i. 488); but as these made up
only nine revolving bodies he conceived, in accordance with his
number theory, a tenth, which he called counter-earth, ia/TixBuiv.
He supposed the sun to be a disk of glass which reflects the light
of the universe. He made the lunar month consist of 295 days,
the lunar year of 354, and the solar year of 365^ days. He was
the first who published a book on the Pythagorean doctrines,
a treatise of which Plato made use in the composition of his
Timaeus. This work of the Pythagorean, to which the mystical
name BdKxot is sometimes given, seems to have consisted
of three books: (i) Ilepi Koafion, containing a general account
of the origin and arrangement of the universe; (2) Ilepl
an exposition of the nature of numbers; (3) Ilepi
the nature of the soul.

1 Boeckh places his life between the 7oth and 95th Olympiads
(496-39.6 B.C.). He was a contemporary of Socrates and Democritus,
but senior to them, and was probably somewhat junior to Empe-
docles, so that his birth may be placed at about 480.

°n

See Boeckh, Philolaus des Pythagoreers Lehren nebst den Bruch-
stiicken seines Werkes (Berlin, 1819); Schaarschmidt, Die angebliche
Schriftstetterei des Philolaus (1864); also Fabricius, Bibliotheca
graeca; Zeller, History of Greek Philosophy; Chaignet, Pythagore
el la philosophie pythagoncienne, contenant les fragments de Philolaus
et dArchitas (1873); Th. Gomperz, Greek Thinkers (Eng. trans.
(1901), i. 123 sqq., 543 sqq. and authorities there quoted; also art.
PYTHAGORAS. For fragments see Ritter and Preller, Hist. Philosoph.
ch. ii.

PHILOLOGY, the generally accepted comprehensive name
for the study of the word (Gr. Xcxyoj), or languages; it designates
that branch of knowledge which deals with human speech, and
with all that speech discloses as to the nature and history of
man. Philology has two principal divisions, corresponding
to the two uses of " word " or " speech," as signifying either
what is said or the language in which it is said, as either the
thought expressed — which, when recorded, takes the form of
literature — or the instrumentality of its expression: these
divisions are the literary and the linguistic. Not all study of
literature, indeed, is philological: as when, for example, the
records of the ancient Chinese are ransacked for notices of
astronomical or meteorological phenomena, or the principles of
geometry are learned from the textbook of a Greek sage; while,
on the other hand, to study Ptolemy and Euclid for the history
of the sciences represented by them is philological more than
scientific. Again, the study of language itself has its literary
side: as when the vocabulary of a community (say of the ancient
Indo-Europeans or Aryans) is taken as a document from which
to infer the range and grade of knowledge of its speakers, their
circumstances and their institutions. The two divisions thus
do not admit of absolute distinction and separation, though
for some time past tending toward greater independence. The
literary is the older of the two; it even occupied until recently
the whole field, since the scientific study of language itself has
arisen only within the igth century. Till then, literary philology
included linguistic, as a merely subordinate and auxiliary part,
the knowledge of a language being the necessary key to a know-
ledge of the literature written in that language. When, there-
fore, instead of studying each language by itself for the sake
of its own literature men began to compare one language with
another, in order to bring to light their relationships, their
structures, thei r histories, the name " comparative philology "
naturally enough suggested itself and came into use for the new
method; and this name, awkward and trivial though it may be,
has become so firmly fixed in English usage that it can be only
slowly, if at all, displaced. European usage (especially German)
tends more strongly than English to restrict the name philology
to its older office, and to employ for the recent branch of know-
ledge a specific term, like those that have gained more or less
currency with us also; as glottic, glossology, linguistics, linguistic
science, science of language, and the like. It is not a question
of absolute propriety or correctness, since the word philology
is in its nature wide enough to imply all language-study of
whatever kind; it is one, rather, of the convenient distinction
of methods that have grown too independent and important
to be any longer well included under a common name.

I. — The Science of Language in general.
Philology, in all its departments, began and grew up as
classical; the history of our civilization made the study of
Greek and Latin long the exclusive, still longer the
predominant and regulating, occupation of secular
scholarship. The Hebrew and its literature were held
apart, as something of a different order, as sacred. It was not
imagined that any tongue to which culture and literature
did not lend importance was worthy of serious attention from
scholars. The first essays in comparison, likewise, were made
upon the classical tongues, and were as erroneous in method
and fertile in false conclusions as was to be expected, considering
the narrowness of view and the controlling prejudices of those
who made them ; and the admission of Hebrew to the comparison
only added to the confusion. The change which the past
century has seen has been a part of the general scientific move-
ment of the age, which has brought about the establishment

PHILOLOGY

of so many new branches of knowledge, both historical and
physical, by the abandonment of shackling prejudices, the
freedom of inquiry, the recognition of the dignity of all know-
ledge, the wide-reaching assemblage of facts and their objective
comparison, and the resulting constant improvement of method.
Literary philology has had its full share of advantage from this
movement; but linguistic philology has been actually created
by it out of the crude observations and wild deductions of
earlier times, as truly as chemistry out of alchemy, or geology
out of diluvianism. It is unnecessary here to follow out the
details of the development; but we may well refer to the decisive
influence of one discovery, the decisive action of one scholar.
It was the discovery of the special relationship of the Aryan
or Indo-European languages, depending in great measure upon
the introduction of the Sanskrit as a term in their comparison,
and demonstrated and worked out by the German scholar Bopp,
that founded the science of linguistic philology. While there
is abundant room for further improvement, it yet appears that
the grand features of philologic study, in all its departments,
are now so distinctly drawn that no revolution of its methods,
but only their modification in minor respects, is henceforth
probable. How and for what purposes to investigate the
literature of any people (philology in the more proper sense),
combining the knowledge thus obtained with that derived from
other sources; how to study and set forth the material and
structure and combinations of a language (grammar), or of a
body of related languages (comparative grammar); how to
co-ordinate and interpret the general phenomena of language,
as variously illustrated in the infinitely varying facts of different
tongues, so as to exhibit its nature as a factor in human history
and its methods of life and growth (linguistic science) — these
are what philology teaches.

The study of language is a division of the general science of
anthropology (q.v.), and is akin to all the rest in respect to its
Relation to objects and its methods. Man as we now see him
Aothropo- is a twofold being: in part the child of nature, as
logy- to his capacities and desires, his endowments of

mind and body; in part the creature of education, by train-
ing in the knowledge, the arts, the social conduct, of which
his predecessors have gained possession. And the problem
of anthropology is this: how natural man has become
cultivated man; how a being thus endowed by nature should
have begun and carried on the processes of acquisition which
have brought him to his present state. The results of his
predecessors' labours are not transmuted for his benefit into
natural instincts, in language or in anything else. The child
of the most civilized race, if isolated and left wholly to his own
resources, aided by neither the example nor the instruction of
his fellows, would no more speak the speech of his ancestors
than he would build their houses, fashion their clothes, practise
any of their arts, inherit their knowledge or wealth. In fact,
he would possess no language, no arts, no wealth, but would
have to go to work to acquire them, by the same processes
which began to win them for the first human beings. One
advantage he would doubtless enjoy: the descendant of a
cultivated race has an enhanced aptitude for the reception of
cultivation; he is more cultivable; and this is an element that
has to be allowed for in comparing present conditions with past,
as influencing the rate of progress, but nothing more. In all
other respects it is man with the endowments which we now
find him possessed of, but destitute of the gradually accumulated
results of the exercise of his faculties, whose progress we have
to explain. And it is, as a matter of necessity, by studying
recent observable modes of acquisition, and transferring them,
with due allowance for different circumstances, to the more
primitive periods, that the question of first acquisition or origin
is to be solved, for language as for tools, for arts, for family
and social organization, and the rest. There is just as much
and just as little reason for assuming miraculous interference
and aid in one of these departments as in another. If men
have been left to themselves to make and improve instruments,
to form and perfect modes of social organization, by implanted

powers directed by natural desires, and under the pressure of
circumstances, then also to make and change the signs that
constitute their speech. All expressions, as all instruments, are
at present, and have been (through the known past, made and
changed by the men who use them; the same will have been the
case in the unknown or prehistoric past. And we command
now enough of the history of language, with the processes of
its life and growth, to determine with confidence its mode of
origin — within certain limits, as will appear below.

It is beyond all question, in the first place, that the desire
of communication was the only force directly impelling men
to the production of language. Man's sociality, cause of
his disposition to band together with his fellows, Language-
for lower and for higher purposes, for mutual help maktnz-
and for sympathy, is one of his most fundamental character-
istics. To understand those about one and to be understood
by them is now, and must have been from the very beginning,
a prime necessity of human existence; we cannot conceive of
man, even in his most undeveloped state, as without the recogni-
tion of it. Communication is still the universally recognized
office of speech, and to the immense majority of speakers the
only one; the common man knows no other, and can only with
difficulty and imperfectly be brought to see that there is any
other; of the added distinctness and reach of mental action
which the possession of such an instrumentality gives him he
is wholly unconscious: and it is obvious that what the compara-
tively cultivated being of to-day can hardly be made to realize
can never have acted upon the first men as a motive to action.
It may perhaps be made a question which of the two uses of
speech, communication or the facilitation of thought is the
higher; there can be no question, at any rate, that the former
is the broader and the more fundamental. That the kind and
degree of thinking which we do nowadays would be impossible
without language-signs is true enough; but so also it would be
impossible without written signs. That there was a time
when men had to do what mental work they could without
the help of writing, as an art not yet devised, we have no diffi-
culty in realizing, because the art is of comparatively recent
device, and there are still communities enough that are working
without it; it is much harder to realize that there was a time
when speaking also was an art not yet attained, and that men
had to carry on their rude and rudimentary thinking without
it. Writing too was devised for conscious purposes of com-
munication only; its esoteric uses, like those of speech, were
at first unsuspected, and incapable of acting as an inducement;
they were not noticed until made experience of, and then only
by those who look beneath the surface of things. There is no
analogy closer and more instructive than this between speech
and writing. But analogies are abundant elsewhere in the
history of human development. Everywhere it is the lower
and more obvious inducements that are first effective, and that
lead gradually to the possession of what serves and stimulates
higher wants. All the arts and industries have grown out of
men's effort to get enough to eat and protection against cold and
heat — just as language, with all its uses, out of men's effort to
communicate with their fellows. As a solitary man now would
never form even the beginnings of speech, as one separated from
society unlearns his speech by disuse and becomes virtually
dumb, so early man, with all his powers, would never have
acquired speech, save as to those powers was added sociality
with the needs it brought. We might conceive of a solitary
man as housing and dressing himself, devising rude tools, and
thus lifting himself a step from wildness toward cultivation;
but we cannot conceive of him as ever learning to talk. Recogni-
tion of the impulse to communication as the efficient cause of
language-making is an element of primary importance in the
theory of the origin of language. No one who either leaves it
out of account or denies it will, however ingenious and enter-
taining his speculations, cast any real light on the earliest
history of speech. To inquire under what peculiar circumstances,
in connexion with what mode of individual or combined action,
a first outburst of oral expression may have taken place, is, on

416

PHILOLOGY

the other hand, quite futile. The needed circumstances were
always present when human beings were in one another's society;
there was an incessant drawing-on to attempts at mutual
understanding which met with occasional, and then ever more
frequent and complete success. There inheres in most reasoning
upon this subject the rooted assumption, governing opinion even
when not openly upheld or consciously made, that conceptions
have real natural names, and that in a state of nature these will
somehow break forth and reveal themselves under favouring
circumstances. The falsity of such a view is shown by our
whole further discussion.

The character of the motive force to speech determined the
character of the beginnings of speech. That was first signified
Beginnings which was most capable of intelligible signification,
of Speech not that which was first in order of importance,
and Writing. as ju(jgecj by anv standard which we can apply to it,
or first in order of conceptional development. All attempts to
determine the first spoken signs by asking what should have
most impressed the mind of primitive man are and must be
failures. It was the exigencies and possibilities of practical
life, in conditions quite out of reach of our distinct concep-
tion, that prescribed the earliest signs of communication. So,
by a true and instructive analogy, the beginnings of writing
are rude depictions of visible objects; it is now thoroughly
recognized that no alphabet, of whatever present character,
can have originated in any other way; everything else is gradu-
ally arrived at from that — as, indeed, in the ingeniously shaping
hands of man, from any central body of signs, though but of
small extent, all else is attainable by processes of analogy and
adaptation and transfer. Now what is it that is directly
signifiable in the world about us? Evidently the separate
acts and qualities of sensible objects, and nothing else. In
writing, or signification to the eye, the first element is the rude
depiction of the outline of an object, or of that one of the sum
of its characteristic qualities which the eye takes note of and the
hand is capable of intelligibly reproducing; from that the mind
understands the whole complex object itself, and then whatever
further may in the circumstances of its use be suggested by it.
So, for example, the picture of a tree signifies primarily a tree,
then perhaps wood, something made of wood, and so on; that
of a pair of outstretched wings signifies secondarily flight, then
soaring, height, and whatever else these may lead to. No
concrete thing is signifiable in its totality or otherwise than by
a facile analysis of its constituent qualities and a selection of
the one which is both sufficiently characteristic in itself and
capable of being called up by a sign before the mind addressed.

And what quality shall be selected depends in great measure
upon the instrumentality used for its signification. Of such
instrumen- instrumentalities men possess a considerable variety.
taiutesof We must leave out of account that of depiction, as
expression. just ;nstanced, because its employment belongs to
a much more advanced state of cultivation, and leads the
way to the invention not of speech but of the analogous and
auxiliary art of writing. There remain gesture, or changes of
position of the various parts of the body, especially of the
most mobile parts, the arms and hands; grimace, or the changes
of expression of the features of the countenance (in strictness,
a variety of the preceding); and utterance, or the production
of audible sound. It cannot be doubted that, in the first stages
of communicative expression, all these three were used together,
each for the particular purposes which it was best calculated
to serve. The nearest approach to such action that is now
possible is when two persons, wholly ignorant of one another's
speech, meet and need to communicate — an imperfect corre-
spondence, because each is trained to habits of expression and
works consciously, and with the advantage of long experience,
towards making himself understood; yet it is good for its main
purpose. What they do, to reach mutual comprehension, is
like what the first speechless men, unconsciously and infinitely
more slowly, learned to do: face, hands, body, voice, are all
put to use. It is altogether probable that gesture at first
performed the principal part, even to such extent that the

earliest human language may be said to have been a language
of gesture signs; indeed, there exist at the present day such
gesture-languages as those in use between roving tribes of
different speech that from time to time meet one another (the
most noted example is that of the gesture-language, of a very
considerable degree of development, of the prairie tribes of
American Indians); or such signs as are the natural resort of
those who by deafness are cut off from ordinary spoken inter-
course with their fellows. Yet there never can have been a
stage or period in which all the three instrumentalities were
not put to use together. In fact, they are still all used together;
that is even now an ineffective speaking to which grimace and
gesture (" action," as Demosthenes called them) are not added
as enforcers; and the lower the grade of development and culture
of a language, the more important, even for intelligibility, is
their addition. But voice has won to itself the The Volce
chief and almost exclusive part in communication,
insomuch that we call all communication " language " (i.e.
" tonguiness ") just as a race of mutes might call it " handiness "
and talk (by gesture) of a handiness of grimace. This is not
in the least because of any closer connexion of the thinking
apparatus with the muscles that act to produce audible sounds
than with those that act to produce visible motions; not because
there are natural uttered names for conceptions any more than
natural gestured names. It is simply a case of " survival of
the fittest," or analogous to the process by which iron has become
the exclusive material of swords, and gold and silver of money:
because, namely, experience has shown this to be the material
best adapted to this special use. The advantages of voice are
numerous and obvious. There is first its economy, as employing
a mechanism that is available for little else, and leaving free
for other purposes those indispensable instruments the hands.
Then there is its superior perceptibleness: its nice differences
impress themselves upon the sense at a distance at which visible
motions become indistinct; they are not hidden by intervening
objects; they allow the eyes of the listener as well as the hands
of the speaker to be employed in other useful work; they are as
plain in the dark as in the light ; and they are able to catch and
command the attention of one who is not to be reached in any
other way. We might add as the third advantage a superior
capability of variation and combination on the part of spoken
sounds; but this is not to be insisted on, inasmuch as we hardly
know what a gesture-language might have become if men's
ingenuity in expression had been expended through all time
upon its elaboration; and the superiority, however real, can
hardly have been obvious enough to serve as a motive: certainly,
there are spoken languages now existing whose abundance of
resources falls short of what is attainable by gesture. Oral
utterance is the form which expression has inevitably taken,
the sum of man's endowments being what it is; but it would be
a mistake to suppose that a necessity of any other kind is
involved in their relation. The fundamental conditions of
speech are man's grade of intellectual power and his social
instinct; these being given, his expression follows, availing
itself of what means it finds best suited to its purpose; if voice
had been wanting it would have taken the next best. So, in
certain well-known cases, a marked artistic gift on the part of
individuals deprived of the use of hands has found means of
exercise in the feet instead. But men in general have hands,
instruments of exquisite tact and power, to serve the needs of
their intellect; and so voice also, to provide and use the tools
of thought; there is no error in maintaining that the voice is
given us for speech, if only we do not proceed to draw from such
a dictum false conclusions as to the relation between thought
and utterance. Man is created with bodily instruments suited
to do the work prescribed by his mental capacities; therein
lies the harmony of his endowment.

It is through imitation that all signification becomes directly
suggestive. The first written signs are (as already noticed)
the depictions of visible objects, and could be ^i^tioa.
nothing else; and, by the same necessity, the first
uttered signs were the imitations of audible sounds. To reproduce

PHILOLOGY

any sound of which the originating cause or the circumstances
of production are known, brings up of course before the con-
ception that sound, along with the originator, or circumstances
of origination, or whatever else may be naturally associated with
it. There are two special directions in which this mode of sign-
making is fruitful: imitation of the sounds of external nature
(as the cries of animals and the noises of inanimate objects
when in motion or acted on by other objects) and imitation of
human sounds. The two are essentially one in principle,
although by some held apart, or even opposed to each other, as
respectively the imitative or onomatopoetic and the exclamatory
or interjectional beginnings of speech; they differ only in their
spheres of significance, the one being especially suggestive of
external objects, the other of inward feelings. There are natural
human tones, indicative of feeling, as there are natural gestures,
poses, modes of facial expression, which either are immediately
intelligible to us (as is the warning cry of the hen to the day-
old chicken), or have their value taught us by our earliest
experiences. If we hear a cry of joy or a shriek of pain, a laugh
or a groan, we need no explanation in words to tell us what it
signifies any more than when we see a sad face or a drooping
attitude. So also the characteristic cry or act of anything
outside ourselves, if even rudely imitated, is to us an effective
reminder and awakener of conception. We have no reason
to question that such were the suggestions of the beginnings
of uttered expression. The same means have made their con-
tributions to language even down to our own day; we call words
so produced " onomatopoetic " (i.e. " name-making "), after
the example of the Greeks, who could not conceive that actually
new additions to language should be made in any other way.
What and how wide the range of the imitative principle, and
what amount of language-signs it was capable of yielding, is a
subject for special investigation — or rather, of speculation, since
anything like exact knowledge in regard to it will never be
attained; and the matter is one of altogether secondary con-
sequence; it is sufficient for our purpose that enough could
certainly be won in this way to serve as the effective germs of
speech.

All the natural means of expression are still at our command,
and are put to more or less use by us, and their products are as
Language, intelligible to us as they have been to any generation
of our ancestors, back to the very first. They are
analogous also to the means of communication of the lower
animals; this, so far as we know, consists in observing and
interpreting one another's movements and natural sounds
(where there are such). But language is a step beyond this,
and different from it. To make language, the intent to signify
must be present. A cry wrung out by pain, or a laugh of
amusement, though intelligible, is not language; either of them,
if consciously reproduced in order to signify to another pain or
pleasure, is language. So a cough within hearing of any one
attracts his attention; but to cough, or to produce any other
sound, articulate or inarticulate, for the purpose of attracting
another's attention, is to commit an act of language-making,
such as in human history preceded in abundance the establish-
ment of definite traditional signs for conceptions. Here begins
to appear the division between human language and all brute
expression; since we do not know that any animal but man ever
definitely took this step. It would be highly interesting to find
out just how near any come to it; and to this point ought to be
especially directed the attention of those who are investigating
the communication of the lower animals in its relation to human
communication. Among the animals of highest intelligence
that associate with man and learn something of his ways, a
certain amount of sign-making expressly for communication
is not to be denied; the dog that barks at a door because he
knows that somebody will come and let him in is an instance of
it; perhaps, in wild life, the throwing out of sentinel birds from
a flock, whose warning cry shall advertise their fellows of the
threat of danger, is as near an approach to it as is anywhere
made.

But the actual permanent beginnings of speech are only

xxi. 14

reached when the natural basis is still further abandoned, and
signs begin to be used, not because their natural suggestive-
ness is seen in them, but by imitation, from the Language
example of others who have been observed to use Convea-
the same sign for the same purpose. Then for the ttoaal-
first time the means of communication becomes something
to be handed down, rather than made anew by each indi-
vidual; it takes on that traditional character which is the
essential character of all human institutions, which appears not
less in the forms of social organization, the details of religious
ceremonial, the methods of art and the arts, than in language.
That all existing speech, and all known recorded speech, is
purely traditional, cannot at all be questioned. It is proved
even by the single fact that for any given conception there are
as many different spoken signs as there are languages — say a
thousand (this number is rather far within than beyond the
truth), each of them intelligible to him who has learned to use
it and to associate it with the conception to which it belongs,
but unintelligible to the users of the nine hundred and ninety-
nine other signs, as these are all unintelligible to him; unless,
indeed, he learn a few of them also, even as at the beginning he
learned the one that he calls his own. What single sign, and
what set of signs any individual shall use, depends upon the
community into the midst of which he is cast, by birth or other
circumstances, during his first years. That it does not depend
upon his race is demonstrated by facts the most numerous and
various; the African whose purity of descent is attested by every
feature is found all over the world speaking just that language,
or jargon, into the midst of which the fates of present or former
slavery have brought his parents; every civilized community
contains elements of various lineage, combined into one by
unity of speech; and instances are frequent enough where whole
nations speak a tongue of which their ancestors knew nothing;
for example, the Celtic Gauls and the Germanic Normans of
France speak the dialect of a geographically insignificant district
in central Italy, while we ourselves can hardly utter a sentence
or write a line without bringing in more or less of that same
dialect. There is not an item of any tongue of which we know
anything that is " natural " expression, or to the possession of
which its speaker is brought by birth instead of by education;
there is even very little that is traceably founded on such
natural expression; everywhere Okais or human attribution
reigns supreme, and the original 0wis or natural significance
has disappeared and is only to be found by theoretic induction
(as we have found it above). It seems to some as if a name like
cuckoo (one of the most striking available cases of onomatopoeia)
were a " natural " one; but there is just as much 0«ns in it as
in any other name; it implies the observation of an aggregate of
qualities in a certain bird, and the selection of one among them
as the convenient basis of a mutual understanding when the bird
is in question; every animal conspicuous to us must have its
designation, won in one way or another; and in this case to
imitate the characteristic cry is the most available way. If
anything but convenience and availability were involved, all
our names for animals would have to be and to remain imitations
of the sounds they make. That the name of cuckoo is applied
also to the female and young, and at other than the singing
season, and then to related species which do not make the same
sound — all helps to show the essentially conventional character
of even this name. An analogous process of elimination of
original meaning, and reduction to the value of conventional
designation merely, is to be seen in every part of language
throughout its whole history. Since men ceased to derive their
names from signs having a natural suggestiveness, and began
to make them from other names already in use with an under-
stood value, every new name has had its etymology and its
historical occasion — as, for example, the name quarantine from
the two-score (quarantaine) of days of precautionary confine-
ment, or volume from its being rolled up, or book from a beech-
wood staff, or copper from Cyprus, or lunacy from a fancied
influence of the moon, or priest from being an older (Trptafivrepos)
person, or butterfly from the butter-yellow colour of a certain

PHILOLOGY

common species: every part of our language, as of every other,
is full of such examples — but, when once the name is applied,
it belongs to that to which it is applied, and no longer to its
relatives by etymology; its origin is neglected, and its form may
be gradually changed beyond recognition, or its meaning so far
altered that comparison with the original shall seem a joke or an
absurdity. This is a regular and essential part of the process
of name-making in all human speech, and from the very begin-
ning of the history of speech: in fact (as pointed out above), the
latter can only be said to have begun when this process was
successfully initiated, when uttered signs began to be, what they
have ever since continued to be, conventional, or dependent
only on a mutual understanding. Thus alone did language gain
the capacity of unlimited growth and development. The sphere
and scope of natural expression are narrowly bounded ; but there
is no end to the resources of conventional sign-making.

It is well to point out here that this change of the basis of
men's communication from natural suggestiveness to mutual
Bnrfe understanding, and the consequent purely conven-
Speech tional character of all human language, in its every
and Human par L and particle, puts an absolute line of demarca-
Spetxh. tjon between the latter and the means of communi-
cation of all the lower animals. The two are not of the same
kind, any more than human society in its variety of organi-
zation is of the same kind with the instinctive herding of
wild cattle or swarming of insects, any more than human
architecture with the instinctive burrowing of the fox and nest-
building of the bird, any more than human industry and accu-
mulation of capital with the instinctive hoarding of bees and
beavers. In all these cases alike the action of men is a result
of the adaptation of means at hand to the satisfaction of felt
needs, or of purposes dimly perceived at first, but growing
clearer with gradually acquired experience. Man is the only
being that has established institutions — gradually accumulated
and perfected results of the exercise of powers analogous in kind
to, but greatly differing in degree from, those of the lower
animals. The difference in degree of endowment does not
constitute the difference in language, it only leads to it. There
was a time when all existing human beings were as destitute of
language as the dog; and that time would come again for any
number of human beings who should be cut off (if that were
practicable) from all instruction by their fellows: only they
would at once proceed to recreate language, society and arts
by the same steps by which their own remote ancestors created
those which we now possess; while the dog would remain what
he and his ancestors have always been, a creature of very
superior intelligence, indeed, as compared with most, of
infinite intelligence as compared with many, yet incapable of
rising by the acquisition of culture through the formation and
development of traditional institutions. There is just the same
saltus existent in the difference between man's conventional
speech and the natural communication of the lower races as in
that between men's forms of society and the instinctive associa-
tions of the lower races; but it is no greater and no other; it is
neither more absolute and characteristic nor more difficult to
explain. Hence those who put forward language as the distinc-
tion between man and the lower animals, and those who look
upon our language as the same in kind with the means of com-
munication of the lower animals, only much more complete and
perfect, fail alike to comprehend the true nature of language,
and are alike wrong in their arguments and conclusions. No
addition to or multiplication of brute speech would make
anything like human speech; the two are separated by a step
which no animal below man has ever taken; and, on the other
hand, language is only the most conspicuous among those
institutions the development of which has constituted human
progress, while their possession constitutes human culture.

With the question of the origin of man, whether or not
developed out of lower animal forms, intermediate to the
anthropoid apes, language has nothing to do, nor can its study
ever be made to contribute anything to the solution of that
question. If there once existed creatures above the apes and

below man, who were extirpated by primitive man as his especial
rivals in the struggle for existence, or became extinct in any
other way, there is no difficulty in supposing them to have
possessed forms of speech, more rudimentary and imperfect than
ours. At any rate, all existing human speech is one in the
essential characteristics which we have thus far noted or shall
hereafter have to consider, even as humanity is one in its
distinction from the lower animals; the differences are in non-
essentials. All speech is one in the sense that every human
being, of whatever race he may be, is capable of Language
acquiring any existing tongue, and of using it for aad
the same purposes for which its present possessors Culture-
use it, with such power and effect as his individual capacity
allows, and without any essential change in the mental operations
carried on by means of speech — even as he may acquire any
other of the items of culture belonging to a race not his own.
The difference between employing one language and another is
like that between employing one instrument and another in
mechanical arts; one instrument may be better than another,
and may enable its user to turn out better work, but the human
ingenuity behind both is the same, and works in the same way.
Nor has the making of language anything whatever to do with
making man what he is, as an animal species having a certain
physical form and intellectual endowment. Being what he is
by nature, man has by the development of language and other
institutions become what he is by culture. His acquired culture
is the necessary result of his native endowment, not the
contrary. The acquisition of the first stumbling beginnings
of a superior means of communication had no more influence to''
raise him from a simian to a human being than the present high
culture and perfected speech of certain races has to lift them up
to something more than human and specifically different from
the races of inferior culture. It cannot be too absolutely laid
down that differences of language, down to the possession of
language at all, are differences only in respect to education and
culture.

How long man, after he came into such being as he now is,
physically and intellectually, continued to communicate with
imitative signs of direct significance, when the 0eve/0_.
production of traditional signs began, how rapidly mentor
they were accumulated, and how long any traces of Laaguage-
their imitative origin clave to them — these and the atens-
like questions it is at present idle to try to answer even conjee-
turally: just as it is to seek to determine when the first instru-
ments were used, how soon they were shaped instead of being
left crude, at what epoch fire was reduced to service, and so on.
The stages of development and their succession are clear enough ;
to fix their chronology will doubtless never be found practicable.
There is much reason for holding, as some do, that the very first
items of culture were hardest to win and cost most time, the
rate of accumulation (as in the case of capital) increasing with
the amount accumulated. Beyond all reasonable question,
however, there was a positively long period of purely imitative
signs, and a longer one of mixed imitative and traditional ones,
the latter gradually gaining upon the former, before the
present condition of things was reached, when the production
of new signs by imitation is only sporadic and of the utmost
rarity, and all language-signs besides are traditional, their
increase in any community being solely by variation and
combination, and by borrowing from other communities.

Of what nature, in various respects, this earliest language-
material was is sufficiently clear. The signs, in the first place,
were of the sort that we call " roots." By this is
only meant that they were integral signs, significant
in their entirety, not divisible into parts, of which
one signified one thing and another another thing, or of which one
gave the main significance, while another was an added sign of
kind or relacion. In a language of developed structure like our
own, we arrive at such " roots " mainly by an artificial stripping-
off of the signs of relation which almost every word still has, or
can be shown to have once had. In un-cost-li-ness, for example,
cost is the centrally significant element; so far as English is.

PHILOLOGY

419

concerned it is a root, about which cluster a whole body of forms
and derivatives; if we could follow its history no farther it
would be to us an ultimate root, as much so as bind or sing or
mean. But we can follow it up, to the Latin compound con-sta,
a root sta with a prefixed formative element con. Then sta,
which in slightly varied forms we find in a whole body of related
tongues called " Indo-European," having in them all the same
significance " stand," is an Indo-European root, and to us an
ultimate one, because we can follow its history no farther; but
there always remains the possibility that it is as far from being
actually original as is the English root cost: that is to say, it is
not within our power ever to get back to the really primitive ele-
ments of speech and to demonstrate their character by positive
evidence. The reason for accepting a primitive root-stage of
language is in great part theoretical: because nothing else is
reconcilable with any acceptable view of the origin of language.
The law of the simplicity of beginnings is an absolute one for
everything of the nature of an institution, for every gradually
developed product of the exercise of human faculties. That an
original speech-sign should be of double character, one part of
it meaning this and another part that, or one part radical and
the other formative, is as inconceivable as that the first instru-
ments should have had handles, or the first shelters a front room
and a back one. But this theoretical reason finds all the
historical support which it needs in the fact that, through all the
observable periods of language-history we see formative elements
coming from words originally independent, and not from any-
thing else. Thus, in the example just taken, the -li- of costliness
is a suffix of so recent growth that its whole history is distinctly
traceable; it is simply our adjective like, worn down in both form
and meaning to a subordinate value in combination with certain
words to which it was appended, and then added freely as a
suffix to any word from which it was desired to make a derivative
adjective — or, later but more often, a derivative adverb. The
ness is much older (though only Germanic), and its history
obscurer; it contains, in fact, two parts, neither of them of
demonstrable origin; but there are equivalent later suffixes, as
skip in hardship and dom in wisdom, whose derivation from
independent words {shape, doom) is beyond question. The
an- of uncostliness is still more ancient (being Indo-European),
and its probably pronominal origin hardly available as an
illustration; but the comparatively modern prefix be-, of become,
belie, &c., comes from the independent preposition by, by the
same process as -ly or -li- from like. And the con which has
contributed its part to the making of the quasi-root cost is also
in origin identical with the Latin preposition cum, " with." By
all the known facts of later language-growth we are driven to
the opinion that every formative element goes back to some
previously existing independent word; and hence that in
analysing our present words we are retracing the steps of an
earlier synthesis, or following up the history of our formed words
toward the unformed roots out of which they have grown. The
•doctrine of the historical growth of language-structure leads by
a logical necessity to that of a root-stage in the history of all
language; the only means of avoiding the latter is the assumption
of a miraculous element in the former.

Of what phonetic form were the earliest traditional speech-
signs is, so far as essentials are concerned, to be inferred with
Earliest reasonable certainty. They were doubtless articu-
Phoncth late: that is to say, composed of alternating conso-
Forms. nant ancj vowei sounds, like our present speech; and
they probably contained a part of the same sounds which we
now use. All human language is of this character; there are no
sounds in any tongue which are not learned and reproduced as
easily by children of one race as of another; all dialects admit a
like phonetic analysis, and are representable by alphabetic signs ;
and the leading sounds, consonant and vowel, are even practi-
cally the same in all; though every dialect has its own (for the
most part, readily definable and imitable) niceties of their
pronunciation, while certain sounds are rare, or even met with
only in a single group of languages or in a single language.
Articulate sounds are such as are capable of being combined

with others into that succession of distinct yet connectable
syllables which is the characteristic of human speech-utterance.
The name " articulate " belongs to this utterance, as dis-
tinguished from inarticulate human sounds and cries and from
the sounds made by the lower animals. The word itself is
Latin, by translation from the Greek, and, though very widely
misunderstood, and even deliberately misapplied in some
languages to designate all sound, of whatever kind, uttered by
any living creature, is a most happily chosen and truly descrip-
tive term. It signifies " jointed," or broken up into successive
parts, like a limb or stem; the joints are the syllables; and the
syllabic structure is mainly effected by the alternation of closer
or consonant sounds with opener or vowel sounds. The simplest
syllabic combination (as the facts of language show) is that
of a single consonant with a following vowel; and there are
languages even now existing which reject any other. Hence
.there is much plausibility in the view that the first speech-signs
will have had this phonetic form and been monosyllabic, or
dissyllabic only by repetition (reduplication) of one syllable,
such as the speech of very young children shows to have a
peculiar ease and naturalness. The point, however, is one of
only secondary importance, and may be left to the further
progress of phonetic study to settle, if it can; the root-theory,
at any rate, is not bound to any definite form or extent of root,
but only denies that there can have been any grammatical
structure in language except by development in connexion with
experience in the use of language. What particular sounds, and
how many, made up the first spoken alphabet is also a matter
of conjecture merely; they are likely to have been the closest
consonants and the openest vowels, medial utterances being of
later development.

As regards their significant value, the first language-signs
must have denoted those physical acts and qualities which are
directly apprehensible by the senses; both because character
these alone are directly signifiable, and because it ofEarly
was only they that untrained human beings had Speech.
the power to deal with or the occasion to use. Such signs
would then be applied to more intellectual uses as fast as there
was occasion for it. The whole history of language, down
to our own day, is full of examples of the reduction of physical
terms and phrases to the expression of non-physical conceptions
and relations; we can hardly write a line without giving illustra-
tions of this kind of linguistic growth. So pervading is it, that
we never regard ourselves as having read the history -of any
intellectual or moral term till we have traced it back to a physical
origin. And we are still all the time drawing figurative compari-
sons between material and moral things and processes, and
calling the latter by the names of the former. There has never
been any difficulty in providing for new knowledge and more
refined thought by putting to new uses the earlier and grosser
materials of speech.

As a matter of course, whatever we now signify by our simple
expressions for simple acts, wants, and the like, was intended to
be signified through the first speech-signs by the users of them.
But to us, with our elaborated apparatus of speech, the sentence,
composed of subject and predicate, with a verb or special
predicative word to signify the predication, is established as the
norm of expression, and we regard everything else as an abbrevi-
ated sentence, or as involving a virtual sentence. With a view
to this we must have " parts of speech ": that is, words held
apart in office from one another, each usable for such and such a
purpose and no other, and answering a due variety of purposes,
so that when they are combined they fit together, as parts
composing a whole, and the desired meaning is made clear.
Inflexions, too, lend their aid; or else auxiliary words of various
kinds answering the same purpose — namely, of determining the
relations of the members of the sentence. But all our success
in understanding the earliest stages of language depends upon
our power to conceive a state of things where none of these
distinctions were established, where one speech-sign was like
another, calling up a conception in its indefinite entirety, and
leaving the circumstances of the case to limit its application.

420

PHILOLOGY

Such a language is far below ours in explicitness; but it would
suffice for a great deal of successful communication; indeed (as
•will be shown farther on) there are many languages even now
in existence which are little better off. So a look of approval
or disgust, a gesture of beckoning or repulsion, a grunt of assent
or inquiry, is as significant as a sentence, means a sentence, is
translatable into a sentence, and hence may even in a certain
way be called a sentence; and in the same way, but only so, the
original roots of language may be said to have been sentences.
In point of fact, between the holophrastic gesture or uttered sign
and the sentence which we can now substitute for it — for example
between the sign of beckoning and the equivalent sentence, " I
want you to come here " — lies the whole history of development
of inflective speech.

What has been this history of development, how the first
scanty and formless signs have been changed into the immense
Develop- variety and fullness of existing speech, it is of course
meat ot impossible to point out in detail, or by demonstration
Language o{ factS; because nearly the whole process is hidden
in the darkness of an impenetrable past. The only way to cast
any light upon it is by careful induction from the change and
growth which are seen to have been going on in the recent periods
for which we have recorded evidence, or which are going on at
the present time. Of some groups of related languages we
can read the life for three or four thousand years back, and by
comparison can infer it much farther; and the knowledge thus
won is what we have to apply to the explanation of periods and
languages otherwise unknown. Nothing has a right to be
admitted as a factor in language-growth of which the action is
not demonstrable in recorded language. Our own family of
languages is the one of whose development most is known, by
observation and well- warranted inference; and it may be well
here to sketch the most important features of its history, by
way of general illustration.

Apparently the earliest class-distinction traceable in Indo-
European speech is that of pronominal roots, or signs of position,
la I ado- from the more general mass of roots. It is not a
European formal distinction, marked by a structural difference,
Speech. \>\itt so far as can fog seen; js founded only on the
assignment by usage of certain elements to certain offices.
Formal distinction began with combination, the addition of one
element to another, their fusion into a single word, and the
reduction of the one part to a subordinate value, as sign of a
certain'modification of meaning of the other. Thus, doubtless
by endings of pronominal origin, were made the first verb-
forms, or words used only when predication was intended (since
that is all that makes a verb), conveying at first a distinction
of persons only, then of persons and numbers, while the further
distinctions of tense and mode were by degrees added. To the
nouns, which became nouns by the setting up of the separate
and special class of verbs, were added in like manner distinctions
of case, of number, and of gender. With the separation of
noun and verb, and the establishment of their respective in-
flexion, the creative work of language-making is virtually done;
the rest is a matter of differentiation of uses. For the noun
(noun substantive) and the adjective (noun adjective) become
two parts of speech only by a gradually deepened separation of
use; there is no original or formal distinction between them;
the pronouns as a rule merely add the noun-inflexion to a special
set of stems; adverbs are a part of the same formation as noun-
cases; prepositions are adverbs with a specialized construction,
of secondary growth; conjunctions are the products of a like
specialization; articles, where found at all, are merely weakened
demonstratives and numerals.

To the process of form-making, as exhibited in this history,
belong two parts: the one external, consisting in the addition
of one existing element of speech to another and their combina-
tion into a single word; the other internal, consisting in the adap-
tation of the compound to its special use and involving the
subordination of one element to the other. Both parts appear
also abundantly in other departments of language-change, and
throughout the whole history of our languages; nothing has to be

assumed for the earliest formations which is not plainly illustrated
in the latest. For example, the last important addition to the
formative apparatus of English is the common, adverb-making
suffix -ly, coming, as already pointed out, from the independent
adjective like. There was nothing at first to distinguish a
compound like godly (godlike) from one like storm-tossed, save
that the former was more adaptable than the other to wider
uses; resemblance is an idea easily generalized into appurtenance
and the like, and the conversion of godlike to godly is a simple
result of the processes of phonetic change described farther
on. The extension of the same element to combination with
adjectives instead of nouns, and its conversion to adverb-
making value, is a much more striking case of adaptation, and
is nearly limited to English among the Germanic languages that
have turned like into a suffix. A similar striking case of com-
bination and adaptation is seen in the Romanic adverb-making
suffix mente or ment, coming from the Latin ablative mente,
" with mind." So, to make a Romanic future like donnerai,
" I shall give," there was needed in the first place the pre-
existing elements, donner, " to give," and ai, " I have," and their
combination; but this is only a part; the other indispensable
part is the gradual adaptation of a phrase meaning " I have
[something before me] for giving " to the expression of simple
futurity, donabo. So far as the adaptation is concerned the
case is quite parallel to that of j'ai donne, " I have given,"
&c. (equivalent phrases or combinations are found in many
languages), where the expression of possession of something that
is acted on has been in like manner modified into the expression
of past action. Parallel in both combination and adaptation
is the past tense loved, according to a widely accepted theory,
from love-did, while we have again the same adaptation without
combination in the equivalent phrase did love.

That these are examples of the process by which the whole
inflective structure of Ind. -European language was built up admits
of no reasonable question.' Our belief that'it is so rests upon the
solid foundation that we can demonstrate no other process, and
that this one is sufficient. It is true that we can prove such an
origin for our formative elements in only a small minority of
instances; but this is just what was to be expected, considering
what, we know of the disguising processes of language-growth.
No one would guess in the mere y of ably (for able-ly) the presence
of the adjective like, any more than in the altered final of sent
and the shortened vowel of led the effect of a did once added to
send and lead. The true history of these forms can be shown,
because there happen to be other facts left in existence to show it;
where such facts are not within reach we are left to infer by
analogy from the known to the unknown. The validity of our
inference can only be shaken by showing that there are forms
incapable of having been made in this way, or that there are and
have been other ways of making forms. Of the former there is
evidently but small chance; if a noun-form meaning, " with
mind " can become the means of conversion of all the adjectives
of a language into adverbs, and a verb meaning " have " (and,
yet earlier, " seize ") of signifying both future and past time,
there is obviously nothing that is impossible of attainment by
such means. As regards the latter, no one appears to have
even attempted to demonstrate the genesis of formative elements
in any other way during the historical periods of language; it
is simply assumed that the early methods of language-making
will have been something different from and superior in spon-
taneity and fruitfulness to the later ones; that certain forms,
or forms at certain periods, were made out-and-out, as forms;
that signs of formal distinction somehow exuded from roots
and stems; that original words were many-membered, and that
a formative value settled in some member of them — and the like.
Such doctrines are purely fanciful, and so opposed to the teach-
ings both of observation and of sound theory that the epithet
absurd is hardly too strong to apply to them. If the later races, of
developed intelligence, and trained in the methods of a fuller
expression, can only win a new form by a long and gradual pro-
cess of combination and adaptation, why should the earlier and
comparatively untrained generations have been able to do any

PHILOLOGY

421

better? The advantage ought to be, if anywhere, on our side.
The progress of language in every department, accompanying
All formal an(^ representing the advance of the race, on the
Elements whole, in the art of speaking as in other arts, is from
once the grosser to the more refined, from the physical

Material. to the morai an(j intellectual, from the material
to the formal. The conversion of compounds into forms, by the
reduction of one of their elements to formative value, is simply
a part of the general process which also creates auxiliaries and
form-words and connectives, all the vocabulary of mind, and all
the figurative phraseology that • gives life and vigour to our
speech. If a copula, expressive of the grammatical relation of
predication, could be won only by attenuation of the meaning
of verbs signifying " grow," " breathe," " stand," and the like;
if our auxiliaries of tense and mode all go traceably back to
words of physical meaning (as have to " seize," may to "be great
or strong," shall to " be under penalty," and so on); if of comes
from the comparatively physical of, and for from " before, for-
ward "; if relative pronouns are specialized demonstratives and
interrogatives; if right means etymologically " straight," and
wrong means " twisted "; if spirit is " blowing," and intellect a
" picking out among," and understanding a " getting beneath,"
and development an " unfolding "; if an event takes place or
comes to pass, and then drops out of mind and is forgotten (opposite
of gotten) — then it is of no avail to object to the grossness of
any of the processes by which, in earlier language or in later,
the expression of formal relations is won. The mental sense of
the relation expressed is entirely superior to and independent
of the means of its expression. He who, to express the plural of
man, says what is equivalent to man-man or heap-man (devices
which are met with in not a few languages) has just as good a
sense of plurality as he who says men or homines; that sense is
no more degraded in him by the coarseness of the phrase he uses
to signify it than is our own sense of eventuality and of pastness
by the undisguised coarseness of take place and have been. In
short, it is to be laid down with the utmost distinctness and
confidence, as a law of language-growth, that there is nothing
formal anywhere in language which was not once material;
that the formal is made out of the material, by processes which
began in the earliest history of language and are still in action.

We have dropped here the restriction to our own or Indo-
European language with which we began, because it is evident
Laws of ' t-nat what is true of this family of speech, one of the
Change and most highly organized that exist, may also be true of
Growth. ^jjg reg£ — must be true of them, unless some valid
evidence be found to the contrary. The unity of human nature
makes human speech alike in the character of its beginnings and
in the general features of its after-history. Everywhere among
men a certain store of expression, body of traditional signs of
thought, being given, as used by a certain community, it is
capable of increase on certain accordant lines, and only on them.
In some languages, and under peculiar circumstances, borrowing
is a great means of increase; but it is the most external and least
organically important of all. Out-and-out invention (which, so
far as we can see, must be of the kind called by us onomato-
poetic) is found to play only a very insignificant part in the
historical periods of language — clearly because there are other
and easier modes of gaining new expression for what needs to be
expressed. In the course of phonetic change a word sometimes
varies into two (or more) forms, and makes so many words, which
are differently turned to account. Everything beyond this
must be the product of combination; there is no other way, so
far as concerns the externals of speech. Then, partly as accom-
panying and aiding this external growth, partly as separate from
and supplementing it, there is in all language an internal growth,
making no appearance in the audible part of speech, consisting
in multiplication of meanings, their modification in the way of
precision or comprehension or correctness, the restriction of
words to certain uses, and so on. Along with these, too, a con-
stant change of phonetic form constitutes an inseparable part
of the life of language. Speech is no more stable with respect to
the sounds of which it is composed than with respect to its

grammatical forms, its vocabulary, or the body of conceptions
signified by it. Even nearly related languages differ as much in
their spoken alphabets and the combinations of sounds they
admit, and in their uttered forms of words historically the same,
as in any other part; and the same is true of local dialects and
of class dialects within the same community. Phonetic change
has nothing whatever to do with change of meaning; the two
are the product of wholly independent tendencies. Sometimes,
indeed, they chance to coincide, as in the distinction of minute
" small," and minute " moment "; but it is only by chance, as
the spoken accordance of second in its two meanings (" next "
and " sixtieth of a minute ") shows; words that maintain their
identity of value most obstinately, like the numerals, are liable
to vary indefinitely in form (so four, fidvor, quatuor, riaaap-es,
&c., from an original kwetwor-;five, quinque, irtvrf, coic, &c., from
penkwe — while, on the other hand, two and three show as striking
an accordance of form as of meaning through all the same
languages); what is far the most common is that the word
becomes very unlike its former self in both respects, like priest
from the Greek irpeaflvTfpos (presbyter), literally " older man."
Human convenience is, to be sure, the governing motive in
both changes; but it is convenience of two different kinds: the
one mental, depending on the fact (pointed out above) that a
name when once applied belongs to the thing to which it is
applied, to the disregard of its etymological connexions, does not
need to be changed when the thing changes, and is ready for
new application to anything that can be brought into one class
with the latter; and the other physical, depending on the organs
of speech and their successive movements, by which the sounds
that make up the word are produced. Phonetic convenience is
economy of effort on the part of those organs; and to no other law
than that of economy of utterance have any of the phenomena
of phonetic change been found traceable (though it is also to be
noted that some phenomena have not hitherto been successfully
brought under it, and that the way of effecting this is still
unclear). " Euphony," which used to be appealed to as explana-
tion, is a false principle, except so far as the term may be made
an idealized synonym of economy. The ear finds that agreeable
which the organs of utterance find facile. Economy in utterance
is no isolated tendency; it is the same that plays its part in all
other kinds of human action, and in language appears equally
in the abbreviation of the sentence by leaving out parts that can
be spared without loss of intelligibility. It is an insidious
tendency, always lying in wait, like gravitation, to pull down
what is not sufficiently held up — the holding-up force in lan-
guage being the faithfulness of tradition, or accurate repro-
duction by the learner and user of the signs which he has acquired.
No generation of men has any intention to speak otherwise than
as its predecessor has spoken, or any consciousness that it is
doing so; and yet, from generation to generation, words are
shortened, sounds are assimilated to one another, and one
element passes out of use while a new one is introduced. Abbre-
viation and assimilation are the most conspicuous depart-
ments of phonetic change, and those in which the nature of the
governing tendency is most plainly seen. Taken by itself,
one sound is as easy as another to the person who has accustomed
himself to it from childhood; and those which the young child
most easily acquires are not those which in the history of speech
are least liable to alteration; it is especially in the combinations
and transitions of rapid speaking that the tongue, as it were,
finds out for itself easier ways of performing its task, by dropping
and slurring and adapting. To trace out the infinitely varied
items of this change, to co-ordinate and compare them and
discover their reasons, constitutes a special department of
language-study, which is treated under the head of PHONETICS.
It only needs to be pointed out here that phonetic change plays
a necessary part in the structural development of language,
by integrating compound words through fusion and loss of identity
of their component parts, and, what is of yet more importance,
by converting them into forms, through disguise of identity of
one of the parts and its phonetic subordination to the other part.
It is this that turns, for example, the compound god-like into

422

PHILOLOGY

the derivative godly, the compound love-did into the verbal
form loved. And yet one further result sometimes follows: an
internal change is wrought by phonetic influence in the body of
a word, which change then may in the further history of the
word be left as the sole means of distinction between one form
and another. It is thus that, in the most recent period, the
distinction of led from lead and met from meet and so on has been
made; the added auxiliary which originally made these preterites
induced a shortening of the root-vowel, and this was left behind
when the auxiliary disappeared by the usual process of abbrevia-
tion. It is in the same way that the distinctions of men from
man, of were from was, of set from sit, with all their analogues,
were brought about: by a modification of vowel-sound (Ger.
Umlaut) occasioned by the presence in the following syllable of an
i- vowel, which in the older stages of the language is still to be seen
there. And the distinctions of sing, sang, sung and song, of bind ,
bound, band and bond, are certainly of the same kind, though they
go back so far in the history of our family of languages that their
beginnings are not yet clearly demonstrable; they were in their
origin phonetic accidents, inorganic, mere accompaniments
and results of external combinations which bore the office of
distinction of meaning and were sufficient to it ; in some of our
languages they have been disregarded and effaced, in others they
have risen to prominent importance. To regard these internal
changes as primary and organic is parallel with assuming the
primariness of the formative apparatus of language in general;
like this, it ignores the positive evidence we have of the secondary
production of such differences; they are, like everything else in
linguistic structure, the outcome of combination and adaptation.
Borrowing, or the taking-in of material out of another language,
has been more than once referred to above as sometimes an

important element in language-history, though less
' deep-reaching and organic than the rest. There is

nothing anomalous about borrowing; it is rather
in essential accordance with the whole process of language-
acquisition. All our names were adopted by us because they
were already in use by others; and a community is in the same
way capable of taking a new name from a community with which
it comes in contact as an individual from individuals. Not that
it seeks or admits in this way new names for old things; but it
accepts new things along with the names that seem to belong to
them. Hence any degree of intercourse between one community
and another, leading to exchange of products or of knowledge,
is sure to lead also to some borrowing of names; and there is
hardly a language in the world, except of races occupying
peculiarly isolated positions, that does not contain a certain
amount of foreign material thus won, even as our English has
elements in its vocabulary from half the other tongues in the
world. The scale of borrowing is greatly increased when one
people becomes the pupil of another in respect of its civilization:
hence the abundant classical elements in all the European
tongues, even the non-Romanic; hence the Arabic material in
Persian and Turkish and Malay; hence the Chinese in Japanese
and Corean; and, as a further result, even dead languages, like
the Greek and Latin and the Sanskrit, become stores to be drawn
upon in that learned and conscious quest of new expression
which in the school-stage of culture supplements or even in a
measure replaces the unconscious growth of natural speech.
So, in mixture of communities, which is a highly-intensified
form of contact and intercourse, there follows such mixture of
speech as the conditions of the case determine; yet not a mixture
on equal terms, through all the departments of vocabulary and
grammar; the resulting speech (just as when two individuals learn
to speak alike) is essentially that of the one constituent of the
new community, with more or less material borrowed from that
of the other. What is most easily taken in out of another
language is the names of concrete things; every degree of removal
from this involves additional difficulty — names of abstract
things, epithets, verbs, connectives, forms. Indeed, the borrow-
ing of forms in the highest sense, or forms of inflexion, is well-
nigh or quite impossible; no example of it has been demonstrated
in any of the historical periods of language, though it is some-

times adventurously assumed as a part of prehistoric growth.
How nearly it may be approached is instanced by the presence
in English of such learned plurals as phenomena and strata. This
extreme resistance to mixture in the department of inflexion is
the ground on which some deny the possibility of mixture in
language, and hence the existence of such a thing as a mixed
language. The difference is mainly a verbal one; but it would
seem about as reasonable to deny that a region is inundated so
long as the tops of its highest mountains are above water.
According to the simple and natural meaning of the term, nearly
all languages are mixed, in varying degree and within varying
limits, which the circumstances of each case must explain.

These are the leading processes of change seen at work in
all present speech and in all known past speech, and hence to
be regarded as having worked through the whole history of
speech. By their operation every existing tongue has been
developed out of its rudimentary radical condition to that
in which we now see it. The variety of existing languages
is well-nigh infinite, not only in their material but in their
degree of development and the kind of resulting structure.
Just as the earlier stages in the history of the use of tools are
exemplified even at the present day by races which have never
advanced beyond them, so is it in regard to language also —
and, of course, in the latter case as in the former, this state of
things strengthens and establishes the theory of a gradual
development. There is not an element of linguistic structure
possessed by some languages which is not wanting in
others; and there are even tongues which have no^,^^,
formal structure, and which cannot be shown ever
to have advanced out of the radical stage. The most noted
example of such a rudimentary tongue is the Chinese, which
in its present condition lacks all formal! distinction of the
parts of speech, all inflexion, all derivation; each of its
words (all of them monosyllables) is an integral sign, not
divisible into parts of separate significance; and each in
general is usable wherever the radical idea is wanted, with the
value of one part of speech or another, as determined by the
connexion in which it stands; a condition parallel with that
in which Indo-European speech may be regarded as existing
prior to the beginnings of its career of formal development
briefly sketched above. And there are other tongues, related
and unrelated to Chinese, of which the same description, or one
nearly like it, might be given. To call such languages radical
is by no means to maintain that they exhibit the primal roots
of human speech, unchanged or only phonetically changed, or
that they have known nothing of the combination of element
with element. Of some of them the roots are in greater or
less part dissyllabic; and we do not yet know that all dis-
syllabism, and even that all complexity of syllable beyond a
single consonant with following vowel, is not the result of
combination or reduplication. But all combination is not
form-making; it needs a whole class of combinations, with a
recognized common element in them producing a recognized
common modification of meaning, to make a form. The same
elements which (in Latin, and even to some extent in English
also) are of formal value in con-slant and pre-dict lack that
character in cost and preach; the same like which makes
adverbs in tru-ly and right-ly is present without any such value
in such and which (from so-like and who-like); cost and preach,
and such and which, are as purely radical in English as other
words of which we do not happen to be able to demonstrate
the composite character. And so a Chinese monosyllable
or an Egyptian or Polynesian dissyllable is radical, unless there
can be demonstrated in some part of it a formative value; and
a language wholly composed of such words is a root-language.
Recent investigation goes to show that Chinese had at some
period of its history a formal development, since extinguished
by the same processes of phonetic decay which in English have
wiped out so many signs of a formal character and brought back
so considerable a part of the vocabulary to monosyllabism. In
languages thus constituted the only possible external alteration
is that phonetic change to which all human speech, from the

PHILOLOGY

423

very beginning of its traditional life, is liable; the only growth
is internal, by that multiplication and adaptation and improve-
ment of meanings which is equally an inseparable part of all
language-history. This may include the reduction of certain
elements to the value of auxiliaries, particles, form-words, such
as play an important part in analytical tongues like English, and
are perhaps also instanced in prehistoric Indo-European speech
by the class of pronominal roots. Phrases take the place of
compounds and of inflexions, and the same element may have
an auxiliary value in certain connexions while retaining its full
force in others, like, for instance, our own have. It is not easy
to define the distinction between such phrase-collocations and
the beginnings of agglutination; yet the distinction itself is
in general clearly enough to be drawn (like that in French
between donnerai and ai donne) when the whole habit of the
language is well understood.

Such languages, constituting the small minority of human
tongues, are wont to be called " isolating," i.e. using each
AggiaO- element by itself, in its integral form. All besides
native Lao- are "agglutinative," or more or less compounded
guages. jnto words containing a formal part, an indicator
of class-value. Here the differences, in kind and degree,
are very great; the variety ranges from a scantiness hardly
superior to Chinese isolation up to an intricacy compared
with which Indo-European structure is hardly fuller than
Chinese. Some brief characterization of the various families
of language in this respect will be given farther on, in con-
nexion with their classification. The attempt is also made to
classify the great mass of agglutinating tongues under different
heads: those are ranked as simply " agglutinative " in which
there is a general conservation of the separate identity of root or
stem on the one hand, and of formative element, suffix or prefix,
on the other; while the name "inflective," used in a
higher and pregnant sense, is given to those that admit
a superior fusion and integration of the two parts, to the disguise
and loss of separate identity, and, yet more, with the develop-
ment of an internal change as auxiliary to or as substitute for
the original agglutination. But there is no term in linguistic
science so uncertain of meaning, so arbitrary of application, so
dependent on the idiosyncrasy of its user, as the term " inflec-
tive." Any language ought to have the right to be called in-
flective that has inflexion: that is, that not merely distinguishes
parts of speech and roots and stems formally from one another,
but also conjugates its verbs and declines its nouns; and the
name is sometimes so used. If, again, it be strictly limited to
signify the possession of inner flexion of roots and stems (as if
simply agglutinated forms could be called " exflective "), it
marks only a difference of degree of agglutination, and should
be carefully used as so doing. As describing the fundamental
and predominant character of language-structure, it belongs
to only one family of languages, the Semitic, where most of the
work of grammatical distinction is done by internal changes of
vowel, the origin of which thus far eludes all attempts at explana-
tion. By perhaps the majority of students of language it is, as
a generally descriptive title, restricted to that family and one
other, the Indo-European or Indo-Germanic ; but such a classi-
fication is not to be approved, for, in respect to this character-
istic, Indo-European speech ranks not with Semitic but with
the great body of agglutinative tongues. To few of these can
the name be altogether denied, since there is hardly a body of
related dialects in existence that does not exhibit some items
of " inflective " structure; the Aryan is only the one among
them that has most to show. Outside the Semitic, at any rate,
one should not speak of inflective and non-inflective languages,
but only of languages more inflective and less inflective.

To account for the great and striking differences of structure
among human languages is beyond 'the power of the linguistic
student, and will doubtless always continue so. We
structure. are not likely to be able even to demonstrate a corre-
lation of capacities, saying that a race which has
done this and that in other departments of human activity
might have been expected to form such and such a language.

Every tongue represents the general outcome of the capacity
of a race as exerted in this particular direction, under the
influence of historical circumstances which we can have no
hope of tracing. There are striking apparent anomalies to
be noted. The Chinese and the Egyptians have shown them-
selves to be among the most gifted races the earth has
known; but the Chinese tongue is of unsurpassed jejune-
ness, and the Egyptian, in point of structure, little better,
while among the wild tribes of Africa and America we find
tongues of every grade, up to a high one, or to the highest.
This shows clearly enough that mental power is not measured
by language-structure. But any other linguistic test would
prove equally insufficient. On the whole, the value and rank
of a language are determined by what its users have made it
do. The reflex action of its speech on the mind and culture of
a people is a theme of high interest, but of extreme difficulty,
and apt to lead its investigators away into empty declamation;
taking everything together, its amount, as is shown by the
instances already referred to, is but small. The question is
simply one of the facilitation of work by the use of one set of
tools rather than another; and a poor tool in skilful hands can
do vastly better work than the best tool in unskilful hands —
even as the ancient Egyptians, without steel or steam, turned
out products which, both for colossal grandeur and for exquisite
finish, are the despair of modern engineers and artists. In such
a history of development as that of human speech a fortunate
turn may lead to results of unforeseen value; the earlier steps
determine the later in a degree quite beyond their own intrinsic
importance. Everything in language depends upon habit and
analogy; and the formation of habit is a slow process, while
the habit once formed exercises a constraining as well as a
guiding influence. Hence the persistency of language-struc-
ture: when a certain sum and kind of expression is produced,
and made to answer the purposes of expression, it remains
the same by inertia; a shift of direction becomes of extreme
difficulty. No other reason can at present be given why in
historical time there has been no marked development out of
one grade of structure into another; but the fact no more shakes
the linguistic scholar's belief in the growth of structure than the
absence of new animal species worked out under his eyes shakes
the confidence of the believer in animal development. The
modifying causes and their modes of action are clearly seen,
and there is no limit to the results of their action except what is
imposed by circumstances.

It is in vain to attempt to use dates in language-history,
to say when this or that step in development was taken, and how
long a period it cost, especially now that the changed views
as to the antiquity of man are making it probable that only
a small part of the whole history is brought within the reach
even of our deductions from the most ancient Unity of
recorded dialects. At any rate, for aught that we Origin of
know or have reason to believe, all existing dialects sPeech-
are equally old; every one alike has the whole immeasurable
past of language-life behind it, has reached its present
condition by advance along its own line of growth and
change from the first beginnings of human expression. Many
of these separate lines we clearly see to converge and unite,
as we follow them back into the past ; but whether
they all ultimately converge to one point is a question quite
beyond our power to answer. If in this immensity of time
many languages have won so little, if everywhere language-
growth has been so slow, then we can only differ as to whether
it is reasonably certain, or probable, or only possible, that there
should have been a considerable first period of human existence
without traditional speech, and a yet more considerable one
before the fixation of so much as should leave abiding traces in
its descendants, and that meanwhile the race should have
multiplied and scattered into independent communities. And
the mere possibility is enough to exclude all dogmatic assertion
of the unity of origin of human speech, even assuming unity of
origin of the human race. For to prove that identity by the
still existing facts of language is utterly out of the question;

424

PHILOLOGY

the metamorphosing effect of constant change has been too
great to allow it. In point of fact, taking languages as they
now exist, only those have been shown related which possess
a common structure, or have together grown out of the more
primitive radical stage, since structure proves itself a more
constant and reliable evidence than material. And this is
likely ever to be the case; at any rate, to trace all the world's
languages so far back toward their beginnings as to find in them
evidences of identity is beyond the wildest hope. We must
be content with demonstrating for those beginnings a unity of
kind as alike a body of formless roots. But, on the other hand,
since this unity is really demonstrated, since all structure is
the result of growth, and no degree of difference of structure,
any more than of difference of material, refuses explanation as
the result of discordant growth from identical beginnings, it is
equally inadmissible to claim that the diversities of language
prove it to have had different beginnings. That is to say, the
question of the unity of speech, and yet more that of the unity
of the race, is beyond the reach of the student of language;
the best view he can attain is the hypothetical one, that, if
the race is one, the beginnings of speech were perhaps one —
but probably not, even then. This negative conclusion is
so clearly established as to leave no excuse for the still oft-
repeated attempts to press language into service on either side
of the controversy respecting human unity of race.

That all making and changing of language is by the act of
its speakers is too obvious to call for discussion. No other
Unconscious f°rce capable of acting and of producing effects is
Growth either demonstrable or conceivable as concerned
through in the work. The doctrine that language is an
individuals. organ;snlj growing by its own inherent powers,
exempt from the interference of those who use it, is simply
an indefensible paradox. Every word that is uttered is so
by an act of human will, at first in imitation of others, then
more and more by a formed and controlling habit ; it is acces-
sible to no change except by influences working in the speaker's
rriind and leading him to make it otherwise. Not that he is
aware of this, or directs his action knowingly to that end. The
whole process is unconscious. If any implication of reflective
or intended action can be shown to inhere in any doctrine of
linguistic science, it vitiates that doctrine. The attitude of the
ordinary speaker towards his language is that of unreasoning
acceptance; it seems to him that his names for things are
their real names, and all others unintelligent nicknames; he
thinks himself to possess his speech by the same tenure as his
sight or hearing; it is " natural " to him (or, if he reasons about
it, he attributes it to a divine origin, as races beginning to
philosophize are wont to ascribe their various social institutions
to their gods); he knows nothing of its structure and relations;
it never occurs to him to find fault with it, or to deem it insuffi-
cient and add to or change it; he is wholly unaware that it
does change. He simply satisfies his social needs of communi-
cation by means of it; and if he has anything to express that
is different from what has been expressed before, he takes the
shortest way to a provision for the need; while any relaxation
of the energy of utterance tends to a variation in the uttered
combinations; and thus changes come by his act, though with-
out his knowledge. His sole object is, on the basis of what
language he has, to make known his thought in the most con-
venient way to his fellow; everything else follows with and
from that. Human nature and circumstances being what they
are, what follows actually is, as already shown, incessant
growth and change. For it we have not to seek special disturb-
ing causes in the history of the speakers, although such may
come in to heighten and quicken the change; we know that
even in a small community, on a narrow islet, cut off from all
intercourse with other communities, the speech would grow
different — as certainly, if not as rapidly, as anywhere in the
world — and only by the action of its speakers: not that the
speakers of a language act in unison and simultaneously to
produce a given change. This must begin in an individual,
or more or less accordantly in a limited number of individuals,

and spread from such example through the community. Initia-
tion by one or a few, acceptance and adoption by the rest —
such is the necessary method of all linguistic change, and to be
read as plainly in the facts of change now going on among our-
selves as in those of former language. The doctrine of the
inaccessibility of language to other action than that of its
speakers does not imply a power in the individual speaker to
create or alter anything in the common speech, any more than
it implies his desire to do so. What he suggests by his example
must be approved by the imitation of his fellows, in order to
become language. The common speech is the common pro-
perty, and no one person has any more power over it than
another. If there are, for example, a thousand speakers of a
certain dialect, each one wields in general a thousandth part of
the force required to change it — with just so much more as may
belong to his excess of influence over his fellows, due to recog-
nized superiority of any kind on his part. His action is limited
only by their assent; but this is in effect a very narrow limita-
tion, ensuring the adoption of nothing that is not in near accor-
dance with the already existing; though it is also to be noted
that he is as little apt to strike off into startling change as they
to allow it; since the governing power of already formed habits
of speech is as strong in him as in them. That change to which
the existing habits naturally lead is easy to bring about; any
other is practically impossible. It is this tendency on the
part of the collective speakers of a language to approve or
reject a proposed change according to its conformity with
their already subsisting usages that we are accustomed to call
by the fanciful name " the genius of a language."

On the relation of the part played in language-change by
the individual to that by the community, in combination with
the inevitableness of change, rests the explanation of
the dialectic variation of language. If language were f, . ^!c
stable there would of course be no divarication; but
since it is always varying, and by items of difference that proceed
from individuals and become general by diffusion, there can be
uniformity of change only so far as diffusion goes or as the
influences of communication extend. Within the limits of a
single community, small or large, whatever change arises spreads
gradually to all, and so becomes part of the general speech;
but let that community become divided into two (or more)
parts, and then the changes arising in either part do not spread
to the other, and there begins to appear a difference in linguistic
usage between them. It is at first slight, even to insignificance;
not greater than exists between the dialects of different localities
or ranks or occupations in the same community, without detri-
ment to the general unity of speech. This unity, namely, rests
solely on mutual intelligibility, and is compatible with no
small amount of individual and class difference, in vocabulary,
in grammar and in pronunciation; indeed, in the strictest
sense, each individual has a dialect of his own, different from
that of every other, even as he has a handwriting, a countenance,
a character of his own. And every item of change, as it takes
place, must have its season of existence as a local or class or
trade peculiarity, before it gains universal currency; some of
them linger long in that condition, or never emerge from it.
All these differences in the speech of different sub-communities
within the same community are essentially dialectic; they differ
not in kind, but only in degree, from those which separate the
best-marked dialects; they are kept down by general communi-
cation within the limit of general mutual intelligibility. Where
that restraining influence ceases the limit is gradually but
surely overpassed, and real dialects are the result. From
what we know of the life of language we can say positively
that continued uniformity of speech without continued com-
munity is not practicable. If it were possible to divide arti-
ficially, by an impassable chasm or wall, a people one for
ages, and continuing to occupy the same seats, the language
of the divided parts would at once begin to be dialectically
different; and after sufficient time had elapsed each would have
become unintelligible to the other. That is to say, whenever
a community of uniform speech breaks up, its speech breaks

PHILOLOGY

425

up also; nor do we know of any other cause of dialectic
diversity.

In applying this explanation of dialectic growth we have
to allow for modifying circumstances of various nature, which
alter not indeed the fact but the rate and kind of divarication.
Some languages grow and change much more rapidly than
others, with a corresponding effect upon divarication, since
this is but a result of discordant growth. Usually, when there
is division of a community, the parts get into different external
circumstances, come in contact or mingle with different neigh-
bouring communities, and the like; and this quickens and
increases their divergence of speech. But the modifying factor
of by far the highest importance here, as elsewhere in the history
of language, is civilization. Civilization in its higher forms so
multiplies the forces of communication as to render it possible
that the widely-divided parts of one people, living in circum-
stances and under institutions of very different character,
should yet maintain a substantial oneness of speech; of this
there is no more striking example than the two great divisions
of the English-speaking people on opposite sides of the Atlantic.
On the other hand, a savage people cannot spread even a little
without dialectic disunity; there are abundant examples to be
met with now of mutually unintelligible speech between the
smallest subdivisions of a race of obviously kindred tongue —
as the different clusters of huts on the same coral islet. It is
with linguistic unity precisely as it is with political unity, and
for the same reasons. Before the attainment of civilization
the human race, whether proceeding from one centre of dis-
persion or from several, was spread over the earth in a state of
utter disintegration; but every centre of civilization becomes
also a centre of integration; its influences make for unity
of speech as of all other social institutions. Since culture
has become incontestably the dominant power in human
history, the unifying forces in language have also been stronger
than the diversifying; and with culture at its full height, and
spread equally to every land and race, one universal language,
like one universal community, is not an absurdity or theoretic
impossibility, but only a Utopian or millennial dream.

Dialectic variation is thus simply a consequence of the
movements of 'population. As the original human race or
races, so the divisions or communities of later formation, from
point to point through the whole life of man on the earth,
have spread and separated, but jostled and interfered, have
conquered and exterminated or mingled and absorbed; and
their speech has been affected accordingly. Hence something
of these movements can be read in the present condition of
languages, as in a faithful though obscure record — more, doubt-
less, than can be read in any other way, however little it may
be when viewed absolutely. Dialectic resemblances point
inevitably back to an earlier unity of speech, and hence of
community; from what we know of the history. of speech,
they are not to be accounted for in any other way. The longer
the separation that has produced the diversity, the greater its
degree. With every generation the amount of accordance
decreases and that of discordance increases the common
origin of the dialects is at first palpable, then evident on examina-
tion, then to be made out by skilled research, then perhaps
no longer demonstrable at all; for there is plainly no limit to
the possible divergence. So long, now, as any
evidence of original unity is discoverable we call
the languages " related dialects," and combine them
into a " family." The term " family " simply signifies a group
of languages which the evidence thus far at command, as
estimated by us, leads us to regard as descended by the ordinary
processes of dialectic divarication from one original tongue.
That it does not imply a denial of the possibility of wider
relationship is obvious from what has been said above. That
there is abundant room for error in the classification repre-
sented by it is also clear, since we may take purely accidental
resemblances, or the results of borrowing, for evidence of common
descent, or may overlook or wrongly estimate real evidences,
which more study and improved method will bring to light.

°

Grouping into families is nothing more than the best classifi-
cation attainable at a given stage in the progress of linguistic
science; it is in no small part provisional only, and is always
held liable to modification, even sweeping, by the results of
further research. Of some families we can follow the history
by external evidences a great way back into the past; their
structure is so highly developed as to be traced with confidence
everywhere; and their territory is well within our reach: such
we regard with the highest degree of confidence, hardly allow-
ing for more than the possibility that some other dialect, or
group, or now-accepted family even, may sometime prove its
right to be added on. But these are the rare exceptions; in
the great majority of cases we have only the languages as they
now exist, and in more or less scanty collections, of every degree
of trustworthiness; and even their first grouping is tentative
and incomplete, and involves an adjournment of deeper ques-
tions to the day of more light. To complete and perfect
the work of classification by relationship, or the establish-
ment of families and their subdivisions, is the first object of
the comparative study of languages. No other classification
has a value in the least comparable with it; that by grade of
structure is a mere recreation, leading to nothing; that by
absolute worth is of no account whatever, at any rate in the
present state of our knowledge. On genetic relationship, in
the first place, is founded all investigation of the historical
development of languages; since it is in the main the comparison
of related dialects, even in the case of families having a long
recorded history, and elsewhere only that, that gives us know-
ledge of their earlier condition and enables us to trace the
lines of change. In the second place, and yet more obviously,
with this classification is connected all that language has
to teach as to the affinities of human races; whatever aid
linguistic science renders to ethnology rests upon the proved
relationships of human tongues.

That a classification of languages, to which we have now to
proceed, is not equivalent to a classification of races, and why
this is so, is evident enough from the principles
which have been brought out by our whole discussion f£™p '
of languages, and which, in their bearing upon
this particular point, may well be recapitulated here. No
language is a race-characteristic, determined by the special
endowments of a race; all languages are of the nature of in-
stitutions, parallel products of powers common to all mankind
— the powers, namely, involved in the application of the -fittest
available means to securing the common end of communica-
tion. Hence they are indefinitely transferable, like other
institutions — like religions, arts, forms of social organization,
and so on — under the constraining force of circumstances.
As an individual can learn any language, foreign as well as
ancestral, if it be put in his way, so also a community, which
in respect to such a matter is only an aggregate- of individuals.
Accordingly, as individuals of very various race are often
found in one community, speaking together one tongue, and
utterly ignorant of any other, so there are found great com-
munities of various descent, speaking the dialects of one common
tongue, which at some period historical circumstances have
imposed upon them. The conspicuous example, which comes
into every one's mind when this subject is discussed, is that
of the Romanic countries of southern Europe, all using dialects
of a language which, 2500 years ago, was itself the insignificant
dialect of a small district in central Italy; but this is only the
most important and striking of a whole class of similar facts.
Such are the results of the contact and mixture of races and
languages. If language-history were limited to growth and
divarication, and race-history to spread and dispersion, it would
be a comparatively easy task to trace both backward toward
their origin; as the 'case is, the confusion is inextricable and
hopeless. Mixture of race and mixture of speech are coincident
and connected processes; the latter never takes place without
something of the former; but the one is not at all a measure
of the other, because circumstances may give to the speech
of the one element of population a greatly disproportionate

426

PHILOLOGY

preponderance. Thus, there is left in French only an insig-
nificant trace of the Celtic dialects of the predominant race-
constituent of the French people; French is the speech of
the Latin conquerors of Gaul, mixed perceptibly with that
of its later Prankish conquerors; it was adopted in its integrity
by the Norse conquerors of a part of the land, then brought
into Britain by the same Norsemen in the course of their further
conquests, this time only as an element of mixture, and thence
carried with English speech to America, to be the language of
a still further mixed community. Almost every possible phase
of language-mixture is traceable in the history of the abundant
words of Latin origin used by American negroes. What events
of this character took place in prehistoric time we shall never
be able to tell. If any one chooses to assert the possibility that
even the completely isolated dialect of the little Basque commun-
ity may have been derived by the Iberian race from an intrusive
minority as small as that which made the Celts of Gaul speakers
of Latin, we should have to admit it as a possibility — yet
without detriment to the value of the dialect as indicating the
isolated race-position of its speakers. In strictness, language
is never a proof of race, either in an individual or in a com-
munity; it is only a probable indication of race, in the absence
of more authoritative opposing indications; it is one evidence,
to be combined with others, in the approach towards a solution
of the confessedly insoluble problems of human history. But
we must notice, as a most important circumstance, that its
degree of probability is greatest where its aid is most needed,
in prehistoric periods and among uncultivated races; since it
is mainly civilization that gives to language a propagative force
disproportionate to the number of its speakers. On the whole,
the contributions of language to ethnology are practically far
greater in amount and more distinct than those derived from
any other source.

The genetical classification of languages, then, is to be taken
for just what it attempts to be, and no more: primarily as a
classification of languages only; but secondarily

. , . , . . i ]

as casting light, in varying manner and degree, on
movements of community, which in their turn
depend more or less upon movements of races. It is what
the fates of men have left to represent the tongues of men
— a record imperfect even to fragmentariness. Many a family
once as important as some of those here set down has perhaps
been wiped out of existence, or is left only in an inconspicuous
fragment; one and another has perhaps been extended far
beyond the limits of the race that shaped it — which, we can
never tell to our satisfaction.

1. Indo-European (Indo-Germanic) Family. — To this family
belongs incontestably the first place, and for many reasons:
the historical position of the peoples speaking its dialects, who
have now long been the leaders in the world's history; the
abundance and variety and merit of its literatures, ancient and
modern, which, especially the modern, are wholly unapproached
by those of any other division of mankind; the period covered
by its records; and, most of all, the great variety and richness
of its development. These advantages make of it an illustra-
tion of the history of human speech with which no other family
can bear a moment's comparison as to value, however impor-
tant various other families may be in their bearing on one and
another point or department of history, and however necessary
the combination of the testimony of all to a solution of the
problems involved in speech. These advantages have made Indo-
European language the training-ground of comparative philology,
and its study will always remain the leading branch of that
science. Many matters of importance in its history have been
brought up and used as illustrations in the preceding discussion;
but as its constitution and ascertained development call for
a fuller and more systematic exposition than they have found
here, a special section is devoted to the subject (see Part II.
below; also INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGE).

2. Semitic Family. — This family also is beyond all question
the second in importance, on account of the part which its
peoples (Hebrews, Phoenicians, Assyrians, Syrians, Arabs,

tioa.

Abyssinians, &c.) have played in history, and of the rank of
its literatures. For a special treatment of it see SEMITIC
LANGUAGES. Some of the peculiarities of the language have
been alluded to above; in the monotony and rigidity of its
triliteral roots, and in the extended use which it makes of
internal vowel-change (" inflexion " in the special sense of
that term) for the purposes of grammatical distinction, it is
more peculiar and unlike all the other known families of lan-
guage than these are unlike one another. There are, and per-
haps will always be, those to whom the peculiarities just men-
tioned will seem original; but if the views of language and its
history taken above are in the main true, then that opinion
is untenable; Semitic language must have grown into its present
forms out of beginnings accordant in kind, if not identical
in substance, with those of other families; and the only question
remaining to be solved is, through what processes and under
what governing tendencies Semitic speech should have arrived
at its present state. And with this solution is most obviously
and incontestably bound up that of the other interesting and
much discussed question, whether the Semitic family can be
shown to be related with other families, especially with the
Indo-European. To some the possession in common of gram-
matical gender, or of the classification of objects in general as
masculine and feminine, is of itself enough to prove such rela-
tionship; but, though the fact is a striking one, and of no
small importance as an indication, this degree of value can by
no means be attributed to it in the present state of our know-
ledge— any more than to any other single item of structure
among the infinite variety of such, distributed among the
multitude of human tongues. Many others compare the Semitic
and Indo-European " roots " with one another, and believe
themselves to find there numerous indications of identity of
material and signification; but these also must pass for insuffi-
cient, until it shall prove possible by their aid to work out an
acceptable theory of how Semitic structure should have grown
out of such radical elements as underlie Indo-European struc-
ture, or out of the accordant initial products of a structural
growth that afterwards diverged into two so discordant forms.
To show that, both the material and the method have been
hitherto wanting, and any confident decision is at least pre-
mature; but present probabilities are strongly against the
solubility of the question. While many general considerations
favour the ultimate unity of these two great civilized and
civilizing white races of neighbouring homes, and no discordance
of speech (as was shown above) can ever be made to prove their
diversity of origin, it seems in a high degree unlikely that the
evidence of speech will ever be made to prove them one.

3. Hamitic Family. — The prominent importance of this
family (see HAMITIC LANGUAGES) is due to a single one of its
members, the Egyptian. It occupies the north-eastern corner of
Africa, with the border-lands of that continent stretching west-
ward along the whole shore of the Mediterranean, and south-
ward to beyond the equator. It falls into three principal
divisions: (i) the ancient Egyptian, with its descendant, the
more modern Coptic (itself now for some centuries extinct;
see EGYPT, COPTS); (2) the Libyan or Berber languages of
northern Africa; (3) the Ethiopic languages of eastern Africa.
Its situation thus plainly suggests the theory of its intrusion
from Asia, across the isthmus of Suez, and its gradual spread
from that point; and the theory is strongly favoured by the
physical character of the Hamites, and the historical position,
especially of the Egyptians, so strikingly different from that of
the African races in general. Linguistic evidences of the
relationship of Hamite with Semite have also been sought,
and by many believed to be found; but the maintenance of
the two families in their separateness is an indication that those
evidences have not yet been accepted as satisfactory; and such
is indeed the case. The Egyptian is a language of extreme
simplicity of structure, almost of no structure at all. Its radical
words are partly monosyllabic, partly of more than one syllable,
but not in the latter case any more than in the former showing
traceable signs of extension by formative processes from simpler

PHILOLOGY

427

elements. It has no derivative apparatus by which noun-stems
are made from roots; the root is the stem likewise; there is
nothing that can be properly called either declension or con-
jugation; and the same pronominal particles or suffixes have
now a subjective value, indicating use as a verb, and now a
possessive, indicating use as a noun. There is no method
known to linguistic science by which the relationship of such a
tongue as this with the highly and peculiarly inflective Semitic
can be shown, short of a thorough working out of the history
of development of each family taken by itself, and a retracing
in some measure of the steps by which each should have arrived
at its present position from a common starting-point; and this
has by no means been done. In short, the problem of the
relation of Semitic with Hamitic, not less than with Indo-
European, depends upon that of Semitic growth, and the two
must be solved together. There are striking correspondences
between the pronouns of the two families, such as, if supported
by evidences from other parts of their material, would be taken
as signs of relationship; but, in the absence of such support,
they are not to be relied upon, not till it can be shown to be
possible that two languages could grow to be so different in
all other respects as are Egyptian and Hebrew, and yet retain
by inheritance corresponding pronouns. And the possession of
grammatical gender by Indo-European, Semitic and Hamitic
speech, and by them almost alone, among all human languages,
though an extremely noteworthy fact, is (as was pointed out
above) in the present condition of linguistic science quite too
weak a basis for a belief in the original identity of the three
families.

Egyptian is limited to the delta and valley of the Nile, and is
the only Hamitic language which has ancient records; of the
others the existing forms alone are known.

The Libyan or Berber division of the family occupies the
inhabitable part of northern Africa, so far as it has not been
displaced by intrusive tongues of other connexion — in later
times the Arabic, which since the Mahommedan conquest has
been the cultivated tongue of the Mediterranean coast, while
the earlier Vandal, Latin and Punic have disappeared, except
in the traces they may have left in Berber dialectic speech.
The principal dialects are the Kabyle, the Shilha and the
Tuarek or Tamashek, corresponding nearly to the ancient
Numidian, Mauretanian and Gaetulian respectively.

The third or Ethiopic division includes as its chief members
the Beja or Bisharin, the Saho, the Dankali, the Somali, and
the more inland Galla; the first two lying along the Red Sea
north of Semitic Abyssinia, the others south of it, to the equator.
By some authorities (Lepsius, Bleek) there is added to the
Hamitic family as a fourth division a group from extreme
southern Africa, the Hottentot and Bushman languages. The
ground of this classification is the possession by the Hottentot
of the distinction of grammatical gender, and even its designa-
tion by signs closely corresponding to those used in the Ethiopic
division. Others deny the sufficiency of this evidence, and
rank the Hottentot as a separate group of African dialects,
adding to it provisionally the Bushman, until better knowledge
of the latter shall show whether it is or is not a group by itself.
If the Hottentot be Hamitic, we shall have to suppose it cut
off at a very remote period from the rest of the family, and
forced gradually southward, while all the time suffering mixture
both of speech and of blood with the negro races, until the
physical constitution of its speakers has become completely
metamorphosed, and of its original speech no signs are left
save those referred to above; and while such exceptional
phonetic peculiarities have been worked out as the use of the
clicks or clucking sounds: and this must be regarded as at
least extremely difficult.

4. Monosyllabic or South-eastern Asiatic Family. — This body
of languages may well enough be the next taken up; and here
again (as was the case with the preceding family) on account
of the prominent importance of one of its dialects and of the
people speaking it — the Chinese people and language. The
territory of the family includes the whole south-eastern corner

of Asia: China on the north-east, Farther India in the south,
and the high plateau of Tibet, with the neighbouring Himalayan
regions, to the westward. The ultimate unity of all these
languages rests chiefly upon the evidence of their form, as being
all alike essentially monosyllabic and isolating, or destitute
of formal structure; the material correspondences among them,
of accordant words, are not sufficient to prove them related.
The Chinese itself can be followed up, in contemporary records,
to a period probably not far from 2000 B.C., and the language,
the people, and their institutions, are then already in the main
what they have ever since continued to be (see CHINA); the
other leading tongues come into view much later, as they receive
culture and religion from China on the one hand (the Annamites),
or from India on the other (the Tibetans, Burmese, Siamese);
and the territory includes great numbers of wild tribes unknown
until our own times, whose race-relations and language-relations
are as yet very obscure. Current opinion tends to regard
the Annamites, Peguans and Cambodians (the Mon-Khmer
group) as forming a more nearly related group or division, and
as having been the earlier population of Farther India, in part
dispossessed and driven forward by the later intrusion from the
north of Siamese and Burmese, of whom the former are more
nearly related to the Chinese and the latter to the Tibetans.
The Mon-Khmer group is itself more nearly related to the
Kolarian and Malay-Polynesian.

The character of the languages of this family, especially
as instanced by its most important member, the Chinese, has
been pretty fully set forth in the general discussions above.
They are languages of roots: that is to say, there is not demon-
strable in any of their words a formative part, limiting the word,
along with others similarly characterized, to a certain office
or set of offices in the formation of the sentence. That the
words are ultimate roots, come down from the first period of
language-making, we have no reason whatever to believe;
and they may possibly have passed through processes of growth
which equipped them with some scanty supply of forms;
but no evidence to that effect has yet been produced. The
indications relied on to show an earlier polysyllabism in the
family (though already in Chinese reduced to monosyllabism
before the earliest historical appearance of the language, some
4000 years ago) are the comparatively recent loss of certain
final mutes in Chinese words, and the presence on a consider-
able scale in Tibetan spelling of added initial and final
consonants, now silent in the literary dialect, but claimed to
be still uttered in some parts of the country. If the theory
connecting these phenomena be established, the Tibetan will
approve itself to be by far the most primitive of the dialects
of the family, furnishing the key to the history of the rest.

For further details respecting the various tongues of the
monosyllabic family, the articles on the different divisions of
its territory (BURMA; CHINA; SIAM; TIBET, &c.) may be con-
sulted. The languages all alike show an addition to the
resources of distinction possessed by languages in general, in
the use of tones: that is to say, words of which the alphabetic
elements are the same differ in meaning according as they are
uttered in a higher or a lower tone, with the rising or the falling
inflexion, and so on. By this means, for example, the mono-
syllabic elements of the literary Chinese, numbering but 500
as we should write them, are raised to the number of about
1 500 words.

5. Ural-Altaic (Scythian, Turanian) Family. — China and
Tibet are bordered on the north and west by the eastern branches
of another immense family, which stretches through central
and northern Asia into Europe, overlapping the European
border in Turkey, and reaching across it in Russia and Scan-
dinavia to the very shore of the Atlantic. Usage has not so
definitely determined as in the case of most other families by
what name it shall be called; Turanian is perhaps the com-
monest appellation, but also the most objectionable. Five
principal branches are generally reckoned as composing the
family. The two easternmost are the Tungusian, with the
Manchu for its principal division, and the Mongol (see MONGOLS)

428

PHILOLOGY

Of these two the language is exceedingly simple in structure,
being raised but little above the formlessness of the Chinese. The
Tungusian, however, some authorities would couple with Japanese
as a separate branch. The three others are: the Turkish or
Tatar, the dialects of which reach from the mouth of the Lena
(Yakut) to Turkey in Europe; the Samoyed, from the Altai
down to the arctic shore of Asia, and along this to the White
Sea — an unimportant congeries of barbarous tribes; and the
Finno-Hungarian, including the tongues of the two cultivated
peoples from which it takes its name, and also those of a great
part of the population of northern and central Russia, to beyond
the Ural Mountains, and finally the Lappish, of northern Scan-
dinavia. The nearer relation of the Samoyed is with the
Finno-Hungarian. The Turkish is a type of a well-developed
language of purely agglutinative structure: that is, lacking
that higher degree of integration which issues in internal change.
Whether this degree is wholly wanting in Finnish and Hun-
garian is made a question; at any rate, the languages named
have no reason to envy the tongues technically called " inflec-
tive." Of a value not inferior to that of inflective characteristics
is one that belongs to all the Ural-Altaic tongues, in varying
measure and form, and helps to bind them together into a single
family — the harmonic sequence of vowels, namely, as between
root and endings, or a modification of the vowels of the endings
to agree with that of the root or its final syllable.

While the physical race-characteristics known as Mongolian
are wanting in the speakers of the western dialects of this
family, they are conspicuously present in the people of Japan
and Korea; and hence the tendency of scholars to endeavour
to connect the languages of the two latter countries, since they
also are of agglutinative structure (see JAPAN and KOREA) with
the family now under treatment, as also with one another.

Other languages of north-eastern Asia, too little known to
group, and too unimportant to treat as separate families, may
be mentioned here by way of appendix to their neighbours of
the most diversified and widespread Asiatic family. They are
the Aino, of Yezo and the Kurile Islands with part of the neigh-
bouring coast; the Kamchatkan; and the Yukagir and Tchukt-
chi of the extreme north-east. These are sometimes combined
with the Eskimo under the title of the Arctic or Hyperborean
languages.

The opinion has been held by many scholars that the agglu-
tinative dialects — Sumerain, Accadian, &c. — of the presumed
founders of Mesopotamian culture and teachers of the Assyrian
Semites (see BABYLONIA) belonged to the Ural-Altaic family,
and specifically to its Finno-Ugrian branch; but the data for this
view are still very uncertain. The mere possession of an
agglutinative structure cannot be taken as proving anything
in the way of relationship.

6. Dravidian or South Indian Family. — This is an important
body of nearly and clearly related tongues, spoken by about
50,000,000 people, doubtless representing the main population
of all India at the time when the intrusive Indo-European tribes
broke in from the north-west, and still filling most of the southern
peninsula, the Deccan, together with part of Ceylon. They are
languages of a high grade of structure, and of great power and
euphony; and the principal ones have enjoyed a long cultiva-
tion, founded on that of the Sanskrit. As they obviously have no
Indo-European affinities, the attempt has been made to connect
them also with the Ural-Altaic or Turanian family, but altogether
without success, although there is nothing in their style of
structure that should make such connexion impossible.

7. Malay- Polynesian Family. — Not all the tribes that make
up the non-Indo-European population of India speak Dravidian
dialects. The Santals and certain other wild tribes appear to
be of another lineage. These are now generally known as
Kolarian, and are connected with the Malay-Polynesian family.

The islands, greater and smaller, lying off the south-eastern
coast of Asia and those scattered over the Pacific, all the way
from Madagascar to Easter Island, are filled with their own
peculiar families of languages, standing in a more or less distant
relationship to the languages of the Mon-Khmer group, and the

Kolarians on the mainland and the Nicobar islanders. The
principal one among them is the great Malay-Polynesian family.
It falls into two principal divisions, Malayan and Polynesian.
The Malayan includes, besides the Malay proper (see MALAYS),
which occupies the Malaccan peninsula (yet doubtless not as
original home of the division, but by immigration from the
islands), the languages also of Sumatra, Java, Borneo, &c., of
the Philippine Islands, of part of Formosa, and of Madagascar,
together with the coasts of Celebes and other islands occupied
in the interior by Papuans. The Polynesian division includes
most of the tongues of the remaining scattered groups of islands,
and that of New Zealand. Probably to these are to be added, as a
third division, the Melanesian dialects of the Melanesian Archi-
pelago, of which both the physical and the linguistic peculiari-
ties would in that case be ascribed to mixture with the black
Papuan races. AU these languages are extremely simple in
phonetic form, and of a low grade of structure, the Polynesian
branch being in both respects the lowest, and some of the
Malayan dialects having reached a development considerably
more advanced. The radical elements are much oftener of
two syllables than of one, and reduplication plays an important
part in their extension and variation. Malay literature goes
back as far as to the ijth century, and there are Javan records
even from the early centuries of our era, the result of religion
and culture introduced into that island from Brahmanic India.
In recent years more active investigation has been carried
on with a view to tracing out the special laws of historical
development prevailing in the family.

8. Other Oceanic Families. — At least two other families, un-
connected with the preceding and with one another, are found
among the Pacific Islands, and only there. The continental
island of Australia, with its dependency Tasmania (where, how-
ever, the native tongue has now 'become extinct), has its own
body of probably related dialects, as its own physical type.
They have been but imperfectly investigated, their importance,
except to the professed student of language, being nothing; but
they are not destitute of a rude agglutinative structure of their
own. Still less known are the Papuan or Negrito languages,
belonging to the black race with frizzled hair inhabiting most
of New Guinea, and found also in the interior of some of the other
islands, having been driven from the coasts by superior intruders
of the Malay race.

9. Caucasian Languages. — Of the existing languages of Asia
there remain to be mentioned only those of the Caucasian moun-
tains and highlands, between the Black and Caspian Seas, pressed
upon the north by Slavonians and Turks, upon the south by
Armenians and Kurds and Turks. Its situation makes of the
Caucasus a natural eddy in all movements of emigration between
Asia and Europe; and its linguistic condition is as if remnants
of many families otherwise extinct had been stranded and pre-
served there. The dialects north of the principal range — Cir-
cassian, Mitsjeghian, Lesghian, &c. — have not been proved to be
related either to one another or to those of the south. Among
the latter, the Georgian is much the most widespread and impor-
tant (see GEORGIA) and, alone among them all, possesses a
literature. The Caucasian dialects present many exceptional
and difficult features, and are in great part of so high a grade
of structure as to have been allowed the epithet inflective by
those who attach special importance to the distinction thus
expressed.

10. Remnants of Families in Europe. — The Basque people
of the western Pyrenees, at the angle of the Bay of Biscay, are
shown by their speech to be an isolated remnant of some race
which was doubtless once much more widely spread, but has
now everywhere else lost its separate identity; as such it is of
extreme interest to the ethnologist (see BASQUES'). The Basque
language appears to be unrelated to any other on earth. It is of
a very highly agglutinative structure, being equalled in intricacy
of combination only by a part of the American dialects. Limited
as it is in territory, it falls into a number of well-marked dialects,
so that it also may not be refused the name of a " family."

The only other case of the kind worth noting is that of the

PHILOLOGY

429

Etruscan language of northern central Italy, which long ago
became extinct, in consequence of the conquest and absorption
of Etruria by Rome, but which still exists in numerous brief in-
scriptions (see ETRURIA). Many attempts have been made to
connect the language with other families, and it has even quite
recently been pronounced Aryan or Indo-European, of the
Italican branch, by scholars of high rank. But its supposed
Indo-European relationship was at once shown to be erroneous
when, in 1892, a small book which had been used to pack a
mummy was discovered in the museum at Agram, and published.
The probability of relationship with the ancient Lydian, as was
the opinion held in ancient times, has been increased by recent
research, and is likely soon to be verified or disproved by the
discovery of Lydian records.

In order to complete this review of the languages of the Old
World it only remains to notice those of Africa which have not
been already mentioned. They are grouped under two heads: the
languages of the south and those of the centre of the continent.

it. South African or Bantu Family. — This is a very extensive
and distinctly marked family (see BANTU LANGUAGES), occupy-
ing (except the Hottentot and Bushman territory) the whole
southern peninsula of the continent from some degrees north
of the equator. It is held apart from all other known families
of language by a single prominent characteristic — the extent
to which it makes use of prefixes instead of suffixes as the appar-
atus of grammatical distinction; its inflexion, both declensional
and conjugational, is by appended elements which precede the
stem or root. The most conspicuous part of this is the variety
of prefixes, different in singular and plural, by which the various
classes or genders (not founded on sex; the ground of classifica-
tion is generally obscure) of nouns are distinguished; these then
reappear in the other members of the sentence, as adjectives
and verbs and pronouns, which are determined by the noun,
thus producing an alliterative concord that runs through the
sentence. The pronominal determinants of the verb, both
subject and object, also come before it; but the determinants
of mode of action, as causative, &c., are mostly suffixed. The
language in general is rich in the means of formal distinction.
Those dialects which border on the Hottentots have, apparently
by derivation from the latter, the clicks or clucking-sounds
which form a conspicuous part of the Hottentot spoken alphabet.

12. Central African Languages. — The remaining languages of
Africa form a broad band across the centre of the continent,
between the Bantu on the south and the Hamitic on the east
and north. The Bantu group, extending from north of the
equator to the Cape of Good Hope, with a vast variety of dialects,
is the most important of all African languages. To it belongs
Swahili, the language of Zanzibar, only less valuable as a means
of communication and trade than the Haussa of the Sudan, the
most important of the dialects under the influence of the Hamitic
languages. The African languages are by no means to be called
a family, but rather a great mass of dialects, numbering by
hundreds, of varying structure, as to the relations of which
there is great discordance of opinion even among the most recent
and competent authorities. It is no place here to enter into
the vexed questions of African linguistics, or even to report the
varying views upon the subject; that would require a space
wholly disproportioned to the importance of African speech
in the general sum of human language. There is no small
variety of physical type as well as of speech in the central belt;
and, partly upon the evidence of lighter tint and apparently
higher endowment, certain races are set off and made a separate
division of; such is the Nuba-Fulah division of F. Miiller,
rejected by Lepsius. The latter regarded all the varieties of
physical and linguistic character in the central belt as due to
mixture between pure Africans of the south and Hamites of the
north and east; but this is at present an hypothesis only, and
a very improbable one, since it implies modes and results of mix-
ture to which no analogies are quotable from languages whose
history is known; nor does it appear at all probable that the
collision of two races and types of speech should produce such
an immense and diverse body of transitional types. It is far

from impossible that the present prominence of the South
African or Bantu family may be secondary, due to the great
expansion under favouring circumstances of a race once having
no more importance than belongs now to many of the Central
African races, and speaking a tongue which differed from theirs
only as theirs differed from one another. None of the Central
African languages is a prefix-language in the same degree as the
Bantu, and in many of them prefixes play no greater part than
in the world's languages in general; others show special forms
or traces of the prefix structure; and some have features of an
extraordinary character, hardly to be paralleled elsewhere.
One group in the east (Oigob, &c.) has a gender distinction,
involving that of sex, but really founded on relative power
and dignity: things disparaged, including women, are put in one
class; things extolled, including men, are put in the other.
This is perhaps the most significant hint anywhere to be found
of how a gender-distinction like that in our own Indo-European
languages, which we usually regard as being essentially a dis-
tinction of sex, while in fact it only includes such, may have
arisen. Common among the African languages, as among many
other families, especially the American, is a generic distinction
between animate beings and inanimate things.

13. American Languages.— With these the case is closely
the same as with the Central African languages: there is an
immense number of dialects, of greatly varied structure (see
INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN). Even among neighbouring
families like the Algonquin, Iroquois and Dakota, whose agree-
ment in style of structure (polysynthetic), taken in connexion
with the accordant race-type of their speakers, forbids us to regard
them as ultimately different, no material correspondence, agree-
ment in words and meanings, is to be traced; and there are
in America all the degrees of polysynthetism, down to the
lowest, and even to its entire absence. Such being the case,
it ought to be evident to every one accustomed to deal with this
class of subjects that all attempts to connect American languages
as a body with languages of the Old World are and must be
fruitless.

Literature. — Many of the theoretic points discussed above
are treated by the writer with more fulness in his Language and
the Study of Language (1867) and Life and Growth of Language
(1875). Other English works to consult are M. Muller's Lectures
on the Science of Language; Farrar's Chapters on Language;
Wedgwood's Origin of Language (all more or less anti-
quated); Sayce's Principles of Philology and Introduction to
the Science of Language, &c.; Sweet, The History of Language
(1900). In German, see Paul's Principien der Sprachgeschichte
(Halle, 1880); Delbruck's Einleitung in das Sprachstudium
(Leipzig, 1880; 4th ed., 1909; 5th ed., 1910; there is also
an English version); Brugmann and Delbruck's Grundriss
der vergleichenden Grammalik der indogermanischen Sprachen
(1886-1900; a second edition of the first volume was pub-
lished in 1897, two parts of vol. ii., including the stem-
formation and declension of the noun and pronoun appeared
in 1906 and 1909) ; also the works of W. von Humboldt and of H.
Steinthal, the most important of whose linguistic works, Charak-
teristik der hauptsiichlichsten Typen des Sprachbaues (1861),
was recast and brought up to date under the same title by F.
Misteli (1893). See also handy summaries covering the same
ground, but without bibliography, in F. N. Finck's Die Sprach-
stamme des Erdkreises (1909) and Die Haupltypen des Sprach-
baus (1910). Many of the languages of India and Farther
India have been treated in the Linguistic Survey of India,
edited by Dr G. E. Grierson (a government publication still
in progress). A short popular account of the subject is given
in Porzczinski's Einleitung in die Sprachwissenschaft (1910),
a German translation of a Russian original. The Bantu
languages have been treated by Black, Torrand, and most recently
by Meinhof, whose Lauilehre der Bantu Sprachen (1910) is the
most complete handling of the subject. As to the classifica-
tion and relationships of languages, see Hovelacque's La Linguis-
tique (Paris, 1876) and F. Muller's Grundriss der Sprachwissen-
schaft (Vienna, 3 vols.; a fourth was left incomplete at the author's

430

PHILOLOGY

Historical
Sketch.

death). Both works are already somewhat antiquated. As
to the history of the study, see Lersch's Sprochphilosophie der
Allen (1840); Steinthal's Geschichte der Sprochivissenschaft bet
den Griechen und Romern (1863); Benfey's Geschichte der Sprach-
vrissenschaft und Orientalischen Philologie in Deutschland (1869);
Sandys's History of Classical Scholarship (3 vols., 1906-1908);
Vilh. Thomsen's Sprogardenskatens Historien Kortpattitfranckling
(1902). (W.D.W.)

II. — Comparative Philology of the Indo-European Languages.
The study of Indo-European comparative philology has from
its outset necessarily been in close connexion with the study of
Sanskrit, a language unparalleled amongst its cognates in
antiquity and distinctness of structuie, and consequently the
natural basis of comparison in this field. It is therefore not
to be wondered at that we find no clear views of the mutual
relationship of the individual members ot the Indo-European
family or their position with regard to other languages until
Sanskrit began to attract the attention of European philologists,
or that the introduction of Sanskrit as an object of study was
closely followed by the discovery of the original community
of a vast range of languages and dialects hitherto not brought
into connexion at all, or only made the objects of baseless
speculations. We meet with the first clear concep-
tion of this idea of an Indo-European community
of languages in the distinguished English scholar
Sir William Jones, who, as early as 1786, expressed himself
as follows: " The Sanskrit language, whatever may be its
antiquity, is of wonderful structure; more perfect than the Greek,
more copious than the Latin, and more exquisitely refined than
either, yet bearing to both of them a stronger affinity, both in
the roots of verbs and in the forms of grammar, than could have
been produced by accident; so strong that no philologer could
examine all the three without believing them to have sprung
from some common source which, perhaps, no longer exists.
There is a similar reason, though not quite so forcible, for suppos-
ing that both the Gothic and the Celtic, though blended with a
different idiom, had the same origin with the Sanskrit." l But
neither Sir William Jones nor any of his older contemporaries
who had arrived at similar conclusions ever raised this important
discovery from a brilliant aperc.u into a valid scientific theory
through a detailed and systematic comparison of the languages
in question. To have achieved this is the undoubted merit of
the German, Franz Bopp (q.v.), the founder of scientific philology
of the Indo-European languages, and subsequently
j°arim"m. tnrough this example also the founder of comparative
philology in general. Next to him Jacob Grimm (q.v.)
must be mentioned here as the father of historical grammar.
The first part of his famous Deutsche Grammatik appeared in
1819, three years after Bopp had published his first epoch-
making book, Ueber das Conjugations system der Sanskritsprache.
Bopp's results were here at once utilized, yet Grimm's whole
system was entirely independent of that of Bopp, and had no
doubt been worked out before Grimm knew of his illustrious
predecessor. In fact, their scientific aims and methods were
totally different. Bopp's interest was not concentrated in
comparison as such, but chiefly inclined towards the explanation
of the origin of grammatical forms, and comparison to him was
only a means of approaching that end.

In this more or less speculative turn of his interest Bopp
showed himself the true son of a philosophical period when
general linguistics received its characteristic stamp from the
labours and endeavours of men like the two Schlegels and Wilhelm
von Humboldt. Jacob Grimm's aims were of a less lofty
character than those of Bopp, whose work, to his own mind,
was crowned by his theory of the origin of inflexion through
agglutination. In confining his task to a more limited range
than the vast field of Indo-European languages embraced in

1 For this quotation and the following historical sketch in general
see Th. Benfey, Geschichte der Sprachwissenschaft, p. 438 (Munich,
1869), and especially B. Delbruck, Introduction to the Study of
Language, p. I (Leipzig, 1882; a fifth German edition appeared in
1909).

Bopp's researches, and thus fixing his attention on a group of
idioms exhibiting a striking regularity in their mutual relation-
ship, both where they coincide and where they differ, he made it
his foremost object to investigate and illustrate the continuous
progress, subject to definite laws, by which these languages had
been developed from their common source. He thus raised
the hitherto neglected study of the development of sounds
to an equal level with the study of grammatical forms, which
had so far almost exclusively absorbed all the interest of linguistic
research. Grimm's discovery of the so-called " Lautverschie-
bung," or Law of the Permutation of Consonants in the Teutonic
languages (which, however, had been partly found and pro-
claimed before Grimm by the Danish scholar Rask), became
especially important as a stimulus for further investigation in
this line. Grimm's influence on comparative philology (which
is secondary only to that of Bopp, although he was never a
comparative philologist in the sense that Bopp was, and did not
always derive the benefit from Bopp's works which they might
have afforded him) is clearly traceable in the work of Bopp's
successors, amongst whom Friedrich August Pott (1802-1887)
is universally judged to hold the foremost rank. In his great
work, Etymologische Forschungen auf dem Gebiete der indo-
germanischen Sprachen, mil besonderem Bezug auf die Laulum-
wandlung im Sanskrit, Griechischen, Lateinischen, Littauischen,
und Gothischen (Lemgo, 1833-1836), we find Indo-European
etymology for the first time based on a scientific investigation
of general Indo-European phonology. Amongst Pott's contem-
poraries Theodor Benfey deserves mention on account of his
Griechisches Wurzellexicon (Berlin, 1839), a work genfe
equally remarkable for copiousness of contents
and power of combination, yet showing no advance on Bopp's
standpoint in its conception of phonetic changes.

A third period in the history of Indo-European philology
is marked by the name of August Schleicher, whose Com-
pendiuim der vergleichenden Grammatik der indo-
germanischen Sprachen first appeared in 1861. In
the period subsequent to the appearance of Pott's Etymologische
Forschungen, a number of distinguished scholars, too large to
be recorded here individually,2 had devoted their labours to
the different branches of Indo-European philology, especially
assisted and promoted in their work by the rapidly progressing
Vedic (and Avestic) studies that had been inaugurated by Rosen,
Roth, Benfey, Westergaard, Miiller, Kuhn, Aufrecht and others.
Moreover, new foundations had been laid for the study of the
Slavonic languages by Miklosich and Schleicher, of Lithuanian
by Kurschat and Schleicher, of Celtic by Zeuss. Of the
classical languages Greek had found a most distinguished
representative in Curtius, while Corssen, Mommsen, Aufrecht,
Kirchhoff, &c., had collected most valuable materials towards

2 The extensive progress made in this period is best illustrated
by the foundation of two periodicals especially devoted to Indo-
European comparative philology, Kuhn's Zeitschrift fur verglei-
chende Sprachforschung (now 27 vols., Berlin, from 1851), and
Kuhn's BeitrUge zur vergleichenden Sprachforschung (8 vols., Berlin,
from 1858). Benfey's school is more especially represented by the
contributors to Benfey's Orient und Occident (3 vols., Gpttingen,
from 1862), and subsequently through Bezzenberger's Beitrdge zur
Kunde der indogermanischen Sprachen (30 vols., Gottingen, from
1877); this journal has now been amalgamated with Kuhn's Zeit-
schrift. The views of the " New Grammarians " — Leskien, Brug-
mann, Osthoff and their schools — are represented in Indogermanische
Forschungen (27 vols., since 1890). The Gottingen school has a
further representative jn Glotta, now (1910) in its third vojume.
The history of the meaning of words has a special periodical for itself,
Worter und Sachen, now in its second volume. Besides those
mentioned there are many journals, publications of academies, &c.,
in Belgium, Sweden, Denmark, Italy, &c., which no serious student
of comparative philology can ignore. France possesses two periodi-
cals of the same kind, the Revue de Linguistique (Paris, from 1868)
and the Memoires de, la Societe de Linguistique de Paris (also from
1868), while England is represented by the Proceedings and Trans-
actions of the Philological Societies of London and Cambridge, the
Classical Review (23 vols., since 1887), and the Classical Quarterly
(4 vols., since 1907), and America by the Transactions of the American
Philological Association (from 1868), the American Journal of
Philology (30 vols., from 1880), Classical Philology (5 vols., from
1906),' and other more specialist organs.

PHILOLOGY

43

the elucidation of Latin and the cognate Italic idioms. In
his Compendium Schleicher undertook and solved the difficult
task of sifting down the countless details amassed since the
days of Bopp and Grimm, and thus making the individual
languages stand out clearly on their common background,
while Bopp's attention had been especially occupied with what
was common to all Indo-European tongues. There are two
prominent features which characterize this part of Schleicher's
work — his assumption and partial reconstruction of a pre-
historic parent speech, from which the separate Indo-European
languages were supposed to have sprung, and the estab-
lishment of a long series of phonetic laws, regulating the
changes by which that development of the individual idioms
had taken place. On Schleicher's views of and contributions
towards general comparative philology (which he erroneously
proposed to consider as a branch of natural science) we need
not enter here. (See Evolution and the Science of Language in
Darwin and Modern Science, 1909, pp. 526 sqq.)

For some time after Schleicher's premature death (in 1868)
Indo-European philology continued in paths indicated by him
and Curtius, with the exception, perhaps, of the school founded
by Benfey, who had always stood on independent ground.
The difference between the two schools, however, was less
strikingly marked in their writings, because it chiefly concerns
general views of language and the Indo-European languages in
particular, although the characteristic task of the period alluded
to was that of working out the more minute details of com-
parison; but behind all this the general interest still clung to
Bopp's old glottogonic problems. In 1876, however, a new
New Lin- movement, inspired in the first instance by the
guistic works of W. D. Whitney, began, and a younger
School. school of linguists has sprung up who are united
in their opposition to many theories of the older generation,
yet often differ materially both with regard to method and
the solution of individual problems. In its present state this
younger school (often branded with the name of Neo-Gram-
marians, " Junggrammatiker," by its opponents real and
imaginary) is marked by certain distinct tendencies. In the
first place, they are inclined more or less, and the older members
of the school perhaps more than the younger, to abandon
glottogonic problems as insoluble, if not for ever, yet for the
present and with the scanty means that Indo-European philo-
logy alone can furnish for this purpose. In this they are in
opposition to the whole of the older school. In the second place,
they object to the use of all misleading metaphorical com-
parisons of processes in the history of language with processes
of organic development — comparisons used at all times, but
especially cherished by Schleicher. In the third place — and
this has been of the greatest practical importance — they hold
that our general views of language and our methods of com-
parison should be formed after a careful study of the living
languages, because these alone are fully controllable in every
minute detail, and can therefore alone give us a clear insight
into the working of the different motive forces which shape
and modify language, and that the history of earlier periods
of language, consequently, can only be duly illustrated by trac-
ing out the share which each of these forces has had in every
individual case of change. Of these forces two are found to
be especially prominent — phonetic variation and formation by-
analogy. They generally work in turns and often in opposi-
tion to one another, the former frequently tending to differentia-
tion of earlier unities, the latter to abolition of earlier differences,
especially to restoration of conformity disturbed by phonetic
change. There are, however, other important differences in
the action of the two forces. Phonetic change
affects exclusively the pronunciation of a language
by substituting one sound or sound-group for
From this simple fact it is self-evident that
phonetic changes as such admit of no exceptions. Pro-
nunciation— that is, the use of certain sounds in certain
combinations — is perfectly unconscious in natural unstudied
speech, and every speaker or generation of speakers has

Phonetic
Change.

another.

only one way of utterance for individual sounds or their
combinations. If, therefore, a given sound was once changed
into another under given circumstances, the new sound must
necessarily and unconsciously replace its predecessor in every
word that falls under the same rules, because the older sound
ceases to be practised and therefore disappears from the language.
Thus, for instance, the sound of the short so-called Italian a
in English has become exchanged for the peculiarly English
sound in man, hat, &c., which is so exclusively used and practised
now by English speakers that they feel great difficulty in pro-
nouncing the Italian sound, which at an earlier period was
almost as frequent in English as in any other language that has
preserved the Italian sound up to the present day. Again,
the sound of the so-called long English a in make, paper, &c.,
although once a monophthong, is now pronounced as a diph-
thong, combining the sounds of the English short e and *, and
no trace of the old monophthong is left, except where it was
followed by r, as in hare, mare (also air, their, where, &c.), where
the a has a broader sound somewhat approaching that of the
short a in hat. This last instance may at the same time serve
to illustrate the restrictions made above as to sounds changing
their pronunciation in certain groups or combinations, or under
given circumstances only. We may learn from it that phonetic
change need not always affect the same original sound in the
same way in all its combinations, but that neighbouring sounds
often influence the special direction in which the sound is
modified. The different sounds of the English a in make and
hare are both equivalents of the same Old English sound a
( = the Italian short a) in macian, hara. The latter sound has
been split in two, but this process again has taken place with
perfect regularity, the one sound appearing before r, the other
before all other consonants. It is easy to see that the common
practice of comprising the history of the Old English a in the
one rule — that it was changed into the sound of the it in make
except when followed by an r — can only be defended on the
practical ground that this rule is convenient to remember,
because the words exhibiting the former change are more
numerous than the instances of the latter; apart from this there
is nothing to justify the assumption that one of these changes
is the rule and the other the exception. The fact is, that we
have two independent cases of change, which ought to be stated
in two distinct and independent rules according to the different
positions in which the original a stood before the splitting
began. It is also easy to observe that the variety of modify-
ing influences may be much more manifold than in the present
instance of make and hare, and that the number of special
phonetic rules in such cases must be increased in proportion
to the progress made in the investigation of the said modifying
powers.

In truth, however, the study of phonetic laws falls into several
different stages, and the meaning attached to the phrase phonetic
law has varied at each of these stages. Moreover, the sweeping
nature of the original generalizations has become so hedged in
and contracted by limitations that a recent writer has been
compelled once more to formulate the question whether phonetic
laws actually exist. It must be admitted in the first place that
the word law has been ill chosen for use in this connexion. In
phonetic laws there is no element which can be identified as
coming under the definition of a law as propounded by a jurist
like John Austin. There is no authority which enunciates the
law, there is no penalty for the breach of it. But the philologists
who first used the term were not thinking of law in its strict
signification, but of its use in such metaphorical expressions as
scientific laws, for, as already mentioned, Schleicher and his
followers in the middle of the igth century had taken a keen
interest in the development of the natural sciences, and had to
some extent assimilated their terminology to that employed in
those sciences. It was, however, soon recognized that the laws
of language and those of natural science were not really alike or
akin. A scientific " law " is only a brief method of expressing
the fact that universal experience shows that certain causes
universally produce certain effects. In chemistry two atoms of

432

PHILOLOGY

hydrogen and one of oxygen will make water, and they will make
nothing else at any time or at any place the world over. Phonetic
laws, however, do not hold true universally. They are often
curiously limited in the area to which they apply. In ancient
Greek, for example, the sound -s- between two vowels, which
had been handed down from the original language whence Greek
and the sister languages are derived, regularly disappears; in
Latin, on the other hand, it changes into -r-; thus an original
genitive of a neuter substantive we find represented in Greek by
yiv(-os, a form which comparison with other languages shows
to be traceable to an earlier *genes-os, preceding the separation
of the languages, while the same original stem with a different
vowel in the ending appears in Latin as gener-is. Similarly an
early *euso appears in Greek as euo>, in Latin as uro. This
disappearance of original intervocalic s pervades all Greek
dialects — the apparent exceptions come under the heading of
analogical change; with a very few exceptions similarly explic-
able Latin intervocalic s has become r. But Latin was originally
limited to a very small part even of Italy, and the next neigh-
bours of the Latins on the east and south — the Sabines, Cam-
panians and Samnites — retained this intervocalic s without
changing it into r. On the other hand, the neighbours to the
north-east — the Umbrians in and beyond the Apennines —
shared in this rhotacism. Yet the Celts, who bordered on the
Umbrians along the Po, and who spoke a language in many
respects very closely akin to the dialects of Italy, in this regard
agree rather with Greek than the Italic languages. In Latin,
again, the period of action of the law which changed intervocalic
s into r did not in all probability exceed the century from 450 B.C.
to 350 B.C. So unlike, indeed, are phonetic laws to the laws of
natural science in universality that an opponent of the dogma
which declares that phonetic laws have no exceptions has
compared them with the laws of fashion. The comparison is
not so outrageous as it may seem at first sight. For in language
there are two kinds of sound change, that which is unconscious,
universal at a given time and within a given area, and, on the
other hand, that which belongs only to a particular class or
clique, deviates consciously from the pronunciation of the
majority, is therefore not universal, and exercises no permanent
influence on the language. The second kind of sound change
corresponds exactly to the laws of fashion; it is in fact one of
them. Such sound changes are the pronunciation of the English
ending -ing as -in', which was fashionable in the middle of the
iQth century. This had, though probably without the know-
ledge of those who used it, an historical justification in the earlier
forms from which most of the English words now ending in
-ing are descended, and which survive in numerous local dialects.
A similar conventional mispronunciation was the lisp affected
by some would-be artistic persons at a somewhat later period.
Belonging to an entirely different social stratum, and now
equally obsolete, was the London pronunciation of the first half
of the i gth century typified in Tony and Sam Weller's treatment
of v and w in the Pickwick Papers. This, however, made a much
nearer approach to being a genuine dialect peculiarity. It
undoubtedly pervaded the pronunciation of the lower classes
in London at one time; had it survived it might conceivably
have spread over a wider and wider area until it embraced the
whole population of England. A later change, that of the
diphthong ai into ei (so that day, daily are pronounced dy, dyly),
has spread from Essex and the East End of London over a large
part of London and of the adjacent counties, and is still widening
its range both geographically and socially. The history of these
sound changes has not yet been investigated in detail with the
thoroughness which it deserves.

There is, then, a part of sound change which is a matter of
fashion and which is conscious. This sound change appears
frequently in the pronunciation of individuals who have migrated
from one part of a country to another. In many parts of
Scotland, for example, the prepositions with and of appear in
dialect only in the forms wV and o', which were originally the
unaccented forms. In the conscious attempts to pronounce
them as they appear in literary English, the educated Scotsman,

if he remains in his native place, as a rule pronounces them as
with (with the final sound unvoiced as it appears in the Scottish
legal preposition ov.twith) and as off, the final sound here also
being unvoiced. If he migrates to England or to Australia he
will probably in course of time adopt the pronunciation with a
voiced final sound. In the course of years habit will become
second nature, and in this respect the speaker's pronunciation
will become identical with that of his neighbours. It is clear,
however, that changes of this nature cannot take place on a large
scale. If a large number of persons migrate in a body and
continue to live in close intercourse with one another and but
little in contact with the outside world, changes such as take
place in the pronunciation of the individual emigrant do not
occur. There can be no imitation of alien sounds, for there are
none; no greater effort to be intelligible is required, for the audi-
ence has not changed. Hence it has been often remarked that
a population which history shows to have remained undisturbed
for very long periods in the same geographical situation manifests
but little change in its language. Thus in Arabia and Lithuania
the population has remained practically unmixed in the same
habitat for thousands of years, with the result that the languages
spoken there remain at the present day the most archaic members
of the linguistic families to which they respectively belong.

From what has been said it will be obvious that a phonetic
law is only an observed uniformity in the treatment of a sound
or a combination of sounds within a linguistic area at a given
time. In the definition the term linguistic area is a very variable
quantity. Thus it is a phonetic law that a sound of the original
Indo-European language, the precise pronunciation of which
cannot be determined, but which was at any rate a palatal sound
(k), appears in the Indo-European group (Sanskrit, Zend, Old
Persian, with their descendants), in Armenian, in Balto-Slavonic
and Albanian, in the form of a sibilant, while in Greek, the
Italic dialects, Germanic and Celtic, it appears as a A-sound (see
INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES). Here the linguistic area is
extremely wide, and it is clear that the difference between the
two groups of languages must be dated back to a very early
period. Again, it is a phonetic law of Greek that the original
combination st- at the beginning of words is retained in Greek.
How then are we to explain the existence side by side of artyos
and rfcyoj ? The former apparently complies with the law, the
latter does not. The former has by its side the verb arfyu,
while riyos is supported only by the rare reyri. Yet the forms
of the verb and substantive found in the Germanic languages
leave no doubt that the forms without i- represent an extremely
old form, for the English thatch could not have changed its
original t- into th- if it had been preceded by s-, the law being as
strict for English as for Greek that initial st- remains unchanged.
On the other hand, a phonetic law may be limited to a very small
area. Thus in the dialect of Eretria, and nowhere else within
the area of the Ionic dialect of ancient Greek, do we find the
change of the sound which appears elsewhere in Greek as -a-
between vowels into -p-: a'mipiv for ffirqviv (ace. sing.),
wapa^aivwptv for TFaft&abnmf (3rd pi. subjunctive). Why
this change should take place here and nowhere else we do
not know, although it may be conjectured that the cause was a
mixture with immigrants speaking a different dialect, a mixture
which ancient tradition supported. Undoubtedly such mixtures
are the chief conditions of phonetic change, the effect of which is
universal. The manner in which the change takes place is that
the basis of articulation, the method in which the sound is
produced, becomes changed. Thus along the " Highland line "
in Scotland, where the English and Gaelic-speaking populations
had their linguistic frontier for centuries, the wh- of English, the
Anglo-Saxon hw-, becomes universally /-, who, ? becoming fa 't
white, file, &c.,/ being the sound which it was most easy to substi-
tute for the difficult hw-. The history of Spanish in the different
communities of South America excellently illustrates this point.
After the discovery of America there was a large influx of
Spaniards into Chile, who ultimately, and chiefly by intermar-
riage, incorporated amongst them a considerable element from
amongst the native Araucanian Indians. The result has been

PHILOLOGY

433

that the language of Chile is Spanish, pronounced not with the
genuine sounds of Spanish, but with the sounds of the Araucanian
language substituted for them. Elsewhere in Spanish America
the language of the conquerors remained comparatively pure,
because the Spaniards were much fewer in number, and had
therefore to maintain themselves as a caste apart. For the same
reason Latin has split up into the numerous branches which we
know as the Romance languages. The particular line of
development which, e.g. French followed as compared with
Spanish or with the language of the Rhaetian Alps was condi-
tioned by the nature of the sounds in the language which pre-
ceded it in the same area, and which was spoken by the ancient
Gauls who adopted Latin. The difficulty found in all of these
cases is precisely of the same kind as that which an adult at the
present day speaking one language finds in attempting to learn
the pronunciation of another language. On the one hand, it
is only with the greatest difficulty that muscles for many years
accustomed to perform one set of movements can be forced into
performing another set which are very similar but yet not
identical; on the other hand, to an untrained ear the difference
between the two sounds may remain unappreciated. The result
is that the new language is pronounced with the sounds of the
speaker's original language. If the new language is adopted by
a whole people to whom it was originally foreign, the children
naturally learn it from their parents with the sounds of the old
language which has now become obsolete. Thus the basis of
articulation is changed, and if, as was the case with Latin, this
process be frequently repeated among peoples speaking languages
with articulation widely differing one from another, it is clear
that a series of different dialects of the adopted language has
been created. This kind of change is immediate and universal
throughout the whole area where linguistic change has taken
place.

Analogical change, on the other hand, does not affect the
pronunciation of a language as a whole in the way that phonetic
change does, but is confined to the formation, inflexion, syntax
and meaning of single words or groups of words, and therefore is
very apt to bear an entirely arbitrary and irregular character.
A few instances will be sufficient to illustrate this and also to
show how the apparently irregular phenomena of analogy may
be classified, (a) In Old English a certain number of substantives
formed their plurals by mutation of the root vowels, as jot, jet,
or hoc, bee. In Modern English this system of inflexion has been
preserved in some cases, as in foot, feel, and altered in others, as
book, books. Now, while foot, feet and book are the regular
modern phonetic equivalents of the old fot, jet, hoc, the plural
books can in no way be phonetically traced back to the old bee,
the phonetical equivalent of which in Modern English would be
*beech. The only possible explanation of a form like books is
that the older bee was at some date given up and replaced by an
entirely new formation, shaped after the analogy of the numerous
words with a plural in -s without modification of the root-vowel.
Such changes, which are very numerous, exemplify the first kind
of analogy, which is generally termed formal analogy. Other
examples are the almost entire disappearance from the language
of the forms in er and en, which were earlier used as plurals in
English. That they were originally stem and not case suffixes
does not affect the point. In Middle English, as in Modern
English, oxen was spelt as a plural; oxen survives, but eyen, except
in such dialect forms as the Scotch e'en, has been replaced by the
form in -s: eyes. Similarly in Middle English the suffix -er
existed in many words which had been originally of the neuter
gender. Thus the plural of child was childer, of calf was calver,
traces of which, besides the survival in dialect of childer and of
calver (become by the i6th century in northern Scotch car —
pronounced as cahr — which is still in common use), are to be
found in the place, and hence personal, names Childer-ley and
Calver-ley. The old plural of brother was brether, where the
suffix, however, contained an original -r, not -s changed into -r,
as did childer and calver. In Old English, alongside the form for
child making a plural childer, there had been a masculine form
making its plural in -s. It would not have been surprising there-

fore if in Modern English the plural of child had been childs. But
in spite of the common tendency to make the plural of all noun-
stems in -s, child has gone in the opposite direction and has not
only maintained its -r, but has added to it the -en of stems like
oxen and eyen. In Wiclif we find a similar plural to calf, calveren,
but here calves has long replaced in the literary language both
the earlier forms.

(6) Let us now take another instance from the English verb.
In Old English the different persons of the preterite indicative
in the so-called strong (irregular) verbs were generally distin-
guished by different root-vowels; ridan, " to ride," and bindan,
" to bind," for instance, form their preterities thus; ic rod, 8«
ride, he rdd, we, ge, hie ridon, and ic band, 5u bunde, he band, we,
ge, hie bundon. In modern English this difference in the root-
vowels has been abandoned, and rode, bound now stand for all
persons, rode being the modern phonetic equivalent of the ist
and 3rd sing, rod, while bound represents the u- form of bindan.
When one form or set of forms ousts other varying forms from
the same paradigm, the change is described variously as
material or logical analogy. Inasmuch as a similar process of
levelling to that seen in rode has been carried through in all
preterites of Modern English, regularity prevails even here, though
a few traces of the old conflict are still visible in such poetic
forms as sung for the preterite side by side with sang. But
when we look to its results in the individual verbs we soon find
that the choice amongst the different forms which might have
served as starting-points has been entirely arbitrary. It is
indeed impossible to say why the old singular form should have
been chosen as a model in one case, as in rode, and the old plural
form in another, as in bound. From these and numerous similar
instances we must draw the conclusion that it is beyond our
power to ascertain whence analogical changes start, and to
what extent they may be carried through when once begun.
All we can do is to classify carefully the single cases that come
under our observation, and in this way to investigate where
such changes are especially apt to take place and what is their
general direction. As to the latter points, it has been observed
before that levelling of existing differences is one of the chief
•features in analogical change (as in the case of rode and bound).
As to the former, it must be borne in mind that, before any ana-
logical change can take place, some mental connexion must exist
between the words or forms serving as models and those which
are remodelled after the types suggested to the minds of the
speakers through the former. Of such natural mental combina-
tions two classes deserve special notice: the mutual relationship
in which the different, say inflexional, forms of the same word
stand to each other, and the more abstract analogies between
the inflexional system of word-groups bearing a similar character,
as, for instance, the different declensions of nouns and pronouns,
or the different conjugations of verbs. The instance of rode,
bound may serve to illustrate the former category, that of books
the latter. In the first case a levelling has taken place between
the different forms of the root-vowels once exhibited in the
different preterite forms of ridan or bindan, which clearly
constitute a natural group or mental unity in consequence of
their meaning. The form of rode as a plural has simply been
taken from the old singular rod, the long a of which has become
in Modern English 5, that of bound as a singular from the old
plural bundon, the u- sound of which has in Modern English come
to be pronounced as a diphthong. In the case of book, books for
boc, bee, this explanation would fall short. Although we might
say that the vowel of the singular here was carried into the plural,
yet this would not explain the plural -s. So it becomes evident
that the old declension of boc, bee was remodelled after the
declension of words like arm, arms, which had always formed
their plurals in -s. The changes indicated may generally be
shown by a proportion, the new analogical formation being the
unknown quantity to be ascertained. Thus in the case cited
above, arm: arms = book: x; and clearly the form to be
ascertained is books. Isolated words or forms which are no
part of natural groups or systems, inflexional, formative or syn-
tactical must be regarded as commonly safe from alterations

434

PHILOLOGY

through analogy, and are therefore of especial value with regard
to establishing rules of purely phonetic development.

(c) In syntactical analogy the mental .connexion between the
two series of constructions between which the change takes
place is generally still more conspicuous. The connexion may
be one of similar or of contrasted meaning. In Latin, adjectives
of fullness, like other adjectives, no doubt originally were followed
by the genitive case; participles, on the other hand, were followed
by the instrumental ablative. Thus Plautus in the Aulularia
813 and elsewhere could say aulam auri plenam, " a pot full of
gold," or 802 aulam onustam auro, " a pot laden with gold."
From these the transition was easy to the construction aulam
onustam auri, as if in English one should say (as was possible
in Earlier English), " a pot laden of gold." In English, con-
trasted words often tend to assimilate their syntactical construc-
tions. Thus, the adjectives like and similar are followed by
the preposition to (though in Modern English like need have no
preposition) , and upon the analogy of such words, different and
averse, with which correct speakers and writers couple from, are
by no means rarely followed by to. Nor is it uncommon to
hear or to see differ with instead of differ from, upon the analogy
of agree with. Curiously enough, Latin, from which differ is
descended, is found to follow the same analogy even in good
writers. Thus Cicero (Academica Pr. ii. 143 ) combines dissidere
with cum, as later does Seneca (Epistulae, 1 8. i) .

(d) In the development of analogy in meaning, similarity of
sound is often the effective cause. Thus impertinent is properly
irrelevant, not to the point, and is still so used in legal language;
its more common signification of " saucy " arises from its
accidental resemblance in sound to pert, a word which curiously
enough has reversed its meaning, being now used in the sense
of mal-apert, while the Old French apert, aspert (a confusion of
Lat. apertus, " open," with expertus, " skilled "), meant both
" open " and " skilful." Thus from very early times the verbs
fly and flee have been confused, though they are of entirely
different origins. When Middle English began to lose its verb
endings in -en, it was very easy for the verb leren, " teach," and
lernen, " learn," to be confused. Hence frequently in Eliza-
bethan English learn stands side by side with teache in the same
signification. Cf. Tottell's Miscellany, p. 129 (Arber) :

" I would not have it thought hereby

The dolphin swimme I meane to teache:
Nor yet to learn the Fawcon flie :
I rowe not so farre past my reache."

It is true that the distinction between phonetic and analogical
change has always been acknowledged in comparative philology.
At the same time it cannot be denied that analogical changes
were for a long time treated with a certain disdain and contempt,
as deviations from the only course of development then allowed
to be truly " organic " and natural, namely, that of gradual
phonetic change (hence the epithet " false " so constantly
attached to analogy in former times). Amongst those who have
recently contributed most towards a more correct evaluation of
analogy as a motive power in language, Professor Whitney must
be mentioned in the first place. In Germany Professor Scherer
(Zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache, 1868) was the first to
apply analogy as a principle of explanation on a larger scale,
but in a wilful and unsystematic way. Hence he failed to
produce an immediate and lasting impression, and the merit of
having introduced into the practice of modern comparative
philology a strictly systematic consideration of both phonetic
and analogic changes as co-ordinate factors in the develop-
ment of language rests with Professor Leskien of Leipzig, and

a number of younger scholars who had more or less
School. experienced his personal influence. Amongst these

Brugmann, Osthoff and Paul rank foremost as the
most vigorous and successful defenders of the new method, the
correctness of which has since been practically acknowledged by
most of the leading philologists of all shades of opinion.

While the syntax of individual languages was one of the first
features which attracted the grammarians' attention, at any
rate in so far as particular authors differed from a given

standard, it is only in very recent times that syntax has
received methodical treatment from the comparative point of
view. It may indeed be said that almost the

whole fabric of the comparative syntax of the
Indo-European languages as it exists to-day has
been reared by one man — Professor Berthold Delbriick of Jena.
In a series of brilliant studies beginning with a pamphlet on the
Locative, Ablative, and Instrumental, published in 1867, and
continued in his Syntactical Researches (Syntaklische Forsch-
ungen) in five volumes, comprising a treatment of the
conjunctive and optative moods in Sanskrit and Greek (1871),
the theory of the Sanskrit tenses (1877), the order of words in
early Sanskrit prose (Catapatha Brahmana; 1878), the founda-
tions of Greek syntax (1879), and the syntax of the oldest San-
skrit (Altindische Syntax), dealing exclusively with the literature
of the Vedas and Brahmanas (1888), Professor Delbriick laid
the foundations for his treatment of comparative syntax in
three volumes (1893, 1897, 1900), which has formed the
completion of Brugmann's Grundriss der vergleichenden
Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen. The only work
by another hand (on a large department of the subject)
which deserves to be mentioned by the side of Delbruck's
studies is the small treatise by Hiibschmann on the theory
of the cases {Zur Casuslehre, 1875). For the comparative
neglect of this field of investigation there are several reasons.
The earlier philologists had so much to do in determining the
languages which should be included within the Indo-European
group, and in organizing the field of research as a whole, that
it is not to be wondered at if they were unable to devote much
attention to syntax. In the 'seventies, when attention began to
be more directed towards comparative syntax, the remarkable
discoveries made by Verner with regard to accentuation, and
by Brugmann, Collitz and others with regard to the phonology
of the Indo-European languages, again distracted attention
from the subject. Moreover, the research in itself is infinitely
more difficult than that into sounds and forms; for the latter
may be carried on by the help of grammars and dictionaries
with a comparatively small knowledge of the literature of any
individual language, while on the other hand the study of syntax
is impossible without a thorough and intimate knowledge of
the literature and modes of expression in each separate language.
It is not, therefore, matter for wonder that Delbruck has confined
himself in the investigation of syntax to a part only of the lan-
guages whose sounds and forms are discussed by Brugmann
in the earlier volumes of the Grundriss, To. cover the whole
ground is beyond the powers of a single man, and there is a
great lack of preliminary studies on the syntax of many of the
languages.

One of the most difficult problems connected with syntax,
but primarily, as it appears, a question of morphology, is the
origin of grammatical gender. It cannot be said to be an advan-
tage to the languages which possess it, while languages which,
like English, have dropped it except for an occasional metaphor,
suffer no loss. Nor is the problem confined to the history of
gender in the substantive. Even more perplexing is the intro-
duction of gender into the adjective. The pronouns of the first
and second persons, which are certainly very old, show no trace
of gender; the pronouns of the third person, which are more of
the nature of deictic adjectives, generally possess it. To the
question how grammatical gender arose in the substantive, the
answer was till comparatively recently supposed to be that
primitive man was given greatly to personification, endowing
inanimate things with life and attributing to them influences
benign or the reverse upon his own existence. The answer
is not quite sufficient, for though this tendency to personification,
which philologists have perhaps unduly decried or altogether
denied, might account for life being attributed to inanimate
objects, it hardly explains why some should be treated as mascu-
line and others as feminine. Nor is it true, as has also been
suggested, that in the case of the lower animals the generic name
for the larger and stronger animals is masculine and that for the
smaller or weaker feminine. In both Greek and Latin the wolf

PHILOLOGY

435

is masculine and the fox feminine, but the lamb or the chicken
which the fox robs from the fold or the henroost is rarely feminine,
generally masculine. Nor does this explanation account for
the mouse in those languages being of the masculine gender,
while the ferret or cat which caught them is feminine (70X17,
feles). An explanation which completes the theory of personifi-
cation, if it does not altogether drive it from the field, has been
put forward by Brugmann.1 In its briefest form this explana-
tion is that gender was attached to certain suffixes because they
chanced to occur frequently in words which markedly implied
sex. In the Indo-European languages the commonest suffix
indicating feminine gender is a. According to this theory it
had originally nothing to do with gender, but as some early words
for woman or wife ended with this sound it came to be identified
with feminine gender. Similarly the ending os in o-stems
occurred often in names connected with males and so became
identified with the masculine gender. But many stems indicate
either gender indifferently, and even the very old sex words
father and mother have the same ending. But when masculine
and feminine endings have been attached to certain suffixes in
this way, how comes it that in one series of stems the neuter should
be marked not by an absence of all suffix but by a separate
suffix in -m ? These are the o-stems, other forms of which have
been markedly identified with the masculine gender. As this
characteristic, like the others mentioned, goes back apparently
to a time before the separation of the Indo-European languages,
explanation can hardly pass beyond speculation. It is, however,
to be noted that the neuter form of the nominative is phonetic-
ally identical with the accusative form of the masculine, and
it has been ingeniously argued2 that such forms were used
originally in the accusative, such neuters not forming the subject
to a verb. To the same writer the most plausible explanation
of the presence of gender in the adjective is due, viz. that gender
began with the deictic pronoun *so " that man," *sa " that
woman," and that hence it passed to the adjective with which
the pronoun was so frequently accompanied. If this explanation
be right, analogy has brought into the Indo-European languages
the useless multiplication of gender marks in such sentences as
the Latin hae pulcrae feminae caesae sunt, where the feminine
gender is indicated no less than four times without any obvious
gain over the English These fair women were slain, where
grammatical gender is no longer obviously indicated at all.

Closely related to this question is that of the history of the
neuter plural, which was first fully worked out by Professor
Johannes Schmidt of Berlin.3 The curious construction, most
common in ancient Greek, whereby a neuter plural is combined
with a singular verb, is now demonstrated to be an archaic
survival from the time when the neuter plural was a collective
singular. Thus a word like the Latin iugum was a single yoke,
the plural iuga, however, which was earlier iuga, was a collection
of yokes, with the same final a as is found generally in feminine
substantives. The declension ought therefore to have been
originally: nominative iuga, genitive iugds, &c., like mensa, &c.,
of the first declension. But as iuguum was used in the neuter
singular for both nominative and accusative, iuga when it was
felt as the corresponding plural was used for the accusative as
well as the nominative, while the other cases of the plural were
taken over from the masculine o-stems, with which the singular
neuter in -o-m was so closely connected. That collective words
should be used for the plural is not surprising; the English
youth, first an abstract, next a collective, and finally an
individual, is a case in point.

For the early history of the syntax of the verb Greek and
Sanskrit are important above all other languages, because in
them the original forms and the original usages are better pre-
served than they are elsewhere. And it is in the verb that the
great difficulties of comparative syntax present themselves. The
noun system is so well preserved in several languages that, when

1 Techmer's Internationale Zeitschrift fur Sprachwissenschaft, iv.
100.

2 B. I. Wheeler, Journal of Germanic Philology, ii. 528 sqq.
* Pluralbildungen der indogermanischen Neutra (1889).

the number of the original cases had once been determined, the
sifting of the pro-ethnic usages attaching to each case was
tolerably easy, for besides Sanskrit and (to a less extent) Latin,
Lithuanian and Slavonic have kept the pro-ethnic case system
almost complete. The ideas also which had to be expressed
by the cases were on the whole of a very concrete character, so
that here the problem was much simplified. On the other hand,
the ideas expressed by the forms of the verb are of a much more
subtle nature, while the verb system in all languages except
Greek and Sanskrit has broken down earlier and more completely
than the noun. It is clear that the verb of the original Indo-
European language possessed two voices, and forms correspond-
ing to what we call the Indicative, Subjunctive, and Optative
moods, and to the Present, Imperfect, Future, Aorist, and Perfect
tenses. The imperative mood seems primitively to have been
confined to the second person singular, just as the vocative,
which, like the imperative is a stern form without suffix, was
confined to the singular. The infinitive, as is well known, is
in all languages of this system not originally a verbal but a
substantival form. The pluperfect, where it has developed,
seems to be a mixed form arising from the application of aorist
endings to a perfect stem. Thus far the history of the verb
system is tolerably clear. But when we attempt to define the
original meaning of the moods and of the tenses we pass into a
region where, in spite of assiduous investigation in many quarters
during recent years, the scanty amount of light thrown on the
problem has only served to make the darkness visible. As
regards the tenses, at least, it has been shown that without doubt
there is no difference in formation between present, future and
aorist stems, while the earliest meaning cf the perfect was that
of a special kind of present expressing either repeated or intensive
action or a state. It has also been proved that the original
meaning of the aorist is not past in time, and that in fact the
only element whereby these languages could express remoteness
in time was the augment. The augment seems to have been
originally a pronominal deictic particle. Thus, as there was no
original pluperfect, as neither perfect nor aorist originally
referred to past time, and as the future, except in Lithuanian
(with slight traces in Slavonic) and the Indo-Iranian group,
cannot be clearly distinguished from the aorist, the system as
a method of expressing time absolutely breaks down. The
tenses in fact did not originally express the times when the action
took place, but the type of action which took place. Thus the
present system in the main expressed continued or durative
action, the aorist only the fact that the action had taken place.
The action indicated by the aorist might have been of consider-
able duration, or it might have been begun and ended in a moment ;
its characteristics in this respect are not in any way indicated
by the aorist form, which intimates only that the action is
viewed as a completed whole and not as a continuous process.
The present system, however, is built up in a great variety of
ways (thirty-two according to Brugmann's enumeration). It
is a priori unlikely that such a multiplicity of formations had
not originally some reason for its existence, and Delbriick thinks
that he has discovered a difference in syntactical value between
various forms. The reduplicated present forms of the type seen
in Sanskrit jigati, Greek SiSuiu, &c., he regards as expressing
originally an action which consisted of repeated acts of the
same nature (iterative), though this iterative meaning frequently
passed into an intensive meaning. Presents of the type seen
in Sanskrit tr' syati, " is thirsty," and Greek xalpdi, " am glad "
(for *xapju), where the j (y) of the suffix has modified the first
syllable and disappeared, he regards as cursive — i.e. they express
continuous action without reference to its beginning or end.
Verbs which have regard to the beginning or end of the action
he calls terminative, and finds them represented (a) in verbs
with -n- suffixes, Sanskrit rnoti, &pw<Tt, " sets in motion,"
a-fwiu, " break to pieces "; (o) in verbs with the suffix -sko-,
Sanskrit gdchati, " goes " (to a definite destination), Greek
/SdcTKco, &c. The roots he classifies as momentary (punktuell)
or non-momentary, according as they do or do not express an
action which is begun and ended at once.

PHILOLOGY

This method of classification was no doubt suggested in the
first instance by the characteristics of the Slavonic verb system.
In this system a clear distinction is drawn in nearly all verbs
between those which express a process (durative verbs) and those
which express a completed action (perfective verbs). When
perfective and durative verbs are formed from the same root, the
perfective are distinguished from the durative forms (a) by having
a preposition prefixed, or (6) by having a different stem forma-
tion. Thus in the Old Bulgarian (Old Ecclesiastical Slavonic) to
strike (hit) and to strike dead are expressed by the same verb, but
in the latter meaning a preposition is found which does not appear
in the former, bill (infinitive), "to strike"; u-biti, "to strike
dead." To strike is durative; to strike dead is perfective. As an
example of difference of stem formation expressing this difference
of meaning, we may quote sisti, "to sit down" (perfective),
sedlei, " to sit " (durative). Verbs with a suffix in -n- have
often a perfective meaning: cf. the Sanskrit and Greek verbs
quoted above. The perfective verbs correspond in meaning
to the Greek aorist, and are to be carefully distinguished from
perfect forms. The same distinction of meaning is often achieved
in other languages also by means of prepositions, e.g. in Latin
(Seneca, Epp. xciii. 10), Quid autem ad rent pertinet, quamdiu
vites, quod evitare non possis? " What does it matter how long
you go on avoiding [durative] what you cannot escape [perfec-
tive]." From this example, however, it is clear that, though
the means employed to make the distinction are different, there
is no difference in meaning between such perfective verbs and
those classified by Delbriick as terminative. Here, as in many
other parts of this study, the ideas are new, and grammatical
terminology has not yet sufficiently crystallized, and still leaves
something to be desired both in clearness and in precision.

As regards the moods, the difficulty has been to find any
criterion whereby the functions of one mood should be differen-
tiated from those of the others. It has long been recognized
that the difference between indicative and subjunctive is one
of meaning and not one of formation; that, e.g., in Sanskrit
bharali (3rd sing. pres. indie.), " bears," is morphologically
identical with hanati, " may slay " (3rd sing. pres. subj.), and
that the latter is described as a subjunctive only because of
the meaning, and because there exists a dissyllabic form, hanti,
which makes the indicative " slays." Similarly in Greek it is
impossible to distinguish morphologically between iraiiau, " I
shall check" (fut. indie.) and Trawra, " let me check" (ist aor.
subj.). Moreover, in the earliest forms of the languages which
preserve the moods best (Greek and Sanskrit), the connexion
syntactically between the indicative and the subjunctive forms
is closest. Not only does the future express futurity, but also
the determination of the subject to carry out the action expressed,
which, in Delbruck's discussion of the moods, is precisely the
point chosen as characteristic of the subjunctive. On the other
hand, the present optative differs from the present (and future)
indicative and present subjunctive in having a special mood
suffix, and in having secondary while they have primary personal
•endings. Nevertheless its meaning overlaps that of the other
forms, and some excellent authorities, like Professor W. W.
Goodwin, see in future indicative, subjunctive and optative
only different degrees of remoteness in the future, the remoteness
being least in the future and greatest in the optative. Delbriick,
however, abides, with slight modifications, by the distinction
which he propounded in 1871 that the subjunctive expresses
Will and the optative Wish. Here again the problem has not
been solved, and it is doubtful how far any definite solution is
likely to be arrived at, since there are so many gaps in our know-
ledge of mood forms. These gaps, owing to the break-up of the
system at so early a period, it is hardly probable we shall ever
be able to fill. It is possible, however, to do a great deal more
than has yet been done even in the most familiar languages.
In Latin, for instance, even now, the facts for the uses of the
moods within the two centuries of the classical period are very
imperfectly known, and it is no exaggeration to say that more
has been done in the last hundred years for Sanskrit than has been
done in two thousand years of continuous study for Latin or Greek.

A still later addition to the domain of Philology — the study
of meaning — presents fewer difficulties, but until recent years
has been equally neglected. The study is so recent that the
literature of the subject is still extremely small. The only
attempts to deal with it on a large scale are M. Breal's Essai de
Semantique (1897), now translated into English under the title
of Semantics (1900), with a valuable introduction and appendix
by Dr Postgate, and M. de la Grasserie's Essai d'une Semantique
integrate (1908), a work which deserves mention for its attempt
to make a thorough classification and a corresponding termino-
logy for semantic phenomena, but the value of which is much
diminished by hasty compilation and imperfect knowledge of
many of the languages quoted. From the practical point of view
many of the phenomena have been classified in works on rhetoric
under the headings of Metaphor, Synecdoche and Metonymy.
The psychological principle behind this superficial classification
is that of association of ideas. Here, as elsewhere, changes proceed
not by accident, but according to definite principles. Here,
as elsewhere in language, in history, and the other moral sciences,
the particular principle in operation can be ascertained only
by beginning with the result and working back to the cause.
In the development of meaning much more than in phonetics is
this necessarily the case. In phonetics all speakers of the same
dialect start with approximately the same sound. But the same
combination of sounds which we call a word does not recall the
same idea to all persons who use that word. The idea that the
phrase railway station calls up in the mind of a Londoner is very
different from that which occurs to the mind of a child acquainted
only with a wayside station serving the wants of a country
village of a few hundred inhabitants. The word herring suggests
one idea or train of ideas to the fisherman who catches the fish,
another to the merchant who purchases it from the fisherman,
a third to the domestic who cooks it, and so on. To members
of the same family the same word may often have widely different
associations, and, if so, the metaphors for which the word will
be employed will differ in each case.

For the history of meaning it is necessary to have regard to
all the forms of association of ideas which psychology recognizes.
These are contiguity in place or in time, resemblance and contrast.
Contrast, however, as J. S. Mill and Bain have shown, is not a
simple form of association, but is evolved partly from contiguity,
partly from resemblance. An artificial hollow generally implies
also an artificial height made of the materials excavated from
the hollow. Hence in most languages some words occur with •
the two contrasted meanings. Thus in English we find dyke
in use both for a ditch and for a mound fronted by a ditch, the
word ditch being, in fact, but a dialectal form of dyke. In
Scotland, on the other hand, where earthen mounds and stone
walls form more frequent boundaries between fields than in
England, the word dyke is now practically limited to elevated
boundaries, while ditch is limited to excavated boundaries.
Thus the proverb, " February fill dyke," which in England
implies that the February rains will fill the ditches, is often under-
stood in Scotland to mean that in February the snow will be
level with the tops of the stone or turf walls. Similarly in
Latin Tacitus can say fossas prortiere, which can only apply to
levelling raised mounds; while in Greek Xenophon also talks
of the ditch (trench) thrown up (retypes dca/3«/3Xr;/uei'?j) . It
is only natural, therefore, that other words with several mean-
ings should be used similarly: moat, originally a mound of earth
or peat, has come to mean a big ditch; while, conversely, soldiers
in trenches are not so much in ditches, as the word ought to
signify, as behind breastworks. Sometimes, when two actions
opposed to one another are contiguous, a word seems to change
to the exact opposite of its original meaning. Thus the English
verb wean, which meant originally to accustom (to cooked food),
has been transferred to the necessary preliminary, to dis-
accustom to the breast.

Resemblances may be (i.) genuine, and (a) of external appear-
ance, or (6) of other characteristics; or (ii.) fanciful or analogical.
From resemblance in the external appearance of the object, the
word gem, which in Latin (gemma) usually means a bud, has

PHILOLOGY

437

come to mean first a pearl and then by extension of the meaning
any precious stone. From the concentric coats which appear
in both, the Latin word for a pearl (unio, ace. unionem) appears
in English as onien. Examples where the characteristics are
not of external appearance are such as the German kaiser and
the Russian tsar, which are descended from Julius Caesar, while
the Lithuanian word for king — karalius — is Carolus, i.e."Charle-
magne. So in modern Persian, Xusrev, " Lord," comes from
the Zend proper name Husravah (Chosroes). As already pointed
out, the resemblances which have established a connexion
between pert and impertinent (properly irrelevant) are in sound
only. The same is true of the supposed relation of the verb
cut to cutlass, culler and cutlet. While train oil really means
oil in drops like tears (cf. German Thrdne), most people connect
it with railway trains. The resemblance in some cases is merely
in function. Thus, though the fir and the oak have no resem-
blance one to the other, the word fir is now generally identified
with the Latin quercus in etymology (cf. four and qualtuor),
in the same way as the Latin fagus, " beech," is with the Greek
<t>riyos, " oak," the users of the word having, in the course of their
migrations, passed from a land with oaks to a land with firs in
the one case, and from a land of beeches to a land of oaks in the
other. Resemblance as the basis of metaphor has a very widely
extended influence on language.

The most numerous and most varied forms of change in mean-
ing depend, however, upon the law of contiguity. Perhaps the
commonest of all forms of contiguity is that where the word
indicating some accompanying feature or condition replaces
the word for the object referred to. In the countries that border
the Mediterranean the heat of midday is accompanied and
intensified by the dying away of the wind, a characteristic
remarked upon by Aeschylus (Agam. 565): " What time upon
his noonday couch, windless and waveless sank the sea to rest."
From the Greek word KOM^O., " burning heat," arises through
Late Latin the English calm, where the absence of wind is the
only idea present, that of heat having altogether disappeared.
Again, in bugle, which is abbreviated for buglehorn, the word
which survives properly means wild ox, and the originally more
important element is lost. In a combination like silver bugle the
word has gone a stage further; the original meaning of horn
has also disappeared. There is no longer any thought of an
animal's horn; the only idea that survives is that of a musical
instrument. From the cope or cloak (capella) of St Martin,
which was preserved as a sacred relic by the Prankish kings, comes
the word chapel. The word was first transferred from the
cloak to the holy place wherein it was kept, and thence to
similar shrines, and ultimately to any place, not being a church,
where prayers were said. A jig was originally not the dance,
but the fiddle which supplied the music for the dance. The
names of liquors are often replaced by some accompaniment
as of the place, port, sherry, champagne, or by a qualifying adjec-
tive as in brandy, properly " burnt," from the Dutch brande-
wijn; or, again, only the less important element of the word is
retained as in whisky, literally " water," for the older usque-
baugh, a corruption of Gaelic words meaning the " water of life "
(aqua vitae). Replacement of substantives by their accompany-
ing adjectives is common in most languages. One of the most
commcn methods of coining a name for a new article is to give
it the name of the place or people whence it comes. Thus we
have arras, lawn (from Laon), cravat (Croat), coach from Kocs
in Hungary, bilboes (both fetters and swords) from the iron
mines of Bilboa in Spain. Equally common are the names of
inventors — pinchbeck, tontine, silhouette, guillotine, derrick.
In the word cash, which comes indirectly from Latin capsa, " a
box," the thing contained has taken its name from the container.
Similarly mortar, " cement," derives its name from the mortar
in which it was mixed, while in box the material (boxwood, Lat.
buxus, Greek, xi>£os) has usurped the place of the article made.
In leper the disease (Lat. lepra, the rough disease, from Greek,
XcTrpa vocros) has been made into the name of the sufferer, who
was earlier called a leprous man. As a consequence, a new
substantive leprosy has to be taken from the adjective to

ndicate the disease. The various changes in meaning, which are
classed together as synecdoche, have their origin in contiguity.
Thus we have the species for the genus; the butcher, who pro-
perly kills goats only (Old French hoc), has ousted the flesher.
But we have also the genus for the species; corn, as a rule,
means in England wheat; in Scotland oats; in America, maize.
The individual becomes collective as in corps, navy, body (of
men); the collective becomes individual when Latin racemus,
" bunch of grapes," passes into English " raisin." Here would
come the so-called meliorative and pejorative developments in
word-meaning, whereby, e.g. steward, " the sty-ward," becomes
the title of a great officer of the realm and the name of a line of
kings; or, on the other side, sou (Latin solidus) passes from the
name of a gold coin to that of one of proverbially insignificant
value. Here, too, would come many euphemistic uses which are,
for the most part, applications of more general terms to avoid the
mention of some specific act or object which is unpleasant, as
death, murder, bankruptcy, debt, &c., while metaphorical terms
for the same things come under resemblance. These examples
do not exhaust the forms of contiguity which appear in language,
but they are enough to show how far-reaching the effect of this
type of association of ideas is upon language, and how extensive
the field is which still calls for investigation before the study of
meaning attains the same development as the investigation of
the other branches of the history of language.

AUTHORITIES (since 1885). — For methods of Linguistic Study:
Paul, Principien der Sprachgeschichte (3rd ed., 1898); Von der
Gabelentz, Die Sprachwissenschaft (2nd ed., 1901) ; Strong, Logeman
& Wheeler, The History of Language ( 1 89 1 ) , an adaptation of the ideas
of Paul's Principien, with many excellent examples; van Ginneken,
Principes de Linguistique psychologique (1907). For the Con-
troversy regarding Phonetic Laws: Curtius, Zur Kritik der neuesten
Sprachforschung; Brugmann, Zum heutigen Stand der Sprachwissen-
schaft; Schuchardt, Uber die Lautgesetze: gegen die Junggrammatiker
(all in 1885) ; Tarbell, " Phonetic Law," in Transactions of American
Philological Association for 1886, pp. I sqq.; Wechssler, " Giebt es
Lautgesetze?" (1900), Sondcrabzug aus Forschungen zur romanis-
rhen Philologie: Fcstgahe fur Hermann Suchier; Wundt, Die
Volkerpsychoiogie (1900), vol. i. ; Oertel, Lectures on the Study of
Language (1901), lecture iv. For Analogy: Wheeler, "Analogy
and the Scope of its Application in Language " (1887), Cornell
University Studies in Classical Philology. For the Classification of
Languages: Misteli, Characteristik der hauptsachlichsten Typen des
Sprachbaues (1893). For the Phonology, Morphology and Syntax
of the Indo-European Languages: Brugmann and Delbriick,
Grundriss der vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen
Sprachen (1886—1900) ; a new edition of the Phonology by Brugmann
in 1897, of the stem-formations and inflexion of Nouns, Adjectives,
Pronouns and Numerals in two parts (1906, 1909); the first edition
of the Phonology and Morphology, translated into English in four
volumes by Wright, Conway and Rouse. For Discussion of Con-
tested Points: Bechtel, Die Hauptprobleme der indo-germanischen
Lautlehre (1892). For Syntax: Delbriick, in the works mentioned,
in the text. For Semantics: besides Breal and Postgate, see Wundt,
Die Volkerpsychoiogie, vol. i. pt. 2, and articles by John Grote in
the Journal of Philology, vols. iv. and v. A bibliography of the
works which have appeared since 1890 will be found in the Anzeiger
fiir indogermanische Sprac.h- und Altertumskunde: Keiblatt zu den indo-
germanischen.Forschungen redigiert, by W. Streitberg. (P. Gl. ; E. Si.)

SUMMARY or PHILOLOGICAL ARTICLES

In addition to the genetic classification of languages given
above (on pp. 426-429), some further guidance as to the actual
headings under which the philological section is arranged may
be of service to the student.

The pivot of the whcle section is the article ALPHABET,
which traces the history of language and writing to the earliest
stages, embodying the results of archaeological studies in all
countries, together with the general conclusions based thereon.
In this article (with further details under CRETE) will be found
an account of the controversy regarding the Cretan discoveries
of Dr A. J. Evans. Supplementary to this comparative survey
are the articles PALAEOGRAPHY, INSCRIPTIONS, WRITING and
PHONETICS. The first two deal with ancient documents of all
kinds: PALAEOGRAPHY with those specimens of ancient writing,
literary, economic or legal, which were committed to codices,
tablets or rolls by the use of the stilus, the reed or the pen;
INSCRIPTIONS with documents engraved on stone or metaL

PHILOLOGY

WRITING deals, chiefly from the anthropological standpoint,
with primitive attempts to record ideas in an intelligible form,
e.g. with " knot-signs," " message-sticks," picture-writing and the
like. PHONETICS covers the whole subject of speech sounds and
pronunciation, the organs of speech and national sound systems.

Supplementary, from another point of view, to the article
ALPHABET is a complete series of articles on the letters of the
English alphabet. In these articles the history of the individual
letters is traced from the Phoenician through Aramaic, Greek
and Roman to modern times. All these articles may be read
in connexion with a comparative table in the article ALPHABET
(ad fin.), which shows in parallel columns the earliest equivalents
of the modern English letters, i.e. Brahmi, Kharosthi, oldest
.iEthiopic, Sabasan, Nashki, Tema/Sindjirli, the Moabitc stone,
Phoenician, Greek, Latin, Cyrillic and Glagolitic. Another
important comparative table of written signs is contained in the
article SLAVS, showing the various Cyrillic, Glagolitic and Latin
letters used by the Slav peoples.

Passing from articles dealing with the method and general
subject-matter of philology, the student will find articles
on the great families of languages, each with its subordinate
articles on special languages and dialects.

i. Indo-European Languages. — Of articles on language-families,
the most important is that under the heading INDO-EUROPEAN
LANGUAGES. This great division, which is dealt with from the
comparative standpoint in the second part of the article
PHILOLOGY, is under its own heading treated in detail. The
article begins with a sub-classification into two main groups —
the so-called (A) centum and (B) satem groups — each of which is
further divided into four sections. In accordance with this
classification there are separate articles on the individual ancient
and modern languages and dialects.

A. (i) GREEK LANGUAGE (supplemented by sections under
HOMER, DORIANS, &c.); (2) LATIN LANGUAGE (with OSCA
LINGUA, IGUVIUM, &c., and articles on the Italic tribes and
places, e.g. VENETI, CAERE); (3) Celtic, s.v. CELT (with subsidiary
articles) ; and (4) Teutonic, s.v. TEUTONIC LANGUAGES, SCANDI-
NAVIAN LANGUAGES, and the like.

The modern descendants of these languages are all further
treated separately. Thus following LATIN LANGUAGE is the
article ROMANCE LANGUAGES, which traces the development of
the Latin tongue during its gradual differentiation into Italian,
French, Spanish, Rumanian, &c.; while a more detailed account
of these will be found under ITALIAN LANGUAGE; FRENCH
LANGUAGE; SPAIN: Language; RUMANIA: Language. There
is also a special article PROVENCAL LANGUAGE, dealing with the
Romanic speech of southern France. The Teutonic languages
are similarly dealt with in detail under ENGLISH LANGUAGE (in-
cluding Anglo-Saxon); DUTCH LANGUAGE; GERMAN LANGUAGE.
SCANDINAVIAN LANGUAGE itself includes Icelandic, Norwegian,
Swedish, Danish.

B. In the satem group of the Indo-European family the four
divisions are as follows: —

(1) Indo-Iranian or Aryan. This division may be sub-
divided into (a) Indo-Iranian, treated mainly in the article
PERSIA: Language and Literature (including Zend, Old, Middle
and New Persian, and the modern dialects), and (b) Indian.
The Indian languages are discussed primarily under INDO-
ARYAN LANGUAGES, which describes the relations of Pisaca,
Sanskrit, Prakrit, and gives a paradigm of the various languages
of the three great divisions of India. This central article refers
to the separate articles PISACA, SANSKRIT and PRAKRIT, which
in turn are supplemented by a number of articles on particular
languages. Of these reference may be made to BENGALI;

BlHARI; GUJARATI AND RAJASTHANI; HlNDOSTANI; KASH-
MIRI; MARATHI; PALI. The gipsy languages, which may
probably be assigned to the Indo-Iranian division, are described
under GIPSIES.

(2) The account of Armenian will be found under ARMENIAN
LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.

(3) The Balto-Slavonic Languages. Of these the three
comprised in the Baltic group, viz. Lithuanian, Lettic and Old

Prussian, are described under the heading LITHUANIANS AND-
LETTS. For the Slavonic group, the chief article is SLAVS:
Language, which deals with the elements common to all the
Slavonic tongues, with their early history and differentiation.
It contains a comparative table of alphabets. It is supple-
mented by an article OLD SLAVONIC, and by further information
under the headings RUSSIA, BULGARIA, SERVIA, POLAND,
BOHEMIA, CROATIA-SLAVONIA, SLOVAKS, SLOVENES, SORBS,
KASHUBES, POLABS.

(4) The Albanian dialects are treated under ALBANIA.

2. Semitic Languages. — At the heading of this section stands
the article SEMITIC LANGUAGES, supplemented by HEBREW
LANGUAGE, ARAMAIC LANGUAGES, and linguistic sections under
PHOENICIA, ETHIOPIA, and the like.

3. Hamitic Languages. — The central article in this family
is HAMITIC LANGUAGES, which is supplemented, so far as the
Cushitic or Ethiopian group is concerned, by further information
in the articles EGYPT; ETHIOPIA; ABYSSINIA; SOMALILAND; and,
so far as the Libyan group is concerned, by the articles BERBERS
and KABYLES.

4. The chief feature of the Monosyllabic family is the section
Language under CHINA, supplemented again by similar sections
in articles on other countries of south-eastern Asia, and by the
article TIBETO-BURMAN LANGUAGES. There is also a language
section under Japan which discusses the affinities between
Chinese, Korean and Japanese.

5. The Ural-Altaic family is described in outline in the
article URAL-ALTAIC, which gives the general relationships of
Turkish, Finno-Ugrian, Mongol and Manchu, and of minor sub-
divisions such as Syryenian, Mordvinian and Votyak. Turkish
is discussed in the article TURKS: Language, which deals with
Osmanli proper and the Tatar-Turkish languages generally. The
article FINNO-UGRIAN is a comparative survey dealing with the
language of the Finns, Lapps, Samoyedes, &c. ; while Magyar is
treated separately in HUNGARY : Language. Under MONGOLS there
is a special section Language, discussing the three groups of East
Mongol, West Mongol (including Kalmuck) and Burial.

6. The principal languages of southern India, e.g. Tamil,
Malayalam, Kanarese, Telugu, &c., are dealt with generally
under the heading DRAVIDIAN; while there is a separate article
TAMILS, containing a section on their language; and brief notes
under the headings BRAHUI, TELUGU, MALAYALAM, &c.

7 and 8. The scattered languages of the Malay-Polynesian
family and other Oceanic peoples are treated principally in the
article MALAYS, which further information is given under the
headings POLYNESIA; SAMOA; JAVA; NEGRITOS, BATTAS, &c.

9. The Caucasian family is described chiefly in the article
GEORGIA: Ethnology. Further information will be found in
CAUCASIA: Ethnology.

10. Of the remaining European languages only two need
special mention: Basque, which is treated in a special section
under the heading BASQUES; and the lost Etruscan, which is
treated under ETRURIA and LATIN LANGUAGE.

11. The principal languages of southern and central Africa
are treated fully under BANTU LANGUAGES. There is a brief
account of the Bushman language under BUSHMEN, and of the
Hottentot languages under HOTTENTOTS.

12. Intermediate African Languages. — Among the numerous
languages spoken by the people of the great central belt of the
African continent, the most important is the Hausa, described
under that heading.

13. America. — The whole question of the languages of the
North American Indians is dealt with in the article INDIANS,
NORTH AMERICAN, which contains an elaborate linguistic
paradigm.

Bibliographical information will be found in practically all the
above headings. In addition to the most modern authorities there-
quoted, there will be found in the article DICTIONARY a very full
list of older lexicographical works.

_ The above summary does not purport to present dogmatically a
rigid philological classification. It disregards many problems, and
is intended solely to enable the student readily to find the material
of which he may be in search.

PHILOMEL— PHILOPONUS

439

PHILOMEL (Fr. Philomele; Ger. Philomele or Stahlgeige),
a musical instrument similar to the violin, but having four steel,
wire strings. The philomel has a body with incurvations similar
to those of the guitar; therefore, without corner blocks, the out-
line of the upper lobe forms a wavy shoulder reminiscent of
the viols but more ornate and fanciful. The peg-box sometimes
terminates in a fancy head instead of a scroll. The philomel,
never used in the orchestra, is the instrument of the dilettanti,
frequently played in Germany with the bowed zither. The
accordance of the philomel is the same as for the violin; the
timbre is shrill and crystal-like. There is also an alto philomel
corresponding to the viola. The bowed melodion is similar
to the philomel, and has four steel strings of the same accordance
as the violin, but arranged in inverse order; instead of being
held like the violin and philomel, under the chin, it is placed
on the knees of the performer, so that a hook under the finger-
board rests against the table. (K. S.)

PHILON, Athenian architect of the 4th century B.C., is known
as the planner of two important works — the portico of the great
Hall of the Mysteries at Eleusis and an arsenal at Athens. Of
the last we have exact knowledge from an inscription. E. A.
Gardner (Ancient Athens, p. 557) observes that it " is perhaps
known to us more in detail than any other lost monument of
antiquity." It was to hold the rigging of the galleys; and was
so contrived that all its contents were visible from a central
hall, and so liable to the inspection of the Athenian democracy.
(See ATHENS.)

PHILOPATRIS, the title of a dialogue formerly attributed
to Lucian, but now generally admitted to be spurious. Its date
and purport have long formed the subject of discussion. The
scene is laid at Constantinople. A certain Triephon, who has
been converted to Christianity by a bald, long-nosed Galilaean,
who was carried up through the air into the third heaven (an
evident allusion to St Paul), meets a friend, Critias, who is in a
state of great excitement. Triephon inquires the reason, and
the invocation of Zeus by Critias leads to a discussion on pagan-
ism and Christianity, in which all the gods proposed by Critias
are rejected by Triephon, who finally suggests that Critias should
swear by the Trinity. (The sub-title, T) SiSacricojuei'os, refers to
this " instruction " of Critias in matters relating to Christianity.)
Critias goes on to relate how he had been introduced to a gather-
ing of pessimists, who predicted all kinds of disturbances in
the empire and defeat at the hands of its enemies. In the mean-
time a third person appears on the scene, with the news that
the imperial armies have obtained a glorious victory. The
hope is expressed that Babel (Bagdad, the chief city of the caliphs)
may soon be destroyed, Egypt subdued (that is, reconquered
from the Arabs), and the attacks of the Scythians (Russians
or Bulgarians) repulsed. The whole concludes with thanks
to the unknown god of Athens that they have been permitted
to be the subjects of such an emperor and the inhabitants of
such an empire. The Philopalris was for a long time regarded
as an attack upon Christianity, and assigned to the time of
Julian the Apostate (emperor 361-363). Chronological indica-
tions (e.g. the allusion to a massacre of women in Crete) led
Niebuhr to ascribe it to the reign of Nicephorus Phocas (963-
969), and this view is now generally supported. There being
at that time no pagans in Constantinople, the " pessimists "
referred to must be Christians — either monks, especially the
intimate friends of the patriarch of Constantinople, who, ag-
grieved at the measures taken by Phocas in regard to the
property of the Church, were ready to welcome the defeat of
the imperial arms and the ruin of the empire; or harmless vision-
aries, who claimed to predict the future by fasting, prayer and
vigil. In any case, the author, whether he was a sophist com-
missioned by Phocas to attack the monks, or some professor
who hoped to profit by singing the imperial praises, represents
the views of the " patriotic " (as the title shows) as opposed to
the " unpatriotic " party. According to another view, which
assigns the dialogue to the time of Heraclius (610-641), the
author was a Christian fanatic, whose object was to make known
the existence of a conventicle of belated pagans, the enemies

alike of the Christian faith and the empire; it is doubtful,
however, whether such a pagan community, sufficiently numer-
ous to be of importance, actually existed at that date. The
object of the first and longer portion of the dialogue was to
combat the humanism of the period, which threatened a revival
of polytheism as a rival of Christianity.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Editions by J. M. Gesner (1715) and C. B. Hase
in the Bonn Corpus scriptorum hist. byz. (1828), vol. xi. ; also included
in Jacobitz's edition of Lucian (1839). See R. Crampe, Philo-
patris. Ein heidnisches Konventikel des siebenten Jahrhunderls zu
Constantinopel (1894); R. Garnett, " Alms for Oblivion " in Cornhill
Magazine (May, 1901); C. Stach, De Philopatride (Cracow, 1894),
who shows its late origin by linguistic tests; S. Reinach in Revue
archeologique (1902), vol. i. ; B. G. Niebuhr, " Ueber das Alter des
Dialogs Philopatris " in his Kleine historische Schriften (1843), vol. ii.
and, for further authorities, article by Von Dobschiitz in Herzog-
Hauck's Realencyklopddie fur protestantische Theologie (1904).

PHILOPOEMEN (253-184 B.C.), Greek general, was born at
Megalopolis, and educated by the academic philosophers
Ecdemus and Demophanes or Megalophanes, who had dis-
tinguished themselves as champions of freedom. Avoiding
the fashionable and luxurious gymnasia, he devoted himself
to military studies, hunting and border forays. In 233-2
Philopoemen skilfully evacuated Megalopolis before the attack
of Cleomenes III., and distinguished himself at Sellasia (222).
The next eleven years he spent as a condottiere in Crete.
Elected commander of the League's cavalry on his return, he
reorganized that force and defeated the Aetolians on the Elean
frontier (210). Appointed to the chief command two years
later, he introduced heavy armour and close formation for the
infantry, and with a well-trained army beat Machanidas of
Sparta, near Mantinea. The new " liberator " was now so
famous that Philip V. of Macedon attempted to poison him.
In 202-1 Philopoemen drove Nabis, the Spartan tyrant, from
Messene and routed him off Tegea. After another long sojourn
in Crete he again received the command against Nabis. Though
unsuccessful at sea, he almost annihilated Nabis's land force
near Gythium, but was prevented by the Roman Flamininus
from taking Sparta. In 190 Philopoemen protected Sparta,
which meanwhile had joined the League and thereupon seceded,
but punished a renewed defection so cruelly as to draw the
censure of Rome upon his country. At Messene he likewise
checked a revolt (189), but when that city again rebelled, in 184,
he was captured in a skirmish and promptly executed. His
body was recovered by the Achaeans and buried with great
solemnity.

Philopoemen's great merit lies in his having restored to his
compatriots that military efficiency without which the Achaean
League for all its skilful diplomacy could never stand. Towards
Rome he advocated a courteous but independent attitude. In
politics he was a democrat, and introduced reforms of a popular
character (see ACHAEAN LEAGUE).

Polybius' Histories (x.-xxiii.) are our chief authority. These and
a special treatise on Philopoemen (now lost) were used by Plutarch
(Philopoemen), Pausanias (viii. 49-51), Livy (xxxi.-xxxviii.), and
indirectly by Justin (xxx.— xxxiv.).

PHILOPONUS, JOANNES (JOHN THE GRAMMARIAN), Greek
philosopher of Alexandria, lived in the later part of the $th and
the beginning of the 6th century of our era. The surname Cram-
maticus he assumed in virtue of his lectures on language and
literature; that of Philoponus owing to the large number of
treatises he composed. He was a pupil of Ammonius Hermiae,
and is supposed to have written the life of Aristotle sometimes
attributed to his master. To Philoponus are attributed a large
number of works on theology and philosophy. It is said that,
though he was a pupil of Ammonius, he was at first a Christian,
and he has been credited with the authorship of a commentary
on the Mosaic Cosmogony in eight books, dedicated to Sergius,
patriarch of Constantinople, and edited by Balthasar Corderius
in 1630. Other authorities maintain that this, as well as the
Disputatio de paschale, was the work of another author, John
the Tritheist. It was perhaps this Philoponus who tried to save
the Alexandrian library from the caliph Omar after Amu's
victory in 639.

440

PHILOSOPHY

The more certain writings of Philoponus consist of commentaries
on Aristotle. These include works on the Physica, the Prior and the
Posterior Analytics, the Meteorologica, the De anima, the De genera-
tione animalium, the De generatione et interitu and the Metaphysica.
These have been frequently edited and are interesting in connexion
with the adoption of Anstotelianism by the Christian Church.
They seem to have embodied the lectures of Ammonius with addi-
tions by Philoponus, and are remarkable rather for elaborate care
than for originality and insight. He wrote also an attack on Proclus
(De aeternitate mundi). Two treatises on mathematics are ascribed
to him: A Commentary on the Mathematics of Nicomachus, edited
by Hoche (1864 and 1867), and a Treatise on the Use of the Astrolabe,
published by Hase. The latter is the most ancient work on this
instrument, and its authenticity is rendered almost certain by its
reference to Ammonius as the master of the author.

PHILOSOPHY (Gr. <£t\os, fond of, and oo&a, wisdom), a
general term whose meaning and scope have varied very con-
siderably according to the usage of different authors and different
ages. It can best be explained by a survey of the steps by
which philosophy differentiated itself, in the history of Greek
thought, from the idea of knowledge and culture in general.
These steps may be traced in the gradual specification of the
term. The tradition which assigns the first employment of
the Greek word 4>i\<x70<f>ia to Pythagoras has hardly any claim to
be regarded as authentic; and the somewhat self-conscious
modesty to which Diogenes Laertius attributes the choice of
the designation is, in all probability, a piece of etymology
crystallized into narrative. It is true that, as a matter of fact,
the earliest uses of the word (the verb <t>i\oo-o<t>(iv occurs in
Herodotus and Thucydides) imply the idea of the pursuit of
knowledge; but the distinction between the ero<£6s, or wise man,
and the <£tX6cro$os, or lover of wisdom, appears first in the
Platonic writings, and lends itself naturally to the so-called
Socratic irony. The same thought is to be found in Xenophon,
and is doubtless to be attributed to the historical Socrates.
But the word soon lost this special implication. What is of
real interest to us is to trace the progress from the idea of the
philosopher as occupied with any and every department of
knowledge to that which assigns him a special kind of knowledge
as his province.

A specific sense of the word first meets us in Plato, who defines
the philosopher as one who apprehends the essence or reality of
things in opposition to the man who dwells in appearances and
the shows of sense. The philosophers, he says, " are those who
are able to grasp the eternal and immutable"; they are "those
who set their affections on that which in each case really exists "
(Rep. 480). In Plato, however, this distinction is applied
chiefly in an ethical and religious direction; and, while it defines
philosophy, so far correctly, as the endeavour to express what
things are in their ultimate constitution, it is not yet accompanied
by a sufficient differentiation of the subsidiary inquiries by
which this ultimate question may be approached. Logic, ethics
and physics, psychology, theory of knowledge and metaphysics
are all fused together by Plato in a semi-religious synthesis. It
is not till we come to Aristotle — the encyclopaedist of the ancient
world — that we find a demarcation of the different philosophic
disciplines corresponding, in the main, to that still current.
The earliest philosophers, or " physiologers," had occupied
themselves chiefly with what we may call cosmology; the one
question which covers everything for them is that of the under-
lying substance of the world around them, and they essay to
answer this question, so to speak, by simple inspection. In
Socrates and Plato, on the other hand, the start is made from a
consideration of man's moral and intellectual activity; but
knowledge and action are confused with one another, as in the
Socratic doctrine that virtue is knowledge. To this correspond
the Platonic confusion of logic and ethics and the attempt to
substitute a theory of concepts for a metaphysic of reality.
Aristotle's methodic intellect led him to separate the different
aspects of reality here confounded. He became the founder
of logic, psychology, ethics and aesthetics as separate sciences;
while he prefixed to all such (comparatively) special inquiries
the investigation of the ultimate nature of existence as such, or
of those first principles which are common to, and presupposed
in, every narrower field of knowledge. For this investigation

Aristotle's most usual name is " first philosophy " or, as a modern
might say, " first principles "; but there has since been appro-
priated to it, apparently by accident, the title " metaphysics."
" Philosophy," as a term of general application, was not, indeed
restricted by Aristotle or his successors to the disciplines just
enumerated. Aristotle himself includes under the title, besides
mathematics, all his physical inquiries. It was only in the
Alexandrian period, as Zeller points out, that the special sciences
attained to independent cultivation. Nevertheless, as the mass
of knowledge accumulated, it naturally came about that the
name " philosophy " ceased to be applied to inquiries concerned
with the particulars as such. The details of physics, for example,
were abandoned to the scientific specialist, and philosophy
restricted itself in this department to the question of the relation
of the physical universe to the ultimate ground or author of
things. This inquiry which was long called " rational cosmo-
logy," may be said to form part of the general subject of meta-
physics, or at all events a pendant to it. By the gradual sifting
out of the special sciences philosophy thus came to embrace
primarily the inquiries grouped as " metaphysics " or " first
philosophy." These would embrace, according to the Wolffian
scheme long current in philosophical textbooks, ontology proper,
or the science of being as such, with its three-branch sciences of
(rational) psychology, cosmology and (rational or natural)
theology, dealing with the three chief forms of being — the soul,
the world and God. Subsidiary to metaphysics, as the central
inquiry, stand the sciences of logic and ethics, to which may be
added aesthetics, constituting three normative sciences —
sciences, that is, which do not, primarily, describe facts, but
rather prescribe ends or set forth ideals. It is evident, however,
that if logic deals with conceptions which may be considered
constitutive of knowledge as such, and if ethics deals with the
harmonious realization of human life, which is the highest
known form of existence, both sciences must have a great deal
of weight in the settling of the general question of metaphysics.

In sum, then, we may say that " philosophy " has come to be
understood at least in modern times as a general term covering
the various disciplines just enumerated. It has frequently
tended, however, and still tends, to be used as specially con-
vertible with the narrower term " metaphysics." This is not
unnatural, seeing that it is only so far as they bear on the one
central question of the nature of existence that philosophy
spreads its mantle over psychology, logic or ethics. The
particular organic conditions of perception and the associative
laws to which the mind, as a part of nature, is subjected, are
facts in themselves indifferent to the philosopher; and therefore
the development of psychology into an independent science,
which took place during the latter half of the igth century and
may now be said to be complete, represents an entirely natural
evolution. Similarly, logic, so far as it is an art of thought or a
doctrine of fallacies, and ethics, so far as it is occupied with a
natural history of impulses and moral sentiments, do neither of
them belong, except by courtesy, to the philosophic province.
But, although this is so, it is perhaps hardly desirable to deprive
ourselves of the use of two terms instead of one. It will not be
easy to infuse into so abstract and bloodless a term as " meta-
physics " the fuller life (and especially the inclusion of ethical
considerations) suggested by the more concrete term "philosophy."

We shall first of all, then, attempt to differentiate philosophy
from the special sciences, and afterwards proceed to take up one
by one what have been called the philosophical sciences, with the
view of showing how far the usual subject-matter of each is
really philosophical in its bearing, and how far it belongs rather
to the domain of " science " strictly so called. The order in
which, for clearness of exposition, it will be most convenient to
consider these disciplines will be psychology, epistemology or
theory of knowledge, and metaphysics, then logic, aesthetics and
ethics. Finally, the connexion of the last-mentioned with
politics (or, to speak more modernly, with jurisprudence and
sociology), with the philosophy of history and the philosophy of
religion, will call for a few words on the relation of these sciences
to general philosophy.

PHILOSOPHY

44 1

Philosophy and Natural Science. — In distinguishing philosophy
from the sciences, it may not be amiss at the outset to guard
against the possible misunderstanding that philosophy is con-
cerned with a subject-matter different from, and in some obscure
way transcending, the subject-matter of the sciences. Now
that psychology, or the observational and experimental study
of mind, may be said to have been definitively included among
the positive sciences, there is not even the apparent ground
which once existed for such an idea. Philosophy, even under
its most discredited name of metaphysics, has no other subject-
matter than the nature of the real world, as that world lies
around us in everyday life, and lies open to observers on every
side. But if this is so, it may be asked what function can remain
for philosophy when every pcrtion of the field is already lotted
out and enclosed by specialists? Philosophy claims to be the
science of the whole; but, if we get the knowledge of the parts
from the different sciences, what is there left for philosophy to
tell us ? To this it is sufficient to answer generally that the
synthesis of the parts is something more than that detailed
knowledge of the parts in separation which is gained by the man
of science. It is with the ultimate synthesis that philosophy
concerns itself; it has to show that the subject-matter which we
are all dealing with in detail really is a whole, consisting of
articulated members. Evidently, therefore, the relation existing
between philosophy and the sciences will be, to some extent,
one of reciprocal influence. The sciences may be said to furnish
philosophy with its matter, but philosophical criticism reacts
upon the matter thus furnished, and transforms it. Such trans-
formation is inevitable, for the parts only exist and can only be
fully, i.e. truly, known in their relation to the whole. A pure
specialist, if such a being were possible, would be merely an
instrument whose results had to be co-ordinated and used by
others. Now, though a pure specialist may be an abstraction
of the mind, the tendency of specialists in any department
naturally is to lose sight of the whole in attention to the particular
categories or modes of nature's working which happen to be
exemplified, and fruitfully applied, in their own sphere of investi-
gation ; and in proportion as this is the case it becomes necessary
for their theories to be co-ordinated with the results of other
inquirers, and set, as it were, in the light of the whole. This task
of co-ordination, in the broadest sense, is undertaken by philo-
sophy; for the philosopher is essentially what Plato, in a happy
moment, styled him, OWOTTTIKOS, the man who takes a "synoptic"
or comprehensive view of the universe as a whole. The aim of
philosophy (whether fully attainable or not) is to exhibit the
universe as a rational system in the harmony of all its parts;
and accordingly the philosopher refuses to consider the parts
out of their relation to the whole whose parts they are. Philo-
sophy corrects in this way the abstractions which are inevitably
made by the scientific specialist, and may claim, therefore, to be
the only " concrete " science, that is to say, the only science
which takes account of all the elements in the problem, and the
only science whose results can claim to be true in more than a
provisional sense.

For it is evident from what has been said that the way in
which we commonly speak of " facts " is calculated to convey
a false impression. The world is not a collection of individual
facts existing side by side and capable of being known separately.
A fact is nothing except in its relations to other facts; and as
these relations are multiplied in the progress of knowledge the
nature of the so-called fact is indefinitely modified. Moreover,
every statement of fact involves certain general notions and
theories, so that the " facts " of the separate sciences cannot be
stated except in terms of the conceptions or hypotheses which
are assumed by the particular science. Thus mathematics
assumes space as an existent infinite, without investigating in
what sense the existence or the infinity of this Unding, as Kant
called it, can be asserted. In the same way, physics may be
said to assume the notion of material atoms and forces. These
and similar assumptions are ultimate presuppositions or working
hypotheses for the sciences themselves. But it is the office of
philosophy, as a theory of knowledge, to submit such conceptions

to a critical analysis, with a view to discover how far they can
be thought out, or how far, when this is done, they refute them-
selves, and call for a different form of statement, if they are to be
taken as a statement of the ultimate nature of the real.1 The
first statement may frequently turn out to have been merely
provisionally or relatively true; it is then superseded by, or
rather inevitably merges itself in, a less abstract account. In
this the same " facts " appear differently, because no longer
separated from other aspects that belong to the full reality of
the known world. There is no such thing, we have said, as an
individual fact; and the nature of any fact is not fully known
unless we know it in all its relations to the system of the universe,
or, in Spinoza's phrase, sub specie aelernilalis. In strictness,
there is but one res completa or concrete fact, and it is the business
of philosophy, as science of the whole, to expound the chief
relations that constitute its complex nature.

The last abstraction which it becomes the duty of philosophy
to remove is the abstraction from the knowing subject which is
made by all the sciences, including, as we shall see, the science
of psychology. The sciences, one and all, deal with a world of
objects, but the ultimate fact as we know it is the existence of
an object for a subject. Subject-object, knowledge, or, more
widely, self-consciousness with its implicates — this unity in
duality is the ultimate aspect which reality presents. It has
generally been considered, therefore, as constituting in a special
sense the problem of philosophy. Philosophy may be said to be
the explication of what is involved in this relation, or, in Kantian
phraseology, a theory of its possibility. Any would-be theory
of the universe which makes its central fact impossible stands
self-condemned. On the other hand, a sufficient analysis here
may be expected to yield us a statement of the reality of things
in its last terms, and thus to shed a light backwards upon the true
nature of our subordinate conceptions.

Psychology, Epistemology and Metaphysics. — This leads to the
consideration of the main divisions of philosophy — PSYCHOLOGY
(q.v.), epistemology (theory of knowledge, Erkenntnisstheorie) ,
and metaphysics (ontology; see METAPHYSIC). A special relation
has always existed between psychology and systematic philo-
sophy, but the closeness of the connexion has been characteristic
of modern and more particularly of English thought. The
connexion is not difficult to explain, seeing that in psychology,
or the science of mind, we study the fact of intelligence (and
moral action), and have, so far, in our hands the fact to which
all other facts are relative. From this point of view we may
even see a truth in Jacobi's dictum as quoted by Sir W. Hamilton :
" Nature conceals God; man reveals God." Nature by itself,
that is to say, is insufficient. The ultimate explanation of things
cannot be given by any theory which excludes from its survey
the intelligence in which nature, as it were, gathers herself up.
But knowledge, or the mind as knowing, willing, &c., may be
looked at in two different ways. It may be regarded simply as a
fact; in which case the evolutions of mind may be traced and
reduced to laws in the same way as the phenomena treated by
the other sciences. This study gives us the science of empirical
psychology, or, as it is now termed, psychology sans phrase. In
order to give an adequate account of its subject-matter, psych-
ology may require higher or more complex categories than are
employed in the other sciences, just as biology, for example,
cannot work with mechanical categories alone, but introduces
the conception of development or growth. But the affinities of
such a study are manifestly with the sciences as such rather than
with philosophy; and the definitive establishment of psychology
as an independent science has already been alluded to. Since
it has been taken up by specialists, psychology is being estab-
lished on a broader basis of induction, and with the advantage,
in some departments, of the employment of experimental
methods of measurement. But it is not of mind in this aspect

1 The revisional office which philosophy here assumes constitutes
her the critic of the sciences. It is in this connexion that the mean-
ing of the definition of philosophy as " the science of principles "
can best be seen. This is perhaps the most usual definition, and,
though vague, 6"ne of the least misleading.

442

PHILOSOPHY

that such assertions can be made as those quoted above. Mind,
as studied by the psychologist — mind as a mere fact or pheno-
menon— grounds no inference to anything beyond itself. The
distinction between mind viewed as a succession of " states of
consciousness " and the further aspect of mind which philosophy
considers was very clearly put by Croom Robertson, who also
made a happy suggestion of two terms to designate the double

point of view:

" We may view knowledge as mere subjective function, but it
has its full meaning only >as it is taken to represent what we may
call objective fact, or is such as is named (in different circumstances)
real, valid, true. As mere subjective function, which it is to the
psychologist, it is best spoken of by an unambiguous name, and for
this there seems none better than Intellection. We may then say
that psychology is occupied with the natural function of Intellection,
seeking to discover its laws and distinguishing its various modes
(perception, representative imagination, conception, &c.) according
to the various circumstances in which the laws are found at work.
Philosophy, on the other hand, is theory of Knowledge (as that which
is known)."— " Psychology and Philosophy," Mind (1883), pp. 15, 1 6.

The confusion of these two points of view has led, and still
leads, to serious philosophical misconception. It is hardly an
exaggeration to say that, in the English school since Hume,
psychology superseded properly philosophical inquiry. And we
find even a thinker with a wider horizon like Sir W. Hamilton
encouraging the confusion by speaking of " psychology or meta-
physics," ' while his lectures on metaphysics are mainly taken
up with what belongs in the strictest sense to psychology proper,
with an occasional excursus (as in the theory of perception) into
epistemology. The distinction between psychology and theory
of knowledge was first clearly made by Kant, who repeatedly
insisted that the Critique of Pure Reason was not to be taken as a
psychological inquiry. He defined his problem as the quid juris
or the question of the validity of knowledge, not its quid facti or
the laws of the empirical genesis and evolution of intellection (to
use Croom Robertson's phraseology). Since Kant philosophy
has chiefly taken the form of theory of knowledge or of a criticism
of experience. Not, indeed, a preliminary criticism of our
faculties or conceptions such as Kant himself proposed to
institute, in order to determine the limits of their application;
such a criticism ab extra of the nature of our experience is essenti-
ally a thing impossible. The only criticism which can be applied
in such a case is the immanent criticism which the conceptions
or categories exercise upon one another. The organized criticism
of these conceptions is really nothing more than the full expli-
cation of what they mean and of what experience in its full
nature or notion is. This constitutes the theory of knowledge
in the only tenable sense of the term, and it lays down, in Kantian
language, the conditions of the possibility of experience. These
conditions are the conditions of knowledge as such, or, as it may
be put, of objective consciousness — of a self-consciousness of
a world of objects and through them conscious of itself. The
inquiry is, therefore, logical or transcendental in its nature, and
does not entangle us in any decision as to the conditions of the
genesis of such consciousness in the individual. When we inquire
into subjective conditions we are thinking of facts causing other
facts. But the logical or transcendental conditions are not
causes or even factors of knowledge; they are the statement of
its idea. Hence the dispute between evolutionist and transcen-
dentalist rests, in general, on an ignoratio elenchi; for the history
of the genesis of an idea (the historical or genetic method) does
not contain an answer to — though it may throw light on — the
philosophical question of its truth or validity. Speaking of this
transcendental consciousness, Kant goes so far as to say that it is
not of the slightest consequence " whether the idea of it be clear
or obscure (in empirical consciousness), no, not even whether
it really exists or not. But the possibility of the logical form of
all knowledge rests on its relation to this apperception as a faculty
or potentiality " (Werke, ed. Hartenstein, iii. 578 note). Or, if

1 It is true that he afterwards modifies this misleading identifica-
tion by introducing the distinction between empirical psychology
or the phenomenology of mind and inferential psychology or on-
tology, i.e. metaphysics proper. But he continues to use the terms
" philosophy," metaphysics," and " mental science " as synony-
mous.

we return to the distinction between epistemology and psychol-
ogy, by way of illustrating the nature of the former, we may
take the following summing up by Professor James Ward in a
valuable article on " Psychological Principles " in Mind (April
883, pp. 166, 167): " Comparing psychology and epistemology,
then, we may say that the former is essentially genetic in its
method, and might, if we had the power to revise our existing
terminology, be called biology; the latter, on the other hand, is
essentially devoid of everything historical, and treats, sub specie
aeternitatis, as Spinoza might have said, of human knowledge,
conceived as the possession of mind in general."

Kant's problem is not, in its wording, very different from that
which Locke set before him when he resolved to " inquire into
the original, certainty and extent of human knowledge together
with the grounds and degrees of belief, opinion and assent."
Locke's Essay is undoubtedly, in its intention, a contribution
to the theory of knowledge. But, because time had not yet
made the matter clear, Locke suffered himself to digress in his
second book into the psychological question of the origin of our
ideas; and his theory of knowledge is ruined by the failure to
distinguish between the epistemological sense of " idea " as
significant content and the psychological sense in which it if
applied to a fact or process in the individual mind. The same
confusion runs through Berkeley's arguments and vitiates his
conclusions as well as those of Hume. But appearing with these
thinkers as the problem of perception, epistemology widens its
scope and becomes, in Kant's hands, the question of the possi-
bility of experience in general. With Hegel it passes into a
completely articulated " logic," which apparently claims to be
at the same time a metaphysic, or an ultimate expression of the
nature of the real.

This introduces us to the second part of the question we are
seeking to determine, namely the relation of epistemology to
metaphysics. It is evident that philosophy as theory of know-
ledge must have for its complement philosophy as metaphysics
(ontology) or theory of being. The question of the truth of our
knowledge, and the question of the ultimate nature of what we
know, are in reality two sides of the same inquiry; and therefore
our epistemological results have to be ontologically expressed.
But it is not every thinker that can see his way with Hegel to
assert in set terms the identity of thought and being. Hence
the theory of knowledge becomes with some a theory of human
ignorance. This is the case with Herbert Spencer's doctrine
of the Unknowable, which he advances as the result of epistemo-
logical considerations in the philosophical prolegomena to his
system. Very similar positions were maintained by Kant and
Comte; and, under the name of " agnosticism " (q.v.), the theory
has popularized itself in the outer courts of philosophy, and on
the shifting borderland of philosophy and literature. The truth
is that the habit of thinking exclusively from the standpoint
of the theory of knowledge tends to beget an undue subjectivity
of temper. And the fact that it has become usual for men to
think from this standpoint is very plainly seen in the almost
universal description of philosophy as an analysis of " experi-
ence," instead of its more old-fashioned designation as an inquiry
into " the nature of things." As it is matter of universal agree-
ment that the problem of being must be attacked indirectly
through the problem of knowledge, this substitution may be
regarded as an advance, more especially as it implies that the
fact of experience, or of self-conscious existence, is the chief fact
to be dealt with. But if so, then self-consciousness must be
treated as itself real, and as organically related to the rest of
existence. If self-consciousness be treated in this objective
fashion, then we pass naturally from epistemology to metaphysics
or ontology. (For, although the term " ontology " has been as
good as disused, it still remains true that the aim of philosophy
must be to furnish us with an ontology or a coherent and adequate
theory of the nature of reality.) But if, on the other hand,
knowledge and reality be ab inilio opposed to one another — if
consciousness be set on one side as over against reality, and merely
holding up a mirror to it — then it follows with equal naturalness
that the truly real must be something which lurks unrevealed

PHILOSOPHY

443

behind the subject's representation of it. Hence come the differ-
ent varieties of a so-called phenomenalism. The upholders of
such a theory would, in general, deride the term '' metaphysics "
or " ontology "; but it is evident, none the less, that their position
itself implies a certain theory of the universe and of our own
place in it, and the establishment of this theory constitutes their
metaphysics.

Without prejudice, then, to the claim of epistemology to
constitute the central philosophic discipline, we may simply
note its liability to be pressed too far. The exclusive pre-
occupation of men's minds with the question of knowledge
during the neo-Kantian revival in the 'seventies of the last
century drew from Lotze the caustic criticism that " the continual
sharpening of the knife becomes tiresome, if, after all, we have
nothing to cut with it." Stillingfleet's complaint against Locke
was that he was " one of the gentlemen of this new way of
reasoning that have almost discarded substance out of the reason-
able part of the world." The same may be said with greater
truth of the devotees of the theory of knowledge; they seem to
have no need of so old-fashioned a commodity as reality. Yet,
after all, Fichte's dictum holds good that knowledge as know-
ledge— i.e. so long as it is looked at as knowledge — is, ipso facto,
not reality. The result of the foregoing, however, is to show that,
as soon as epistemology draws its conclusion, it becomes meta-
physics; the theory of knowledge passes into a theory of being.
The ontological conclusion, moreover, is not to be regarded as
something added by an external process; it is an immediate
implication. The metaphysic is the epistemology from another
point of view — regarded as completing itself, and explaining
in the course of its exposition that relative or practical separation
of the individual knower from the knowable world, which it is a
sheer assumption to take as absolute. This, not the so-called
assumption of the implicit unity of being and thought, is the
really unwarrantable postulate; for it is an assumption which
we are obliged to retract bit by bit, while the other offers the
whole doctrine of knowledge as its voucher.

Logic, Aesthetics and Ethics. — If the theory of knowledge
thus passes insensibly into metaphysics it becomes somewhat
difficult to assign a distinct sphere to logic (q.v.). Ueberweg's
definition of it as " the science of the regulative laws of thought "
(or " the normative science of thought ") comes near enough
to the traditional sense to enable us to compare profitably the
usual subject-matter of the science with the definition and end of
philosophy. The introduction of the term " regulative " or
" normative " is intended to differentiate the science from
psychology as the science of mental processes or events. In this
reference logic does not tell us how our intellections connect
themselves as mental phenomena, but how we ought to connect
our thoughts if they are to realize truth (either as consistency
with what we thought before or as agreement with observed
facts). Logic, therefore, agrees with epistemology (and differs
from psychology) in treating thought not as mental fact but as
knowledge, as idea, as having meaning in relation to an objective
world. To this extent it must inevitably form a part of the theory
of knowledge. But, if we desire to keep by older landmarks and
maintain a distinction between the two disciplines, a ground for
doing so may be found in the fact that all the main definitions
of logic point to the investigation of the laws of thought in a
subjective reference — with a view, that is, by an analysis of the
operation, to ensure its more correct performance. According
to the old phrase, logic is the art of correct thinking. Moreover
we commonly find the logician assuming that the process of
thought has advanced a certain length before his examination
of it begins; he takes his material full-formed from perception,
without, as a rule, inquiring into the nature of the conceptions
which are involved in our perceptive experience. Occupying
a position, therefore, within the wider sphere of the general
theory of knowledge, ordinary logic consists in an analysis of the
nature of general statement, and of the conditions under which
we pass validly from one general statement to another. But
the logic of the schools is eked out by contributions from a variety
of sources (e.g. from grammar on one side and from psychology

on another), and cannot claim the unity of an independent
science.

Aesthetics (q.v.) may be treated as a department of psychology
or physiology, and in England this is the mode of treatment that
has been most general. To what peculiar excitation of our
bodily or mental organism, it is asked, are the emotions due
which make us declare an object beautiful or sublime? And,
the question being put in this form, the attempt has been made
in some cases to explain away any peculiarity in the emotions
by analysing them into simpler elements, such as primitive
organic pleasures and prolonged associations of usefulness or
fitness. But, just as psychology in general cannot do duty for a
theory of knowledge, so it holds true of this particular application
of psychology that a mere reference of these emotions to the
mechanism and interactive play of our faculties cannot be re-
garded as an account of the nature of the beautiful. Perhaps by
talking of " emotions " we tend to give an unduly subjective
colour to the investigation; it would be better to speak of the
perception of the beautiful. Pleasure in itself is unqualified,
and affords no differentia. In the case of a beautiful object the
resultant pleasure borrows its specific quality from the presence
of determinations essentially objective in their nature, though
not reducible to the categories of science. Unless, indeed, we
conceive our faculties to be constructed on some arbitrary plan
which puts them out of relation to the facts with which they have
to deal, we have a prima facie right to treat beauty as an objective
determination of things. The question of aesthetics would then
be formulated — What is it in things that makes them beautiful,
and what is the relation of this aspect of the universe to its
ultimate nature, as that is expounded in metaphysics? The
answer constitutes the substance of aesthetics, considered as a
branch of philosophy. But it is not given simply in abstract
terms: the philosophical treatment of aesthetics includes also
an exposition of the concrete phases of art, as these have appeared
in the history of the world, relating themselves to different phases
of human culture.

Of ethics (q.v.) it may also be said that many of the topics
commonly embraced under that title are not strictly philosophical
in their nature. They are subjects for a scientific psychology
employing the historical method with the conceptions of heredity
and development, and calling to its aid, as such a psychology
will do, the investigations of all the sociological sciences. To
such a psychology must be relegated all questions as to the
origin and development of moral ideas. Similarly, the question
debated at such length by English moralists as to the nature of
the moral faculty (moral sense, conscience, &c.) and the contro-
versy concerning the freedom of the will belong entirely to
psychology. If we exclude such questions in the interest of
systematic correctness, and seek to determine for ethics a definite
subject-matter, the science may be said to fall into two depart-
ments. The first of these deals with the notion of duty, and
endeavours to define the good or the ultimate end of action ; the
second lays out the scheme of concrete duties which are deducible
from, or which, at least, are covered by, this abstractly stated
principle. The second of these departments is really the proper
subject-matter of ethics considered as a separate science; but it
is often conspicuous by its absence from ethical treatises. How-
ever moralists may differ on first principles, there seems to be
remarkably little practical divergence when they come to lay
down the particular laws of morality. It may be added that,
where a systematic account of duties is actually given, the
connexion of the particular duties with the universal formula
is in general more formal than real. It is only under the head of
casuistry (q.v.) that ethics has been much cultivated as a separate
science. The first department of ethics, on the other hand, is
the branch of the subject in virtue of which ethics forms part of
philosophy. As described above, it ought rather to be called, in
Kant's phrase, the metaphysic of ethics. A theory of obligation
is ultimately found to be inseparable from a metaphysic of
personality. The connexion of ethics with metaphysics will be
patent as a matter of fact, if it be remembered how Plato's
philosophy is summed up in the idea of the good, and how

444

PHILOSOPHY

Aristotle also employs the essentially ethical notion of end as the
ultimate category by which the universe may be explained or
reduced to unity. But the necessity of the connexion is also
apparent, unless we are to suppose that, as regards the course of
universal nature, man is altogether an imperium in imperio, or
rather (to adopt the forcible phrase of Marcus Aurelius) an
abscess or excrescence on the nature of things. If, on the
contrary, we must hold that man is essentially related to what
the same writer calls " a common nature," then it is a legitimate
corollary that in man as intelligence we ought to find the key of
the whole fabric. At all events, this method of approach must
be truer than any which, by restricting itself to the external
aspect of phenomena as presented in space, leaves no scope for
inwardness and life and all that, in Lotze's language, gives
" value " to the world. The argument ex analogia hominis
has often been carried too far; but if a " chief end of man " be
discoverable — avOpuirivov ayaBov, as Aristotle wisely insisted that
the ethical end must be determined — then it may be assumed
that this end cannot be irrelevant to that ultimate " meaning "
of the universe which, according to Lotze, is the quest of philo-
sophy. If " the idea of humanity," as Kant called it, has ethical
perfection at its core, then a universe which is really an organic
whole must be ultimately representable as a moral order or a
spiritual kingdom such as Leibnitz named, in words borrowed
from St Augustine, a city of God.

Philosophy of the State (Political Philosophy), Philosophy of
History, Philosophy of Religion. — In Plato and Aristotle ethics
and politics are indissolubly connected. In other words, seeing
that the highest human good is realizable only in a community,
the theory of the state as the organ of morality, and itself in its
structure and institutions the expression of ethical ideas or
qualities, becomes an integral part of philosophy. The difficulty
already hinted at, which individualistic systems of ethics experi-
ence in connecting particular duties with the abstract principle
of duty is a proof of the failure of their method. For the content
of morality we are necessarily referred, in great part, to the
experience crystallized in laws and institutions and to the un-
written law of custom, honour and good breeding, which has
become organic in the society of which we are members. Plato's
Republic and Hegel's Philosophic des Rechts are the most typical
examples of a fully developed philosophy of the state, but in the
earlier modern period the prolonged discussion of natural rights
and the social contract must be regarded as a contribution to
such a theory. Moreover, if philosophy is to complete its
constructive work, it must bring the course of human history
within its survey, and exhibit the sequence of events as an evolu-
tion in which the purposive action of reason is traceable. This
is the task of the philosophy of history, a peculiarly modern
study, due to the growth of a humanistic and historical point
of view. Lessing's conception of history as an " education of
the human race " is a typical example of this interpretation of
the facts, and was indeed the precursor which stimulated many
more elaborate German theories. The philosophy of history
differs, it will be observed, from the purely scientific or descriptive
studies covered by the general title of sociology. Sociology
conceives itself as a natural science elucidating a factual sequence.
The philosophy of history is essentially Ideological; that is to
say, it seeks to interpret the process as the realization of an
immanent end. It may be said, therefore, to involve a complete
metaphysical theory. Social institutions and customs and the
different forms of state-organization are judged according to the
degree in which they promote the realization of the human
ideal. History is thus represented by Hegel, for example, as the
realization of the idea of freedom, or rather as the reconciliation
of individual freedom and the play of cultured interests with
the stable objectivity of law and an abiding consciousness
of the greater whole in which we move. So far as the course
of universal history can be truly represented as an approxi-
mation to this reconciliation by a widening and deepening
of both the elements, we may claim to possess a philosophy of
history. But although the possibility of such a philosophy
seems implied in the postulated nationality of the universe,

many would hold that it remains as yet an unachieved-
ideal.

There only remains to be briefly noticed the relation of philo-
sophy to theology and the nature of what is called Philosophy
of Religion. By theology is commonly understood the syste-
matic presentation of the teaching of some positive or historical
religion as to the existence and attributes of a Supreme Being,
including his relation to the world and especially to man. But
these topics have also been treated by philosophers and religious
thinkers, without dependence on any historical data or special
divine revelation, under the title of Natural Theology. Natural
Theology is specially associated with the Stoic theories of provi-
dence in ancient times and with elaborations of the argument
from design in the i8th century. But there is no warrant for
restricting the term to any special mode of approaching the
problems indicated; and as these form the central subject of
metaphysical inquiry, no valid distinction can be drawn between
natural theology and general metaphysics. The philosophy of
religion, on the other hand, investigates the nature of the
religious consciousness and the value of its pronouncements on
human life and man's relation to the ground of things. Unity,
reconciliation, peace, joy, " the victory that overcometh the
world " — such, in slightly varying phrases, is the content of
religious faith. Does this consciousness represent an authentic
insight into ultimate fact, or is it a pitiful illusion of the nerves,
born of man's hopes and fears and of his fundamental ignorance?
The philosophy of religion assumes the first alternative. The
function of philosophy in general is the reflective analysis of
experience, and the religious experience of mankind is prima facie
entitled to the same consideration as any other form of conscious
activity. The certainties of religious faith are matter of feeling
or immediate assurance, and are expressed in the pictorial
language of imagination. It becomes the function of philosophy,
dealing with these utterances, to relate them to the results of
other spheres of experience, and to determine their real meaning
in the more exact terms of thought. The philosophy of religion
also traces in the different historical forms of religious belief and
practice the gradual evolution of what it takes to be the truth of
the matter. Such an account may be distinguished from what
is usually called the science of religion by the teleological or
metaphysical presuppositions it involves. The science of religion
gives a purely historical and comparative account of the various
manifestations of the religious instinct without pronouncing on
their relative truth or value and without, therefore, professing
to apply the idea of evolution in the philosophical sense. That
idea is fundamental in the philosophy of religion, which therefore
can be written only from the standpoint of a constructive meta-
physical theory.

It is, indeed, only from the standpoint of such a theory that
the definitions and divisions of the different philosophical
disciplines adopted in this article can be said to hold good. But
those who, like the positivists, agnostics and sceptics, deny the
possibility of metaphysics as a theory of the ultimate nature of
things, are still obliged to retain philosophy as a theory of
knowledge, in order to justify the asserted limitation or impo-
tence of human reason.

BIBLIOGRAPHY — The best general histories of philosophy are by
T. E. Erdmann, Friedrich Ueberweg and W. Windelband, Windel-
band's being probably the freshest in its treatment and point of
view. Ed. Zeller's History of Creek Philosophy still holds the field
as the best continuous exposition of the subject, but more recent
work in the early period is represented by H. Diels and J. Burnet,
while Zeller's view of Plato may be said to have been superseded by
the later researches of Lewis Campbell, H. Jackson and others.
T. Gomperz's Greek Thinkers is an able, if somewhat diffuse, survey
of the philosophical development in connexion with the general
movement of Greek life and culture. It does not go beyond Plato.
B. Haureau, A. Stpckl and Karl Werner give the fullest and most
trustworthy histories of the medieval period, but the subject is
very carefully treated by Erdmann and Ueberweg, and a useful
compendium, written from a Roman Catholic standpoint, is De
Wulf's History of Medieval Philosophy (1900; Eng. trans., 1907).
For modern times, in addition to the general histories already named,
the works of Kuno Fischer, R. Falckenberg and H. Hoffding, and
R. Adamson's Lectures on the Development of Modern Philosophy,

PHILOSTRATUS— PHILOXENUS

445

may be specially mentioned. Writers on the history of philosophy
generally prefix to their work a discussion of the scope of philosophy,
its divisions and its relations to other departments of knowledge,
and the account given by Windelband and Ueberweg will be found
specially good. The Introductions to Philosophy published by F.
Paulsen, O. Kttlpe, W. Wundt and G. T. Ladd, deal largely with
this subject, which is also treated by Henry Sidgwick in his Philo-
sophy, tts Scope and Relations (1902), by Ernest Naville, La Definition
de la philosophie (1894) and by Wundt in the introduction to his
System der Philosophic (1889). A useful work of general reference
is J. M. Baldwin's Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology (3 vols.,
1902-1905). (A. §. p _p )

PHILOSTRATUS, the name of several, three (or four), Greek
sophists of the Roman imperial period— (i) Philostratus " the
Athenian" (c. 170-245), (2) his nephew (?) Philostratus "of
Lemnos " (bom c. 190); (3) a grandson (?) of (2). Of these the
most famous is Philostratus " the Athenian," author of the Life
of Apollonius Tyana, which he dedicated to Julia Domna, wife of
Alexander Severus and mother of Caracalla (see APOLLONIUS
OF TYANA) .» He wrote also Btot ZofrvTuv (Lives of the Sophists) ,
Gymnasticus and Epistolae (mainly of an erotic character). Very
little is known of his career. Even his name is doubtful. The
Lives of the Sophists gives the praenomen Flavius, which, however,
is found elsewhere only in Tzetzes. Eunapius and Synesius
call him a Lemnian; Photius a Tyrian; his letters refer to him
as an Athenian. It is probable that he was born in Lemnos,
studied and taught at Athens, and then settled in Rome (where
he would naturally be called atheniensis) as a member of the
learned circle with which Julia Domna surrounded herself. He
was born probably in 172, and is said by Suidas to have been
living in the reign of Philip (244-249). The fact that the author
of Apollonius is also the author of the Lives of the Sophists is
confirmed by internal evidence. The latter is dedicated to a
consul Antonius Gordianus, perhaps one of the two Gordians
who were killed in 238. The work is divided into two parts: the
first dealing with the ancient Sophists, e.g. Gorgias, the second
with the later school, e.g. Herodes Atticus.

The Lives are not in the true sense biographical, but rather pictur-
esque impressions of leading representatives of an attitude of mind
full of curiosity, alert and versatile, but lacking scientific method,
preferring the external excellence of style and manner to the solid
achievements of serious writing. The philosopher, as he says,
investigates truth ; the sophist embellishes it, and takes it for granted.
The Gymnasticus contains interesting matter concerning the Olympic
games and athletic contests generally. The Letters breathe the spirit
of the New Comedy and the Alexandrine poets; portions of Letter 33
are almost literally translated in Ben Jonson's Song to Celia, " Drink
to me only with thine eyes." The 'Hpwi«6j, formerly attributed to
Philostratus the Athenian, is probably the work of Philostratus the
Lemnian. It is a popular disquisition on the heroes of the Trojan
War in the form of a conversation between a Thracian vine-dresser
on the shore of the Hellespont and a Phoenician merchant who
derives his knowledge from the hero Protesilaus, Palamedes is
exalted at the expense of Odysseus, and Homer's unfairness to him
is attacked. It has been suggested that Philostratus is here de-
scribing a series of heroic paintings in the palace of Julia Domna.
His other work is the EiKiws (Imagines), ostensibly a description
of 64 pictures in a Neapolitan gallery. Goethe, Welcker, Brunn,
E. Bertrand and Helbig, among others, have held that the descrip-
tions are of actually existing works of art, while Heyne and Frieder-
ichs deny this. In any case they are interesting as showing the way
in which ancient artists treated mythological and other subjects,
and are written with artistic knowledge and in attractive language.
This work is imitated by the third Philostratus (or by some later
sophist) of whose descriptions of pictures 17 remain.

There is great difficulty, due to a confused statement of Suidas,
in disentangling the works and even the personalities of these
Philostrati. Reference is there made to Philostratus as the son of
Verus, a rhetorician in Nero's time, who wrote tragedies, comedies
and treatises. Suidas thus appears to give to Philostratus the
Athenian a life of 200 years! We must be content to assume two
Lemnian Philostrati, both sophists, living in Rome. See further a full
discussion by K.Miinscher, in Philologus (1907), suppl. x., pp. 469-557.

Of works bearing the name Philostratus there is a collected edition
by C. F. Kayser (Zurich, 1844; Leipzig, 1870-1871), and another by
Westermann (Paris, 1849), with Latin translation; these supersede
those by F. Morel (Paris, 1608) and Olearius (Leipzig, 1709). There
are separate editions of the Eikones by Schenkl and Reisch (Leipzig,
1902); of the Gymnaslicus by Mynas (1858), who discovered the
MS., Daremberg (Paris, 1858), Volckmar (Aurich, 1862), and
especially Julius Juthner (1909), with introd., comments and Ger.

1 As Lemnos was an Athenian island, any Lemnian could be
called an Athenian.

trans.; of 73 epistles by Boissonade (Paris, 1842). The Life of
Apollonius was first published by Aldus (1502); a French translation
by Blaise de Vigenere appeared in 1596; an English translation of
the first two books was published in London (1680) by Charles
Blount, with some notes by Lord Herbert of Cherbury (prohibited
in England in 1693, it was reprinted on the Continent) ; a full transla-
tion appeared in 1903. Critical works on the Eikones are numerous:
K. Fnederichs, Die Philostratischen Bilder (1860); Goethe, " Philo-
strats Gemalde " in Complete Works (ed. Stuttgart, 1879);. Brunn,
Die Philostratischen Bilder (1860); A. Bougot, Une Galerie antique
(1881); E. Bertrand, Un Critique d'art dans I'antiquite: Philostrate
el son ecole (1882); Bergk, " Die Philostrate " in Fiinf A bhandlungen
zur Geschichte der griechischen Philosophie und Astronomic (1883);
Schmid, Atticismus iv. 7, on the attribution of the works.

PHILOXENUS, of Cythera (435-380 B.C.), Greek dithyrambic
poet. On the conquest of the island by the Athenians he was
taken as a prisoner of war to Athens, where he came into the
possession of the dithyrambic poet Melanippides, who educated
him and set him free. Philoxenus afterwards resided in Sicily,
at the court of Dionysius, tyrant of Syracuse, whose bad verses
he declined to praise, and was in consequence sent to work in the
quarries. After leaving Sicily he travelled in Greece, Italy and
Asia, reciting his poems, and died at Ephesus. According to
Suidas, Philoxenus composed twenty-four dithyrambs and a
lyric poem on the genealogy of the Aeacidae. In his hands the
dithyramb seems to have been a sort of comic opera, and the
music, composed by himself, of a debased character. His
masterpiece was the Cyclops, a pastoral burlesque on the love
of the Cyclops for the fair Galatea, written to avenge himself
upon Dionysius, who was wholly or partially blind of one eye.
It was parodied by Aristophanes in the Plutus (290). Another
work of Philoxenus (sometimes attributed to Philoxenus of
Leucas, a notorious parasite and glutton) is the Aeiirvov (Dinner),
of which considerable fragments have been preserved by
Athenaeus. This is an elaborate bill of fare in verse, probably
intended as a satire on the luxury of the Sicilian court. The
great popularity of Philoxenus is attested by a complimentary
resolution passed by the Athenian senate in 393. The comic
poet Antiphanes spoke of him as a god among men; Alexander
the Great had his poems sent to him in Asia; the Alexandrian
grammarians received him into the canon; and down to the time
of Polybius his works were regularly learned and annually acted
by the Arcadian youth.

Fragments, with life, by G. Bippart (1843); T. Bergk, Poetae

lyrici graeci.

PHILOXENUS (Syriac, Aksenaya), of Mabbog, one of the
best of Syriac prose writers, and a vehement champion of Mono-
physite doctrine in the end of the 5th and beginning of the 6th
centuries. He was born, probably in the third quarter of the
5th century, at Tahal, a village in the district of Beth Garmai
east of the Tigris. He was thus by birth a subject of Persia, but
all his active life of which we have any record was passed in the
territory of the Greek Empire. The statements that he had been
a slave and was never baptized appear to be malicious inventions
of his theological opponents. He was educated at Edessa,
perhaps in the famous " school of the Persians," which was after-
wards (in 489) expelled from Edessa2 on account of its connexion
with the Nestorian heresy. The years which followed the Council
of Chalcedon (451) were a stormy period in the Syrian Church.
Philoxenus soon attracted notice by his strenuous advocacy of
Monophysite doctrine, and on the expulsion of Calandio (the
orthodox patriarch of Antioch) in 485 was ordained bishop of
Mabbog3 by his Monophysite successor Peter the Fuller (Bar-
hebraeus, Chron. eccl. i. 183). It was probably during the earlier
years of his episcopate that Philoxenus composed his thirteen
homilies on the Christian life. Later he devoted himself to the
revision of the Syriac version of the Bible, and with the help of
his chorepiscopus Polycarp produced in 508 the so-called Philo-
xenian version, which was in some sense the received Bible of the
Monophysites during the 6th century. Meantime he continued
his ecclesiastical activity, working as a bitter opponent of

2 According to Barhebraeus (Chron. eccl. ii. 55) through the efforts
of Philoxenus himself.

3 Hierapolis of the Greeks, Manbij of the Arabs, a few miles west
of the F.uphrates about latitude 365°.

446

PHILTRE— PHLEBITIS

Flavian II., who had accepted the decrees of the Council of
Chalcedon and was patriarch of Antioch from 498 to 512. The
Monophysites had the sympathy of the emperor Anastasius,
and were finally successful in ousting Flavian in 51 2 and replacing
him by their partisan Severus. Of Philoxenus's part in the
struggle we possess not too trustworthy accounts by hostile
writers, such as Theophanes and Theodorus Lector. We know
that in 498 he was staying at Edessa1; in or about 507, according
to Theophanes, he was summoned by the emperor to Constanti-
nople; and he finally presided at a synod at Sidon which was the
means of procuring the replacement of Flavian by Severus. But
the triumph was short-lived. Justin I., who succeeded Anasta-
sius in 518, was less favourable to the party of Severus and
Philoxenus, and in 519 they were both sentenced to banishment.
Philoxenus was sent to Philippopolis in Thrace, and afterwards to
Gangra in Paphlagonia, where he met his death by foul play in 523.
Apart from his redoubtable powers as a controversialist, Phil-
oxenus deserves commemoration as a scholar, an elegant writer,
and an exponent of practical Christianity. Of the chief monument
of his scholarship-^-the Philoxenian version of the Bible — only the
Gospels and certain portions of Isaiah are known to survive (see
Wright, Syr. Lit. 14). It was an attempt to provide a more accurate
rendering of the Greek Bible than had hitherto existed in Syriac,
and obtained recognition among the Monophysites until superseded
by the still more literal renderings of the Old Testament by Paul of
Telia and of the New Testament by Thomas of Harkel (both in
616-617), of which the latter at least was based on the work of
Philoxenus. There are also extant portions of commentaries on the
Gospels from his pen. Of the excellence of his style and of his
practical religious zeal we are able to judge from the thirteen homilies
on the Christian life and character which have been edited and
translated by Budge (London, 1894). In these he holds aloof for
the most part from theological controversy, and treats in an admir-
able tone and spirit the themes of faith, simplicity, the fear of God,
poverty, greed, abstinence and unchastity. His affinity with his
earlier countryman Aphraates is manifest both in his choice of
subjects and his manner of treatment. As his quotations from
Scripture appear to be made from the Peshi^ta, he probably wrote
the homilies before he embarked upon the Philoxenian version.2
Philoxenus wrote 'also many controversial'works and some liturgical
pieces. Many of his letters survive, and at least two have been
edited.' Several of his writings were translated into Arabic and
Ethiopic. (N. M.)

PHILTRE (Lat. philtrum, from Gr. <t>i\rpov, ^tXetv, to love),
a drug or other medicinal drink supposed to have the magical
property of exciting love.

PHINEUS, in Greek legend, son of Agenor, the blind king of
Salmydessus on the coast of Thrace. He was skilled in the art
of navigation, and Apollo had bestowed upon him the gift of
prophecy. His blindness was a punishment from the gods for
his having revealed the counsels of Zeus to mortals, or for his
treatment of his sons by his first wife Cleopatra. His second
wife having accused her stepsons of dishonourable proposals,
Phineus put out their eyes, or exposed them to the wild beasts,
or buried them in the ground up to their waists and ordered
them to be scourged. Zeus offered him the choice of death or
blindness. Phineus chose the latter, whereupon Helios (the
sun-god), offended at the slight thus put upon him, sent the
Harpies to torment him. In another story, the Argonauts
(amongst whom were Calais and Zetes, the brothers of Cleo-
patra), on their arrival in Thrace found the sons of Phineus
half-buried in the earth and demanded their liberation. Phineus
refused, and a fight took place in which he was slain by Heracles,
who freed Cleopatra (who had been thrown into prison)
and her sons, and reinstated them as rulers of the kingdom.
Tragedies on the subject of Phineus were written by Aeschylus
and Sophocles. These would directly appeal to an Athenian
audience, Phineus's first wife having been the daughter of
Orithyia (daughter of Erechtheus, king of Athens), who had
been carried off by Boreas to his home in Thrace. The punish-
ment of Phineus would naturally be regarded as a just retribu-

1 Chronicle of Joshua Stylites, ch. 30.

2 On these and other points see Budge's introduction to his second
volume, which contains also a list of the other works of Philoxenus
and a number of illustrative extracts.

3 One by Martin (in Grammatica chrestomathia et glossarium
linguae syriacae) and one by Guidi (La Lettera di Filosseno ai
monad di Tell 'Adda).

tion for the insult put upon a princess of the royal house of
Athens.

Apollodorus i. 9, 21, iii. 15, 3; Sophocles, Antigone, 966, with
Jebb s notes; Dipd. Sic. iv. 43, 44; Servius on Aeneid iii. 209;
Schol. on Apollonius Rhodius ii. 178.

PHIPS (or PHIPPS), SIR WILLIAM (1651-1695), colonial
governor of Massachusetts, was born on the 2nd of February
1651, at Woolwich, Maine, near the mouth of the Kennebec
river. He was a shepherd until he was eighteen, and then a
ship carpenter's apprentice for four years; worked at his trade
in Boston for a year, at this time learning to read and write;
and with his wife's property established a ship-yard on the
Sheepscot river in Maine, but soon abandoned it because of
Indian disorders. In 1684-1686, with a commission from the
British Crown, he searched vainly for a wrecked Spanish
treasure ship of which he had heard while on a voyage to the
Bahamas; he found this vessel in 1687, and from it recovered
£300,000. Of this amount much went to the duke of Albe-
marle, who had fitted out the second expedition. Phips re-
ceived £16,000 as his share, was knighted by James II., and was
appointed sheriff of New England under Sir Edmund Andros.
Poorly educated and ignorant of law, Phips could accomplish
little, and returned to England. In 1689 he returned to Massa-
chusetts, found a revolutionary government in control, and at
once entered into the life of the colony. He joined the North
Church (Cotton Mather's) at Boston, and was soon appointed by
the General Court commander of an expedition against the
French in Canada, which sailed in April 1690 and easily captured
Port Royal. A much larger expedition led by Phips in July
against Quebec and Montreal ended disastrously. Phips
generously bought at their par value, in order to give them
credit in the colony, many of the colony's bills issued to pay
for the expedition. In the winter of 1690 he returned to Eng-
land, vainly sought aid for another expedition against Canada,
and urged, with Increase Mather, the colonial agent, a restora-
tion of the colony's charter, annulled during the reign of
Charles II. The Crown, at the suggestion of Mather, appointed
him the first royal governor under the new charter. On reaching
Boston in May 1692, Phips found the colony in a very dis-
ordered condition, and though honest, persevering and indis-
posed to exalt his prerogative at the expense of the people, he
was unfitted for the difficult position. He appointed a special
commission to try the witchcraft cases, but did nothing to
stop the witchcraft mania, and suspended the sittings of the
court only after great atrocities had been committed. In
defending the frontier he displayed great energy, but his
policy of building forts was expensive and therefore unpopular.
Having the manners of a 17th-century sea captain, he became
involved in many quarrels, and engaged in a bitter controversy
with Governor Benjamin Fletcher of New York. Numerous
complaints to the home government resulted in his being
summoned to England to answer charges. While in London
awaiting trial, he died on the i8th of February 1695.

See Cotton Mather's Lift of His Excellency Sir William Phips
(London, 1697; republished in his Magnalia in 1702); Francis
Bowen's " Life of Sir William Phips," in Jared Sparks's American
Biography, 1st series, vol. vii. (New York, 1856); William Goold's
" Sir William Phips," in Collections of the Maine Historical Society,
series I, vol. ix. (Portland, 1887); Ernest Myrand's Sir William
Phippsdevant Quebec (Quebec, 1893); Thomas Hutchinson's History
of Massachusetts (2 vols., Boston; 3rd ed., 1795); and J. G. Palfrey's
History of New England (5 vols., Boston, 1858-1890).

PHLEBITIS (from Gr. <£Xe^, a vein), inflammation of a vein.
When a vein is inflamed the blood in it is apt to form a clot,
or thrombus, which, if loosened and displaced from its original
position, may be carried as an embolus towards the heart and
there be arrested; or it may pass through the cavities of the
heart into the lungs, there to lodge and to give rise to alarming
symptoms. If the thrombus is formed in the inflamed vein
of a pile it may pass as an embolus (see HAEMORRHOIDS) into
the liver. If an embolus is carried through the left side of the
heart it may enter the large vessels at the root of the neck and
reach the brain, giving rise to serious cerebral disturbance or

PHLEGON— PHOCAEA

447

to a fatal paralysis. The thrombus may be formed in gout
and rheumatism, or in consequence of stagnation of the blood-
current due to slowing of the circulation in various wasting
diseases. When a thrombus forms, absolute rest in the re-
cumbent posture is to be strictly enjoined; the great danger
is the displacement of the clot. An inflamed and clotted vein,
if near the surface, causes an elongated, dusky elevation beneath
the skin, where the vein may be felt as a hard cord, the size,
perhaps, of a cedar pencil, or a pen-holder. Its course is marked
by great tenderness, and the tissue which was drained by the
branches of that vein are livid from congestion, and perhaps
boggy and pitting with oedema. If, as often happens, the
inflamed vein is one of those running conspicuously upwards
from the foot — a saphenous vein (ercu^s, distinct) — the patient
should be placed in bed with the limb secured on a splint in
order to protect it from any rough movement. Should the clot
become detached, it might give rise to sudden and alarming
faintness possibly even to a fatal syncope. Thus, there is
always grave risk with an inflamed and clotted vein, and modern
surgery shows that the safest course is, when practicable, to
place a ligature on the vein upon the heart-side of the clotted
piece and to remove the latter by dissection. When, as some-
times happens, the clot is invaded by septic organisms it is
particularly liable to become disintegrated, and if parts of it
are carried to various regions of the body they may there give
rise to the formation of secondary abscesses. In the ordinary
treatment of phlebitis, in addition to the insistence on perfect
rest and quiet, fomentations may be applied locally, the limb
being kept raised. Massage must not be employed so long as
there is any risk of a clot being detached. (E. O.*)

PHLEGON, of Tralles in Asia Minor, Greek writer and freed-
man of the emperor Hadrian, flourished in the 2nd century A.D.
His chief work was the Olympiads, an historical compendium
in sixteen books, from the ist down to the 229th Olympiad
(776 B.C. to A.D. 137), of which several chapters are preserved
in Photius and Syncellus. Two small works by him are extant:
On Marvels, containing some ridiculous stories about ghosts,
prophecies and monstrous births, but instructive as regards
ancient superstitions; On Long-lived Persons, a list of Italians
who had passed the age of 100, taken from the Roman censuses.
Other works ascribed to Phlegon by Suidas are a description of
Sicily, a work on the Roman festivals in three books, and a
topography of Rome.

Fragments in C. Muller, Frag. hist, grace, iii. ; of "the Marvels and
Long-lived in O. Keller, Rerum naturalium scriptores, i. (1877) ;
see also H. Diets, " Phlegons Androgynenorakel ' in Sibyllinische
Blatter (1890).

PHLOGOPITE, a mineral belonging to the group of
micas (?.».). It is a magnesium mica, differing from biotite
in containing only a little iron; the chemical formula is
[H,K,(MgF)]3Mg3Al(Si04)3. It crystallizes in the monoclinic sys-
tem, but the crystals are roughly developed. There is a perfect
cleavage parallel to the basal plane; the cleavage flakes are not
quite so elastic as those of muscovite. Sometimes it is quite
colourless and transparent, but usually of a characteristic yellow-
ish-brown colour, and often with a silvery lustre on the cleavage
surfaces, hence the trade name " silver amber mica " for some
varieties. The name phlogopite is from Gr. 4>\ayuTros (fiery-
looking) , the mineral being sometimes brownish-red and coppery
in appearance. The hardness is 2^-3, and the specific gravity
2-78-2-85. The optic axial plane is parallel to the plane of
symmetry and the axial angle o°-io°. Phlogopite occurs
chiefly as scales and plates embedded in crystalline limestones
of the Archean formation. The mica mined in Canada and
Ceylon is mainly phlogopite, and is largely used as an insulator
for electrical purposes. In Canada it occurs with apatite in
pyroxene rocks which are intrusive in Laurentian gneisses and
crystalline limestones, the principal mining district being in
Ottawa county in Quebec and near Burgess in Lanark county,
Ontario. In Ceylon, the mineral forms irregular veins,
rarely exceeding one or two feet in width, traversing granu-
lite, especially near the contact of this rock with crystalline
limestone. (L. J. S.)

PHLOX (Nat. Ord. Polemoniaceae) , a genus of about 30
species, mostly perennial hardy plants of great beauty, natives
of North America (one occurs in Siberia), with entire, usually
opposite, leaves and showy flowers generally in termina clusters.
Each flower has a tubular calyx with five lobes, and a salver
shaped corolla with a long slender tube and a flat limb. The
five stamens are given off from the tube of the corolla at different
heights and do not protrude beyond it. The ovary is three-
celled with one to two ovules in each cell; it ripens into a three-
valved capsule. Many of the species and varieties are tall
herbs yielding a wealth of bloom throughout the summer and
early autumn. These require a deep, rich, and rather heavy
loam, and a cool, moist position to flourish.

The dwarf perennial species and varieties, the " moss pinks "
of gardens, are charming plants for the rockery and as edging
to beds and borders. They are trailing and tufted in habit,
the branches rooting at the nodes. They succeed in poorer
soil, and drier situations than the tall kinds. Seed is seldom
produced. Propagation is effected by cuttings in July and
early August, placed in a cold frame, and by division of the
plants, which should be lifted carefully, and cut into rooted
portions as required. The tufted kinds decay in patches in
winter if the situation is moist and the weather mild and wet.

Phlox Drummondii and its numerous varieties are half-hardy
annuals in Britain. It is a small-growing hairy plant, flowering
profusely during the summer months. For early flowering
it should be sown in heat in March and April and transferred
out of doors in June. It succeeds if sown out of doors in April,
but the flowering season is later and shorter.

The tall-growing border phloxes are divided into early and
late flowering kinds respectively, the former derived mainly
from P. glaberrima and P. sujfruticosa, and the latter from
P. maculata and P. paniculata. The salver-shaped flowers
with cylindrical tubes range from pure white to almost bright
scarlet in colour, passing through shades of pink, purple, magenta
lilac, mauve and salmon. New varieties are obtained by the
selection of seedlings. Owing to the frequent introduction
of new kinds, the reader is referred to the current lists published
by growers and nurserymen. The " moss pinks," P. subuloja
and its varieties, are all worthy of a place in the alpine garden.

The varieties are relatively few. The following list includes
nearly all the best kinds: —

P. subulata, pink with dark centre; Aldbproughensis, ros&; annulate,
bluish white, ringed with purple; atrolilacina, deep lilac; atropurpurea
purple-rose and crimson; Brightness, bright rose with scarlet eye;
compacta, clear rose; Fairy, lilac; G. F. Wilson, mauve; grandiflora,
pink, crimson blotch; Little Dot, white, blue centre; Nelsoni, pure
white; Vivid, rose, carmine centre; all these are about 4 in. nigh.
P. divaricata, lavender, height I ft. ; P. ovata, rose, I ft. ; P. reptans,
rose, 6 in.; and P. amoena, rose, 9 in., are also charming alpines.

P. Drummondii varieties come true from seed, but are usually
sown in mixture.

PHOCAEA (mod. Fukia or Fokha) an ancient city on the
western coast of Asia Minor, famous as the mother city of
Marseilles. It was the most northern of the Ionian cities, and
was situated on the coast of the peninsula which separates the
gulf of Cyme, occupied by Aeolian settlers, from the Hermaean
Gulf, on which stood Smyrna and Clazomenae.1 Its position
between two good harbours, Naustathmus and Lampter (Livy
xxxvii. 31), led the inhabitants to devote themselves to
maritime pursuits. According to Herodotus the Phocaeans
were the first of all the Greeks to undertake distant voyages,
and made known the coasts of the Adriatic, Tyrrhenia and Spain.
Arganthonius, king of Tartessus in Spain, invited them to
emigrate in a body to his dominions, and, on their declining,
presented them with a large sum of money. This they employed
in constructing a strong wall around their city, a defence which
stood them in good stead when Ionia was attacked by Cyrus
in 546. Eventually they determined to seek a new home in
the west, where they already had flourishing colonies, e.g.

1 It was said to have been founded by a band of emigrants from
Phocis, under the guidance of two Athenian leaders, named Philo-
genes and Damon, but it joined the Ionian confederacy by accepting
the government of Athenian rulers of the house of Codrus.

PHOCAS— PHOCIS

Alalia in Corsica and Massilia (mod. Marseilles). A large part
of the emigrants proceeded only as far as Chios, returned to
Phocaea, and submitted to the Persian yoke.

Phocaea continued to exist under the Persian government,
but greatly reduced in population and commerce. Though it
joined in the Ionian revolt against Persia in 500 it was able to
send only three ships to the combined fleet which fought at
Lade. But a Phocaean took the supreme command. It never
again played a prominent part in Ionian history, and is rarely
mentioned. In the time of Timur Fujah was a fortress of
Sarukhan, but had been previously in Genoese hands. The
ruins still visible on the site bear the name of Palaea Fokia, but
they are of little interest. The modern town in the immediate
neighbourhood, still known as Fokia, was founded by the Genoese
in 1421 on account of the rich alum mines in the neighbourhood.
It has a fair natural harbour, which is the nearest outlet of the
rich district of Menemen. About 1880, while the Gediz Chai
was throwing its silt unchecked into the Gulf of Smyrna and
gradually filling the navigable channel, there was talk of reviving
Fokia as a new port for Smyrna, and connecting it with the
Cassaba railway. But, in deference to Smyrniote protests, a new
estuary was cut for the Gediz. Fokia has acquired local impor-
tance however as a port of call for coasting steamers, and it is
used to some degree as a summer residence by Smyrniotes.

(D. G. H.)

PHOCAS, East Roman emperor (602-610), was a Cappadocian
of humble origin. He was still but a centurion when chosen by
the army of the Danube to lead it against Constantinople. A
revolt within the city soon afterwards resulted in the abdication
of the reigning emperor Maurice, and in the elevation of Phocas
to the throne, which seems to have been accomplished by one
of the circus factions against the wish of the troops. Phocas
proved entirely incapable of governing the empire. He con-
sented to pay an increased tribute to the Avars and allowed the
Persians, who had declared war in 604 under Chosroes II., to
overrun the Asiatic provinces and to penetrate to the Bosporus.
When the African governor Heraclius declared against him,
Phocas was deserted by the starving populace of Constantinople,
' and deposed with scarcely a struggle (610). He died in the
same year on the scaffold.

SeeJ. B. Bury, The Later Roman Empire (London, 1889), ii. 197-206.

PHOCION, Athenian statesman and general, was born about
402 B.C.,1 the son of a small manufacturer. He became a pupil
of Plato and in later life was a close friend of Xenocrates. This
academic training left its mark upon him, but it was as a soldier
rather than as a philosopher that he first came into notice.
Under Chabrias he distinguished himself in the great sea-fight
of Naxos (376), and in the subsequent campaigns loyally
supported his chief. He won the confidence of the allies by
his justice and integrity. In 35 1-349 2 he entered the Persian
service and helped to subdue a rebellion in Cyprus. Hence-
forward he always held a prominent position in Athens, and
although he never canvassed he was elected general forty-five
times in all. In politics he is known chiefly as the consistent
opponent of the anti-Macedonian firebrands, headed by Demos-
thenes, Lycurgus and Hypereides, whose fervent eloquence he
endeavoured to damp by recounting the plain facts of Athens's
military and financial weakness and her need of peace, even
when the arms of Athens seemed to prosper most. But although
he won the respect of his audience, his advice was frequently
discarded. Yet his influence was felt at the trial of Aeschines
in 343, whom he helped to defend, and after the disaster of
Chaeroneia (338), when he secured very lenient terms from
Philip. He also rendered good service in the field: in 348 he
saved the force operating against the philo-Macedonian tyrants
in Euboea by the brilliant victory of Tamynae. Under the
Macedonian predominance his reputation steadily increased.

1 Diodorus' statement that Phocion was 75 at his death (i.e. that
he became general at 30 and was elected 45 years in succession)
would give 394-393 as t'le ^ate o^ birth; but he must have been
quite 25 as second-in-command at Naxos (376).

* The chronology is uncertain; the dates given for this period are
Beloch's (Griechische Geschichte, ii.).

Though by no means inclined to truckle to the Macedonians,
as is shown by his protection of the refugee Harpalus and his
spirited campaign in defence of Attica in 322, he won the confi-
dence of the conquerors, and in the restricted democracy which
Antipater enforced he became the virtual ruler of Athens. Old
age, however, was telling on him; when Polyperchon by his
proclamation of " freedom " raised a new crisis in 318, Phocion's
dilatoriness was interpreted as active treason on Cassander's
behalf, and the people, incited by the restored democrats,
deposed him from office. Phocion fled to Polyperchon, but
was sent back by the latter to be tried at Athens. The assembly,
containing numerous slaves and all the city mob, shouted
Phocion down and condemned him to death unheard. Not
long after, the Athenians decreed a public burial and a statue
in his honour.

Phocion's character and policy were throughout inspired1 by
his philosophic training, which best explains his remarkable
purity of character and his prudent councils. To the same
influence we may ascribe his reserve and his reluctance to
co-operate heartily either with the people or with the Macedonian
conquerors who put their trust in him: a greater spirit of energy
and enterprise might have made him the saviour of his country.
Phocion remained famous in antiquity for the pithy sayings
with which he used to parry the eloquence of his opponents.
Demosthenes called him " the chopper of my periods."

Plutarch (Life of Phocion) draws much good information from
Philochorus and Duris (who reproduces Hieronymus of Cardia);
his numerous anecdotes are repeated in other works of his and in
Aelian (For. hist.). Diodorus (xvi.-xviii.) is likewise based on
Duris. See Holm. Gk. Hist. vol. iii. (Eng. trans., London, 1896).

(M. O. B. C.)

PHOCIS, an ancient district of central Greece (now a depart-
ment, pop. 62,246), about 625 sq. m. in area, bounded on the
W. by Ozolian Locris and Doris, on the N. by Opuntian Locris,
on the E. by Boeotia, and on the S. by the Corinthian Gulf.
The massive ridge of Parnassus (8068 ft.), which traverses the
heart of the country, divides it into two distinct portions.
Between this central barrier and the northern frontier range of
Cnemis (3000 ft.) is the narrow but fertile valley of the Cephissus,
along which most of the Phocian townships were scattered.
Under the southern slope of Parnassus were situated the two
small plains of Crisa and Anticyra, separated by Mt Cirphis,
an offshoot from the main range. Being neither rich in material
resources nor well placed for commercial enterprise, Phocis was
mainly pastoral. No large cities grew up within its territory,
and its chief places were mainly of strategic importance.

The early history of Phocis remains quite obscure. From
the scanty notices of Greek legend it may be gathered that an
influx of tribes from the north contributed largely to its popula-
tion, which was reckoned as Aeolic. It is probable that the
country was originally of greater extent, for there was a tradition
that the Phocians once owned a strip of land round Daphnus
on the sea opposite Euboea, and carried their frontier to Ther-
mopylae; in addition, in early days they controlled the great
sanctuary of Delphi. The restriction of their territory was due
to the hostility of their neighbours of Boeotia and Thessaly,
the latter of whom in the 6th century even carried their raids
into the Cephissus valley. Moreover the Dorian population
of Delphi constantly strove to establish its independence and
about 590 B.C. induced a coalition of Greek states to proclaim a
" Sacred War " and free the oracle from Phocian supervision.
Thus their influence at Delphi was restricted to the possession
of two votes in the Amphictyonic Council.

During the Persian invasion of 480 the Phocians at first
joined in the national defence, but by their irresolute conduct
at Thermopylae lost that position for the Greeks; in the. cam-
paign of Plataea they were enrolled on the Persian side. In
457 an attempt to extend their influence to the head waters of
the Cephissus in the territory of Doris brought a Spartan army
into Phocis in defence of the " metropolis of the Dorians." A
similar enterprise against Delphi in 448 was again frustrated
by Sparta, but not long afterwards the Phocians recaptured
the sanctuary with the help of the Athenians, with whom they

PHOCYLIDES— PHOENICIA

449

had entered into alliance in 454. The subsequent decline of
Athenian land-power had the effect of weakening this new
connexion; at the time of the Peloponnesian War Phocis was
nominally an ally and dependent of Sparta, and had lost control
of Delphi.

In the 4th century Phocis was constantly endangered by
its Boeotian neighbours. After helping the Spartans to invade
Boeotia during the Corinthian War (395-94), the Phocians
were placed on the defensive. They received assistance from
Sparta in 380, but were afterwards compelled to submit to the
growing power of Thebes. The Phocian levy took part in
Epaminondas' inroads into Peloponnesus, except in the final
campaign of Mantinea (370-62), from which their contingent
was withheld. In return for this negligence the Thebans
fastened a religious quarrel upon their neighbours, and secured
a penal decree against them from the Amphictyonic synod
(356). The Phocians, led by two capable generals, Philomelus
and Onomarchus, replied by seizing Delphi and using its riches
to hire a mercenary army. With the help of these troops the
Phocian League at first carried the war into Boeotia and Thessaly ,
and though driven out of the latter country by Philip of Macedon,
maintained itself for ten years, until the exhaustion of the
temple treasures and the treachery of its leaders placed it at
Philip's mercy. The conditions which he imposed — the obliga-
tion to restore the temple funds, and the dispersion of the
population into open villages — were soon disregarded. In
339 the Phocians began to rebuild their cities; in the following
year they fought against Philip at Chaeronea. Again in 323
they took part in the Lamian War against Antipater, and in
279 helped to defend Thermopylae against the Gauls.

Henceforth little more is heard of Phocis. During the 3rd
century it passed into the power of Macedonia and of the Aetolian
League, to which in 196 it was definitely annexed. Under the
dominion of the Roman republic its national league was dissolved,
but was revived by Augustus, who also restored to Phocis the
votes in the Delphic Amphictyony which it had lost in 346 and
enrolled it in the new Achaean synod. The Phocian League
is last heard of under Trajan.

See Strabo, pp. 401, 418, 424-425; Pausanias x. 1-4; E. Freeman,
History of Federal Government (ed. 1893, London), pp; 113—114; G.
Kazarow, Defoederis Phocensium institutis (Leipzig, 1899) ; B. Head,
Historia numorum (Oxford, 1887), pp. 287-288.

(M. O. B. C.)

PHOCYLIDES, Greek gnomic poet of Miletus, contemporary
of Theognis, was born about 560 B.C. A few fragments of his
" maxims " have been preserved (chiefly in the Florilegium of
Stobaeus), in which he expresses his contempt for the pomps
and vanities of rank and wealth, and sets forth in simple language
his ideas of honour, justice and wisdom. A complete didactic
poem (230 hexameters) called HoLrjua vovderiKov or yv£>(iai,
bearing the name of Phocylides, is now considered to be the
work of an Alexandrian Christian of Jewish origin who lived
between 170 B.C. and A.D. 50. The Jewish element is shown in
verbal agreement with passages of the Old Testament (especially
the book of Sirach) ; the Christian by the doctrine of the immor-
tality of the soul and the resurrection of the body. Some
Jewish authorities, however, maintain that there are in reality
no traces of Christan doctrine to be found in the poem, and
that the author was a Jew. The poem was first printed at
Venice in 1495, and was a favourite school textbook during
the Reformation period.

See fragments and the spurious poem in T. Bergk, Poetae lyrici
graeci, ii. (4th ed., 1882); J. Bernays tfber das Phokylideische
Gedicht (1858); Phocylides, Poem of Admonition, with introduction
and commentaries by J. B. Fenling, and translation by H. D. Good-
win (Andover, Mass., 1879); F.'Susemihl, Geschichle der griechischen
Litterateur in der Alexandrinerzeit, (1892), ii. 642; S. Krauss (s.v.
" Pseudo-Phocylides ") in The Jewish Encyclopedia and E. Schurer,
Hist, of the Jewish People, div. ii., vol. iii., 313-316 (Eng. trans.,
1886), where full bibliographies are given. There is an English verse
translation by W. Hewett (Watford, 1840), The Perceptive Poem of
Phocylides.

PHOEBE, in astronomy, the ninth satellite of Saturn in
order of discovery, or the tenth and outermost now known in
xxi. 15

the order of distance. It was discovered by W. H. Pickering
in 1899 by photographs of the stars surrounding Saturn. It is
remarkable in that its motion around the planet is retrograde.
(See SATURN.)

PHOEBUS (Gr. for " bright," " pure,"), a common epithet
of Apollo (<?.!>.). Artemis in like manner is called Phoebe, and
in the Latin poets and their modern followers Phoebus and
Phoebe are' often used simply for the sun and moon respectively.

PHOENICIA, in ancient geography, the name given to that
part of the seaboard of Syria which extends from the Eleutherus
(Nahr el-Keblr) in the north to Mt Carmel in the south, a
distance of rather more than two degrees of latitude. These
limits, however, were exceeded at various times; thus, north
of the Eleutherus lay Aradus and Marathus, and south of
Carmel the border sometimes included Dor and even Joppa.
Formed partly by alluvium carried down by perennial streams
from the mountains of Lebanon and Galilee, and fringed by
great sand-dunes which the sea throws up, Phoenicia is covered
with a rich and fertile soil. It is only at the mouth of the
Eleutherus and at Acre ('Akka) that the strip of coast-land widens
out into plains of any size; there is a certain amount of open
country behind Beirut; but for the most part the mountains,
pierced by deep river-valleys, approach to within a few miles
of the coast, or even right down to the sea, as at Ras en-Nakura
(Scala Tyriorum, Jos. Bell. jud. ii. 10, 2) and Ras el-Abiad
(Pliny's Promunturium Album), where a passage had to be cut
in the rock for the caravan road which from time immemorial
traversed this narrow belt of lowland. From the flanks of
Lebanon, especially from the heights which lie to the north of
the Qasimlyeh or ICasimiya (Litany) River, the traveller looks
down upon some of the finest landscape in the world; in general
features the scenery is not unlike that of the Italian Riviera,
but surpasses it in grandeur and a peculiar depth of colouring.

With regard to natural products the country has few worth
mentioning; minerals are found in the Lebanon, but not in any
quantity; traces of amber-digging have been discovered on the
coast; and the purple shell (murex trunculus and brandaris)
is still plentiful. The harbours which played so important a
part in antiquity are nearly all silted up, and, with the exception
of Beirut, afford no safe anchorage for the large vessels of
modern times. A few bays, facing towards the north, break
the coast-line, and small rocky islands are dotted here and there
just off the shore. Sidon, Tyre and Aradus, though now
connected with the mainland, were built originally upon islands;
the Phoenicians preferred such sites, because they were con-
venient for shipping and easily defended against attack.

The chief towns of ancient Phoenicia, as we know of them from
the Amarna tablets (l5th century B.C.) and from Egyptian, Assyrian
and the Old Testament documents, were the following: Acco (now
Acre or 'Akka, Judg. i. 31), Achzib (now ez-ZIb, ibid.), Ahlab (in
Assyrian Mahalhba, ibid.) — three towns on_the coast _south of Tyre,
Kanah (Josh. xix. 28), Tyre (Phoen. Sor, now Sur), Zarephath
or Sarepta (l Kings xvii. 9 now Sarafand), Sidon (now Saida),
Berytus (Biruta in Egyptian, Biruna in the Amarna tablets, now
Beirut), Byblus (in Phoen. and Hebr. Gebal, now Jebeil), Arka, 80 m.
north of Sidon (Gen. x. 17, now *Arka), Sin (Assyr. Siannu, ibid.)
Simyra (Gen. x. 18, now Sumra), Marathus (now Amrit) not impor-
tant till the Macedonian period, Arvad or Aradus (in Phoen.
Arwad, now Ruad, Gen. x. 18; Ezek. xxvii. 8, n), the most
northerly of the great Phoeniciari towns, and always famous as a
maritime state.

Race and Language. — The Phoenicians were an early offshoot
from the Semitic stock, and belonged to the Canaanite branch
of it. Curiously enough in Gen. x. Sidon, the " first-born "
of Canaan, is classed among the descendants of Ham; but the
table of nations in Gen. x. is not arranged upon strict ethno-
graphic principles; perhaps religious antagonism induced the
Hebrews to assign to the Canaanites an ancestry different from
their own; at any rate the close connexion which existed from
an early date between the Phoenicians and the Egyptians may
have suggested the idea that both peoples belonged to the same
race. The Phoenicians themselves retained some memory of
having migrated from older seats on an eastern sea; Herodotus
(i. i; vii. 89) calls it the "red sea," meaning probably the

5

450

PHOENICIA

Persian Gulf; the tradition, therefore, seems to show that the
Phoenicians believed that their ancestors came originally from
Babylonia. By settling along the Syrian coast they developed
a strangely un-Semitic love for the sea, and advanced on different
lines from the other Canaanites who occupied the interior.
They called themselves Canaanites and their land Canaan;
such is their name in the Amarna tablets, Kinahhi and Kinahni;
and with this agrees the statement assigned to Hecataeus
(Fr. hist. gr. i. 17) that Phoenicia was formerly called Xva,
a name which Philo of Byblus adopts into his mythology by
making " Chha who was afterwards called Phoinix " the eponym
of the Phoenicians (Fr. hist. gr. iii. 569). In the reign of
Antiochus IV. and his successors the coins of Laodicea of Libanus
bear the legend "Of Laodicea which is in Canaan";1 the Old
Testament also sometimes denotes Phoenicia and Phoenicians
by "Canaan" and "Canaanites" (Isa. xxiii. n; Obad. 20;
Zeph. i. u), though the latter names generally have a more ex-
tended sense. But " Sidonians " is the usual designation both in
the Old Testament and in the Assyrian monuments (Sidunnu) ;
and even at the time of Tyre's greatest ascendancy we read of
Sidonians and not Tyrians in the Old Testament and in Homer;
thus Ethbaal king of Tyre (Jos. Ant. viii. 13, 2) is called king
of the Sidonians in i Kings xvi. 31. In the Homeric poems we
meet with — woftoi, 2iSovii] (Od. iv. 618; TV. vi. 290; Od. xiii.
285; //. vi. 291) and <£otwces, $011*1/07 (Od. xiii. 272, xiv. 288
seq., &c.), and both terms together (Od. iv. 83 seq., II. xxiii.
743 seq.)2 And the Phoenicians themselves used Sidonians
as a general name; thus in the oldest Phoenician inscription
known (CIS. i. s = NSI., No. n), Hiram II. king of Tyre in
the 8th century is styled " king of the Sidonians." But among
the Greeks " Phoenicians " was the name most in use, ^OIWMS
(plur. of $oivi£) for the people and "fotfiw; for the land (cf.
PHOENIX). The former was probably the older word, and may
be traced to <(>ou>k=" blood-red "; the Canaanite sailors were
spoken of as the " red men " on account of their sunburnt skin;
then the land from which they came was called after them;
and then probably the original connexion between $oivi!; and
<tx>ivos was forgotten, and new forms and meanings were
invented. Thus <t>divi£ came to mean a " date-palm "; but
the date-palm is not in the least characteristic of Phoenicia,
and can hardly grow there; <t>olvL% in this sense has no connexion
with the original meaning of Phoenician. A derivation has been
sought elsewhere, and the Egyptian Fenh proposed as the
origin of the name; but the word Fenh was apparently used of
Asiatic barbarians in general, without any special reference to the
Phoenicians (W. M. Miiller, Asien u. Europa, p. 208 seq.). The
Lat. Poenus is of course merely an adaptation of the Greek form.3
Language. — Inscriptions, coins, topographical names preserved
by Greek and Latin writers, names of persons and the Punic passages
in the Poenulus of Plautus, all show conclusively that the Phoenician
language belonged to the North-Semitic group, and to that sub-
division of it which is called the Canaanite and includes Hebrew and
the dialect of Moab. A comparison between Phoenician and Hebrew
reveals close resemblances both in grammatical forms and in vocabu-
lary ; in some respects older features have been preserved in Phoeni-
cian, others are later, others again are peculiar to the dialect ; many
words poetic or rare or late in Hebrew are common in Phoenician.
Hence we may conclude that the two languages developed indepen-
dently from a common ancestor, which can be no other than the
ancient Canaanite, of which a few words have survived in the
Canaanite glosses to the Amarna tablets (written in Babylonian).4
But in forming an estimate of the Phoenician language it must be
remembered that pur material is scanty and limited in range; the
Phoenicians were in no sense a literary people; moreover, with one
exception (CIS. i. 5), almost all the inscriptions are subsequent

1 Cooke, North-Semitic Inscriptions (elsewhere abbreviated
NSI.), No. 149 B. 8.

2 In this passage "Phoenicians" is a general name for carriers
of commerce, not the inhabitants of a particular country. Similarly
" Sidonian " in //. vi. 209, is taken to mean Semites in general.
Elsewhere " Phoenicians " are merchants, kidnappers, &c., Sidon-
ians " are artists; to indicate nationality both names seem to be
used indifferently, e.g. Od. xiii. 272, xiv. 288, xv. 414.

1 See especially Pietschmann, Gesch. d. Phonizier, 13 sqq., and
Winckler, Keilinschr. u. d. A. T., 3rd ed., 127.

4 A vocabulary is given in KAT.\ 652 seq.; see further Bohl,
Du Sprache d. Amarnabriefe (1909).

to the 6th century B.C.; the majority belong to the 4th century
and later, by which time the language must have undergone a
certain amount of decay.6 Indirectly, however, the Phoenicians
rendered one great service to literature; they took a large
share in the development and diffusion of the alphabet which
forms the foundation of Greek (Herod, v. 58) and of all European
writing. The Phoenician letters in their earlier types are practically
identical with those used by the Hebrews (e.g. the Siloam inscr.
NSI. No. 2), the Moabites (e.g. the Mesha stone, ibid. No. i), and the
Aramaeans of north Syria (e.g. the Zenjirli inscrr. ibid. Nos. 61-63).
They passed through various modifications in the course of time;
after leaving the mother country the script acquires a more cursive,
flowing style on the stones from Cyprus and Attica; the tendency
becomes more strongly marked at the Punic stage; until in the
neo-Punic, from the destruction of Carthage (146 B.C.) to the 1st
century A.D.; both the writing and the language reached their most
degenerate form. As a rustic dialect the language lasted on in
North Africa till the 5th century A.D. In his sermons St Augustine
frequently quotes Punic words.

History. — The Phoenicians, in imitation of the Egyptians,
claimed that their oldest cities had been founded by the gods
themselves, and that their race could boast an
antiquity of 30,000 years (Africanus in Syncellus,
p. 31). Herodotus quotes (ii. 44) a more moderate
tradition which placed the foundation of Tyre 2300 years before
his time, i.e., c. 2756 B.C. According to Justin (xviii. 3) the
Phoenicians, who had long been settled on the coast and occupied
Sidon, founded Tyre in the year before the fall of Troy; possibly
the date 1198 B.C., given byMenanderof Ephesus (in Jos. Ant.
viii. 3, i and c. Ap. i. 18) as that from which the era of Tyre
begins, may refer to the epoch which Justin mentions. Little
certainty, however, can be allowed to these traditional chrono-
logies. It is probable that in remote ages Babylonia exercised
a considerable influence upon Syria and its coast towns; but
Mr L.W.King has shown that the tradition, which was supposed
to connect Sargon I. (c. 3800 B.C.) with the western land and
sea, has been misunderstood; it was the sea in the east, i.e. the
Persian Gulf, which Sargon crossed (Chronicles concerning
Early Bab. Kings, vol. i. ch. 2, 1907).

The extension of the Egyptian empire in the direction of
Asia began about 1600 B.C. under Ahmosi (Aahmes, Amasis) I.,
the founder of the XVIIIth Dynasty, who carried E (laa
his arms into Syria, and conquered at least Palestine Rule
and Phoenicia, the latter being the country called c. 1600-
Jpa-hi on the Egyptian monuments (Miiller, As. u. 110° BmC'
Eur. p. 181). Whether the campaign of Thothmes (Tethmosis)
I. to the Euphrates produced any lasting results is doubtful;
it was Thothmes III. (1503-1449) who repeated and consolidated
the earlier conquest, and established Egyptian suzerainty
over all the petty states of Syria and Phoenicia (see EGYPT:
History, I.). For the geography and civilization of Canaan about
1400 B.C. we have valuable evidence in the Egyptian papyrus
Anastasi I., which mentions Kepuna (Gubna, Gebal-Byblus)
the holy city, and continues: " Come then to Berytus, to Sidon,
to Sarepta. Where is the ford of Nat- 'ana (? Nahr el-^asimlyeh,
or a town)? Where is 'Eutu (? Usu, Palaetyrus) ? Another
city on the sea is called a haven, D'ar (Tyre) is its name, water
is carried to it in boats; it is richer in fish than in sands." 6 But
the fullest information about the state of Phoenicia in the isth
and i4th centuries B.C. comes from the Amarna tablets, among
which are many letters from the subject princes and the
Egyptian governors of Phoenicia to the Pharaoh.7 It was a time
of much political disturbance. The Hittites (q.v.) were invading
Syria; nomads from the desert supported the invasion; and
many of the local chiefs were ready to seize the opportunity
to throw off the yoke of Egypt. The towns of Phoenicia were

1 For the Phoen. inscrr. see Corpus inscriptionum semiticarum,
pt. i., brought up to date provisionally by Repertoire d'epigr.
sem. A selection is published by Lidzbarski, Handbuch d. nordsem.
Epigraphik (1898); Cooke, Textbook of North-Semitic Inscriptions
(I9O3). with translations and notes; Landau, Beitrdge z. Alter tumsk.
d. Orients (1899-1906); Lidzbarski, Altsem. Texte (1907), pt. i.

'See W. M. Muller, loc. cit. pp. 57, 172 sqq., 184 sqq.; Jeremias,
Das A. T. im Lichte d. alt. Orients, p. 302 seq.; Records of the Past,
ii. 109 seq.

7 Winckler, Tell-el-Am. Letters Nos. 37 sqq.; Petrie, Syria and
Egypt in the Tell el Am. Letters.

PHOENICIA

45*

divided; Aradus, Simyra, Sidon supported the rebellion; Rib-
habad, the vassal of Byblus, and Abi-melech, king of Tyre, held
out for Egypt; but while all the towns made professions of
fidelity, they were scheming for their own interests, and in the
end Egypt lost them all except Byblus. The tablets which
reveal this state of affairs are written in the language and script
of Babylonia, and thus show indirectly the extent to which
Babylonian culture had penetrated Palestine and Phoenicia;
at the same time they illustrate the closeness of the relations
between the Canaanite towns and the dominant power of
Egypt. After the reign of Amenophis IV. (1376-1366) that
power collapsed altogether; but his successors attempted to
recover it, and Ramses (Rameses) II. reconquered Phoenicia
as far as Beirut, and carved three tablets on the rock beside the
Nahr el-Kelb to commemorate his victories; under the XlXth
and XXth Dynasties this seems to have remained the northern
limit of the Egyptian Empire. But in the reign of Ramses III.
(c. 1200) great changes began to occur owing to the invasion
of Syria by peoples from Asia Minor and Europe, which ended
in the establishment of the Philistines on the coast near Ashkelon.
The successors of Ramses III. lost their hold over Canaan; the
XXIst Dynasty no longer intervened in the affairs of Syria;
but Sheshonk (Shishak), the founder of the XXIInd Dynasty,
about 928 B.C. endeavoured to assert the ancient supremacy of
Egypt (cf. i Kings xiv. 25 sqq.), but his successes were not
lasting, and, as we learn from the Old Testament, the power of
Egypt became henceforward practically ineffective. Not until
608 did a Pharaoh (Necho) lead an Egyptian army so far north,
and he was defeated by Nebuchadrezzar. During the period
which elapsed before the rise of the Assyrian power in Syria
the Phoenicians were left to themselves. This was the period
of their development, and Tyre became the leading city of
Phoenicia.

Between the withdrawal of the Egyptian rule in Syria and
the western advance of Assyria there comes an interval during
ladepea- which the city-states of Phoenicia owned no suzerain.
deuce o/ The history of this period is mainly a history of
Phoenicia. Tyre, which not only rose to a sort of hegemony
among the Phoenician states, but founded colonies beyond
the seas (below). From 970 to 772 B.C. the bare outline of
events is supplied by extracts from two Hellenistic historians,
Menander of Ephesus and Dius (largely dependent upon Menan-
der), which have been preserved by Josephus, Ant. viii. 5, 3
and c. Ap. i. 17, 18. From the data given in these passages
we learn that Hiram I., son of Abi-baal, reigned in Tyre from
970 to 936 B.C. He enlarged the island-town to the east, restored
and enriched the temples, built new ones to Heracles (i.e.
Melkarth or Melqarth) and Astarte, founded the feast of the
awakening of Heracles in the month Peritius, and reduced the
inhabitants of Utica to their allegiance. The Tyrian annals,
moreover, alluded to the connexion between Hiram and Solomon.
Before this time, indeed, the Phoenicians had no doubt lived
on friendly terms with the Israelites1 (cf. Judges v. 17; Gen. xlix.
13); but the two nations seem to have drawn closer in the time
of Solomon. 2 Sam. v. n, which brings David and Hiram
together, probably antedates what happened in the following
reign. For Solomon's palace and temple Hiram contributed
cedar and fir trees as well as workmen, receiving in exchange
large annual payments of oil and wine, supplies which Phoenicia
must have drawn regularly from Israelite districts (i Kings v. 9,
ii ; cf. Ezek. xxvii. 17; Ezr. iii. 7; Acts xii. 20; Jos. Ant. xiv. 10,
6) ; finally, in return for the gold which he furnished for the temple,
Hiram received the grant of a territory in Galilee (Cabul, i Kings
ix. io-i4).2 This alliance between the two monarchs led to a

1 In Judges x. 12 (cf. v. 6, iii. 3) the Sidonians are mentioned
among the oppressors of Israel ; but there is no record of any invasion
of Israel by the Phoenicians, and the statement is due to the post-
exilic editor who introduced generalizations of ancient history into
the book of Judges.

2 Jos. Ant. viii. 3, I, dates the building of Solomon's temple in
the i Ith year of Hiram, and 420 years after the foundation of Tyre.
This gives a Tyrian era which began in 1198-1197 B.C., i.e. at the
time when the Philistines settled on the coast of Canaan, an event

joint expedition from Eziongeber on the Gulf of Akaba (strictly
Aqaba) to Ophir (? on the east coast of Arabia, see OPHIR) for
purposes of trade. The list of Hiram's successors given by
Josephus indicates frequent changes of dynasty until the time
of Ithobal I. priest of Astarte, whose reign (887-855) marks a
return to more settled rule. In contrast to Hiram I., king of
Tyre, Ithobal or Ethbaal is styled in i Kings xvi. 31 " king of
the Sidonians," i.e. of the Phoenicians, showing that in the
interval the kings of Tyre had extended their rule over the other
Phoenician cities. Under Ethbaal further expansion is recorded;
Botrys north of Byblus and Aoza in North Africa are said to have
been founded by him; the more famous Carthage owed its origin
to the civil discords which followed the death of Metten I. (820),
his next successor but one. According to tradition, Metten's
son Pygmalion (820-773) s^ew the husband of his sister Elissa
or Dido; whereupon she fled and founded Carthage (q.v.) in Libya
(813; Justin xviii. 4-6). At this point Josephus's extracts
from Menander come to an end.

From the time of Ethbaal onwards the independence of
Phoenicia was threatened by the advance of Assyria. So far
back as noo B.C. Tiglath-pileser I. had invaded North Assyrian
Phoenicia, and in order to secure a harbour on the Kuie, 876-
coast he occupied Arvad (Aradus); but no permanent 6°SB.C.
occupation followed. In the gth century, however, the system-
atic conquest of the west began. In 876 B.C. Assur-nazir-pal III.
" washed his weapons in the great sea," and exacted tribute
from the kings of Tyre, Sidon, Byblus and other cities, including
Arvad (Keilinschr. Bibliothek, i. 109). The inscriptions of
his son Shalmaneser II. mention the taking of tribute from the
Tyrians and Sidonians in 846 and again in 849; the Byblians
are included at the latter date, and among the kings defeated
at Karkar in 854 or 853 was Metten-baal, king of the Arvadites
(ibid. pp. 141, 143, 173). Thus Shalmaneser completed the
conquests of his predecessor on the Phoenician coast, and
established a supremacy which lasted for over a hundred years
and was acknowledged by occasional payments of tribute.
In 741 Tiglath-pileser III. mentions on his tribute-lists " Hirurn
of Tyre "; and here for the first time a piece of native evidence
becomes available. The earliest Phoenician inscription at
present known (CIS. i. $ = NSI. No. n) is engraved upon
the fragments of a bronze bowl dedicated by a certain governor
of Qarth-hadasht (or Karti-Hadasti, " New City," i.e. Citium),
" servant of Hiram king of the Sidonians to Baal of Lebanon."
It is to be noted that this Hiram II. was not only king
of Tyre, as the Assyrian inscription calls him, but of
Sidon too; and further, that by this time Tyre had established
a colony in Cyprus (q.v.). In Tiglath-pileser's Philistine
campaign of 734 Byblus and Aradus paid tribute, and an
Assyrian chief officer (the Rab-shakeh) was sent to Tyre
and extorted from the king, now Metten or Mattun, the
large sum of 150 talents of gold (KB. ii. 23). For
the period which follows a certain amount of information is
furnished by Menander (in Jos. Ant. ix. 14, 2). Elulaeus IX., in
Assyrian Lull, who ruled under the name of Pylas, was king of
Tyre, Sidon, and other cities at this time (c. 725-690), and at
the beginning of his reign suffered from an invasion by Shal-
maneser IV. or Salampsas (Jos.) ; this was probably the expedi-
tion against Hoshea of Samaria in 725; " the king of Assyria . . .
overran all Phoenicia, but soon made peace with them all
and returned back." In the reign of Sargon Phoenicia itself
seems to have been left alone; but the inhabitants of Citium
revolted, showing that the authority of Tyre in Cyprus had
grown weak; and Sargon received the submission of seven
Cyprian princes, and set up in Larnaca (probably in 709) the
triumphal stele now in the Berlin Museum (Schrader, Cuneif.
Inscr. and 0. T., 2nd ed., vol. ii. p. 87). But Elulaeus, according
to Menander, suppressed the revolt of Citium, and early in the
reign of Sennacherib joined the league of Philistia and Judah,

which had considerable effect upon the' cities of Phoenicia (above,
Justin xviii. 3). In the Tyrian annals (Jos. c. Ap. i. 18) the reference
was probably to the felling of timber in Lebanon for Hiram's temples;
Josephus then misinterpreted this by I Kings v. 6.

452

PHOENICIA

in alliance with Egypt and Ethiopia, which aimed at throwing
off the oppressive tyranny of Assyria; as usual, however, the
city-states of Phoenicia could not combine even against a
common foe, and several broke away from Tyre, so Menander
tells us, and sided with Assyria. In the great campaign of 701
Sennacherib came down upon the revolting provinces; he forced
Lull, king of Sidon, to fly [for refuge to Cyprus, took his chief
cities, and set up Tuba'lu (Ethbaal) as king, imposing a yearly
tribute (KB. ii. 91). The blockade of Tyre by sea, signifi-
cantly passed over in Sennacherib's inscription, is described by
Menander. The island-city proved to be impregnable, but it
was the only possession left of what had been the extensive
kingdom of Elulaeus. Sennacherib, however, so far accomplished
his object as to break up the combination of Tyre and Sidon,
which had grown into a powerful state.1 At Sidon the successor
of Ethbaal was Abd-milkath; in alliance with a Cilician chief he
rebelled against Esarhaddon about the year 678, with disastrous
consequences. Sidon was annihilated; Abd-milkath fell into
the hands of Esarhaddon, who founded a new Sidon on the
mainland, peopled it with foreigners, and called it after his own
name. The old name, however, survived in popular usage;
but the character of the city was changed, and till the time of
Cyrus the kingdom of Sidon ceased to exist (KB. ii. 125 seq.,
145; KAT.3 88). Tyre also came in for its share of hardship.
Elulaeus was followed by Baal, who in 672 consented to join
Tirhaka, the Ethiopian king of Egypt, in a rebellion against
Assyria. Esarhaddon, on his way to Egypt for the second time,
determined to deal out punishment; he blockaded Tyre, and
raised earthworks on the shore and cut off the water-supply;
but he did not capture the city itself. His monument found at
Zenjirli represents the great king holding Baal of Tyre and
Tirhaka of Egypt by cords fastened in their lips;2 there is no
evidence, however, that he actually took either of them prisoner.
Early in the reign of Assur-bani-pal Tyre was besieged again
(668), but Assur-bani-pal succeeded no better than his prede-
cessors. Nevertheless Baal submitted in the end, along with the
princes of Gebal and Arvad, Manasseh of Judah, and the other
Canaanite chiefs; in the island of Cyprus the Assyrians carried
all before them (KB. ii. 149 seq., 169, 173). On his return
from the Arabian campaign Assur-bani-pal severely punished
the rebellious inhabitants of Ushu (Palaetyrus) and Akko, and
transported the survivors to Assyria (ibid. 229). In Phoenicia,
as elsewhere, Assyrian rule created nothing and left nothing
behind it but a record of barbarous conquest and extortion.
An interesting sidelight is thrown upon this period by the list
of the Thalassocracies in the Chronicon of Eusebius (p. 226, ed.
Schoene), which places the 45 years of the sea-power of Phoenicia
at a date which, with much probability, may be conjectured
to lie between 709, when Cyprus submitted to Sargon, and 664,
when Egypt threw off the rule of Assyria. If this dating is
correct, and the Phoenician sea-power was at its height during
these years, we can understand why Tyre gave so much trouble
to the Assyrian kings.3

In the last crisis of the dying power of Assyria the Egyptians
for a short time laid hands on Phoenicia; but after their defeat
TJie Neo- a*- ^e battle of Carchemish (605), the Chaldaeans
Babylonian became the masters of western Asia. Jeremiah's
Period, 60S- allusion (xxv. 22) in 604 to the approaching downfall
B'c' of the kings of Tyre and Sidon and the coast-land
beyond the sea, i.e. the Phoenician settlements on the Mediter-
ranean, seems to imply that the Phoenician states recovered
some measure of independence; if they did it cannot have
lasted long. In 588 Apries (Pharaoh Hophra) made an attempt

1 The above interpretation of Menander and the Assyrian evidence
is based upon Ed. Meyer, Ency. Bib. col. 3755. For a different
explanation see Landau, Beitr. z. Altertumsk. d. Or. vol. i., followed by
Winckler, Altor. Forsch. ii. 65 sqq.; these scholars take Menander to
refer to the later war of Esarhaddon and Assur-bani-pal against
Baal of Tyre.

2 See the facsimile in Ausgrabungen in Sendschirli (Berlin, 1893),
and p. 17 for the above interpretation of it.

1 John L. Myres, Journ. Hell. Studies (1906), xxvi. 84 seq., criticiz-
ing Winckler, Der Alte Orient (1905), vol. vii. pt. 2.

to displace the Chaldaean supremacy; he defeated Tyre and
Sidon, and terrorized the other cities into submission (Herod,
ii. 161; Diod. Sic. i. 68). Some of the Phoenician chiefs, among
them Ithobal II., the new king of Tyre, while forced to yield to
a change of masters, were bold enough to declare their hostility
to the Babylonians. This state of affairs did not escape the
vigilance of Nebuchadrezzar. After the fall of Jerusalem he
marched upon Phoenicia; Apries withdrew his army, and the
siege of Tyre began. For thirteen years the great merchant
city held out (585-573; Jos. c. Ap. i. 21; cf. Ezek. xxvi. i seq.).
Ezekiel says that Nebuchadrezzar and his host had no reward
for their heavy service against Tyre, and the presumption is
that the city capitulated on favourable terms; for Ithobal's
reign ends with the close of the siege, and the royal family is
subsequently found in Babylon. The king appointed by
Nebuchadrezzar was Baal II. (574-564), after whose death a
republic was formed under a single suffete or " judge " (shdjet).
Josephus (loc. cit.)is again our authority for the changes of govern-
ment which followed until the monarchy was revived. At
length under Hiram III. Phoenicia passed from the Chaldaeans
to the Persians (538), and at the same time Amasis (Ahmosi) II.
of Egypt occupied Cyprus (Herod, ii. 182). There seems to
have been no struggle; the great siege and the subsequent
civil disorders had exhausted Tyre, and Sidon took its place
as the leading state. About this time, too, Carthage made an
effort for independence under Hanno the Great (538-521), the
real founder of its fortunes; the old dependence upon Tyre was
changed for a mere relation of piety observed by the annual
sending of delegates (O&apoi) to the festival of Melkarth (Arrian
ii. 24; Polyb. xxxi. 20, 12). The disasters and humiliations
which befell Tyre during this and the foregoing period might
suggest that its prosperity had been seriously damaged. But
Tyre always counted for more in commerce than in politics;
and in the year 586, just before the great siege, Ezekiel draws
a vivid picture (ch. xxvii.) of the extent and splendour of its
commercial relations. Even when cut off from its possessions
on the mainland the city itself was not captured; its seafaring
trade went on; and though by degrees the colonies were lost,
yet the ties of race and sentiment remained strong enough to-
bind the Phoenicians of the mother-country to their kindred
beyond the seas.

Constitution. — At this point it is convenient to mention what
little is known about the constitution of the Phoenician states.
All Canaanite analogy speaks for kingship as the oldest form of Phoe-
nician government. In the native inscriptions the chief of the city
in Phoenicia itself and in Cyprus is always called king. The royal
houses claimed divine descent,4 and the king could not be chosen
outside their members. His power, however, was limited by the
wealthy merchant families, who possessed great influence in public
affairs; thus it was possible for war or peace to be decided at Tyre
in the king's absence, or at Sidon against his will (Arrian ii. 15 and
16; Curtius iv. I, 15). The priest of Melkarth at Tyre was the second
man in the kingdom. Associated with the prince was a council
of elders; such was the case at Gebal (Byblus) from the earliest times
to the latest (Ezek. xxvii. 9) ; at Sidon this council consisted of 100
members (Diod. xvi. 45), perhaps also at Tyre.6 Inscriptions of the
3rd and 2nd centuries B.C. mention a Rab (chief) in Sidon, Cyprus
and Gaulus (Gozo) ; what his position was it is difficult to say ; in
the colonies he may have been a district governor. During Nebu-
chadrezzar's time, as we have seen, a republic took the place of the
monarchy at Tyre, and the government was administered by a
succession of suffetes (judges); they held office for short terms, and
in one instance two ruled together for six years. Much later, in the
3rd century B.C., an inscription from Tyre mentions a suffete (NSI.
No. 8) without adding more to our knowledge. Carthage, of course,
was governed by two suffetes, and these'officers are frequently named
in connexion with the Carthaginian colonies (NSI. p. 115 seq.);
but we must be careful not to draw the inference that Phoenicia
itself had any such magistrates. Under the Persians a federal bond
was formed comprising Sidon, Tyre and Aradus, whose duty it
was to contribute 300 triremes to the Persian fleet (Herod, vii. 89),

4 So the Babylonians, Canaanites (e.g. in the case of the Nephilim,
Gen. vi. 2), Arabs, Greeks, traced the descent of heroic families to
the gods. W. R. Smith, Kinship and Marriage, p. 206; S. I. Curtis's
Primitive Sent. Rel. To-day (London, 1902), p. 112 seq.

6 An inscr. from Tyre may be read, " 'Abd ba'al chief of the
Hundred," NSI. p. 129; Clermont-Ganneau, Recueil d'arch. or.
ii. 294 seq.

PHOENICIA

453

the lesser towns being under, the command of the great cities. Aradus
presided over three subordinate townships (Arrian ii. 13) ; Berytus,
which had no king of its own, probably formed with Byblus a
single kingdom; while Tripolis consisted of a federation of three
cities separated by a stadium from each other, and provided a meet-
ing-place for the federal council, which was chiefly occupied in dealings
with the Persian government (Diod. xvi. 41). But federation on a
larger scale was never possible in Phoenicia, for the reason that no
sense of political unity existed to bind the different states together.
Commercial interests dominated everything else, and while these
stimulated a municipal life not without vigour, civil discipline and
loyalty were but feebly felt. On occasion the towns could defend
their independence with strenuous courage; the higher qualities
which make for a progressive national life the Phoenicians did not
possess.

Phoenicia now became part of the fifth satrapy of the Persian
Empire, and entered upon a spell of comparative peace and
The Persian growing prosperity. Favoured for the sake of
Period, 538- their fleet, and having common interests against
333 B. C. Greece,1 the Phoenicians were among the most
loyal subjects of the empire. At this period Sidon occu-
pied the position of leading state; in the fleet her king
ranked next to Xerxes and before the king of Tyre (Herod,
viii. 67); her situation afforded advantages for expansion
which Tyre on its small and densely populated island could not
rival. The city was distinguished by its cosmopolitan character;
the satrap resided there when he came to Phoenicia, and the
Persian monarch had his paradise outside the walls. In the
first half of the 4th century Straton I. (in Phoen. 'Abd-'ashtart
or Bod-'ashtart) was king, c. 374-362. He cultivated friendly
relations with Athens, indicated in a decree of proxenia (Michel,
Rec. d'inscr. gr. No. 93 = CIG. No. 87); his court was famed
for its luxury; and the extent to which phil-Hellenic tendencies
prevailed at this time in Sidon is shown by the royal sarcophagi,
noble specimens of Greek art, which have been excavated in the
necropolis of the city. It was in the reign of Straton that Tyre
fell into the hands of Evagoras, king of Salamis, who had already
supplanted Phoenician with Greek civilization in Cyprus (Isocr.
Evag. 62, Paneg. 161; Diod. xv. 2). Straton made friends with
Nicocles, son of Evagoras, and with him came to an untimely
end through their implication in the great revolt of the satraps,
362 B.C. (see the story of Straton's death in Jerome, adv. Jovin.
\. 45). A new revolt of Sidon against the Persians took place
under King Tennes owing to the insults offered to the Sidonians
at the federal diet in Tripolis. With the aid of Nectanebus
of Egypt, who had grievances of his own to avenge, the Sidonians
carried the rest of Phoenicia with them and drove the satraps
of Syria and Cilicia out of the country. Tennes, however,
betrayed his people and opened the city to Artaxerxes III.;
the inhabitants to the number of 40,000 are said to have set
fire to their houses and perished; Tennes himself was executed
after he had served the ends of the great king (346 B.C.; Diod.
xvi. 41-45). The last king of Sidon was Straton II. ('Abd-
'ashtart, 346-332) before the Persian Empire came to an end.2
Towards the close of the 5th century the Phoenician coins begin
to supplement our historical sources (see NUMISMATICS). From the
time of Darius the Persian monarchs issued a gold coinage, and
reserved to themselves the right of doing so; but they allowed their
satraps and vassal states to coin silver and copper money at
discretion. Hence Aradus, Byblus, Sidon and Tyre issued a coinage
of their own, of which many specimens exist: the coins are stamped
as a rule with emblem or name of the city, sometimes with the
name of the ruler.3 Thus from the coins of Byblus we learn the
names of four kings, 'El-pa'al, "Az-ba'al (between 360 and 340 B.C.),
Adar-melek, 'Ain-el ; from the coins of the other cities it is difficult

1 The naval expeditions against Greece in 480-449 and Sparta
in 396-387 were mainly fitted out by Phoenicia. See PERSIA:
Ancient History, for the whole of this section.

2 Justin xviii. 3 tells a story about Tyre during this period:
the city, after being worn out though not defeated in long wars
with the Persians, was so enfeebled that it was seized by the slaves,
who rose and massacred their masters; one Straton alone escaped
and was afterwards made king. The reference to the Persians is
obviously incorrect; the story, if it can be taken seriously at all,
must refer to one of the sieges by the Assyrians or Chaldaeans, and,
as Meyer suggests (Ency. Bib. col. 3760), may be derived from the
story of Abdajonymus of Sidon mentioned below.

3 See especially E. Babelon, Les Perses Achemtnides, and cf.
NSI. No. 149.

to obtain much information. . The native inscriptions, however,
now become available, though most of them belong to the period
which follows, and only a few have been discovered in Phoenicia
itself. One of the earliest of these is the inscription of Byblus
(CIS. i. l = NSI. No. 3), dating from the Persian period; it
records a dedication made by Yebaw-milk, king of Gebal, and
mentions the name of the king's grandfather, Uri-milk, but the
exact dates of their reign are not given.

When Alexander the Great entered Phoenicia after the battle
of Issus (333 B.C.), the kings were absent with the Persian fleet
in the Aegean; but the cities of Aradus, Byblus and fhe
Sidon welcomed him readily, the last-named showing Macedonian
special zeal against Persia. The Tynans also offered Period,
submission, but refused to allow the conqueror 333m69 B-c-
to enter the city and sacrifice to the Tyrian Heracles. Alexander
was determined to make an example of the first who should
offer opposition, and at once began the siege. It lasted seven
months. With enormous toil the king drove out a mole from
the mainland to the island and thus brought up his engines;
ships from the other Phoenician towns and from Cyprus lent
him their aid, and the town at length was forced in July 332;
8000 Tyrians were slain, 30,000 sold as slaves, and only a few
notables, the king Azemilkos, and the festal envoys from Carthage
who had taken refuge in the sanctuary of Melkarth, were spared
(Diod. xvii. 40-46). It is not unlikely that Zech. ix. 2-4 refers
to this famous siege. For the time Tyre lost its political
existence, while the foundation of Alexandria presently changed
the lines of trade, and dealt a blow even more fatal to the
Phoenician cities.

During the wars of Alexander's successors Phoenicia changed
hands several times between the Egyptian and the Syrian
kings. Thus in 312 Tyre was captured from Antigonus by
Ptolemy I., the ally of Seleucus; in 287 it passed into the domin-
ion of Seleucus; in 275 again it was captured by Ptolemy II.
Philadelphus, and began to recover itself as an autonomous
municipality. From the year 275 " the people of Tyre "
reckoned their era (CIS. i. 7 = NSI. No. 9, cf. 10). The
Tyrian coins of the period, stamped with native, Greek and
Egyptian symbols, illustrate the traditional relations of the
city and the range of her ambitions. A special interest attaches
to these silver tetradrachms and didrachms (staters and half-
staters), because they were used by the Jews for the payment
of the temple tax as " shekels of the sanctuary " (NSI. pp.
3Si, 44)-

Among the Phoenician states we know most about Sidon
during this period. The kingship was continued for a long
time. The story goes that Alexander raised to the throne a
member of the royal family, Abdalonymus, who was living in
obscure poverty and working as a gardener (Justin xi. 10; Curt,
iv. i; Diod. xvii. 47 wrongly connecting the story with Tyre).
In 312 Ptolemy, then master of Phoenicia, appointed his
general Philocles king of the Sidonians, and a decree in honour
of this king has been found at Athens (Michel, No. 387, cf. 1261) ;
but he cannot have reigned long. For at the end of the 4th
and the beginning of the 3rd century we have evidence of a
native dynasty in the important inscriptions of Tabnith, Esh-
mun-'azar and Bod-'ashtart, and in the series of inscriptions
(repeating the same text) discovered at Bostan esh-Shekh near
Sidon (NSI. Nos. 4, 5, 6 and App. i.).4 The last-named texts
imply that the first king of this dynasty was Eshmun-'azar;
his son Tabnith succeeded him; then came Eshmun-'azar II.,
who died young, then Bod-'ashtart, both of them grandsons
of Eshmun-'azar I. With Bod-'ashtart, so far as we know,
the dynasty came to an end, say about 250 B.C.; and it is not
unlikely that the Sidonians reckoned an era of independence
from this event (NSI. p. 95 ».).

Of the other Phoenician cities something is known of the history
of Aradus. Its era began in 259 B.C., when it probably became a
republic or free city. While the rest of Phoenicia passed under the

4 The date of this dynasty has been much disputed ; but the
reference to " the lord of kings " in the great inscr. of Eshmun-
'azar (line 18) points to the Ptolemaic period, for the Persian monarch
is always styled " king of kings." The interpretation of many
details of the inscr. from Bostan esh-Shekh is still uncertain.

454

PHOENICIA

rule of Ptolemy II. and his successors between 281 and 197, Aradus
remained in the kingdom of the Seleucids, who greatly favoured the
city and increased its privileges (Strabo xvi. 2, 14; Polyb. v. 68).
But its subject-towns availed themselves of the political changes of
the period to throw off their allegiance; Marathus from 278 begins
to issue a coinage bearing the heads of the Ptolemies, and later on
Karne asserted its independence in the same way; but in the end the
Aradians recovered their supremacy. Diodorus records a barbarous
attempt made by the Aradians, about 148 B.C. to destroy Marathus,
which was frustrated by the pity and courage of an Aradian fisher-
man (xxxiii. 5). At last in the time of Tigranes, the Armenian
holder of the kingdom of the Seleucids, or soon afterwards, the
coins of Marathus cease; the city was levelled to the ground, and its
land, with that of Simyra, was parcelled out among the Aradians
(Strabo xvi. 2, 12). Akko issued coins of its own down to 267 B.C.,
if the reckoning was from the Seleucid era (312 B.C.); in 267 it was
converted into a Greek city by Ptolemy, and called Ptolemais
(Polyb. iv. 37; Strabo xvi. 2, 25; cf. Acts xxi. 7). Laodicea of
Libanus was founded by Seleucus Nicator on the plain south-east
of Hemesa (Horns) in the region of the upper Orontes, and became
an important city; its coins of the 2nd century B.C. bear the interest-
ing legend in Phoenician, " Of Laodicea which is in Canaan " (NSI.
p. 349 seq.). Another Laodicea " by the sea " (ad mare}, also of
Seleucid foundation, is probably to be identified with the ruined
site called Umm el-'Awamid, near the coast between Tyre and Akko;
several Phoenician inscriptions have been found there (e.g. CIS.,
i. 7 = NSI. No. 9; Clermont Ganneau, Recueil, t. v.).

After the death of Antiochus IV. Epiphanes in 164 B.C.,
revolts and adventurers made their appearance in many parts
of Syria, heralding the collapse of the kingdom of the Seleucids.
Berytus was destroyed by the usurper Trypho in 140 B.C. Tyre
in 120 and Sidon in in received complete independence, and
inaugurated new eras from these dates. Byblus and Tripolis
fell into the hands of " tyrants " (Strabo xvi. 2, 18; Jos. Ant.
xiv. 3, 2), and Arab robbers plundered their territories from
strongholds in the Lebanon. From 83-69 B.C. the entire kingdom
was held by the Armenian Tigranes.

At last in 64 B.C. Pompey arrived upon the scene and established
order out of chaos. Phoenicia was incorporated into the Roman
province of Syria; Aradus, Sidon, Tyre and Tripolis
were confirmed in their rights of self-government
and in the possession of their territories. In 14 B.C.
Augustus rebuilt Berytus as a Roman colony and stationed two
legions there; later on Ptolemais, Tyre and Sidon received
colonial status. Under the beneficent government of Rome the
chief towns prospered and extended their trade; but the whole
character of the country underwent a change. During the
Macedonian period Greek influences had been steadily gaining
ground in Phoenicia; relations with the Greek world grew closer;
the native language fell into disuse, and from the beginning of
the Roman occupation Greek appears regularly in inscriptions
and on coins, though on the latter Phoenician legends do not
entirely vanish till the 2nd century A.D.; while the extent to
which Hellenic ideas penetrated the native traditions and
mythologies is seen in the writings of Philo of Byblus. For the
purposes of everyday life, however, the people spoke not Greek,
but Aramaic. As elsewhere, the Roman rule tended to obliterate
characteristic features of national life, and under it the native
language and institutions of Phoenicia became extinct.

Navigation, Trade, Colonies. — The Phoenicians were essentially
a seafaring nation. Fearless and patient navigators, they
ventured into regions where no one else dared to go, and, always
with an eye to their monopoly, they carefully guarded the secrets
of their trade routes and discoveries, and their knowledge of
winds and currents. At the beginning of the 7th century B.C. a
Phoenician fleet is said to have circumnavigated Africa (Herod,
iv. 42). To the great powers Phoenician ships and sailors were
indispensable; Sennacherib, Psammetichus and Necho, Xerxes,
Alexander, all in turn employed them for their transports and
sea-fights. Even when Athens had developed a rival navy
Greek observers noted with admiration the discipline kept on
board the Phoenician ships and the skill with which they were
handled (Xen. Oec. viii.); all the Phoenician vessels from the
round merchant-boat (7aOXos — after which the island of Gaulus,
now Gozo, near Malta was called) to the great Tarshish-ships,
the " East-Indiamen " of the ancient world, excelled those of
the Greeks in speed and equipment. As E. Meyer points out,

the war between the Greeks and the Persians was mainly a
contest between the sea-powers of Greece and Phoenicia. At
what period did Phoenicia first rise to be a power in the Mediter-
ranean? We are gradually approaching a solution of this
obscure problem. Recent discoveries in Crete (q.v.) have brought
to light the existence of a Cretan or " Minoan " sea-power of
remote antiquity, and it is clear that a great deal of what used
to be described as Phoenician must receive quite a different
designation. The Minoan sea-power was at last broken up by
invaders from the north, and a Carian rule became dominant
in the Aegean (Herod, i. 171; Thucyd. i. 4, 8). It was a time
of disorder and conflict due to the immigration of new races
into the ancient seats of civilization, and it synchronized with
the weakening of the power of Egypt in the countries which
bordered on the eastern Mediterranean. This was in the i2th
century B.C. The Tyrian trader saw that his opportunity was
come, and the Aegean lay open to his merchant vessels. Where
much is still obscure, all that seems certain is that the antiquity
of Phoenicia as a sea and trading power has been greatly
exaggerated both in ancient and in modern times; the Minoan
power of Cnossus preceded it by many centuries; the influence
of Phoenicia in the Aegean cannot be carried back much earlier
than the I2th century B.C., and, comparatively speaking, it was
" foreign, late, sporadic."1

A vivid description of the Phoenicians' trade at the time of
Tyre's prosperity is given by Ezekiel (xxvii. 12-25), and it shows
how extensive were their commercial relations not only by sea,
but by land as well. It was they who distributed to the rest
of the world the wares of Egypt and Babylonia (Herod, i. i).
From the lands of the Euphrates and Tigris regular trade-routes
led to the Mediterranean with trading-stations on the way,
several of which are mentioned by Ezekiel (xxvii. 23). In Egypt
the Phoenician merchants soon gained a foothold; they alone
were able to maintain a profitable trade in the anarchic times
of the XXIInd and XXIIIrd Dynasties (825-650 B.C.), when all
other foreign merchants were frightened away. Though there
were never any regular colonies of Phoenicians in Egypt, the
Tyrians had a quarter of their own in Memphis (Herod, ii. 112).
The Arabian caravan-trade in perfume, spices and incense passed
through Phoenician hands on its way to Greece and the West
(Herod, iii. 107); these articles of commerce were mainly pro-
duced not in Arabia, but in East Africa and India, and the trade
had its centre in the wealthy state of Sheba in Yemen. Between
Israel and Phoenicia the relations naturally were close; the
former provided certain necessaries of life, and received in
exchange articles of luxury and splendour (Ezek xxvii. i6-i8).2
Israelite housewives sold their homespun to Phoenician pedlars
(Prov. xxxi. 24 R.V.M.); in Jerusalem Phoenician merchants
and money-lenders had their quarter (Zeph. i. n), and after
the Return we hear of Tyrians selling fish and all manner of ware
in the city (Neh. xiii. 16), and introducing other less desirable
imports, such as foreign cults (Isa. Ixv. n). The Phoenician
words which made their way into Greek at an early period indi-
cate the kind of goods in which the Phoenicians traded with the
West, or made familiar through their commerce; the following
are some of them — xPva°*> XtT&v> PU&&OS, odovrj, nvppa, cd/3Xa,
icinrpos, <t>vKos, nva, TraXXaxis, /JcuruXoj. Another valuable
article of commerce which the Phoenicians brought into the
market was amber. They can hardly have fetched it themselves
from the Baltic or the North Sea; it came to them by two well-
marked routes, one from the Baltic to the Adriatic, the other
up the Rhine and down the Rhone. A deposit of amber has
also been found in the Lebanon, and perhaps the Phoenicians
worked this and concealed its origin.

1 Burrows, Discoveries in Crete (1907), 140 sqq. It may be noted
that the traditional or conjectural dates based upon the list of the
Thalassocracies preserved by Eusebius carry us back to the I2th
century B.C. See Professor John L. Myres's essay referred to above,

§ iii- (4)-

* See Eupolemus (140-100 B.C.) quoted by Alexander Polyhistor,
who, in a supposed letter from Solomon to the king of Tyre,
mentions the food-supplies required by the Tyrians and promised
from Palestine (Fr. Hist. Gr. iii. 226).

PHOENICIA

455

The Phoenician colonies were all supposed to have been founded
from Tyre: with regard to the colonies in Cyprus and north
Africa this was undoubtedly true. Cyprus possessed resources
of timber and copper which could not fail to tempt the keen-eyed
traders across the water, who made Citium (from Kittim, the
name of the original non-Semitic inhabitants) their chief settle-
ment, and thence established themselves in Idalium, Tamassus,
Lapethus, Larnaka, Qarth-hadasht (Karti-hadasti) and other
towns. In the inscriptions of the 4th to 3rd centuries, the
Phoenician potentates in the island call themselves " kings of
Kition and Idalion " (NSI. pp. 55-89). But the Phoenician
rule was not so ancient as used to be supposed. At an early
period Greeks from the south coast of Asia Minor had settled
in Cyprus before the Phoenicians founded any colonies there;
and it is noticeable that in the Assyrian tribute-lists of the latter
half of the 7th century (KB. ii. pp. 149, 241) not one of the ten
Cyprian kings mentioned appears to be Phoenician by name.
Menander states (Jos. Ant. ix. 14, 2) that the kings of Tyre
ruled over Cyprus at the close of the 8th century; but a clear
proof that the Phoenician rule was neither ancient nor uninter-
rupted is given by the fact that the Cyprian Greeks took the
trouble to invent a Greek cuneiform character (Cypriote) modelled
on the Assyrian.

Homer represents the Phoenicians as present in Greek waters
for purposes of traffic, but not as settlers (II. xxiii. 744). They
occupied trading-stations on some of the Aegean islands and
on the Isthmus of Corinth. One of their objects was the collec-
tion of murex, of which an enormous supply was needed for the
dyeing industry; specially famous was the purple of the Laconian
waters, the isles of Elishah of Ezek. xxvii. 7. But a great deal
of what was formerly assigned to Phoenician influence in the
Aegean at an early period — pottery, ornaments and local myths
— must be accounted for by the vigorous civilization of ancient
Crete. In the Greek world the Phoenicians made themselves
heartily detested; their characteristic passion for gain (ri>
<f>i\oxphna.Tov, Plato, Rep. iv. 435 E.) was not likely to in-
gratiate them with those who were compelled to make use of
their services while they suffered from their greed.

Farther west in the Mediterranean Phoenician settlements
were planted first in Sicily, on the south coast, at Heraclea or
Ras Melqarth; the islands between Sicily and Africa, Melita
(Malta) on account of its valuable harbour, Gaulus and Cossura
were also occupied (Diod. v. 12) ; and a beginning was made with
the colonization of Sardinia and Corsica; but farther west still,
and on the Atlantic coasts to the right and left of the straits,
more permanent colonies were established. It was the trade
with Tarshish, i.e. the region of Tartessus in south-west Spain,
which contributed most to the Phoenicians' wealth; for in this
region they owned not only profitable fisheries, but rich mines
of silver and other metals. The profits of the trade were
enormous; it was said that even the anchors of ships returning
from Spain were made of silver (Diod. v. 35). From Gadeira
(Punic Coder, Lat. Cades, now Cadiz), the town which they built
on an island near the mouth of the Guadalquiver, the Sidonian
ships ventured farther on the ocean and drew tin from the mines
of north-west Spain or from the richer deposits in the Cassiterides,
i.e. the Tin Islands. These were discovered to be, not a part of
Britain as was imagined at first, but a separate group by them-
selves, now known as the Scillies; hence it is improbable that
the Phoenicians ever worked the tin-mines in Cornwall.

The rich trade with Spain led to the colonization of the West.
Strabo dates the settlements beyond the Pillars of Hercules soon
after the Trojan War (i. 3, 2), in the period of Tyre's first expan-
sion. Lixus in Mauretania, Gades and Utica, are said to have been
founded, one after the other, as far back as the I2th century B.C.
Most of the African colonies were no doubt younger; we have
traditional dates for Aoza (887-855) and Carthage (813). A
large part of North-west Africa was colonized from Phoenicia;
owing to these first settlers, and after them to the Carthaginians,
the Phoenician language became the prevailing one, just as
Latin and Arabic did in later times, and the country assumed
quite a Phoenician character.

In the days of Tyre's greatness her power rested directly on the
colonies, which, unlike those of Greece, remained subject to the
mother-city, and paid tithes of their revenues to its chief god,
Melqarth, and sent envoys annually to his feast. Then at the
beginning of the 8th century B.C. the colonial power of Tyre began
to decline; on the mainland and in Cyprus the Assyrians gained
the upper hand; in the Greek islands the Phoenicians had already
been displaced to a great extent by the advancing tide of Dorian
colonization. But as Tyre decayed in power the colonies turned
more and more to Carthage as their natural parent and protector.
For effective control over a colonial empire Carthage had the
advantage of situation over far-away Tyre; the traditional
bonds grew lax and the ancient dues ceased to be paid, though
as late as the middle of the 6th century Carthage rendered tithes
to the Tyrian Melqarth. And the mother-country cherished
its claims long after they had lost reality; in the 2nd century
B.C., for example, Sidon stamped her coins with the legend,
" Mother of Kambe (i.e. Carthage), Hippo, Kition, Tyre "
(NSI. p. 352).

Manufactures, Inventions, Art. — From an early date the towns
of the Phoenician coast were occupied, not only with distributing
the merchandise of other countries but with working at industries
of their own; especially purple-dyeing and textile fabrics (II. vi.
280 sqq.), metal work in silver, gold and electrum (//. xxiii. 741 sqq.;
Od. iv. 615 sqq., xv. 458 sqq.), and glass-work, which had its seat at
Sidon. The iron and copper mines of Cyprus (not Sidon, as Homer
implies, Od. xv. 424) furnished the ore which was manufactured into
articles of commerce.1 Egyptian monuments frequently mention the
vessels of gold and silver, iron and copper, made by the Dahi, i.e.
the Phoenicians (W. M. M tiller, As. u. Ear. 306) ; and in Cyprus and
at Nimrud bronze and silver paterae have been found, engraved
with Egyptian designs, the work of Phoenician artists (see table-
cases C and D in the Nimrud gallery of the Brit. Mus.). The inven-
tion of these various arts and industries was popularly ascribed to
the Phoenicians, no doubt merely because Phoenician traders
brought the products into the market. But dyeing and embroidery
probably came from Babylon in the first instance; glass- making
seems to have been borrowed from Egypt ; the invention of arithmetic
and of weights and measures must be laid to the credit of the Baby-
lonians. The ancients believed that the Phoenicians invented the
use of the alphabet (e.g. Pliny, N.H. v. 13, cf. yii. 57; Lucan,
Bell. Civ. iii. 220 sen.) ; but it is unlikely that any genuine tradition on
the subject existed, and though the Phoenician theory has found
favour in modern times it is open to much question. The Phoeni-
cians cannot be said to have invented any of the arts or industries,
as the ancient world imagined; but what they did was something
hardly less meritorious: they developed them with singular skill,
and disseminated the knowledge and use of them.

The art of Phoenicia is characterized generally by its dependence
upon the art of the neighbouring races. It struck out no original
line of its own, and borrowed freely from foreign, especially Egyptian,
models. Remains of sculpture, engraved bronzes and gems, show
clearly the source to which the Phoenician artists went for inspira-
tion; for example, the uraeus-frieze and the winged disk, the ankh
or symbol of life, are Egyptian designs frequently imitated. It was
in the times of the Persian monarchy that Phoenician art reached
its highest development, and to this period belong the oldest sculp-
tures and coins that have come down to us. A characteristic
specimen of the former is the stele of Yehaw-milk, king of Gebal
(CIS. i. i), in which the king is represented in Persian dress, and
the goddess to whom he is offering a bowl looks exactly like an
Egyptian Isis-Hathor; the inscription mentions the various objects
of bronze and gold, engraved work and temple furniture, which the
king dedicated. The whole artistic movement in Phoenicia may be
divided into two great periods: in the first, from the earliest times
to the 4th century B.C-, Egyptian influence and then Babylonian
or Asiatic influence is predominant, but the national element is
strongly marked ; while in the second, Greek influence has obtained
the mastery, and the native element, though making itself felt,
is much less obtrusive. Throughout these periods works of art,
such as statues of the gods and sarcophagi, were imported direct
at first from Egypt and afterwards mainly from Rhodes. The
oldest example of native sarcophagi are copied from Egyptian
mummy-cases, painted with colours and ornamented with carvings
in low relief; towards and during the Greek period the contours of
the body begin to be marked more clearly on the cover. The finest
sarcophagi that have been found in the necropolis of Sidon (now in
the Imperial Museum, Constantinople) are not Phoenician at all,
but exquisite specimens of Greek art. The Phoenicians spent much
care on their burial-places, which have furnished the most important

1 Traces of ancient mining for iron have been found in the
Lebanon; cf. LXX. i Kings ii. 46c (ed. Swete), which has been taken
to refer to this quarrying in search of iron; Jer. xv. 12. See
Benzinger on I Kings ix. 19.

456

PHOENICIA

monuments left to us. The tombs are subterranean chambers
of varied and often irregular form, sometimes arranged in two storeys,
sometimes in several rows one behind the other. While in early
times a mere perpendicular shaft led to these excavations, at a
later date stairs were constructed down to the chambers. The dead
were buried either in the floor (often in a sarcophagus), or, according
to later custom, in niches. The mouths of the tombs were walled
up and covered with slabs, and occasionally cippi (Phoen. ma^eboth)
were set up to mark the spot. The great sepulchral monuments,
popularly called maghazil, i.e. " spindles," above the tombs near
Amrit, have peculiarities of their own; some of them are adorned
with lions at the base and with roofs of pyramidal shape. Besides
busts and figurines, which belong as a rule to the Greek period,
the smaller objects usually found are earthen pitchers and lamps,
glass-wares, tesserae and gems. Of buildings which can be called
architectural few specimens now exist on Phoenician soil, for the
reason that for ages the inhabitants have used the ruins as con-
venient quarries. Not a vestige remains of the great sanctuary
of Melqarth at Tyre ; a few traces of the temple of Adonis near Byblus
were discovered by Renan, and a peculiar mausoleum, Burj al-
Bezzaq, is still to be seen near Amrit; recent excavations at Bostan
esh-Shekh near Sidon have unearthed parts of the enclosure or
foundations of the temple of Eshmun (NSI. p. 401); the conduits
of Ras el-'Ain, south of Tyre, are considered to be of ancient date.
With regard to the plan and design of a Phoenician temple, it is
probable that they were in many respects similar to those of the
temple at Jerusalem, and the probability is confirmed by the re-
mains of a sanctuary near Amrit, in which there is a cella standing
in the midst of a large court hewn out of the rock, together with
other buildings in an Egyptian style. The two pillars before the
porch of Solomon's temple (i Kings vii. 21) remind us of the two
pillars which Herodotus saw in the temple of Melqarth at Tyre
(Herod, ii. 44), and of those which stood before the temples of
Paphos and Hierapolis (see W. R. Smith, Rel. of Sent. p. 468 seq.).

Religion. — Like the Canaanites of whom they formed a branch,
the Phoenicians connected their religion with the great powers and
processes of nature.1 The gods whom they worshipped
PA Id belonged essentially to the earth; the fertile field, trees
and mountains, headlands and rivers and springs, were
believed to be inhabited by different divinities, who were
therefore primarily local, many in number, with no one in
particular supreme over the rest. It seems, however, that as time
went on some of them acquired a more extended character; thus
Ba'al and Astarte assumed celestial attributes in addition to
their earthly ones, and the Tyrian Melqarth combined a celestial
with a marine aspect.2 The gods in general were called 'elonim,
'elim; Plautus uses alonium valonuth for "gods and goddesses"
(Poen. v. i, i). These plurals go back to the singular form 'El,
the common Semitic name for God ; but neither the singular nor the
plural is at all common in the inscriptions (NSI. pp. 24, 41, 5');
El by itself has been found only once;3 the fern. 'Elath is also rare
(ibid. pp. 135, 158). The god or goddess was generally called the
Ba'al or Ba'alath of such and such a place, a title which was used not
only by the Canaanites, but by the Aramaeans (Be'el) and Babylo-
nians (Bel) as well. There was no one particular god called Baal ;
the word is not a proper name but an appellative, a description of
the deity as owner or mistress; and the same is the case with Milk
or Melek, 'Adon, 'Amma, which mean king, lord, matter. The
god himself was unnamed or had no name. Occasionally we know
what the name was; the Baal of Tyre was Melqarth (Melkarth),
which again means merely " king of the city "; similarly among the
Aramaeans the Ba'al of Harran was the moon-god Sin. As each
city or district had its own Ba'al, the author of its fertility, the
" husband " (a common meaning of ba'al) of the land which he ferti-
lized, so there were many Ba'als, and the Old Testament writers
could allude to the Ba'alim of the neighbouring Canaanites. Some-
times the god received a distinguishing attribute which indicates
an association not with any particular place, but with some special
characteristic; the most common forms are Ba'al-hamman, the chief
deity of Punic north Africa, perhaps " the glowing Ba'al," the god
of fertilizing warmth, and Ba'al-shamem, " Ba'al of the heavens." *
The latter deity was widely venerated throughout the North-
Semitic world; his name, which does not appear in the Phoenician
inscriptions before the 3rd century B.C., implies perhaps a more
universal conception of deity than existed in the earlier days.6

| Cf. Hannibal's oath to Philip of Macedon ; beside the named
deities he invokes the gods of " sun and moon and earth, of rivers
and meadows and waters " (Polyb. vii. 9).

2 This is well brought out by G. F. Hill, Church Quarterly Rev.
(April 1908), pp. 118-141, who specially emphasizes the evidence of
the Phoenician coins.

'"To the lord 'El, which Ba'al-shillem . . . vowed," &c. ;
Clermont-Ganneau, Recueil, v. 376.

1 Probably " the detested thing that causes horror " (aav ppe>)
of Dan. xii. n, xi. 31, &c., is an intentional disfigurement of OOP 7jn,

'The name has been found on an important Aramaic inscr.
from North Syria, dating c. 800 B.C., in which Zakir, king of
Hamath and La'ash frequently speaks of his god Be'el-shamin
(Pognon, Inscr. sent, de la Syrie, 1908).

The worship of the female along with the male principle was a
strongly marked feature of Phoenician religion. To judge from the
earliest evidence on the subject, the Ba'alath of Gebal or Byblus,
referred to again and again in the Amarna letters (Bilit Sa Gubla,
Nos. 55-110), must have been the most popular of the Phoenician
deities, as her sanctuary was the oldest and most renowned. The
mistress of Gebal was no doubt 'Ashtart (Astarte in Greek, 'Ashtoreth
in the Old Testament, pronounced with the vowels of bosheth,
" shame "), a name which is obviously connected with the Babylon-
ian Ishtar, and, as used in Phoenician, is practically the equivalent
of " goddess." She represented the principle of fertility and genera-
tion ; references to her cult at Gebal, Sidon, Ashkelon, in Cyprus
at Kition and Paphos, in Sicily at Eryx, in Gaulus, at Carthage,
are frequent in the inscriptions and elsewhere. The common
epithetsK6irpis and Ku0epeia(of Kuthera in Cyprus) ,Cypria and Paphia,
show that she was identified with Aphrodite and Venus. Though
not primarily a moon-goddess, she sometimes appears in this
character (Lucian, Dea syr. § 4; Herodian v. 6, 10), and Herodotus
describes her temple at Ashkelon as that of the heavenly Aphrodite
(i. 105). We find her associated with Ba'al and called " the name of
Ba'al," i.e. his manifestation, though this rendering is disputed,
and some scholars prefer " 'Ashtart of the heaven of Ba'al " (NSI.
p. 37). Another goddess, specially honoured at Carthage, is Tanith
(pronunciation uncertain); nothing is known of her characteristics;
she is regularly connected with Ba'al on the Carthaginian votive
tablets, and called " the face of Ba'al," i.e. his representative or
revelation, though again some question this rendering as too meta-
physical, and take " face of Ba'al " to be the name of a place, like
Peni'el (" face of 'El "). Two or three other deities may be men-
tioned here : Eshmun, the god of vital force and healing, worshipped
at Sidon especially, but also at Carthage and in the colonies, identi-
fied by the Greeks with Asclepius; Melqarth, the patron deity of
Tyre, identified with Heracles; Reshef or Reshuf, the " flame or
" lightning " god, especially popular in Cyprus and derived originally
from Syria, whom the Greeks called Apollo. A tendency to form a
distinct deity by combining the attributes of two produced such
curious fusions as Milk-'ashtart, Milk-ba'al, Milk- osir, Eshmun-
melqarth, Melqarth-resef, &c. As in the case of art and industries,
so in religion the Phoenicians readily assimilated foreign ideas. The
influence of Egypt was specially strong (NSI. pp. 62, 69, 148, 154);
thus the Astarte represented on the stele of Yebaw-milk, mentioned
above, has all the appearance of Isis, who, according to the legend
preserved by Plutarch (de Is. et Os. 15), journeyed to Byblus, where
she was called Astarte. The Phoenician settlers at the Peiraeus
worshipped the Assyrian Nergal, and their proper names are com-
pounded with the names of Babylonian and Arabian deities (NSI.
p. 101). Closer intimacy with the Greek world naturally brought
about modifications in the character of the native gods, which
became apparent when Ba'al of Sidon or Ba'al-shamem was identified
with Zeus, Tanith with Demeter or Artemis, 'Anath with Athena,
&c. ; the notion of a supreme Ba'al, which finds expression in the
Greek /3ij\os and /JaaXris or ^Xflijs (the goddess of Byblus), was no
doubt encouraged by foreign influences. On the other hand, the
Phoenicians produced a considerable effect upon Greek and Roman
religion, especially from the religious centres in Cyprus and Sicily.
A great number of divinities are known only as elements in proper
names, e.g. Sakun-yathon (Sanchuniathon), 'Abd-sasom, ^ed-yathon,
and fresh ones are continually being discovered. It was the custom
among the Phoenicians, as among other Semitic nations, to use the
names of the gods in forming proper names and thus to express devo-
tion or invoke favour; thus Hanni-ba'al, 'Abd-melqarth, Hanni-
'ashtart, Eshmun- "azar. The proper names further illustrate the
way in which the relation of man to God was regarded ; the common-
est forms are servant ('abd, e.g. 'Abd-'ashtart), member or limb bod,
e.g. Bod-melqarth), client or guest (ger, e.g. Ger-eshmun); the
religious idea of the guest of a deity had its origin in the social custom
of extending hospitality to a stranger and in the old Semitic right
of sanctuary. The interpretation of such names as 'Abi-ba'al
(father of Ba'al), Himilkath (brother of Milkath), Hiram (brother
of the exalted one) is not altogether certain, and can hardly be
discussed here.8

Probably like other Canaanites the Phoenicians offered worship
" on every high hill and under every green tree " ; but to judge from
the allusions to sanctuaries in the inscriptions and else-
where, the Ba'al or 'Ashtart of a place was usually
worshipped at a temple, which consisted of a court or
enclosure and a roofed shrine with a portico or pillared
hall at the entrance. In the court sometimes stood a conical stone,
probably the symbol of Astarte, as on the Roman coins of Byblus
(illustrated in Rawlinson, Phoenicia, 146, Perrot et Chipiez, Hist,
de Vart, iii. 60; see also Ohnefalsch-Richter, Cyprus, pi. Ivi., the
temenos at Idalion). Stone or bronze images of the gods were set
up in the sanctuaries (NSI. Nos. 13 seq., 23-27, 30, &c.) ; and besides
these the baetylia (meteoric stones) which were regarded as symbols
of the gods. Pillars, again, had a prominent place in the court or be-
fore the shrine (najoft, ibid. pp. 102 seq.) ; but it is not known whether
the sacred pole ('asherah), an invariable feature of a Canaanite sanc-
tuary, was usual in a Phoenician temple (ibid. pp. 50 seq.). The

8 See Frazer, Adonis, Attis, Osiris, 44 seq.

PHOENIX

457

inscriptions mention altars of stone and bronze, and from the sacrificial
tariffs which have survived we learn that the chief types of sacrifice
among the Phoenicians were analogous to those which we find in
the Old Testament (ibid. p. 117). The ghastly practice of sacrificing
human victims was resorted to in times of great distress (e.g. at
Carthage, Diod. xx. 14), or to avert national disaster (Porphyry,
de Abstin, ii. 56) ; Philo gives the legend that Cronus or El sacrificed
his only son when his country was threatened with war (Fr. hist,
gr. iii. 570); it was regarded as a patriotic act when Hamilcar
threw himself upon the pyre after the disastrous battle of Himera
(Herod, vii. 167). The god who demanded these victims, and
especially the burning of children, seems to have been Milk, the
Molech or Moloch of the Old Testament. In this connexion may be
mentioned the custom of burning the chief god of the city in effigy,
or in the person of a human representative, at Tyre and in the Tyrian
colonies, such as Carthage and Gades ; the custom lasted down to a
late time (see Frazer, loc. cit. ch. v.). Another horrible sacrifice was
regularly demanded by Phoenician religion: women sacrificed their
virginity at the shrines of Astarte in the belief that they thus pro-
pitiated the goddess and won her favour (Frazer, ibid. ch. iii.) ; licen-
tious rites were the natural accompaniment of the worship of the
reproductive powers of nature. These temple prostitutes are called
qedeshim qedeshoth, i.e. sacred men, women, in the Old Testament
(Deut. xxiii. 18; I Kings xiv. 24, &c.). Other persons attached to a
temple were priests, augurs, sacrificers, barbers, officials in charge
of the curtains, masons, &c. (NSI. No. 20); we hear also of
religious gilds and corporations, perhaps administrative councils,
associated with the sanctuaries (ibid. pp. 94, 121, 130, 144 seq.).
No doubt the Phoenicians had their legends and myths to account
for the origin of man and the universe ; to some extent these would
have resembled the ideas embodied in the book of
Genesis. Two cosmogonies have come down to us

is Ideas }vn'cn' though they diner in details, are fundamentally
in agreement. The one, of Sidonian origin, is pre-
served by Damascius (de prim, principiis, 125) and received at
his hands a Neoplatonic interpretation; this cosmogony was
probably the writing which Strabo ascribes to a Sidonian philosopher,
Mochus, who lived before the Trojan times (xvi. 2, 24). The other
and more elaborate work was composed by Philo of Byblus (temp.
Hadrian) ; he professed that he had used as his authority the writings
of Sanchuniathon (q.v.), an ancient Phoenician sage, who again
derived his information from the mysterious inscribed stones
(ciyUjuouws = D':D.I, i.e. images or pillars of Ba'al-hamman) in
the Phoenician temples. Philo's cosmogony has been preserved,
at least in fragments, by Eusebius in Proep. evang. vol. i. (Fr. hist.
gr. iii. 563 sqq.). It cannot, however, betaken seriously asan account
of genuine Phoenician beliefs. For Sanchuniathon is a mere literary
fiction ; and Philo's treatment is vitiated by an obvious attempt to
explain the whole system of religion on the principles of Euhemerus,
an agnostic who taught the traditional mythology as primitive
history, and turned all the gods and goddesses into men and women ;
and further by a patriotic desire to prove that Phoenicia could outdo
Greece in the venerable character of its traditions, that in fact Greek
mythology was simply a feeble and distorted version of the Phoeni-
cian.1 At the same time Philo did not invent all the nonsense which
he has handed down; he drew upon various sources, Greek and
Egyptian, some of them ultimately of Babylonian origin, and in-
cidentally he mentions matters of interest which, when tested by
other evidence, are fairly well supported. He shows at any rate
that some sort of a theology existed in his day ; particularly interest-
ing is his description of the symbolic figure of Cronus with eyes before
and behind and six wings open and folded (Fr. hist. gr. iii. 569), a
figure which is represented on the coins of Gebal-Byblus (2nd cen-
tury B.C.) as the mythical founder of the city. It is evident that
the gods were regarded as being intimately concerned with the
lives and fortunes of their worshippers. The vast number of small
votive tablets found at Carthage prove this : they were all inscribed
by grateful devotees " to the lady Tanith, Face of Ba'al, and the
lord Ba'al-hamman, because he heard their voice." The care which
the Phoenicians bestowed upon the burial of the dead has been
alluded to above; pillars (mas.s.eboth) were set up to commemorate
the dead among the living (e.g. NSI. Nos. 18, 19, 21, 32); if there
were no children to fulfil the pious duty, a monument would be set
up by a man during his lifetime (ibid. No. 16; cf. 2 Sam. xviii. 18).
Any violation of the tomb was regarded with the greatest horror
(ibid. Nos. 4, 5). The grave was called a resting-place (ibid. Nos. 4,
5, 1 6, 21 ), and the departed lay at rest in the underworld with the
Refaim, the weak ones (the same word and idea in the Old Testa-
ment, Isa. xiv. 9, xxvi. 14, 19; Job xxvi. 5; Ps. Ixxxviii. II, &c.).
The curious notion prevailed, as it did also among the Greeks and
Romans, that it was possible to communicate with the gods of the
underworld by dropping into a grave a small roll of lead (lobelia
devotionis, NSI. No. 50), inscribed with the message, generally a
curse, which it was desired to convey to them.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The principal works bearing on the subject
have been mentioned in the text and notes of this article. The

1 An excellent and critical account of Philo's work is given by
Lagrange, Etudes sur les rel. sem (2nd ed., 1905), ch. xi.

following may be added: Movers, Die Phonizier (1842-1856), to be
used with caution; Renan, Mission de Phenicie (1864); Schroder,
Die phonizische Sprache (1869); Stade in Morgenlandische Forsch-
ungen (1875); W. Baudissin, Studien zur semitischen Religions-
geschichte (1876, 1878) ; Baethgen, Beitrage zur semitischen Religions-
geschichte (1888) ; Levy, Siegel und Gemmen (1869) ; I. L. Myres and
Richter, Catalogue of the Cyprus Museum (1899) ; G. F. Hill, Catalogue
of the Greek Coins of Cyprus (1904); V. Berard, Les Pheniciens et
I Odyssee (1902-1903); Lidzbarski, Ephemeris fur semitische Epi-
graphik (1902-1906); H. Winckler, Altorientalische Forschungen
(1893-1906); Freiherr von Landau, " Die Bedeutung der Phonizier
im Volkerleben " in Ex oriente lux (Leipzig, 1905), vol. i. ; Bruston,
Etudes Ph6n. (1903) ; the articles by Thatcher in Hastings's Diet. Bible
(1900) and by E. Meyer in the Ency. Bib. (1902). The articles by A.
von Gutschmid and Albrecht Socin in the Ency. Brit, (gth ed.) have
been to some extent incorporated in the present article. (G. A. C.*)

PHOENIX (Gr. <£oiw£), a fabulous sacred bird of the Egyptian^.
The Greek word is also used for a date-palm, a musical in-
strument like a guitar, and the colour purple-red or crimson.
According to the story told to Herodotus (ii. 73), the bird
came from Arabia every 500 years, bearing his father embalmed
in a ball of myrrh, and buried him in the temple of the sun.
Herodotus, who had never seen the phoenix himself, did not
believe this story, but he tells us that the pictures of it represented
a bird with golden and red plumage, closely resembling an eagle
in size and shape. According to Pliny (Nat. hist. x. 2), there
is only one phoenix at a time, and he, at the close of his long life,
builds himself a nest with twigs of cassia and frankincense, on
which he dies; from his corpse is generated a worm which grows
into the young phoenix. Tacitus (Ann. vi. 28) says that the
young bird lays his father on the altar in the city of the sun, or
burns him there; but the most familiar form of the legend is that
in the Physiologus (q.v.), where the phoenix is described as an
Indian bird which subsists on air for 500 years, after which,
lading his wings with spices, he flies to Heliopolis, enters the
temple there, and is burned to ashes on the altar. Next day
the young phoenix is already feathered; on the third day his
pinions are full grown, he salutes the priest and flies away. The
period at which the phoenix reappears is very variously stated,
some authors giving as much as 1461 or even 7006 years, but
500 years is the period usually named; and Tacitus tells us that
the bird was said to have appeared first under Sesostris (Senwosri) ,
then under Amasis (Ahmosi) II., under Ptolemy III., and once
again in A.D. 34, after an interval so short that the genuineness
of the last phoenix was suspected. The phoenix that was shown
at Rome in the year of the secular games (A.D. 47) was universally
admitted to be an imposture.2

The form and variations of these stories characterize them as
popular tales rather than official theology; but they evidently
must have had points of attachment in the mystic religion of
Egypt, and indeed both Horapollon and Tacitus speak of the
phoenix as a symbol of the sun. Now we know from the Book of
the Dead, and other Egyptian texts, that a stork, heron or egret

called the benu |^ was one of the sacred symbols of the worship

of Heliopolis, and A. Wiedemann (" Die Phonix-Sage im alten
Aegypten " in Zeitschrift fiir agyptische Sprache, xvi. 89) has
made it tolerably clear that the benu was a symbol of the rising
sun, whence it is represented as " self -generating " and called
" the soul of Ra (the sun)," " the heart of the renewed Sun."
All the mystic symbolism of the morning sun, especially in
connexion with the doctrine of the future life, could thus be
transferred to the benu, and the language of the hymns in which
the Egyptians praised the luminary of dawn as he drew near
1 Some other ancient accounts may be here referred to. That
ascribed to Hecataeus is, in the judgment of C. G. Gobet (Mnemosyne,
1883), stolen from Herodotus by a late forger. The poem of the
Jew Ezechiel quoted by Eusebius (Praep. ev. ix. 29, 30) appears
to refer to the phoenix. Here the sweet song is first mentioned —
a song which, according to the poem on the phoenix ascribed to
Lactantius, accompanies the rising sun. The bird is often spoken
of in Latin poetry, and is the subject of an idyll by Claudian. See
also Solinus, Collectanea, ch. xxxiii. n, with Salmasius's Exercila-
tiones; Tertullian, De resur. carnis, c. 13; Clemens Rom. Epp. ad
Corinthios, i. 25 and the (? Clementine) Apostolical Constitutions,
v. 7

458

PHOENIX— PHONETICS

from Arabia, delighting the gods with his fragrance and rising
from the sinking flames of the morning glow, was enough
to suggest most of the traits materialized in the classical pictures
of the phoenix. That the benu is the prototype of the phoenix
is further confirmed by the fact that the former word in Egyptian
means also " palm-tree," just as the latter does in Greek. The
very various periods named make it probable that the periodical
return of the phoenix belongs only to vulgar legend, materia-
lizing what the priests knew to be symbolic. Of the birds of the
heron family the gorgeous colours and plumed head spoken of
by Pliny and others would be least inappropriate to the purple
heron (Ardea purpttrea), with which, or with the allied Ardea
cinerea, it has been identified by Lepsius and Peters (Altesle
Texte des Todtenbuchs, 1867, p. 51). But the golden and purple
hues described by Herodotus may be the colours of sunrise rather
than the actual hues of the purple heron. How Herodotus
came to think that the bird was like an eagle is quite unexplained ;
perhaps this is merely a slip of memory.

Many commentators still understand the word ^n. chol, in Job
xxix. 18 (A.V. " sand ") of the phoenix. This interpretation is
perhaps as old as the (original) Septuagint, and is current with the
later Jews. Among the Arabs the story of the phoenix was confused
with that of the salamander; and the samand or samandal (Damiri,
ii. 36 seq.) is represented sometimes as a quadruped, sometimes as
a bird. It was firmly believed in, for the incombustible cloths
woven of flexible asbestos were popularly thought to be made of its
hair or plumage, and were themselves called by the same name
(cf. Yaqut i. 529, and Dozy, $.».). The 'anka (Pers. simurgh), a
stupendous bird like the roc (rulch) of Marco Polo and the Arabian
Nights, also borrows some features of the phoenix. According to
Kazwini (i. 420) it lives 1700 years, and when a young bird is hatched
the parent of opposite sex burns itself alive. In the book of Kalila
and Dimna the simur or 'anka is the king of birds, the Indian garuda,
on whom Vishnu rides.

PHOENIX, the capital of Arizona, U.S.A., and the county-
seat of Maricopa county, situated on the Salt river, hi the
south central part of the state. Pop. (1890), 3152; (1900),
5544 (935 being foreign-born and 148 negroes); (1910) 11,134.
It is served by the Arizona Eastern and the Santa Fe,
Prescott & Phoenix railways, the former connecting at Mari-
copa (35 m. distant) with the Southern Pacific and the latter
connecting at Ash Fork, near Prescott (194 m. distant), with
the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe. The city is a popular winter
and health resort, with a fine dry climate. The city is the see of
a Protestant Episcopal bishopric. About 3 m. north of the city
is the Phoenix (non-reservation) boarding-school for Indians,
supported by the United States government, with an average
attendance of about 700 pupils. The city lies in a great plain,
in the centre of a region of pastures, gardens and orchards, the
largest and most beautiful farming district of Arizona, irrigated
with water stored by the great Roosevelt dam (about 70 m.
north-east of Phoenix). Local interests are almost entirely in
agriculture, stock-raising and fruit-growing. In the surrounding
region are several large ostrich farms and a small exhibition
ranch. Phoenix was settled in 1870, became the county-seat
on the organization of Maricopa county in 1871, was incorporated
in 1 88 1, and became the capital of Arizona in 1889.

PHOENIX ISLANDS, a group of eight small islands in the
Pacific Ocean, about 3° S., and 172° W., belonging to Great
Britain. They have a land area about 16 sq. m. and a popula-
tion of 60. Their names are Phoenix, Gardner (Kemin), Hull,
Sydney, Birnie, Enderbury, Canton (Mary) and McKean. To
the north-west of the group (between the equator and i° N.)
lie two more islets — Baker and Rowland. The islands were
annexed by Great Britain in 1880-1892.

PHOENIX VILLE, a borough of Chester county, Pennsylvania,
U.S.A., on the Schuylkill river at the mouth of French Creek,
about 28 m. north-west of Philadelphia. Pop. (1890), 8514;
(1900), 9196, of whom 2221 were foreign-born and 278 were
negroes; (1910 census), 10,743. It is served by the Pennsylvania
(Schuylkill division) and the Philadelphia & Reading railways,
and by electric railway to Spring City (pop. in 1910, 2880),
5 m. north-west of Phoenixville on the Schuylkill. Phoenixville
is chiefly a manufacturing borough. Its blast-furnaces and iron
mills were long among the largest in the country, and the manu-

facture of steel is still the borough's predominant industry.
Phoenixville was settled in 1732, and was incorporated in 1849.

PHONETICS (Gr. (jxavrj, voice), the science of speech-sounds
and the art of pronunciation. In its widest sense it is
the " science of voice," dealing not only with articulate, but also
with the inarticulate sounds of animals as well as men. The
originally synonymous term, " phonology," is now restricted
to the history and theory of sound-changes. The most obvious
of the practical applications of phonetics is to the acquisition
of a correct pronunciation of foreign languages. But its applica-
tions to the study of the native language are not less important:
it" is only by the help of phonetics that it is possible to deal
effectively with vulgarisms and provincialisms of pronunciation
and secure uniformity of speech; and it is only on a phonetic
basis that the deaf and dumb can be taught articulate speech.
From a more theoretical point of view phonetics is, in the first
place, the science of linguistic observation. Without phonetic
training the dialectologist, and the missionary who is confronted
with a hitherto unwritten language, can neither observe fully
nor record accurately the phenomena with which they have to
deal. These investigations have greatly widened the scope of
the science of language. The modern philologist no longer
despises colloquial and illiterate forms of speech. On the
contrary, he considers that in them the life and growth of
language is seen more clearly than in dead literary languages,
on whose study the science of comparative philology was at first
exclusively built up. It was not till philologists began to ask
what were the real facts underlying the comparisons of the written
words in Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, and the other Indo-European
languages, embodied in such generalizations as Grimm's Law,
that " letter-science " developed into " sound-science " (phono-
logy). The rise and decay of inflexions, and the development
of grammatical forms generally, are, from the formal point of
view, mainly phonetic problems; and phonetics enters more or
less into every department of historical and comparative
grammar.

Methods of Study and Investigation. — Phonetics is the science
of speech-sounds. But sounds may be considered from two
opposite points of view — the organic and the acoustic. From the
organic point of view a sound is the result of certain actions and
positions of the organs of speech, as when we define / as a lip-
teeth (dento-labial) consonant. This is the point of view of the
speaker of a language. To the hearer, on the other hand, / is
not a lip-teeth, but a hiss consonant similar to that denoted
by th. This is the acoustic point of view. Theoretically, the
organic study of phonetics is a branch of anatomy and physiology:
that part of these sciences which deals with the organs of speech
(see MOUTH) and then- functions (see VOICE); while, from the
opposite point of view, the study of phonetics is based on that
branch of physical science known as acoustics (see SOUND),
together with the anatomy and physiology of the organs of
Hearing (q.v.).

Unfortunately, this basis is still imperfect. The principles of
acoustics are well established, and we know much about the
anatomy of the ear. But how the ear transmits to the brain
the impression of sound is still a mystery. Again, although the
mechanism of the vowel is clear enough, there is still no generally
received acoustic theory of its formation. In fact, from the
physical science point of view there is as yet no science of
phonetics.

The real function of phonetics is philological and literary. The
only sound basis of a theoretical knowledge of phonetics is the
practical mastery of a limited number of sounds — that is to say,
of the sounds which are already familiar to the learner in his
own language. It is evident that the more familiar a sound is,
the easier it is to gain insight into its mechanism and to recognize
it when heard. It is indispensable to cultivate both the organic
and the acoustic sense. These processes we are continually
carrying out in ordinary conversation. All, therefore, that we
have to do in dealing with native sounds is to develop this
unconscious organic and acoustic sense into a conscious and
analytic one. The first step is to learn to isolate each sound: to

PHONETICS

459

pronounce it, as far as possible, apart from its context; and to
preserve it unchanged through every variation of length and
force, and in every combination of sounds. The next step is to
analyse its formation. Let the student, for instance, compare
the two consonants in such a word as five by isolating and
lengthening them till he can both hear and feel the voice-vibra-
tion in the second one. In the same way let him learn to feel the
changes in the position of the tongue and lips in passing from
one vowel to another. When the native sounds have been
thoroughly studied in this way, the learner will proceed to foreign
sounds, deducing each new sound from those which are already
familiar to him.

The natural method of learning sounds is mainly a subjective
one. We listen patiently till our ears are steeped, as it were, in
the sound; and then, after repeated trials, we hit on the exact
position of the organs of speech by which we can reproduce the sound
to the speaker's satisfaction. But the natural method admits
also of objective control and criticism of the movements of the lips
and jaws by direct observation. The movements and positions of
the tongue and soft palate, and other modifications of the mouth
and throat passages are also more or less accessible to observation —
in the case of self-observation with the help of a small mirror held
in the hand. If the mirror is small enough to go into the mouth,
and is fixed obliquely to a handle, so that it can be held against
the back of the mouth at such an angle as to reflect a ray of light
down the throat, we have the laryngoscope. Laryngoscopy has
confirmed earlier results, and has also added to our knowledge
of the throat sounds. But, on the other hand, it has been a fruitful
source of error. There has been great discrepancy between the
results obtained by different observers; and many results which
were at first received with implicit confidence for their supposed
rigorously scientific and objective character have been found to
be worthless. It seemed at first as if Rontgen's discovery of the
so-called X-rays would meet the want of a means of direct observa-
tion of the positions of the tongue, not lengthways, but from the
side, as also of the interior of the throat. But although the cheeks
are to a certain extent transparent to these rays, the shadow of the
tongue projected on the screen is too indistinct to be of any use.

But there are other methods besides those of direct observation
by which the positions of the tongue may be objectively determined
and measured with more or less accuracy. The interior of the
mouth may be explored by the fingers. If the little finger is held
against the gums during the articulation of the vowels in it, ate, at,
the difference in the height of the tongue will at once become
apparent: in the formation of the first vowel the tongue is pressed
strongly against the artificial palate, while in that of the second
it only just touches it, and in that of the third it does not touch
at all.

Several forms of apparatus have been devised for a more accurate
determination of the positions of the tongue and the other movable
organs of speech. The best results hitherto as regards the vowel-
positions have been obtained by Grandgent, who uses disks of card-
board of various sizes fixed to silver wires. A full description of
this and other methods will be found in Scripture's Elements of
Experimental Phonetics.

There are other methods whose results are obtained only
indirectly. The simplest of these are the palalographic, by which"
are obtained " palatograms " recording the contact of the tongue
with the palate. The apparatus most generally used consists of a
thin, shell-like artificial palate, which is covered with chalk and
placed in the mouth; when the sound is made, the articulation
of the tongue is inferred from the contact-marks on the plate.
This method is evidently limited in its application. It, too, has
the drawback of not being applicable to the sounds formed in the
back of the mouth. The outlines of palatograms are much vaguer
than they appear in the published drawings of them; and it is a
question whether the thickness even of the thinnest plate does not
modify the record.

The methods hitherto considered are all comparatively simple.
They require no special knowledge or training, and are accessible
to all. But there are more elaborate methods— with which the
name " experimental phonetics " is more specially connected —
involving special training in practical and theoretical physics and
mathematics, and requiring the help of often complicated and costly,
and not easily accessible, apparatus. The investigation of the
speech curves of phonograph and gramophone records is a typical
example. Good examples of these methods are afforded by E. A.
Meyer's investigations of vowel-quantity in English (Englische
Lautdauer, Uppsala, 1903). Their characteristic feature is their
delicacy, and the minuteness of their distinctions, which often go
beyond the range of the human ear. Although their results are
often of value, they must always be received with caution: the
sources of error are so numerous

The claims of instrumental phonetics have been so prominently
brought forward of late years that they can no longer be ignored, even
by the most conservative of the older generation of phoneticians.

But it is possible to go too far the other way. Some of the
younger generation seem to think that the instrumental methods
have superseded the natural ones in the same way as the Arabic
superseded the Roman numerals. This assumption has had disas-
trous results. It cannot be too often repeated that instrumental
phonetics is, strictly speaking, not phonetics at all. It is only a
help: it only supplies materials which are useless till they have been
tested and accepted from the linguistic phonetician's point of view.
The final arbiter in all phonetic questions is the trained ear of a
practical phonetician: differences which cannot be perceived must
— or at least may be — ignored; what contradicts the trained ear
cannot be accepted.

Sound-Notation; Spelling Reform. — Next to the analysis of
the sounds themselves, the most important problem of phonetics
is their representation by means of written and printed symbols.
The traditional or " nomic " orthographies of most languages
are only imperfectly phonetic. And, unfortunately, of the
languages in most general use, two are exceptionally unphonetic
in their orthographies, French showing the greatest divergence
between sound and symbol, while English shows the maximum
of irregularity and arbitrariness. The German orthography is
comparatively phonetic: it has hardly any silent letters, and it
generally has one symbol for each sound, each symbol having
only one value, the exceptions falling under a few simple rules,
which are easily remembered. There are other languages which
have still more phonetic orthographies, such as Spanish, Welsh
and Finnish. But even the best of them are not perfect: even
when they are not actually misleading, they are always inade-
quate. On the other hand, no system of writing is wholly
unphonetic. Even in French and English there are many words
whose spelling not even the most radical reformer would think
of altering. In fact, all writing which has once emerged from
the hieroglyphic stage is at first purely phonetic, as far as its
defective, means will allow. The divergence between sound and
symbol which makes spelling unphonetic is the result of the
retention of phonetic spellings after they have become un-
phonetic through changes in the pronunciation of the words
themselves. Thus, such English spelling as knight and wright
were still phonetic in the time of Chaucer; for at that time the
initial consonants of these words were still pronounced, and the
gh still had the sound of ch in German ich. So also see and sea
are written differently, not by way of arbitrary distinction, but
because they were pronounced differently till within the last
few centuries — as they still are in Irish-English.

Where there is no traditional orthography, as when Old
English (Anglo-Saxon) was first written down in Latin letters,
spelling was necessarily phonetic; but where there is a large
literature and a class of professional scribes, the influence of
the traditional orthography becomes stronger, till at last the
invention of printing and the diffusion of one standard dialect
over a large area occupied originally by a variety of other dialects
make changes of spelling as inconvenient as they were once easy
and natural. The ideal orthography for printers is one which
is absolutely uniform over the whole territory of the language,
and absolutely unchangeable. In such orthographies as those
of the present English and French there is no longer any living
correspondence between sound and symbol: they are, in in-
tention at least, wholly unphonetic; they are preserved by
graphic, not by oral, tradition.

But unphoneticness has its practical limits. A purely un-
phonetic degradation of an originally phonetic system of writing
— one in which there is absolutely no correspondence between
sounds and letters — could not be mastered even by the most
retentive memory: it would be even more difficult than the
Chinese writing. Hence a phonetic reaction is inevitable. In
the middle ages the spelling was periodically readjusted in
accordance with the changes of pronunciation — as far, of course,
as the imperfections of the existing orthography would allow.
This adjustment went on even after the introduction of printing.
In fact, it is only within the last hundred years or so that the
orthographies of English and French have become fixed.

One result of this fixity is that any attempt to continue the
process of adjustment assumes a revolutionary character.
When, in 1849, the pioneers of the modern spelling-reform

460

PHONETICS

movement — A. J. Ellis and I. Pitman — brought out theFonelic
Nuz, few of those who joined in the chorus of ridicule excited by
the new alphabet stopped to consider that this uncouthness was
purely the result of habit, and that the Authorized Version of
the Bible in the spelling of its first edition would seem to us not
less strange and uncouth than in the new-fangled phonotypy
of Messrs Ellis and Pitman. Nor did they stop to consider that
phonetics and phonetic spelling, so far from being innovations,
are as old as civilization itself. The Alexandrian grammarians
were not only phoneticians — they were spelling-reformers; they
invented the Greek accents for the purpose of making the pro-
nunciation of Greek easier to foreigners. The Romans, too, were
phoneticians: they learnt Greek by phonetic methods, and paid
great attention to niceties of pronunciation. The Sanskrit
grammarians were still better phoneticians.

As a matter of fact, English spelling was still phonetic as late
as the time of Shakespeare — in intention, at least. But although
people still tried to write as they spoke, the inherited imperfec-
tions of their orthography made it more and more difficult for
them to do so. Hence already in the i6th century a number of
spelling-reformers made their appearance, including classical
scholars such as Sir John Cheke, and A. Gill, who was head-master
of St Paul's School in London. Gill has left us extracts from
Spenser's Faerie Queene in phonetic spelling; but, strange to
say, nothing of Shakespeare's, although he and Shakespeare
were exact contemporaries. But Gill's and the other alphabets
proposed were too intricate and cumbrous for popular use.

Nevertheless, some important phonetic reforms were success-
fully carried through, such as getting rid of most of the super-
fluous final e's, utilizing the originally superfluous distinctions
in form between i and j, u and v, by using i, u only as vowels,
;', v only as consonants, instead of at random — a reform which
seems to have begun in Italy. Another important reform was
the introduction of ea and oa, as in sea and boat, which had
hitherto been written with ee and oo, being thus confused with
see and boot.

All these were as much phonetic reforms as it would be to
utilize long s and tailed 2 ( $ , 5 ) to denote the final consonants in
fish and rouge respectively; a reform first suggested by A. J.
Ellis, who was himself the first to call attention to the works
of these early phoneticians and to utilize them in the investiga-
tions enshrined in his great work on Early English Pronunciation.

With all its defects, the present English spelling is still mainly
phonetic; we can still approximately guess the pronunciation
of the vast majority of words from their spelling. So when we
say that English spelling is unphonetic we merely mean that
it is a bad phonetic spelling; and all that spelling-reformers aim
at is to make this bad into a good phonetic spelling, that is, an
efficient and easy one. But the difficulties are great; and the
more we know of phonetics, and the more we experiment with
different systems of spelling, the more formidable do they appear.
One of the difficulties, however, that is commonly supposed to
stand in the way of spelling-reform is quite imaginary: namely,
•that it would destroy the historical and etymological value of
the present system. Thus E. A. Freeman used to protest
against it as " a reckless wiping out of the whole history of the
language." Such critics fail to see that historical spelling, if
carried out consistently, would destroy the materials on which
alone history can be based; that these materials are nothing else
but a series of phonetic spellings of different periods of the
language, and that if a consistent historical and etymological
spelling could have been kept up from the beginning, there would
have been no Grimm's Law, no etymology; in short, no com-
parative or historical philology possible.

The advantages of beginning a foreign language in a phonetic
notation are many and obvious. In the first place, the learner
who has once mastered the notation and learnt to pronounce the
sounds the letters stand for, is able to read off at once any text
that is presented to him without doubt or hesitation, and without
having to burden his memory with rules of pronunciation and
spelling. Another advantage of phonetic spelling is that when
the learner sees the words written in a representation of their

actual spoken form he is able to recognize them at once when
he hears them. And if the learner begins with the phonetic
notation, and uses it exclusively till he has thoroughly mastered
the spoken language, he will then be able to learn the ordinary
spelling without fear of confusion, and quicker than he would
otherwise have done.

Spelling-reform may be carried out with various degrees of
thoroughness. After the failure of many schemes of radical
reform, an attempt was made to begin with those numerous
spellings which are both unphonetic and unhistorical, or are
against the analogy of other traditional spellings. Accordingly,
in 1 88 1 the Philological Society of London " aproovd (sic) of
certain partial corections (sic) of English spellings," which were
also approved of by the American Spelling-reform Association;
and a list of them" was issued jointly by the two bodies, and
recommended lor general adoption. A similar movement
has been started in France. But the general feeling appears to
be that it is better to keep the ordinary spelling unchanged, and
wait till it is possible to supersede it by one on a more or less
independent basis.

If the existing Roman alphabet is made the basis of the new
phonetic notation of any one language, the most obvious course
is to select one of the various traditional representations of each
sound, and use that one symbol exclusively, omitting, of course,
at the same time all silent letters. A. J. Ellis's English Classic is
an example of such a phonetic spelling on a national basis. The
following is a specimen: —

Ingglish Glosik iz veri eezi too reed. Widh proper training a
cheild foar yeerz oald kan bee redili taut too reed Glosik bucks.

But a system which, like this, writes short and long vowels
with totally different symbols (i, ee) is only half phonetic: it is
phonetic on an unphonetic basis.

A fully phonetic system, in which, for instance, long vowels
and diphthongs are expressed by consistent modifications or
combinations of the symbols of the short vowels, and in which
simple sounds are, as far as is reasonable and convenient, ex-
pressed by single letters instead of digraphs such as sh, must
necessarily discard any national basis. w,The best basis on the
whole is obtained by giving the letters their original common
European sounds, i.e. by returning to the Late Latin pronuncia-
tion, with such modifications and additions as may be advisable.
As regards the vowels at least, this Latin basis is very well
preserved in German and Italian. In French, on the other hand,
the Latin tradition was greatly corrupted already in the earliest
period through the rapid changes which the language underwent.
Thus when the Latin u in luna assumed the sound it now has
in French lune, the symbol u was still kept; and when the sound
« afterwards developed again out of the diphthong ou, this digraph
was used to denote the sound. So when the French system of
spelling came into use in England after the Norman Conquest
these unphonetic symbols were introduced into English spelling,
so that such a word as Old English and Early Middle English
hits, " house," was written hous in the Late Middle English of
Chaucer, although the sound was still that of Scotch hoos, ou (ow)
being also used to denote a true diphthong (ou) in such words as
knou, know, from Old English end/wan.

By returning, then, to the original values of the letters we
get the " Romic " or international (Continental) basis as opposed
to the Glossic or national basis. Thus the passage quoted above
appears as follows in Sweet's " Broad Romic " notation: —

i 0 g'i/ glosik iz veri iizi tu riid. wiS prope treinirj 9 t/aild fba jiaz
ould kan bii redili tot to riid glosik buks.

Another important general distinction is that between " broad "
and " narrow " systems of notation. A broad notation is one
which makes only the practically necessary distinctions in each
language, and makes them in the simplest manner possible,
omitting all that is superfluous. From a practical point of view
the necessary distinctions are those on which differences of
meaning depend. A distinction of sound which is significant
in one language may be unsignificant in another. Thus the
distinction between close ( and open e, I is significant in French,
as in picker, picker; so if in French phonetic writing the former

PHONETICS

461

is denoted by (e), it is necessary to find a new symbol (e) for the
open sound. But in languages such as English and German,
where the short e is always open, there is no practical objection
to using the unmodified (e) to denote the open sound, even if we
regard (e) as the proper symbol of the close sound. And in
those languages in which the short e is always open and the long
e always close it is enough to mark the distinction of quantity,
and leave the distinction of quality to be inferred from it (e, ee).
In such a case as this it is, of course, possible to apply the prin-
ciple of ignoring superfluous distinctions in the opposite way: by
writing the long and short vowels in such a language (e, e),
leaving the quantity to be inferred from the quality. But the
former method is the more convenient, as it does not require
any new letter. The " broad " principle is especially convenient
in writing diphthongs. Thus in English Broad Romic we write
the diphthongs in high and how with the same vowel as ask (hai,
hau, aask), although all these (a)'s represent different sounds in
ordinary southern English pronunciation. But the pronuncia-
tion of these diphthongs varies so much in different parts of the
English-speaking territory, and the distinctions are so minute
that it would be inconvenient to express them in writing; and
as these distinctions are non-significant, it would be useless to
do so. (ai) and (au) are symbols, not of special diphthongs, but
of two classes of diphthongs: they can stand for any diphthongs
which begin with a vowel resembling the Italian a, and end with
approximations to i and u respectively. Theoretically it would
be just as correct in English and German to write these diphthongs
(ae, ao). But these notations are misleading, because they
suggest simple sounds.

In comparing the sounds of a variety of languages, or of dialects
of a language, and still more in dealing with sounds in general,
we require a " narrow," that is a minutely accurate, notation
covering the whole field of possible sounds. It is evident from
what has been said above that such a universal scientific alphabet
is not suited for practical work in any one language. But the
symbols of such a notation as Sweet's " Narrow Romic " are of
the greatest use as keys to the exact pronunciation of the vaguer
symbols of the Broad Romic notations of each language.

To prevent confusion between these two systems of notations
Broad Romic symbols are enclosed in ( ), Narrow Romic in [ ],
which at the same time serve to distinguish between phonetic
and nomic spellings. This in English i (i) = [i] means that
the English vowel in finny is the " wide " sound, not the
" narrow " one in French fini, although in the Broad Romic
notations of both languages (fini) is written for finny and fini
alike.

Narrow Romic was originally based on A. J. Ellis's " Palaeo-
type," in which, as the name implies, no new letters are employed.
The symbols of Palaeotype are made up, as far as possible, of
the letters generally accessible in printing-offices, the ordinary
Roman lower-case letters being supplemented by italics
and small capitals (i, i, i) and turned letters (a,o), many
digraphs (th, sh) being also used. This notation was a reaction
from Ellis's earlier phonotopy, in which a large number of new
letters were used. Some of these, however, such as /=(sh),
5 = (zh), were afterwards adopted into Broad and Narrow
Romic. In his Palaeotype Ellis also discarded diacritical
letters, which, as he rightly says, are from a typographical
point of view equivalent to new letters. In Narrow Romic a
certain number of diacritical letters are used, such as (fi, a),
most of which are already accessible. Palaeotype is a Roman-
value notation, the main difference as regards the values of the
symbols between it and the later systems [being that it is more
complex and arbitrary. Ellis afterwards had the unhappy idea
of constructing a " Universal Glossic " on an English-values
basis, which is even more cumbrous and difficult to remember
than Palaeotype.

Sweet's Romic systems were made the basis of the " Inter-
national " alphabet used in Le Maltre Phonetique, which is the
organ of the International phonetic Association, directed by
P. Passy. Although this system is at the present time more
widely known and used than any other, and although it is

constructed on the international Romic principle, it is not really
an international system. It is rather an attempt to make a
special adaptation of the Romic basis to the needs of the French
language into a general notation for all languages. But the
phonetic structure of French is so abnormal, so different from
that of other languages, that the attempt to force a Broad
Romic French notation on such a language as English is even
more hopeless than it would be to reverse the process. Although
well suited for French, this alphabet must from a wider point of
view be regarded as a failure: it is too minute and rigid for
practical, and yet not precise enough for scientific purposes.
In short, although it has done excellent service, and has helped
to clear the way for a notation which shall command general
acceptance, it cannot be regarded as a final solution of the
problem.

Of the numerous other notations now in use, some still adhere
to the diacritic principle of Lepsius's Standard Alphabet (1855),
intended for missionary use, but found quite unfit for that
purpose because of the enormous number of new types required.
Most of them prefer to use new letters formed by more or less
consistent modifications of the existing italic letters. A. J.
Lundell's Swedish dialect alphabet and O. Jespersen's Danish
dialect alphabet are good specimens of this tendency. In the
latter Roman letters are used for special distinctions, just as
italic letters are used in the Romic systems.

But in spite of all diversity, there is much agreement. As
regards the vowels, the following approximate values are now
pretty generally accepted: —

a as in father.

ai
au

e
ei

t

3

time.

house.

man.

et6 (Fr.).

veil.

there.

further.

i as in it.

o

CB

o

oi

ou

u

y

n as tn sing.

fish.

thin.
w we.

x loch.

3 rouge.

beau (Fr.).

FaT ™-

oil.

soul.

full.

une (Fr.).

Vowel-length is in some systems denoted by doubling (aa),

in others by special marks (a: &c.), the diacritic in a being used

only in the nomic orthographies of dead and oriental languages.

The only consonant-symbols that require special notice are

the following: —

c as in tyuk (Hung.).

5 ,, ich (German).

8 „ then.

j „ you.

} „ nagy (Hung.).

n „ ogni (Ital.).

All the systems of phonetic notation hitherto considered
are based on the Roman alphabet. But although the Roman
alphabet has many advantages from a practical point of view,
it is evidently impossible to build up a consistent and systematic
notation on such an inadequate foundation of arbitrary signs.
What is wanted, for scientific purposes especially, is a notation
independent of the Roman alphabet, built up systematically —
an alphabet in which there is a definite relation between sound
and symbol.

This relation may be regarded either from the organic or the
acoustic point of view. The tendency of the earlier attempts at
an a priori universal alphabet was to symbolize the consonants
organically, the vowels acoustically, as in E. Briicke's Phonetische
Transscription (1863). It is now generally acknowledged that
the vowels as well as the consonants must be represented on a
strictly organic basis. This was first done in A. M. Bell's
Visible Speech (1867), which appeared again (1882) in a shorter
form and with some modifications under the title of Sounds and
their Relations. Bell's pupil, H. Sweet, gave a detailed criticism
of Visible Speech in a paper on Sound-notation (Trans, of Philo-
logical Society, 1880-1881), in which he described a revised form
of it called the Organic Alphabet, which he afterwards employed
in his Primer of Phonetics and other works. Sweet's Narrow
Romic notation already mentioned is practically a transcription
of the Organic Alphabet into Roman letters.

Such notations are alphabetic: they go on the general principle
of providing separate symbols for each simple sound. But as

462

PHONETICS

the number of possible shades of sounds is almost infinite, even
the most minutely accurate of them can do so only within certain
limits. The Organic Alphabet especially makes a large use of
" modifiers " — characters which are added to the other symbols
to indicate nasal, palatal, &c., modifications of the sounds repre-
sented by the latter, these modifiers being generally represented
by italic letters in the Narrow Romic transcription; thus (!«) =
nazalized (1).

In the Roman alphabet such symbols as /, v are arbitrary,
showing no connection in form either with one another or
with the organic actions by which they are formed; but in the
Organic symbol of v, for instance, we can see the graphic repre-
sentation of its components " lips, teeth, voice-murmur." By
omitting superfluous marks and utilizing various typographical
devices the notation is so simplified that the symbols, in spite of
their minute accuracy, are often simpler than in the correspond-
ing Roman notation. The simplicity of the system is shown
by the fact that it requires only about no types, as compared
with the 280 of Lepsius's very imperfect Standard Alphabet.

All the systems hitherto considered are also alphabetic in a
wider sense: they are intended for continuous writing, the more
cumbrous " narrow " notations being, however, generally
employed only in writing single words or short groups. An
" analphabetic " basis was first definitely advocated by Jespersen,
who represents each sound by a group of symbols resembling
a chemical formula, each symbol representing not a sound, but
an element of a sound: the part of the palate, tongue, &c.,
where the sound is formed, the degree of separation (openness)
of the organs of speech, and so on. The two great advantages
of such a system are that it allows perfect freedom in selecting
and combining the elements and that it can be built up on the
foundation of a small number of generally accessible signs.

As regards Jespersen's scheme, it is to be regretted that he
has not worked it out in a more practical manner: that in his
choice of the thirty odd symbols that he requires he should have
gone out of his way to mix up Greek with Roman letters, together
with other characters which would be avoided by any one con-
structing even a scientific alphabetic notation. And his use
of these symbols is open to much criticism. In fact, it cannot
be said that the analphabetic principle has yet had a fair trial.

The Organs of Speech. — Most speech-sounds are formed with
air expelled from the lungs (voice-bellows) , which passes through
the two contractible bronchi or bronchial tubes into the also
contractible wind-pipe or trachea, on the top of which is fixed
the larynx (voice-box). Across the interior of the larynx are
stretched two elastic ledges or cushions called " the vocal
chords." They are inserted in front of the larynx at one end,
and at the other they are fixed to two movable cartilaginous
bodies " the aretynoids," so that the passage between them —
the glottis— -can be narrowed or closed at pleasure. The glottis
is, as we see, twofold, consisting of the chord glottis and the
cartilage glottis. The two can be narrowed or closed independ-
ently. The chords can also be tightened or relaxed, lengthened
and shortened in various degrees.

When the whole glottis is wide open, no sound is produced
by the outgoing breath except that caused by the friction
of the air. Sounds in whose formation the glottis is in this
passive state are called " breath " sounds. Thus (f) is the
breath consonant corresponding to the " voice " or " voiced "
consonant (v). In the production of voice, the chords are
brought close enough together to be set in vibration by the air
passing between them. In the " thick " register of the voice
(chest voice) the chords vibrate in their whole length, in the
" thin " register or falsetto only in part of their length. If the
glottis is narrowed without vibration, "whisper" is the result.
In the " weak whisper " there is narrowing the whole glottis;
in the " strong whisper," which is the ordinary form, the chord
glottis is entirely closed, so that the breath passes only through
the cartilage glottis. In what is popularly called " whisper "-
that is, speaking without voice — the breath sounds remain
unchanged, while voiced sounds substitute whisper (in the
phonetic sense) for voice. Thus in whispering such a word as feel

the (f) remains unchanged, while the following vowel and con-
sonant are formed with the glottis only half closed. Whispered
sounds — both vowels and consonants — occur in ordinary loud
speech in many languages. Thus the final consonants in such
English words as leaves, oblige are whispered, except when
followed without a pause by a voiced sound, as in obliging,
where the (3) is fully voiced.

Above the glottis — still within the larynx — comes the " upper "
or " false " glottis, by which the passage can be narrowed. On
the top of the larynx is fixed a leaf-like body, the " epiglottis,"
which in swallowing, and sometimes in speech, is pressed down
over the opening of the larynx. The contractible cavity between
the larynx and the mouth is called the " pharynx." The roof
of the mouth consists of two parts, the " soft " and the " hard
palate." The lower pendulous extremity of the soft palate,
the " uvula," in its passive state leaves the passage into the
nose open. In the formation of non-nasal sounds, such as (b),
the uvula is pressed up so as to close the passage from the
pharynx into the nose. If (b) is formed with the passage open,
it becomes the corresponding nasal consonant (m). The other
extremity of the (hard) palate is bounded by the teeth, behind
which are the gums, extending from the teeth-rim to the arch-rim
— the projection of the teeth-roots or alveolars.

There is great diversity among phoneticians as regards the
mapping out — the divisions — of the palate and tongue, and
their names. Foreign phoneticians generally adopt very minute
distinctions, to which they give Latin names. Bell in his
Visible Speech makes a few broad fundamental divisions.
In the arrangement adopted here (mainly based on his) sounds
formed on the soft palate are called " back," and are subdivided
into " inner " = nearer the throat, and " outer " = nearer the
teeth, further subdivisions being made by the terms " innermost,"
" outermost," the position exactly half way between these two
last being defined as " intermediate back." Sounds formed
on the hard palate or teeth may be included under the common
term " forward," more accurately distinguished as " teeth "
(dental), " gum," " front " (palatal, afterwards called " top "
by Bell), which last is really equivalent to " mid-palatal,"
including the whole of the hard palate behind the gums. All
of these divisions are further subdivided into " inner," &c.,
as with the back positions.

Of the tongue we distinguish the " back " (root), " front "
or middle, " point " (tip), and " blade," which includes the
point and the surface of the tongue immediately behind it. The
tongue can also articulate against the lips, which, again, can
articulate against the teeth. The lip passage can be closed,
or narrowed in various degrees. Sounds modified by lip-narrow-
ing are called " lip-modified " (labialized) or " round " (rounded),
the last being specially used in speaking of vowels.

Speech-sounds. — The most general test of a simple as opposed
to a compound sound (sound-group) is that it can be lengthened
without change. As regards place of articulation, no sound
is really simple: every sound is the result of the shape of the
whole configurative passage from the lungs to the lips; and the
ultimate sound-elements, such as voice, are never heard isolated.
The most indistinct voice-murmur is as much the result of the
shape of the superglottal passages as the clearest and most
distinct of the other vowels; and its organic formation is as
definite as theirs is, the only difference being that while in what
we regard as unmodified voice all the organs except the vocal
chords are in their passive, neutral positions, the other vowels
are formed by actively modifying the shape of the super-glottal
passages — by raising the tongue towards the palate, narrowing
the lips, &c.

The most important elements of speech-sounds are those which
are dependent on the shape of the glottis and of the mouth
passage respectively. It is on the relation between these two
factors that one of the oldest distinctions between sounds
is based: that of vowel and consonant. In vowels the element
of voice is the predominant one: a vowel is voice modified by
the different shapes of the superglottal passages. In consonants,
on the other hand, the state of the glottis is only secondary.

PHONETICS

463

Consonants are generally the result of audible friction, as in (f),
or of complete stoppage, as in (p). If the glottis is at the same
time left open, as in (f, p), the consonant is " breath " or
" voiceless " — if it is narrowed enough to make the chords vibrate,
as in (v, b), the consonant is " voice " or " voiced "; intermediate
positions producing the corresponding " whispered " consonants.
Vowels are characterized negatively by the absence of audible
friction or stoppage: if an (i) is formed with the tongue so close
to the palate as to cause buzzing, it becomes a variety of the
front consonant (j). There is, of course, no difficulty in forming
a vowel with the glottis in the position for breath and whisper.
Thus breath (i) may often be heard in French in such words as
ainsi at the end of a sentence, the result being practically a
weak form of the front-breath consonant (c). The division
between vowel and consonant is not an absolutely definite one.
As we see, the closer a vowel is — that is, the narrower its con-
figurative passage is — the more like it is to a consonant, and the
more natural it is to devocalize it. Some voice consonants,
on the other hand, have so little buzz that acoustically they
constitute a class between consonants and vowels — a class of
" vowel-like " or " liquid " consonants, such as n, m, 1).

The changes in sounds which result from active narrowing of
the passages admit of an important distinction as " sound-
modifying " and " sound-colouring," although the distinction
is not always definite. Nasality and rounding are examples
of sound-modifying processes. Thus we hear a certain resem-
blance between (b) and (m), (i) and (y), but we regard all these
four as distinct and practically independent sounds. Con-
traction of the pharynx, on the other hand, as also of the false
glottis and windpipe, have only a sound-colouring effect: if a
vowel is formed with such contractions its quality (timbre)
is altered, but it still remains the same vowel. It follows from
the definition of speech-sounds that they admit of a twofold
classification: (i) organic and (2) acoustic. As already remarked,
the older phoneticians used to classify the consonants organi-
cally, the vowels mainly from the acoustic point of view. The
first to give an adequate organic classification of the vowels was
the author of Visible Speech. Bell gave at the same time an
independent acoustic classification of the consonants as well as
the vowels. His acoustic classification consists simply in arrang-
ing the sounds in the order of their " pitches " (tone-heights).
The pitches of the breath consonants are absolutely fixed in each
individual pronunciation, while those of spoken vowels can be
varied indefinitely within the compass of each voice by tightening
the vocal chords in various ways and shortening their vibrating
portions: the tighter and shorter the vibrating body, the quicker
its vibrations, and the higher the tone. But when a vowel
is whispered or breathed nothing is heard but the resonance
of the configurative passages, especially in the mouth, and the
pitches of these resonant cavities are as fixed as those of the
breath consonants; in other words, a whispered (or breathed)
vowel cannot be sung. Although the absolute pitches of voiceless
sounds may vary from individual to individual the relations
of the pitches are constant: thus in all pronunciations (c) and
whispered (i) are the highest, breath (w) in what and whispered
(u) nearly the lowest in pitch among consonants and vowels
respectively.

If phonetics were an ideally perfect science there would be
no occasion to discuss whether the acoustic or the organic study
of the vowels and the other speech-sounds is the more important:
a full description of each sound would necessarily imply (i) an
exact determination of its organic formation, (2) an acoustic
analysis of the sound itself, both from the objective physical
point of view and from the subjective one of the impression
received by the ear, and (3) an explanation of how (2) is the
necessary result of (i). Even this last question has already
been solved to some extent. In fact, the connection between
the organic formation and the acoustic effect is often self-evident.
It is eviaent, for instance, that (i) and (c) owe their clear sound
and high pitch to their being formed by short, narrow passages
in the front of the mouth, while (u) owes its low pitch to being
formed in exactly the opposite way, the sound being farther

muffled and the pitch consequently still more lowered by the
rounding.

One reason why it is impossible to classify the vowels exclu-
sively on acoustic principles is that two vowels formed in quite
different ways may have the same pitch. Thus the " high-
front-round" (y) and the "high-mixed" (i) have the same
pitch, the tongue-retraction of the mixed position of the
latter having the same effect as the rounding of the former.
It is evident, therefore, that the fundamental classification of
the vowels must, like that of the consonants, be purely organic.
And although for practical purposes it is often convenient to
classify sounds partly from the acoustic point of view, a full
scientific treatment must keep the two points of view strictly
apart, and make a special chapter of the relations between them.

Vowels. — The most obvious distinction between vowels is that
which depends on the share of the lips in their articulation. In
such non-round vowels as (i) and (a) the lips are passive, or even
separated and spread out at their corners, by which the vowels
assume a clearer resonance. If, on the other hand, the lips are
actively approximated, they become the round vowels (y) and
" open " (o) respectively.

Vowels are formed with different degrees of rounding. As a
general rule, the narrowness of the lip-passage corresponds to the
narrowness of the mouth-passage. Thus, in passing from the
vowel of too to those of no and saw the back of the tongue is pro-
gressively lowered, and the rounding is diminished in the same
proportion.

But there is also abnormal rounding. Thus, if we pronounce

(0) with the lips in the position they have in forming (u), the
resulting " over-rounded " vowel sounds half-way between (o) and
(u) ; the second element of the diphthong (ou) in go is formed in this
way. Conversely, the (u) in put is " under-rounded " in the North
of England: the tongue position is kept, but the lips are only
brought together a little at the corners, as in (a).

The mouth positions of the vowels are the result of two factors:

(1) the height of _ the tongue — its nearness to the palate — and

(2) the degree of its retraction. Bell distinguishes three degrees
of height: in his system (u) is " high," the (o) of boy is " mid,"
and the (?) of saw is " low." He also has three degrees of retrac-
tion : in " back " vowels, such as (u), the root of the tongue is drawn
to the back of the mouth, and the whole tongue slopes down from
back to front. In " front " vowels, such as (i), the front of the
tongue is raised towards the hard palate, so that the tongue slopes
down from front to back.

Most of these slope-positions yield vowels of a distinct and clear
resonance. There is also a class of " flat " vowels, such as (a),
in which the tongue is in a more or less neutral position. If the
tongue is raised from the low-flat position of (as) in bird to the
high position, we get the (5) of North Welsh dyn " man," which, as
already observed, is acoustically similar to (y).

The flat vowels were called mixed " by Bell, in accordance with
his view that they are the result of combining back and front articu-
lation. And although this view is now generally abandoned, the
term " mixed " is still retained by the English school of phoneticians.

In this way Bell mapped out the whole mouth by the following
cardinal points: —

high-mixed
mid-mixed
low-mixed

high-back
mid-back
low-back

high-front
mid-front
low-front

In this arrangement " high-back," &c., are fixed points like those of
latitude and longitude. Thus normal " high " means that the tongue
is raised as close to the palate as is possible without causing con-
sonantal friction, and " back " implies retraction of the same kind.
Intermediate positions are defined as " raised," " lowered," " inner,"
" outer."

The most original and at the same time the most disputed part
of Bell's vowel-scheme is his distinction of " primary " and " wide."
All vowels fall under one of these categories. Thus, the primary
French (i) and the corresponding English wide (i) are both high-
front-vowels, and yet they are distinct in sound : the English vowel
is a semitone lower in pitch. Bell explained the greater openness
of the wide vowels as the result of greater expansion of the
pharynx ; and he considered the other class to be most ^nearly
allied to the consonants — whence their name " primary " — the
voice-passages in the formation of primary vowels being expanded
only so far as to remove all fricative quality. But alterations
in the shape of the pharynx have only a sound-colouring, not a
sound-modifying, effect; and Sweet snowed that the distinction
depends on the shape of the tongue, and accordingly substituted
" narrow " for Bell's " primary." He also showed that the distinc-
tion applies to consonants as well as vowels: thus the narrow
French (w) in oui is a consonantization of the narrow French (u)
in sou, while the English (w) preserves the wide quality of the (u)
in put.

In forming narrow sounds there is a feeling of tension in that

PHONETICS

part of the tongue where the sound is formed, the tongue being
clenched or bunched up lengthwise, so as to be more convex than
in its relaxed or " wide " condition.

The distinction between narrow and wide can often be ignored
in practical phonetic writing, for it generally depends on quantity;
length and narrowness, shortness and wideness going together.
When the distinction is marked, wide vowels may be expressed by
italics, as in German (biina, b»n).

Bell's category of " mixed-round " vowels had from the beginning
been a source of difficulty to students of Visible Speech. But it
was not till 1901 that Sweet showed that they are only mixed as
regards position: they are really the corresponding back-round
vowels moved forward into the middle of the mouth while pre-
serving the slope of back vowels, instead of having the tongue
flat as in the (unround) mixed vowels. They are "out-back"
vowels: there is an exaggeration of the outer back position of such
a back-round vowel as the English (u) compared with the full back
(«) in German muttre.

In the same way by moving the tongue backwards while forming
a front vowel another series of " in-front " vowels is obtained.

The " in-mixed " vowels are obtained by shifting the neutral
mixed positions into the full back position, keeping the tongue
flat, so that these vowels might also be called " back-flat."

The out-back, in-front and in-mixed vowels are included under
the common designation of " shifted," as opposed to " normal "
vowels.

There is a large number of other vowel-schemes, of which a survey
will be found in W. Victor's Elemente der Phonetik. Many of the
older ones are in the form of triangles, with the three chief vowels
a, i, u at the three corners, the other vowels being inserted between
these extremes according to their acoustic relations. Since the
appearance of Visible Speech many attempts have been made to
fit his new vowels into these older schemes.

Of all the vowel-schemes the one now most generally known is
perhaps that of the International Phonetic Association already
mentioned. In this scheme the distinction of narrow and wide,
though admitted and occasionally marked, is not an integral part
of the system, the vowels being classified first as " velar ' (back)
and " palatal " (front), and then according to openness as "close,"
" half-close," " medium," " half-open " and " open."

Consonants. — These are the result of audible friction or stoppage,
which may be accompanied either with breath, voice or whisper.

Consonants admit of a two-fold diyision (i) by form, and (2) by
place. Thus (p, b) are by place lip-consonants, while by form
they are stopped consonants or " stops."

If the mouth-stoppage is kept, and the nose-passage is opened,
the stop becomes the corresponding "nasal"; thus (b) with the
soft palate lowered becomes the nasal (m).

In " open " consonants the sound is formed by simply narrowing
the passage, as in the back-open-breath (x) in Scotch and German
loch. In some open consonants, such as the lip-teeth (f), there is
slight contact of the organs, but without impeding the flow of
breath.

In " divided " consonants there is central stoppage with open-
ings at the sides, as in the familiar point-divided (1). These con-
sonants are sometimes " unilateral " — with the opening on the side
only — the character of the sound not being sensibly modified
thereby.

When open and divided consonants are formed with the nose-
passage open they are said to be " nazalized." Thus (m) with
incomplete lip-closure becomes the nasalized lip-open-voice con-
sonant.

" Trills " (or rolled) consonants are a special variety of un-stopped
consonants resulting from the vibration of flexible parts against
one another, as when the lips are trilled, or against some firm
surface, as when the point of the tongue trills against the gums
in the Scotch (r), or the uvula against the back of the tongue, as in
the Northumbrian burred (r), and the French and German (r),
where — especially in German — the trill is often reduced to a mini-
mum or suppressed altogether.

As regards the place of consonants, there is, as already remarked,
great diversity among phoneticians, both in mapping out the palate
and tongue and in the names given to these divisions. The classi-
fication and nomenclature given here is, in the main, that of Bell.

By place, then, we distinguish seven main classes of consonants:
back, front, point, blade, fan, lip, and lip-teeth.

" Back " (guttural) consonants are formed between the root of
the tongue and the soft palate. In most languages the positions
of these consonants vary according to those of the accompanying
vowels: thus the back-stop and back-nasal in king are more forward
than in conquer.

" Front ' (palatal) consonants are formed between the middle
of the tongue and the hard palate, the point of the tongue lying
passively behind the lower teeth. It is easy to make the front-
open-voice (j) in you into the corresponding stop (j) by narrowing
the passage till there is complete closure, as in Hungarian nagy
(noj) " world." In the same way the open breath (c) in German
ich may be made into the stop (c) = Hungarian ty. (j) nasalized
becomes (n) — Italian gn, Spanish n, French en in vigne. The front-
divided-voice consonant is the Italian gl and Spanish U. These are

all simple sounds, distinct from the (Ij), (nj) in French and English
million and English onion.

" Point " consonants when formed against the teeth are called
" point-teeth " (dental). English (p) in thin is the point-teeth-
open-breath consonant, (S) in then the corresponding voice con-
sonant. If (8) is modified by turning the tip of the tongue back
into the inner position — about on the arch-rim — it becomes the
untrilled (r) in English rearing, in which position the tongue is
easily trilled, the trilling becoming more and more difficult
the more the tongue is approximated to the point-teeth position.
In French and many other languages all the point consonants
(t, d, n, 1), &c., are formed on the teeth, except (r), which is always
more retracted than the other point consonants. If the tip of
the tongue is turned so far back as to articulate with its lower edge
against the arch of the palate — that is, farther back than for the
" inner " position — it is said to be " inverted." Inverted (r) is
frequent in the dialects of the south-west of England. The
opposite of inversion is " protrusion," in which the tip of the tongue
articulates against the upper lip.

" Blade " consonants are formed by the blade or flattened tip
of the tongue against the gums, as in English (s, z), or against the
teeth, as in the corresponding French sounds. If these consonants
are modified by turning the tongue a little back, so as to bring the
point more into play, they become the " blade-point " consonants
(/, 3)> as in fish, measure. (/) is acoustically a dull (s). In some
languages, such as German, sounds similar to (/) and (z) are formed
partly by rounding, which lowers the pitch of the hiss in the same
way as retraction does, so that the tongue-articulation is only
imperfectly carried out. When the rounding is very marked
there is only a slight raising of the front of the tongue, as in some
Swedish dialects; and if the tongue-articulation is progressively
shifted back, and the rounding diminished in the same proportion,
(/) can at last develop into the pure back-open consonant (x), as
in the present pronunciation of Spanish x and j.

The English point consonants (t, d, n, 1) are formed on the gums
just behind the teeth, the point of the tongue being flattened, so
that they are almost blade consonants.

" Fan " (spread) consonants — the " emphatic " consonants of
Arabic — are modifications of point and blade consonants, in which
the sides of the tongue are spread out, so that the hiss of such a
consonant as (s) is formed partly between the sides of the tongue
and the back teeth, which gives a peculiar deep, dull quality to
these sounds.

" Lip " consonants, such as (p, m), and " lip-teeth " consonants,
such as (f, v), offer no difficulty. The simple lip-open-breath
consonant does not occur in English; it is the sound produced in
blowing out a candle. The corresponding voice sound is frequent
in German — especially in Middle Germany — in such words as
quelle.

If the lip-open consonants are modified by raising the back of the
tongue, they become the " lip-back " consonants (wh, w) in English
what, we, which may also be regarded as consonantized (u). In
them the lip articulation predominates. In the "back-lip"
consonants, as in German auch, the reverse is the case.

This last is one of a large number of " lip-modified " consonants,
of which the already-mentioned German sen is a further example.

In a similar way consonants may be " front-modified." (i) is
peculiarly susceptible to such modifications. In French and other
languages it is formed with the tongue more convex than in English,
and consequently with a tendency to front-modification. Front-
modified (s) and point (r) may be heard in Russian in such words
as gust " goose," tsarl " emperor," where the final vowels are silent.

Some consonants are formed below the mouth.

When the glottis is sharply opened or closed on a passage of breath
or voice an effect is produced similar to that of a stop in the mouth,
such as (k). This " glottal stop " is the sound produced in hic-
cuping; and is an independent sound in some languages, such as
Arabic, where it is called " hamza." In German all words beginning
with a stressed (accented) vowel have a more or less distinct glottal
stop before the vowel.

Of the passages below the glottis, the bronchial* and the wind-
pipe are both susceptible of contraction.

Spasmodic contraction of the bronchial passages is the main
factor in producing what is known as " the asthmatic wheeze."
If this contraction is regulated and made voluntary it results in
the deep hiss of the Arabic ha. If this sound is voiced, it causes
a peculiar intermittent vibration of voice, which is habitual with
some speakers, especially in Germany. If this effect is softened by
slightly expanding the bronchial passages, an (r)-like sound is
produced, which is that of the Arabic 'ain.

Contraction of the windpipe produces a sound similar to the
Arabic #a, but weaker, which when followed by a vowel has the
effect of a strong aspirate. When voiced it becomes a mere colourer
of the accompanying voice-murmur, or vowel, to which it imparts
a deep timbre.

Non-expiratory Sounds. — All the sounds hitherto described
imply out-breathing or expiration. Many of them can also be
formed with in-breathing or inspiration. In English it is a not
uncommon trick of speech to pronounce no in this manner, to express
emphatic denial.

PHONETICS

465

Some consonants are formed without either in- or out-breathing,
but solely with the air in the throat or mouth. In forming " suction-
stops " or " clicks " the tongue or lips are put in the position for a
stop, and the air is sucked out from between the organs in contact,
so that when the stop is loosened, a smacking sound is produced
by the air rushing in to fill the vacu-m. Thus the point-click
is the interjection of impatience commonly written tutl In many
savage languages clicks are a part of ordinary speech.

Synthesis. — Besides analysing each sound separately, phonetics
has to deal with the phenomena which accompany synthesis
or the combination of sounds. Although a sentence may consist
of a single word, and that word of a single vowel, sounds mostly
occur only in combination with one another. The ordinary
division into sentences and words is logical, not phonetic: we
cannot mark off sentences and cut them up into words until
we know what they mean and are able to analyse them gram-
matically. But the logical division into sentences corresponds
to some extent with the phonetic division into " breath-groups,"
marked off by our inability to utter more than a certain number
of syllables in succession without pausing to take breath. With-
in each of these breath-groups there is no necessary pause
between the words, except when we pause for emphasis. The
only necessary phonetic divisions within the breath-group
are those into syllables, sounds and intervening " glides." But
before considering these last it will be necessary to say something
about the general factors of synthesis: quantity, stress and
intonation.

As regards quantity, it is enough for ordinary purposes to dis-
tinguish three degrees: long, half-long or medium and short. In
English what are called long vowels keep their full length when
stressed and before final voice consonants, as in see, broad; and
become half-long before voiceless consonants, as in cease, brought.
In most other languages full length is preserved alike before all
classes of consonants. The Romance languages have short final
stressed vowels, as in French si. Unstressed vowels tend to become
short in most languages. The distinctions of quantity apply to
consonants as well as vowels. Thus English tends to lengthen final
consonants after short stressed vowels, as in man compared with
German mann, where the final consonant is quite short. Consonants,
like vowels, tend to become short when unstressed. But in some
languages, such as Finnish and Hungarian, stress has no effect on
quantity, so that in these languages long vowels and double con-
sonants occur as frequently in unstressed as in stressed syllables.
Even in English we often lengthen final unstressed vowejs in
exclamations, as in what a pityl Some languages, such as the
Romance languages and Russian, tend to level the distinctions of
vowel-quantity : most of their vowels are half-long.

Stress is, organically, the result of the force with which the
breath is expelled from the lungs; while acoustically it produces the
effect of loudness, which is dependent on the size of the sound-
vibrations: the bigger the waves, the louder the sound, and the
greater the stress, of which we may distinguish infinite degrees.
If we distinguish only three, they are called weak, medium and
strong. The use of stress in different languages shows the same
variety as quantity. Some languages, such as French, make com-
paratively little use of its distinctions, uttering all the syllables
of words and sentences with a more or less even degree of force.
English, on the other hand, makes great use of minute distinctions
of stress both to distinguish the meanings of words and to mark
their relations in sentences.

With stress is closely connected the question of syllable-division.
A syllable is a group of sounds containing a " syllabic " or syllable-
former, which is, of course, able to constitute a syllable by itself.
The distinction between syllables and non-syllabics depends on
sonority, the more sonorous sounds being the voiced ones, while
of these again, the most open are the most sonorous, the most
sonorous of all being the vowels, among which, again, the openest
are the most sonorous. But these differences are only relative.
When a vowel and a consonant come together the sonorousness
of the vowel always overpowers that of the consonant, so that the
two together only constitute one syllable. But in such a word as
little the second (1) is so much more sonorous than the accompany-
ing voiceless stop that it assumes syllabic function, and the whole
group becomes dissyllabic to the ear. The beginning of a syllable
corresponds with the beginning of the stress-impulse with which it
is uttered. Thus in atone the strong stress and the second syllable
begin on the (t), and in bookcase on the second (k), the first (k)
belonging to the first syllable, so that the (kk) is here double, not
merely long, as in book (bukk) by itself.

Intonation or variation of tone (pitch) depends on the rapidity
of the sound-vibrations: the more rapid the vibrations, the higher
the pitch. Intonation is heard only in voiced sounds, as being the
only ones capable of variations of pitch.

In singing the voice generally dwells on each note without change
of pitch, and then leaps up or down to the next note as quickly

as possible, so that the intervening " glide " is not noticed — except
in what is called portamento. In speaking, on the other hand,
the voice hardly ever dwells on any one note, but is constantly glid-
ing upwards or downwards, so that an absolutely level tone hardly
ever occurs in speech. But in the rising and falling inflections of
speech we can distinguish between " voice-glides (portamentos
or slurs) and " voice-leaps," although the distinction is not so definite
as in singing.

Of the three primary forms of intonation the level tone ( ) can be
approximately heard in well as an expression of musing — although it
really ends with a slight rise ; the rising (') in the question well ? ;
the falling (') in the answer yes. There are besides compound tones
formed by uniting the two last in one syllable. The compound
rising tone (v) may be heard in lake care! the compound falling
tone («) in the sarcastic oh! All these tones may be varied according
to the intervals through which they pass. The greater the interval,
the more emphatic the tone. Thus a high rise, which begins high,
and consequently can only rise a little higher, expresses simple
question, while the same word, if uttered with a low rise extending
over an interval of between a fifth and an octave— ^or even more
— expresses various degrees of surprise or indignation, as in the
emphatic whatl compared with the simply interrogative what?

In English and most European languages, intonation serves to
modify the general meaning and character of sentences. This is
sentence-intonation. But some languages, such as Swedish and
Norwegian, and Chinese, have word-intonation, by which words
which would otherwise be identical in sound are distinguished.
The distinction between Gr. oikoi and otkoi was no doubt one of
intonation.

Glides. — Such a word as cat consists not only of the vowel
and the two consonants of which it is made up, but also of
" glides " or transitions between these sounds. The glide from
the initial consonant to the vowel consists of all the intermediate
positions through which the tongue passes on its way from the
(k)-position to the (ae)-position. The number of these
positions is infinite, but they are all implied by the mere juxta-
position of the symbols, for it is assumed that in all transi-
tions from one position to another the shortest way is taken.
Although the direction of a glide is dependent on the positions
of the two fixed points between which it lies, its character may
be varied both by the shape of the configurative passages —
especially the glottis — and by stress and quantity.

In the word given above the " off-glides " from the consonants
are both breath-glides, the glottis being kept open during the
transition from the voiceless consonant to the following vowel,
or, as in the case of the final consonant, to silence. The " on-
glide " from the vowel to the (t) is, on the other hand, a voice-
glide, the closure of the glottis being maintained till the stop
is made.

In French and most of the languages of the south of Europe
voiceless consonants are followed by voice-glides. Thus in
French qui there is no escape of breath after the (k), as there
is in English Key. Other languages again have breath on-glides
before voiceless stops.

If an independent strong stress is put on the breath-glide of
English key, it is heard almost as a full independent consonant,
and becomes an " aspirate." Aspirated steps may be heard
in the Irish-English pronunciation of such words as tell, and also
in Danish, and in Sanskrit as pronounced in India. If the
voice-glide after a voice stop is emphasized in a similar way the
" sonant aspirates " of Sanskrit and its modern descendants
are produced, as in Sanskrit dhanu.

Glides are especially important from an acoustic point of view.
Acoustically speaking, indeed, voiceless stops are pure glide-
sounds, the stop itself being inaudible. In voice-stops, on the
other hand, the stop itself can be made audible as well as the
intervening glides. In English these latter are fully voiced
when they come between voice sounds, as in ago; but when
preceded by voiceless sounds or by a pause, as in go! they are
formed with imperfect vocality, full voice being heard only
just before the stop is loosened. So also initial English (z) as
in zeal is formed with imperfect vocality under the same
conditions, so that it sounds like (sz). In French and other
languages which have voice-glides after voiceless consonants
initial (g, z) &c. are fully voiced.

Consonant-glides may be further modified in various ways.
In the formation of " implosive " stops, such as occur in Saxon
German, Armenian and other languages, voiceless stops followed

4.66

PHONETICS

by voice-glides are modified by simultaneous closure of the
glottis, the larynx being raised by means of its muscles, so that
it acts like a plug, compressing the air be'tween the closed glottis
and the mouth-stop, so that when the latter is released a
peculiar choky effect is given to the off-glide.

Rounded glides may be heard in Russian in such words as
komnata, where the rounding of the (o) is anticipated in the
preceding consonant, being heard, of course, only in the off-
glide of the consonant. The acoustic effect is between that of
(kwo) and ordinary (ko).

Glideless consonant-combinations remain to be considered.
The general articulative principle of taking the shortest way
between sounds in juxtaposition necessarily results in certain
transitions being effected without any glide at all. This is
regularly the case when the consonants have the same place,
and differ only in form, as in (nd, dlt), where the point of the
tongue remains unmoved through the whole sound-group.
In such combinations as (mf) the very slight glide is often got rid
of entirely by assimilating the place of the first consonant to
that of the second, so that the (m) becomes a lip teeth consonant,
as in English nymph.

Even when consonants are formed in different parts of the
mouth it is often possible to join them without any glide. In
English such combinations as (kt, pt) are glideless, the point
of the tongue being brought into position before the preceding
stop is loosened. In French and most other languages such
consonants are separated by a breath-glide.

Combinations of stops and vowel-like consonants (tr, gl, kw)
are glideless in English and most other languages. In English
the breath-glide after a voiceless stop unvoices the beginning
of the following vowel-like consonant; thus try is almost (trh-
rai).

Vowel-elides. — Vowels are begun and ended in various ways.
In the gradual beginning," which is the usual pne in English
and French, the glottis is gradually narrowed while breath is being
emitted. In the ' clear " beginning the breath is kept back till the
glottis is closed for voice, which begins without any " breathiness."
German favours the clear beginning, generally exaggerating it into a
glottal stop.

In the gradual as well as the clear beginning the stress begins
on the vowel. If in the former it is thrown back on the breath-
glide, the latter is felt as an independent element and becomes
the " aspirate " or (h), which in English and most other languages
is a glide not only in the throat but in the mouth as well, the tongue
and lips gradually moving up into the position for the following
vowel while the glottis is being closed.

There is also a " strong ' aspirate, which occurs in Finnish
and other languages, in the formation of which the full vowel position
is assumed from the beginning of the aspiration, which is therefore
a voiceless vowel.

In most languages, when an aspirate comes between voiced sounds
it is formed with imperfect vocality, the contrast of which with the
full vocality of the other sounds is enough to produce the effect
of breath. Thus in English behold the voice runs on without
any actual break, the glottal closure being simply relaxed, not
fully opened for breath, as in the emphatic aha I In some languages,
such as Bohemian, this " voice-aspirate " is used everywhere,
initially as well as medially.

Vowels are finished analogously, either by a gradual opening of
the glottis, or by a cessation of aspiration while the glottis is still
closed for voice. If stress is put on the gradual ending it becomes
a distinct aspirate, as in the Sanskrit " visarga " in such a word as
manah.

Organic Basis. — Every language has certain general tendencies
which control the formation of its sounds, constituting its
" organic basis " or basis of articulation. The tendency of
the present English is to flatten and lower the tongue and draw
it back from the teeth, while the lips are kept as much as possible
in a neutral position. The flattening of the tongue makes our
vowels wide and favours the development of mixed vowels,
and gives the dull quality which is especially noticeable in our
(1); and its retraction is unfavourable to the development of
teeth sounds; while the neutrality of the lips eliminates front-
round vowels. In such a language as French everything is
reversed. The tongue is arched, and raised, and advanced, and
the lips articulate with energy. Hence French sounds tend
to narrowness, dentality and distinct rounding.

National Sound-systems. — Each language uses only a part of

the general phonetic material. Each one has only a limited
number of sounds; and each one makes only a limited use of
the synthetic distinctions of quantity, stress and intonation. As
we have seen, many of these differences between individual
languages are the result of, or may be referred to, differences
in their organic basis.

Just as cognate languages differ from each other in phonetic
structure, so also dialects of the same languages differ from each
other more or less. Thus the sound-system of Lowland Scotch —
which is, historically, a dialect of Northern English — differs
considerably from that of standard English. Standard English
itself was originally that mixture of the Midland and the Southern
dialect which was spoken in London in the middle ages, just as
standard French is, historically, the dialect of that district
of which Paris is the centre. Standard English, like standard
French, is now more a class-dialect than a local dialect: it is
the language of the educated all over Great Britain. But it
is not yet perfectly uniform. It is still liable to be influenced
by the local dialects in grammar and vocabulary, and still more
in pronunciation.

Again, English, like all other living languages, changes from
generation to generation. Pronunciations which are vulgar
in one century may become fashionable in the next. Sounds
which are distinct in one generation may be confounded in
another, and new distinctions may be made, new sounds may
arise. A spoken language is, therefore, necessarily a vague
and floating entity, and English is no exception to the rule.
The very fixity of its written form gives all the freer play to
the influences which cause change.

A standard spoken language is, strictly speaking, an abstrac-
tion. No two speakers of standard English pronounce exactly
alike. And yet they all have something in common in every
sound they utter. There are some divergencies, some peculiari-
ties of pronunciation, which pass unnoticed, while others, less
considerable perhaps in themselves, are at once felt as
archaisms, vulgarisms or provincialisms, as the case may be,
by the majority of educated speakers.

Sounds of English. — The following is a convenient classification
of the vowels of standard English : —

a a
aa 93

ai, au

i e
ii ei

ae
uu

u

ou,
oi

13 €9 U3

Here the vowels are in four rows: (i) normally short, or, more
correctly, monophthongic, (2) long, or half-diphthongic, (3) full
diphthongs, (4) murmur-diphthongs.

Those under (i) are often lengthened in monosyllables such as
ten, good, but they always remain absolutely monophthongic. The
only one in the next row that is always strictly monophthongic is
(33) : all the others, as we shall see, tend to become more or less
diphthongic, especially in the south of England, being often exagger-
ated into full diphthongs of the (ai) and (au)-type in vulgar speech.

(a), as in come up, is the short vowel corresponding to the (aa)
in calm, (aa) is the mid-back-wide vowel, and (a) differs from it
only in being narrow. Acoustically, (a) is a muffled or obscure (aa) :
and the same effect may be produced by advancing the tongue
from the mid-back to the corresponding out-back position, pre-
serving the wide articulation: this pronunciation of u is common
in the south of England. Historically, these sounds are the result
of unrounding and older (u).

(3), as in sofa, is a mixed vowel, tending to wideness and mid
position, which occurs only unstressed, (33) in turn, earth, is low-
mixed-narrow. It is the result of absorption of an older (r),
weakened into (s).

(ae), as in man, is low-front-wide, from older mid-back-wide.

(i) in it is high-front-wide. The long (ii) in eat is narrow in the
north of England, while in the south it is wide (i) followed by (j).

(e) in men is generally mid-front-wide, (ei) in mane is the same
vowel either narrow or wide, raised in its latter half towards (i).

(u) in good is high-back-wide-round. Narrow (uu) in too becomes
(MW) in southern English.

(o) in not is low-back-wide-round. In (ou), as in no, the mid-
back-round vowel, either narrow or wide, is over-rounded in its
latter half, (o), as in all, is low-back-narrow-round.

The full diphthongs (ai, au,oi),as in eye, now, oil, all end in lowered
high vowels. Their first elements are only roughly indicated by
the transcription, and vary in the mouths of different speakers.
That of (ai) is generally the out-mid-back-wide, that of (au) the
broader low-mixed-wide, that of (oi) the mid-back-wide-round.

The murmur-diphthongs (13) as in here, (es) as in air, (us) as in

PHONOGRAPH

467

poor, all tend to broaden their first elements. That of (ea) is the
low-front-narrow vowel. The other two begin with lowered forms
of the wide (i) and («) respectively. In (ua) the lowering is often
carried so far as to make poor almost, or completely, into pore (poa).
The following arrangement of the English consonants will show
their organic relations to one another :

j r;f>, S s, z; J, 3 wh,w;f, v »

k, g t, d p, b

t) n m

The " aspirate " (h) may be regarded either as a throat-consonant
or as a breath-glide.

Characteristic features of the English consonant-system are the
large number of hisses and buzzes, the sharp distinction of breath
and voice, and, negatively, the absence of the open-back consonants,
and of the voiceless forms of the vowel-like consonants (1, r) and the
nasals, most of which still existed in Old English.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The most important general works are: H.
Sweet, A Primer of Phonetics (yd ed., Oxford, 1906); E. Sievers,
Grundziige der Lautphysiologie (sth ed., Leipzig, 1901); W. Vietor,
Elemente der Phonetik des Deutschen, Englischen und Franzosischen
(5th ed., Leipzig, 1904) ; O. Jesperson, Lehrbuch der Phonetik (Leipzig,
1904); M. Trautmann, Die Sprachlaute (Leipzig, 1884-1886);
Le Mattre Phon&tique, organe de I' association phonetique international
(apply to Dr P. Passy, Bourg-la-Reine, France). For the laws of
sound-change, see the above-mentioned work of Sievers; H. Sweet,
A History of English Sounds (Oxford, 1888); P. Passy, Les Change-
ments phonetiques (Paris, 1890). For phonetics in language-teaching
see H. Sweet, The Practical Study of Languages (London, 1899);
O. Jesperson, How to Learn a Foreign Language (London, 1904). For
phonetic shorthand, H. Sweet, A Manual of Current Shorthand
(Oxford, 1892). For the application of phonetics and phonetic
notation to the practical study of special languages, H. Sweet, A
Primer of Spoken English (2nd ed., Oxford, 1895); F. Beyer and
P. Passy, Elementarbuch des gesprochenen Franzosisch (2nd ed.,
Cothen, 1905) ; W. Vietor, Deutsches Lesebuch in Lautschrift (Leipzig,
1899). (H. Sw.)

PHONOGRAPH (Gr. favri, sound, ypafaw, to write), an
instrument for imprinting the vibrations of sound on a moving
surface of tinfoil or wax in such a form that the original sounds
can be faithfully reproduced by suitable mechanism. Many
attempts had been made by earlier experimenters to obtain
tracings of the vibrations of bodies emitting sound, such as
tuning-forks, membranes, and glass or metallic disks. In 1807
Thomas Young (Lectures, i. 191) described a method of recording
the vibrations of a tuning-fork on the surface of a drum; his
method was fully carried out by Wilhelm Wertheim in 1842
(Recherches sur I' elasticity, i"- mem.). Recording the vibrations
of a membrane was first accomplished by Leon Scott in 1857 by
the invention of the " phonautograph," which may be regarded
as the precursor of the phonograph (Comples rendus, 53, p. 108).
This instrument consisted of a thin membrane to which a delicate
lever was attached. The membrane was stretched over the
narrow end of an irregularly-shaped funnel or drum, while the
end of the lever or marker was brought against the surface of
a cylinder covered with paper on which soot had been deposited
from a flame of turpentine or camphor. The cylinder was
fixed on a fine screw moving horizontally when the cylinder
was rotated. The marker thus described a spiral line on the
blackened surface. When sounds were transmitted to the
membrane and the cylinder was rotated the oscillations of the
marker were recorded. Thus tracings of vibrations were
obtained. This instrument was much improved by Karl
Rudolph Konig, of Paris, who also made with it many valuable
observations. (See Nature, Dec. 26, 1901, p. 184). The
mechanism of the recording lever or marker was improved by
William Henry Barlow, in 1874, in an instrument called by him
the " logograph " (Trans. Roy. Soc., 1874). The next step
was Konig's invention of manometric flames by which the
oscillations of a thin membrane under sound-pressures acted
on a small reservoir of gas connected with a flame, and the
oscillations were viewed in a rotating rectangular mirror, accord-
ing to a method devised by Charles Wheatstone. Thus flame-
pictures of the vibrations of sound were obtained (Pogg. Ann.,
1864, cxxii. 242, 660; see also Quelques experiences d'acou-
stique, Paris, 1882). Clarence Blake in 1876 employed the drum-
head of the human ear as a logograph, and thus obtained tracings
similar to those made by artificial membranes and disks (Archil!.

fur Ophthalmol., 1876, v. i.). In the same year Sigmund
Theodor Stein photographed the vibrations of tuning-forks,
violin strings, &c. (Pogg. Ann., 1876, p. 142). Thus from
Thomas Young downwards successful efforts had been made
to record graphically on moving surfaces the vibrations of sounds,
but the sounds so recorded could not be reproduced. This
was accomplished by T. A. Edison in 1876, the first patent
being dated January 1877.

In the first phonograph a spiral groove was cut on a brass drum
fixed on a horizontal screw, so that when the drum was rotated
it moved from right to left, as in the phonautograph. The recorder
consisted of a membrane of parchment or gold-beater's skin
stretched over the end of a short brass cylinder about 2 in.
in diameter. In the centre of the membrane there was a stout steel
needle having a chisel-shaped edge, and a stiff bit of steel spring
was soldered to the needle near its point, while the other end of
the spring was clamped to the edge of the brass cylinder over which
the membrane was stretched. The recorder was then so placed
beside the large cylinder that the sharp edge of the needle ran in
the middle of the spiral groove when the cylinder was rotated.
The cylinder was covered with a sheet of soft tinfoil. During rotation
of the cylinder, and while the membrane was not vibrating, the
sharp edge of the marker indented the tinfoil into the spiral groove ;
and when the membrane was caused to vibrate by sounds being
thrown into the short cylinder by a funnel-shaped opening, the
variations of pressure corresponding to each vibration caused the
marker to make indentations on the tinfoil in the bottom of the
groove. These indentations corresponded to the sound-waves.
To reproduce the sounds the recorder was drawn away from the
cylinder, and the cylinder was rotated backwards until the recorder
was brought to the point at which it started. The cylinder was
then rotated forwards so that the point of the recorder ran over
the elevations and depressions in the bottom of the groove. These
elevations and depressions, corresponding to the variations of
pressure of each sound-wave, acted backwards on the membrane
through the medium of the marker. The membrane was thus
caused to move in the same way as it did when it was made to
vibrate by the sound-waves falling upon it, and consequently move-
ments of the same general character but of smaller amplitude
were produced, and these reproduced sound-waves. Consequently
the sound first given to the phonograph was reproduced with con-
siderable accuracy. In 1878 Fleeming Jenkin and I. A. Ewing
amplified the tracings made on this instrument by the sounds 01
vowels, and submitted the curves so obtained to harmonic analysis.
(Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin. xxviii. 745). The marks on the tinfoil were
also examined by P. F. F. Griitzner, Mayer, Graham Bell, A. M.
Preece, and Lahr (see The Telephone, the Microphone, and the
Phonograph, by count du Moncel, London, 1884; also The Speaking
Telephone and Talking Phonograph, by G. B. Prescott, New York,
1878).

The tinfoil phonograph, however, was an imperfect instrument,
both as regards the medium on which the imprints were taken
(tinfoil) and the general mechanism of the instrument. Many
improvements were attempted. From 1877 to 1888 Edison
was engaged in working out the details of the wax-cylinder
phonograph. In 1885 A. G. Bell and S. Tainter patented the
" graphophone," and in 1887, Emile Berliner, a German domiciled
in America, patented the " gramophone," wherein the cylinder
was coated with lampblack, and the friction between it and
the stylus was made uniform for all vibrations. Incidentally
it may be mentioned that Charles Cross deposited in 1877 a
sealed packet with the Academic des Sciences, Paris, containing
a suggestion for reproducing sound from a Scott phonautograph
record. The improvements made by Edison consisted chiefly
(i) in substituting for tinfoil cylinders or disks made of a waxy
substance on which permanent records are taken; (2) in substi-
tuting a thin glass plate for the parchment membrane; (3) in
improving the mechanical action of the marker; and (4) in
driving the drum carrying the wax cylinder at a uniform and
rapid speed by an electric motor placed below the instrument.

In the first place, permanent records can be taken on the wax,
which is composed of stearin and paraffin. This material is brittle,
but it readily takes the imprints made by the marker, which is
now a tiny bit of sapphire. The marker, when used for recording,
is shod with a chisel-shaped edge of sapphire; but the sapphire is
rounded when the marker is used for reproducing the sound. The
marker also, instead of being a stiff needle coming from the centre
of the membrane or glass plate, is now a lever, weighted so as to
keep it in contact with the surface of the wax. A single vibration
of a pure tone consists of an increase of pressure followed by a
diminution of pressure. When the disk of glass is submitted to
an increase of pressure the action of the lever is such that, while

468

PHONOGRAPH

the wax cylinder is rotating, the point of the marker is angled
downwards, and this cuts deeply into the wax; and when there is
diminution of pressure the point is angled upwards, so as to act less
deeply. In reproducing the sound, the blunt end of the marker
runs over all the elevations and depressions in the bottom of the
groove cut on the wax cylinder. There is thus increased pressure
transmitted upwards to the glass disk when the point runs over an
elevation, and less pressure when the point runs over a depression
on the wax cylinder. The glass disk is thus, as it were, pulled
inwards and thrust outwards with each vibration, but these pulls

FIG. la. — Exterior of Edison Phonograph.

and thrusts follow each other so rapidly that the ear takes no
cognizance of the difference of phase of the vibrations of the glass
plate in imprinting and in reproducing. The variations of pressure
are communicated to the glass plate, and
these, by the medium of the air, are trans-
mitted to the drum-head of the ear, and the
sound is reproduced with remarkable fidelity.
It is necessary for accurate reproduction
that the point of the marker be in the
centre of the groove. In the older phono-
graphs this required accurate adjustment
by a fine screw, but in newer forms a
certain amount of lateral oscillation is
allowed to the marker, by which it slips
automatically into the groove. Two other
improvements have been effected in the
construction of the instrument. A powerful
triple-spring motor has been substituted for
the electric motor, and the circumference
of the wax cylinder has been increased
from 6| in. to 15 in., whilst the disk is 12 in.
in diameter. The cylinders make about two
revolutions per second, so that with the
smaller cylinder the point of the marker
runs over nearly 14 in. in one second, while
with the larger it runs over about 30 in. The
marks corresponding to the individual
vibrations of tones of high pitch are there-
fore less likely to be crowded together
with the larger cylinder, and these higher
tones in particular are more accurately
reproduced. In a form of instrument
called the 2oo-thread machine motion of
the drum bearing the cylinder was taken
off a screw the thread of which was 50 to
the inch, and by a system of gearing the
grooves on the cylinder were 200 to the
inch, or yj^ of an inch apart. It was somewhat difficult to keep
the marker in the grooves when they were so close together; and
the movement is now taken directly off a screw the thread of which is
loo to the inch, so that the grooves on the cylinder are TJT of an

inch apart. Thus with the large cylinder a spiral groove of over
300 yds. may be described by the recorder, and with a speed of
about two revolutions per second this distance is covered by the
marker in about six minutes. By diminishing the speed of revolu-
tion, which can be easily done, the time may be considerably
lengthened.

In the plate machine the disk is fixed to a table which is rotated
at a fixed speed of about 76 revolutions a minute. The speed of the
lateral movement of the table is also unifcrm, and by a regular
progression brings the wax blank under the sound-box to the
sapphire cutting point, which detaches a fine unbroken thread of
wax as it cuts into the surface of the blank to a depth of 3^-104-
thousandths of an inch, beginning at about half an inch from the
circumference and continuing the spiral groove to within a couple
of inches of the centre, according to the length of the music to be
recorded. The essential difference between the disk and cylinder
machine is that in the former the waves are recorded by horizontal
motion over the disk, while in the latter the waves are recorded
as indentations.

The following is the modus operandi of making a record. The
person making the record sings or plays in front of a horn or funnel
used for the purpose of focusing the sound-waves upon the
diaphragm. The artist and the funnel are on one side of a screen
and the recording apparatus in charge of an operator on the other.
The arrangement of the various instruments in the recording
room at proper relative distances from the horn is of the utmost
importance in order to preserve the balance of tone. At about
4 ft. from the horn are grouped the violins and the wood wind (flutes,
oboes and clarinets) ; behind the brass wind (horns, trumpets,
trombones and tubers), and right at the back the violoncellos and
double basses and the kettle-drums and other instruments of
percussion which may be required. On the other side of the screen
is the sound-box and the recording cylinder or disk.

Cylinder records are duplicated by taking a plaster cast, electro-
plating, and then using it as a matrix. The disk record admits
of similar treatment. After dusting with graphite it is electro-
plated to about '9 mm. thick. This forms the permanent or master
record, from which the working negatives are made by taking wax
impresses of it and obtaining copper electros in turn from them.
The matrix is then nickel-plated and polished and is ready for use
in pressing out the commercial records by means of an hydraulic
press, the material used being a tough and elastic substance contain-
ing shellac and other compounds such as wood charcoal, barium
sulphate, earthy colouring matters and cotton flock.

There is still a defect to be overcome in the gramophone, and
that is the hissing of the needle produced by friction both during
recording and intensified in reproduction. In one device for
remedying this the stylus acts like a stylographic pen, depositing
on a polished surface a fine stream of some liquid which solidifies
and hardens very rapidly, forming a sinuous ridge instead of a
groove in a wax blank. A negative is taken of the record and the
matrix is made from it in the usual way.

FIG. ib. — Mechanism of Edison Phonograph.

The auxeto-gramophone or auxetophone, patented by Short in
1898 and improved by the Hon. C. A. Parsons, is similar in scope
to the gramophone but attains its results in a different manner.
In the Parsons-Short sound-box there is no diaphragm, but a

PHONOGRAPH

469

column of compressed air is controlled by a delicately adjusted
grid-valve consisting of a metal comb rigidly connected to the
stylus bar, so that as the needle moves the metal comb moves
with it, following the lines of vibration fixed on the record and
opening or closing the slots in the valve seat. The column of
compressed air to which the valve gives access thus receives series
of minute pulsations identical with those which originally produced
the sounds recorded. In connexion with the sound-box is the
apparatus for supplying compressed air, consisting of a sixth-horse
power electric motor driving the compressor, an oil filter, a reservoir
and a dust collector to keep the air absolutely free from foreign
substances likely to interfere with the action of the valve.

The practical possibilities of the gramophone are being
realized in many countries. Matrices of the records of well-
known artists have been deposited at the British Museum
and at the Grand Opera in Paris. Austria established a public
phonogram record office in 1903, in which are collected folk-
songs and records of all kinds for enriching the department
of ethnography. The same idea is being carried out in Germany

A O

FIG. 2.

by private societies and by royal museums. In Hungary records
of the various dialects have been secured. The possibilities of
the gramophone as a teacher are far-reaching, not only in the
domain of music but in learning languages, &c.

To understand how the phonograph records and reproduces
musical tones, it is necessary to remember (i) that pitch or
frequency depends on the number of vibrations executed by the
vibrating body in a given period of time, or on the duration
of each vibration; (2) that intensity or loudness depends on the
amplitude of the movement of the vibrating body; and (3) that
quality, timbre or clang, first, depends on the form of the individual
vibrations, or rather on the power the ear possesses of appreci-
ating a simple pendular vibration producing a pure tone, or of
decomposing more or less completely a compound vibration into
the simple pendular vibrations of which it is composed. If
we apply this to the record of the phonograph, we find that,
given a constant and sufficiently rapid velocity of the record,
a note or tone of a certain pitch will be heard when the marker
runs over a number of elevations and depressions corresponding
to the frequency of that note. Thus if the note was produced
by 200 vibrations per second, and suppose that it lasted in
the music for -fa of a second, 20 marks, each made in -^r of a
second, would be imprinted on the wax. Consequently, in
reproduction, the marker would run over the 20 marks in i^of
a second, and a tone of that frequency would be reproduced.

The loudness would correspond to the depth of each individual
mark on the cylinder or the width on the disk. The greater
the depth of a series of successive marks produced by a loud
tone, the greater, in reproduction, would be the amplitude of
the excursions of the glass disk and the louder would be the tone
reproduced. Lastly, the form of the marks corresponding to
individual vibrations would determine the quality of the tone
or note reproduced, by which we can distinguish the tone of
one instrument from another, or the sensation produced by a
tone of pure and simple quality, like that from a well-bowed
tuning-fork or an open organ pipe, and that given by a trumpet
or an orchestra, in which the sounds of many instruments are
blended together. When the phonograph records the sound
of an orchestra it does not record the tones of each instrument,
but it imprints the form of impression corresponding to the very
complex sound-wave formed by all the instruments combined.
This particular form, infinitely varied, will reproduce backwards,
as has been explained,

9 10 11 12
152,7 VM 16WM 2012 M ?%6W

by acting on the glass
plate, the particular
form of sound-wave
corresponding to the
sound of the orchestra.
Numerous instruments
blend their tones to
make one wave-form,
and when one instru-
ment predominates, or
if a human voice is
singing to the accom-
paniment of the orches-
tra, another form of
sound-wave, or rather a
complex series of sound
waves, is imprinted.
When reproduced, the
wave-forms again exist
in the air as very com-
plex variations of pres-
sure; these act on the
drum-head of the human
ear, there is transmission
to the brain, and there
an analysis of the com-
plex sensation takes
place, and we distin-
guish the trombone from
the oboe, or the human
voice from the violin
obbligato.

Many efforts have been
made to obtain graphic
tracings of wave-forms
imprinted on the wax
phonograph records. Thus
J. G. M'Kendrick took
(l) celloidin casts of the
surface, and (2) micro-
photographs of a small portion of the cylinder (Journ. of Anat.
and Phys., July 1895). He also devised a phonograph recorder by
which the curves were much amplified (Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin.,
vol. xxxviii. ; Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., 1896-1897, Opening Address;
Sound and Speech Waves as revealed by the Phonograph, London,
1897; and Schafer's Physiol., vol. ii., " Vocal Sounds," p. 1229). As
already mentioned, so long ago as 1878 Fleeming Jenkin and Ewing
had examined the marks on the tinfoil phonograph. Professor
Ludimar Hermann, of Konigsberg, took up the subject about 1890,
using the wax-cylinder phonograph. He obtained photographs of
the curves on the wax cylinder, a beam of light reflected from a
small mirror attached to the vibrating disk of the phonograph being
allowed to fall on a sensitive plate while the phonograph was slowly
travelling. (For references to Hermann's important papers, see
Schafer's Physiology, ii. 1222.) Boeke, of Alkmaar, has devised an
ingenious and accurate method of obtaining curves from the wax
cylinder. He measured by means of a microscope the transverse
diameter of the impressions on the surface of the cylinder, on
different (generally equidistant) parts of the period, and he infers

FIG. 3.

470

PHONOGRAPH

from these measurements the depth of the impressions on the same
spot, or, in other words, he derives from these measurements the
curve of the vibrations of the tone which produced the impression

c 21
132 VD.

e 22
165 VD.

ff
198 W.

c1 24
264 VD.

FIG. 4.

(Archiv.f. d. ges. Physiol. Bonn, Bd. I, S. 297; also Proc. Roy. Soc.
Edin., 1898).

From a communication to the Dutch Otorhinolaryngological
Society Dr Boeke has permitted the author to select the accom-
panying illustrations, which will give the reader a fair conception
of the nature of the marks on the wax cylinder produced by various
tones. Fig. 2 shows portions of the curves obtained by Hermann,
and enlarged by Boeke one and a half times. The numbers I to 4
refer to periods of the vowel A (as in " hard "), sung by Hermann
on the notes c e g c'. Numbers 5 to 8 show the curves of the vowel
0 (as in " go ") sung to the same notes. The number of vibrations
is also noted. Boeke measured the marks for the same vowels by
his method, from the same cylinder, and constructing the curves,
found the relative lengths to be the same. In fig. 3 we see the
indentations produced by the same vowels, sung by Hermann on
the notes c e g c', on the same phonograph cylinder, but delineated
ethod. The curves are also shown in linear

by Boeke after his met

fashion beside each group of indentations.

From these measure-

ments the curves were calculated and reproduced, as in fig. 4.
Thus the curves of the same vowel sounds on the same cylinder
are shown by two methods, that of Hermann and that of Boeke.

FIG. 5.

In fig. 5 we see the indentations on the vowel a, sung by Dr Boeke,
aged 55, on the notes c d e f g a b c', and near the frequencies of
128, 144, 160, 170-6, 192, 213-3, 24° and 256- The numbers 33 to
40 show the marks produced by the same vowel, sung by his son,
aged 13. It will be seen that the boy sang the notes exactly an
octave higher. Fig. 6 shows the marks produced by some musical

FIG. 6.

sounds. Each shows on the right-hand side the curve deduced
from the marks, and under it a graphical representation of the results
of its harmonic analysis after the theorem of Fourier, in which the
ordinates represent the amplitude of the subsequent harmonic
constituents. No. 41 is the period of the sound of a pitch-pipe
giving a' (425 double vibrations per second), No. 42 the period of
a Dutch pitch-pipe, also sounding a' (424-64 double vibrations
per second). No. 43 is a record of the period of a sound produced
by blowing between two strips of indiarubber to imitate the vocal
cords, with a frequency of 453 double vibrations per second. No.
44 is that of a telephone pipe used by Hermann (503 double vibra-
tions per second). Nos. 45 and 46 show the marks of a cornet
sounding the notes a of ± 400 double vibrations per second, and
e of 300 double vibrations per second. In fig. 7 are shown a number
of vowel curves for the vowels q, OE, A, E and I. Each curve has
on the right-hand side a graphical representation of its harmonic
analysis. The curves are in five vertical columns, having on the

PHONOLITE— PHORMIUM

left-hand side of each drawings, by Boeke's method, of two periods
of the marks of the vowel. The marks are shown for the Dutch,
German, English and French languages. The sounds of the vowels
are o, like o in " go "; oe, like oo in " too "; u, like the German u
in " Fuhrer " ; a, like o in " hard " ; e, like a in " take " ; ij, not in
English words, but somewhat like e in "bell "; and », like ee in
" beer." The first section contains only Dutch vowel sounds,
either sung or spoken by Boeke or members of his family. The
second section contains curves from the voice of Professor Hermann,
the third from the voice of the author from a cylinder sent by him
to Dr Boeke, and the fourth from the voice of Mons. H. Marichelle,
professeur de 1'Institut des Sourds-Muets, also forwarded by him
to Dr Boeke. Thus curves and marks of the same vowel are shown
from the voices of men of four nationalities.

On the construction of the gramophone, see L. N. Reddie, Journ.
Soc. Arts (1908).

PHONOLITE (Gr. ifavv, sound, and Xt0os, stone), in petrology,
a group of volcanic lavas containing much nepheline and sanidine
felspar. The term " clinkstone " was formerly given by geolo-
gists to many fine grained compact lavas, which split into thin
tough plates, and gave out a ringing sound when struck with the
hammer. Some of these clinkstones were phonolites in the
modern sense, but as the name clinkstone was used for a large
variety of rocks, many of which have no close affinities with one
another, it has been discarded and " phonolite " is substituted for
it. The group includes rocks which are rich in alkalis with
only a moderate percentage of silica; hence they contain no free
quartz but much alkali felspar (sanidine and anorthoclase) and
nepheline. Large plates of sanidine are often visible in the
rocks; the nepheline is usually not obvious to the unaided eye.
Most phonolites show fluxion structure, both in the orientation
of their phenocrysts and in the smaller crystals which make up
the ground-mass; and this determines to a large extent the platy
jointing. Although vitreous and pumiceous forms are known
they are rare, and in the great majority of cases these rocks are
finely crystalline with a dull or shimmering lustre in the ground-
mass. Marked characteristics are the readiness with which they
decompose, and the frequency of veins and cavities occupied by
natrolite, analcite, scolecite and other zeolites. Small black
grains of augite or hornblende and sometimes blue specks of
hatiyne may be seen in the rocks when they are fresh.

The dominant minerals are sanidine, nepheline, pyroxene,
amphibole, various felspathoids and iron oxides. The sanidine
is usually in two generations, the first consisting of large crystals
of flattened and tabular shape, while the second generation is
represented by small rectangular prisms arranged in parallel
streams in the ground-mass; these felspars are nearly always
simply twinned on the Carlsbad plan. They contain often as
much soda as potash. The nepheline takes the form of hexagonal
prisms with flat ends, and may be completely replaced by fibrous
zeolites, so that it can only be recognized by the outlines of its
pseudomorphs. In some phonolites it is exceedingly abundant

magnetite and zircon occur in the phonolites, and sphene is often
rather common. Another mineral which is more frequent in
phonolites than in many other rocks is brown melanite garnet.

The majority of the rocks of this group are of Tertiary or
Recent age, but in Scotland Carboniferous phonolites occur
in several localities, e.g. Traprain in Haddingtonshire, also
in the Eildon Hills and in Renfrewshire. In Brazil phonolites
belonging to the same epoch are also known. There are several
districts in Europe where Tertiary or Recent phonolites occur
in considerable numbers, as in Auvergne (Mont Dore), the Eifel,
and Bohemia. The Wolf Rock which lies off the south coast of
Cornwall, and is the site of a well-known lighthouse, is the only
mass of phonolite in England; it is supposed to be the remains
of a Tertiary lava or intrusion. The Canary Islands, Cape
Verde Islands, Sardinia, Aden, British East Africa and New
Zealand contain many types of phonolites; they are known also
in New South Wales, while in the United States phonolites
occur in Colorado (at Cripple Creek) and in the Black Hills of
South Dakota.

Leucite occurs in place of nepheline in a small group of phono-
lites (the leucite-phonolites), known principally from Rocca
Monfina and other places near Naples. Blue hauyne is rather
a conspicuous mineral in some of these rocks, and they also
contain a good deal of sphene. When sanidine, nepheline and
leucite all occur together in a volcanic rock it is classed among
the leucitophyres (see PETROLOGY, Plate III. fig. 2).

The chemical analyses of phonolites given below show that these
rocks are very rich in alkalis and alumina with only a moderate
amount of silica, while lime, magnesia and iron oxides are present
only in small quantity. They have a close resemblance in these
respects to the nepheline-syenites of which they provide the effusive
types. (J. S. F.)

PHORCYS (PHORCUS, PHORCYN), in Greek mythology, son of
Pontus (Sea) and Gaea (Earth) , father of the Graeae, the Gorgons,
Scylla, and Ladon (the dragon that guarded the golden apples
of the Hesperides). In Homer (Odyssey, xiii. 96) he is an aged
sea-deity, after whom a harbour in Ithaca was named. Accord-
ing to Varro (quoted by Servius in Aeneid, v. 824) Phorcys was
a king of Corsica and Sardinia, who, having been defeated by
King Atlas in a naval engagement in the course of which he was
drowned, was subsequently worshipped as a marine divinity.

PHORMIUM, or NEW ZEALAND FLAX (also called " New
Zealand hemp "), a fibre obtained from the leaves of Phormium
tenax (nat. ord. Liliaceae) , a native of New Zealand, the Chatham
Islands and Norfolk Island. This useful plant is one of the
many which were discovered by Sir Joseph Banks and Dr
Solander who accompanied Captain Cook on his first voyage
of discovery. The seeds brought home by Banks in 1771 did
not succeed, but the plant was introduced by him to the Royal
Gardens at Kew in 1789, and was thence liberally distributed

SiO2

A1208

Fe203

FeO

MgO

CaO

Na2O

K2O

H2O

I. Phonolite, Wolf Rock, Cornwall . . .
II. Phonolite, Teplitzer Schlossberg, Bohemia
III. Leucite-phonolite, Rocca Monfina, Italy .

56-46
58-16
58-48

22-29
21-57
19-56

2-70
2-77

0-97
4-99

tr
1-26

o-53

1-47

2-OI
2-60

11-13

5-97
3-H

2-81

6-57
10-47

2-05
2-03
0-24

in the ground-mass, and these rocks form transitions to the
nephelinites (nephelinitoid phonolites) (see PETROLOGY, Plate III.
fig. i); in others it is scarce and the rocks resemble trachytes
containing a little nepheline (trachytoid phonolites). The
felspathoid minerals, sodalite, hauyne and nosean, which
crystallize in isometric dodecahedra, are very frequent compo-
nents of the phonolites; their crystals are often corroded or partly
dissolved and their outlines may then be very irregular. Small
rounded enclosures of glass are often numerous in them. The
pyroxenes may be pale green diopside, dark green aegirine-augite,
or blackish green aegirine (soda iron pyroxene), and in many
cases are complex, the outer portions being aegirine while the
centre is diopside. Fine needles of aegirine are often found in
the ground-mass. The commonest hornblende is dark brown
barkevicite. Biotite and olivine are not really frequent in
these rocks, and usually have been affected by resorption.
The ordinary accessory minerals of igneous rocks, apatite,

in Great Britain and the continent of Europe. It grows luxuri-
antly in the south of Ireland, where it was introduced in 1798,
and also flourishes on the west coast of Scotland, and is generally
cultivated as an ornamental garden plant in Europe. It has
been introduced for economic purposes into the Azores and
California. The name Phormium is from Gr. <£op/i6s, a basket,
in allusion to one of the uses made of its leaves by the New
Zealanders.

In its native country the plant is generally found near the
coast. It has a fleshy rootstock, creeping beneath the surface
of the soil and sending up luxuriant tufts of narrow, sword-
shaped leaves, from 4 to 8 ft. long and from 2 to 4 in. in
diameter. The leaves are vertical, and arranged in two rows as
in the garden flag; they are very thick, stiff and leathery, dark
green above, paler below, with the margin and nerve reddish-
orange. From the centre of the tuft ultimately arises a tall
flower-bearing stem, 5 to 15 ft. high, bearing on its numerous

472

PHORONIDEA

branches a very large number of lurid red or yellow, somewhat
tubular flowers, recalling those of an aloe, and from i to 2 in.
long. After flowering the plant dies down, but increases by
new lateral growths from the rootstock. The plant will grow
in almost any soil, but best on light rich soil, by the side of
rivers and brooks, where sheltered from the wind.

Phormium has been treated as a cultivated plant in New
Zealand, though only to a limited extent; for the supplies of the
raw material dependence has been principally placed on the abund-
ance of the wild stocks and on sets planted as hedges and boundaries
by the Maoris. Among these people the fibre has always been an
article of considerable importance, yielding cloaks, mats, cordage,
fishing-lines, &c., its valuable properties having attracted the atten-
tion of traders even before colonists settled in the islands. The
leaves, for fibre-yielding purposes, come to maturity in about
six months, and the habit of the Maoris is to cut them down twice
a year, rejecting the outer and leaving the central immature leaves.
Phormium is prepared with great care by native methods, only the
mature fibres from the under-side of the leaves being taken. These
are collected in water, scraped over the edge of a shell to free them
from adhering cellular tissue and epidermis, and more than once
washed in a running stream, followed by renewed scraping till the
desired purity of fibre is attained. This native process is exceed-
ingly wasteful, not more than one-fourth of the leaf-fibre being there-
by utilized. But up till 1860 it was only native-prepared phormium
that was known in the market, and it was on the material so care-
fully, but wastefully, selected that the reputation of the fibre was
built up. The troubles with the Maoris at that period led the
colonists to engage in the industry, and the sudden demand for
all available fibres caused soon afterwards by the Civil War in
America greatly stimulated their endeavours. Machinery was
invented for disintegrating the leaves and freeing the fibre, and at
the same time experiments were made with the view of obtaining
it by water-retting, and by means of alkaline solutions and other
chemical agencies. But the fibre produced by these rapid and
economical means was very inferior in quality to the product of
Maori handiwork, mainly because weak and undeveloped strands
are, by machine preparation, unavoidably intermixed with the per-
fect fibres, which alone the Maoris select, and so the uniform quality
and strength of the material are destroyed. The New Zealand
government in 1893 offered a premium of £1750 for a machine
which would treat the fibre satisfactorily, and a further £250 for
a process of treating the tow ; and with a view to creating further
interest in the matter a member of a commission of inquiry visited
England during 1897. The premium was again issued in 1899.
In 1903 it was stated that a German chemist had discovered a
method of working and spinning the New Zealand fibre. An idea
of the extent of the growth of the fibre may be gathered from the
fact that the exports for 1905 amounted to 28,877 bales at a value
of nearly £700,000.

Phormium is a cream-coloured fibre with a fine silky gloss,
capable of being spun and woven into many of the heavier textures
for which flax is used, either alone or in combination with flax.
It is, however, principally a cordage fibre, and in tensile strength
it is second only to manila hemp; but it does not bear well the
alternations of wet and dry to which ship-ropes are subject. The
fibre has come into use as a suitable material for binder-twine as
used in self-binding reaping machines.

PHORONIDEA, a zoological order, containing a single genus
Phoronis, which is known to be of practically world-wide dis-
tribution, while there are many records of its larva, Actinolrocha,
from localities where the adult has not been found. Phoronis is
often gregarious, the tubes which it secretes being sometimes
intertwined in an inextricable mass. These associations of
individuals can hardly be the result of the metamorphosis of
a corresponding number of larvae, but are probably due to a
spontaneous fragmentation of the adult animals, each such
fragment developing into a complete Phoronis (De Selys-Long-
champs). The animal is from a quarter of an inch to six inches
(P. australis) in length. The free end of the long vermiform
body ends in a horseshoe-shaped " lophophore," or tentacle-
bearing region (fig. i, a), which strikingly resembles that of the
Phylactolaematous Polyzoa"(see POLYZOA).

In some species (figs. 2, 3) the two ends of the lophophore are
rolled into spirals. An oral view of this region (fig. 2) shows:
the mouth (in), continuous on either side with the groove between
the two series of tentacles; the anus (a), in the middle line, at no
great distance from the mouth; a transversely elongated epistome
u i *)etween tne mouth and the anus; and, in the concavity of
the lophophore, the apertures of the nephridia (n.o.) which, accord-
ing to De Selys-Longchamps, open into the two large sensory or
glandular " lophophoral organs the orifices of which are seen at
gl. The mouth leads into the oesophagus, which extends straight
down the body nearly to the aboral end or " ampulla," where it

dilates into a stomach, from which the ascending limb of the
U-shaped alimentary canal passes directly to the anus. The
coelomic body-cavity is divided by a transverse septum (fig. 3, s)
which lies near_the bases of the tentacles. The praeseptal or lopho-
phoral coelom is continued into each of the tentacles and into the

(After Altaian.)

FIG. I. — The Tentacular End of Phoronis, with most of the tentacles
removed.

o, The horseshoe-shaped lopho-
phore.

b, Mouth.

c, Optical section of the epistome

(seen immediately below the
end of the reference-line).

d, Oesophagus.

e, Intestine.

epistome. The postseptal coelom is partially divided by a ventral
mesentery which is attached along the entire length of the convex
side of the loop of the alimentary canal (o, a") and by two lateral
mesenteries (o') which further connect the oesophagus with the

/, Efferent vessel.

g, One of the two efferent lopho-
phoral vessels, uniting to
form /.

h, Dorsal or afferent vessel.

i, Body- wall.

k, Fused bases of the tentacles.

(After Iknham.)

FIG. 2. — Dorsal View of Phoronis australis, showing the spirally
coiled ends of the lophophore.

a,
D,

'I:

*.*.,

m, Position of the mouth.
n.o., Nephridial surface.
n.o., Nephridial opening.

Bases of outer tentacles.

Anterior surface.

Anus.

Posterior surface.

Epistome.

Lophophoral organ. o.t.,

Bases of inner tentacles. V.

body-wall. Each nephridium is provided with either one or two
funnels which open into the postseptal division of the coelom (ne.f).
The nervous system lies in the epidermis, externally to the basement-
membrane. A general nerve-plexus probably exists over con-
siderable parts of the skin, and there are special nervous concen-
trations in the region of the epistome and along a double crescent
(N) which follows the parietal attachment of the coelomic septum.
The part which lies at the base of the epistome is morphologically
dorsal in position. It is said by Schultz (i i) to develop, in specimens
which are regenerating the lophophoral end, from an invagination
of the ectoderm ; and in this condition is compared by him with

PHORONIDEA

473

the hollow central nervous system of some Enteropneusta and of
Vertebrates. This comparison is not admitted by De Selys-
Longchamps. The vascular system contains numerous red blood-
corpuscles. _ The principal blood-channels are two longitudinal
vessels which run down the entire length of the body, and are
known as the " afferent " vessel (of) and the " efferent " vessel
(ef) respectively, from their relation to the tentacles. According
to researches in 1907 by De Selys-Longchamps, the blood is driven
by the afferent vessel (of) to a crescentic lophophoral vessel (d.v.)
which supplies the tentacles. Each of these contains a single blindly

(From Fowler, after Benham.)
FIG. 3. — Diagram of oral end of Phoronis australis,

seen from the left side.

Oesophageal (ventral) mesen- N, Post-oral nerve-tract

base of lophophore.

at

tery

Right lateral mesentery.

Intestinal mesentery.

Afferent vessel.

Anus.

Posterior surface.
d.v., Afferent lophophoral vessel.
ef, Efferent vessel.
e, Epistome.

Lophophoral organ.

Bases of inner tentacles.

Mouth.

an,
D,

gl,
•it,
m,

ne.d., Duct of nephridium.
ne.f., Larger nephridial funnel.
ne.o., External opening of ne-
phridium.
as, Oesophagus.
ot., Bases of outer tentacles.
R, Intestine.
r.v., Right efferent lophophoral

_ vessel,
s,
V,

Coelomic septum.

Anterior side.

ending vessel which bifurcates at its base (see fig. 3). One of these
branches communicates with the afferent lophophoral vessel,
while the other one opens into the crescentic efferent lophophoral
vessel (r.v.). From this the blood passes into two lateral vessels
which pierce the coelomic septum (s.), the right vessel proceeding
on the anterior side of the oesophagus, as shown in fig. 3, to effect
a union with the left one, and thus to constitute the main efferent
vessel, which gives off numerous caecal branches as it passes down
the body. Hence the blood returns once more to the afferent
vessel through a splanchnic sinus which surrounds the stomach.
The circulation is maintained by the rhythmical contraction of
the afferent vessel and by less regular contractions of some of the
other vessels. The reproductive organs lie on the left side, near
the aboral end, both ovary and testis being present in the same
individual in some of the species. They are said to be developed
from the coelomic epithelium which covers the efferent vessel or
its caeca. The reproductive cells pass to the exterior by means
of the nephridia. Reproduction by budding does not occur,
although spontaneous fragmentation of the body, follov/ed by
complete regeneration of each of the pieces, is known to take place.
Regeneration of the tentacular end of the animal is of frequent
occurrence.

Development and Affinities. — The eggs of Phoronis are small and
usually undergo their early development attached to the tentacles
of the adult. The attachment is probably effected (Masterman)
by the secretion of the lophophoral organs (fig. 2, gl.). After the
formation of an invaginate gastrula the larval form is rapidly
acquired. On quitting the shelter of the parent tentacles the embryo
becomes a pelagic larva, known as Actinotrocha (fig. 4) characterized
by the possession of a line of tentacles running obliquely round the
body. Locomotion is effected principally by means of a posterior
ring of cilia surrounding the anus. The mouth (o) is in front of
the tentacles, on the ventral side, and is overhung by a mobile
praeoral hood, in which is the principal part of the nervous system.

An oblique septum which follows the bases of the tentacles and
corresponds with that of the adult animal divides the body-cavity
into two portions. The postseptal division is a coelomic space,
partially subdivided by a ventral mesentery. The praeseptal
cavity is a vascular space, since it is in free communication with
the dorsal vessel of the larva, and it persists in part as the two
lophophoral vascular crescents of the adult. It contains two tufts
of peculiar excretory cells, described by Goodrich (5) as " soleno-
cytes," which surround the blind ends of a pair of nephridia.
These pass backwards through the septum and open to the exterior
ventrally. After the Actinotrocha has led a pelagic life for some
time it develops a large ventral invagination of its body-wall
(fig. 4, 2, iv.). At the metamorphosis, this sac is everted and the
alimentary canal is drawn into it in the form of a loop (fig. 4, 3, 4).
Most of the praetentacular region and the larval tentacles separate
off, being then taken into the alimentary canal, where they are
digested. The relations of the surfaces after the metamorphosis
are clearly very different from those which obtained in the larva.
The dorsal surface of the adult is the one between the mouth and the
anus, while the median ventral line is the one which corresponds
with the convexity of the alimentary canal. This view of the sur-
faces is, however, disputed by De Selys-Longchamps, who regards
the aboral extremity of the adult as the posterior end.

The development of Phoronis was supposed by Caldwell (2) to
furnish the explanation of the relations of the surfaces in Brachio-
poda, Polyzoa and perhaps the Sipunculoid Gephyrea, in which
the ontogenetic evidence is less clear. _CaldweH's views were
accepted by Lankester (8) in the o,th edition of this work, the
Phylum Podaxonia being there instituted to include the groups
just mentioned, together with the Pterobranchia. The peduncle
of the Brachiopoda was supposed to correspond with the everted
ventral sac of Actinotrocha, but the question is complicated by the
want of any complete investigation of the development of the
Brachiopoda, and by the absence of the anus in the majority of
the genera. There is, however, a considerable amount of re-
semblance between the lophophore of Phoronis australis, with its
spirally twisted ends, and that of a typical Brachiopod ; nor do the
structural details of the adult Brachiopods forbid the view that
they may be related to Phoronis. The comparative study of the
development does not support the hypothesis that the Polyzoa
(q.v. ) are comparable with Phoronis. In Pedicellina, the only
Polyzoon in which the alimentary canal of the larva is known to
become that of the first adult individual, the line between the
mouth and anus is ventral in the larva ; and since there is no reversal
of the curvature of the digestive loop during the metamorphosis
it must be regarded as ventral in the adult. There are, indeed
remarkable similarities between the external characters of the
Phylactolaematous Polyzoa and the Phoronidea, and notably be-
tween their lophophores. The supposed occurrence of a pair of
nephridia in certain Phylactolaemata, in a position corresponding
with that of the nephridia of Phoronis, must also be mentioned,

(3)

B

FIG. 4. — Diagrams illustrating the Metamorphosis of Actinotrocha.

AB, Anteroposterior axis. 3, Commencement of the meta-

DV, Dorsoventral axis. morphosis.

I, 2, Actinotrocha. 4, Later stage in the metamor-

phosis: a, anus; iv, ventral
invagination; o, mouth.

although it has been maintained that the " nephridia " of Phylac-
tolaemata are merely ciliated portions of the body-cavity and not
indeed nephridia at all. But a serious objection to the comparison
is that the development of Phylactolaemata can be explained by
supposing it to be a modification of what occurs in other Polyzoa,
while it appears to have no relation whatever to that of Phoronis.
Most observers consider that Actinotrocha is a highly modified
Trochosphere, and this would give it some claim to be regarded
as distantly related to the Entoproct Polyzoa and to other groups
which have a Trochosphere larva.

474

PHORORHACOS— PHOSPHATES

Phoronis has long been regarded as a possible ally of Khabdopleura
(see PTEROBRANCHIA); and Masterman (10) has attempted to
demonstrate the existence in Actinolrocha of most of the structures
which occur in the Pterobranchia. According to his view the
praeoral hood of Actinotrocha (cf. fig. 4) corresponds with the

proboscis" of Pterobranchia; the succeeding region, as far as
the bases of the tentacles, with the collar; and the post-tentacular
region with the metasome. Masterman's more detailed comparisons
have for the most part been rejected by other morphologists. One
of the most formidable difficulties in the way of the attempt to
reduce Actinotrocha to the Pterobranchiate type of structure is the
condition of the coelom in the former. There is indeed a perfectly
definite transverse septum which divides the body-cavity in the
region of the tentacle-bases. Even if it be admitted that the post-
septal space may be the metasomatic cavity, the praeseptal space
can hardly be regarded as coelomic in nature, since it is in continuity
with the vascular system; while Masterman's conclusion that the
cavity of the praeoral hood (the supposed proboscis-cavity) is
separated from that of the supposed collar has received no con-
firmation. In spite of these difficulties it must be conceded that
the dorsal flexure of the alimentary canal of the Pterobranchia
is very Phoronis-\iVx. It has, moreover, been shown (see especially
Goodrich, 5) that shortly before its metamorphosis, Actinotrocha
develops a coelomic space which lies immediately in front of the
oblique septum, and gives rise later to the cavity of the _lophophore
and tentacles. Regarding this as a collar-cavity, it becomes
possible to agree with Masterman that the region shown in fig. 4, I.
between the tentacles and the praeoral hood, is really a collar
the coelom of which develops relatively late. It will be noticed
that the lophophore of Phoronis is, on this assumption, a derivative
of the collar just as it is in the Pterobranchia. The epistome of
the adult Phoronis cannot well be the proboscis since its cavity is
continuous with the lophophoral coelom, and because the praeoral
hood of Actinotrocha is entirely lost at the metamorphosis. It is
possible that this consideration will account for the want of an
anterior body-cavity in Phoronis. Since the proboscis is a purely
larval organ in this genus, it may be supposed that the coelomic
space which properly belongs to it fails to develop, but that the
praeoral hood itself is none the less the morphological representative
of the proboscis. In spite of the criticisms which have been made
on the conclusion that Phoronis is allied to the Pterobranchia, it
is thus possible that the view is a sound one, and that the Phoronidea
should take their place, with the Enteropneusta and the Ptero-
branchia, as an order of the Hemichordata.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — (i) Benham, Quart. Journ. Mic. Soc. xxx. 125
(1890); (2) Caldwell, Proc. Roy. Soc. xxxiv. 371 (1883); (3) Cori,
Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. li. 480 (1891); (4) Fowler, art. " Hemichorda,"
Ency. Brit. xxix. 249 (1902); (5) Goodrich, Quart. Journ. Mic. Soc.
xlvii. 103 (1904); (6) Harmer, Siboga Rep. xxvi. 114, bis (Ptero-
branchia), (1905); (7) Ikeda, /. Coll. Sci. Japan, xiii. 507 (1901);

(8) Lankester, art. " Polyzoa," Ency. Brit. xix. 430, 433 (1885);

(9) De Selys-Longchamps, Arch. Biol. xviii. 495 (1902); Wiss.
Meeresunt. (N. F.) vi. Abt. Helgoland (1903), Heft i. ; Mem. classe
sci. acad. belgique, vol. i. (1904); Fauna u. Flora G. v. Neapel,
30 Monogr. (1907); (10) Masterman, Quart. Journ. Mic. Soc. xl.
281 (1898); xliii. 375 (1900); (n) Schultz, Zeitschr. wiss. Zool.
Ixxy. 391, 473 (1903); (12) Shearer, Mitth. zoo/. Slat. Neapel,
xvii. 487 (1906); (13) Shipley, Cambr. Nat. Hist. ii. 450 (1896).

(S. F. H.)

PHORORHACOS, the best-known genus of the extinct
Patagonian Stereornithes (see BIRD: Fossil). Among the bones
found in the strata of the Santa Cruz formation (now considered
as mainly of mid-Miocene date) was the piece of a mandible
which F. Ameghino described in 1887 as that of an edentate
mammal, under the name of Phorysrhacos longissimus (Bolet.
Mus. de la Plata,i. 24). In 1891 (Rev. Argent. Hist. Nat. i. 225)

(From life-size model in Brit. Mus. Nat. Hist.)

Skull of Phororhacos, longissimus.

he amended the name and recognized the bone as that of
a bird, Phororhacos, which with Bronlornis and others con-
stituted the family Phororhacidae. About six species of the
type genus are now known, the most complete being Ph. inflatus,
with skull, mandible, pelvis, limbs and some of the vertebrae.

These birds were at first considered as either belonging to the
Ratitae, or at least related to them, until C. W. Andrews, after
much of the interesting material had been acquired by the British
Museum, showed the gruiform affinities of Phororhacos (Ibis,
1896, pp. 1-12), a conclusion which he was able to further cor-
roborate after the clearing of the adherent stony matrix from the
skulls (Tr. Z. S. 1901, xv. pp. 55-86, pis. 14-17). The skull
of Ph. longissimus is about 2 ft. long and 10 in. high; that
of Ph. inflatus is 13 in. long, and this creature is supposed
to have stood only 3 ft. high at the middle of the back. The
under jaw is slightly curved upwards and it contains a large
foramen as for instance in Psophia and in Mycteria. The
strongly hooked upper beak is very high, and very much com-
pressed laterally. The palate is imperfectly desmognathous,
as in Dicholophus, with an inconspicuous vomer. The quadrate
has a double knob for its articulation with the skull, and basip-
terygoid processes are absent. What little is known of the
shoulder-girdle (breastbone still unknown) points to a flightless
bird, and so do the short wing bones, although these are stout.
The pelvis has an ischiadic foramen. The hind limbs are dis-
tinctly slender, the tibia of Ph. inflatus being between 15 and
1 6 in. in length.

For further detail see F. Ameghino, " Sur les oiseaux fossiles de
la Patagonie," Bolet. inst. geogr. argentine, xv., chs. II and 12
(1895); F. P. Moreno and A. Mercerat, Catdlogo de los pdjaros
f osiles de la Repiiblica Argentina, An. Mus. La Plata (1891; with
21 plates). (H. F. G.)

PHOSGENITE, a rare mineral consisting of lead chlorocar-
bonate, (PbCl)2C03. The tetragonal (holosymmetric) crystals
are prismatic or tabular in habit, and are bounded by smooth,
bright faces: they are usually colourless and transparent, and
have a brilliant adamantine lustre. Sometimes the crystals
have a curious helical twist about the tetrad or principal axis.
The hardness is 3 and the specific gravity 6-3. The mineral is
rather sectile, and consequently was early known as " corneous
lead " (Ger. Hornblei). The fanciful name phosgenite was
given by A. Breithaupt in 1820, from phosgene, the old name
of carbon oxychloride, because the mineral contains the elements
carbon, oxygen and chlorine. At Cromford, near Matlock, it
was long ago found in an old lead mine, being associated with
anglesite and matlockite (Pb2OCl2) in cavities in decomposed
galena : hence its common name cronfortite. Fine crystals are also
found in galena at Monteponi near Iglesias in Sardinia, but the
largest are those recently found near Dundas in Tasmania.
Crystals of phosgenite, and also of the corresponding bromine
compound [PbBr]2CO3, have been prepared artificially.

(L. J. S.)

PHOSPHATES, in chemistry, the name 'given to salts of
phosphoric acid. As stated under PHOSPHORUS, phosphoric
oxide, PaOs, combines with water in three proportions to form
H2O-P2OS or HPO3, metaphosphoric acid; 2H2O-P2O6 or t^PjO?,
pyrophosphoric acid; and sH^O-PjOB or H3PO.i, orthophosphoric
or ordinary phosphoric acid. These acids each give origin to
several series of salts, those of ordinary phosphoric acid being
the most important, and, in addition, are widely distributed
in the mineral kingdom (see below under Mineral Phosphates').

Orthophosphoric acid, HsPOi, a tribasic acid, is obtained
by boiling a solution of the pentoxide in water; by oxidizing
red phosphorus with nitric acid, or yellow phosphorus under
the surface of water by bromine or iodine; and also by decompos-
ing a mineral phosphate with sulphuric acid. It usually forms
a thin syrup which on concentration in a vacuum over sulphuric
acid deposits hard, transparent, rhombic prisms which melt at
41-7°. On long heating the syrup is partially converted into pyro-
phosphoric and metaphosphoric acids, but on adding water and
boiling the ortho-acid is re-formed. It gives origin to three
classes of salts: M'H2PO4 or M"H4P2O8; M'2HPO4 or M"HPO4|
M'3P04, M"3P208 or M'"PO4, wherein M',M",M'" denote a mono-,
di-, and tri-valent metal. The first set may be called monometallic,
the second dimetallic, and the third trimetallic salts. Per-acid
salts of the alkalis, e.g. (K,Na,NH4)H6(PO4)2, are also known;
these may be regarded as composed of a monometallic phosphate

PHOSPHATES

475

with phosphoric acid, thus M'H2P04 H3PO4. The three principal
groups differ remarkably in their behaviour towards indicators.
The monometallic salts are strongly acid, the dimetallic are
neutral or faintly alkaline, whilst the soluble trimetallic salts
are strongly alkaline. The monometallic salts of the alkalis
and alkaline earths may be obtained in crystal form, but those
of the heavy metals are only stable when in solution. The
soluble trimetallic salts are decomposed by carbonic acid into
a dimetallic salt and an acid carbonate. All soluble orthophos-
phates give with silver nitrate a characteristic yellow precipitate
of silver phosphate, Ag3PO4, soluble in ammonia and in nitric
acid. Since the reaction with the acid salts is attended by
liberation of nitric acid: NaH2PO4-f 3AgNO3 = Ag3PO4-|-NaNO3
+ 2HNO3, Na2HPO4+3AgNO3 = Ag3PO4-r-2NaN03+HNO3, it
is necessary to neutralize the nitric acid if the complete pre-
cipitation of the phosphoric acid be desired. The three series
also differ when heated: the trimetallic salts, containing fixed
bases are unaltered, whilst the mono- and dimetallic salts yield
meta- and pyrophosphates respectively. If the heating be with
charcoal, the trimetallic salts of the alkalis and alkaline earths
are unaltered, whilst the mono- and di-salts give free phosphorus
and a trimetallic salt. Other precipitants of phosphoric acid
or its salts in solution are: ammonium molybdate in nitric
acid, which gives on heating a canary-yellow precipitate of
ammonium phosphomolybdate, i2[MoO3] (NH4)3PO4, insoluble
in acids but readily soluble in ammonia; magnesium chloride,
ammonium chloride and ammonia, which give on standing in
a warm place a white crystalline precipitate of magnesium
ammonium phosphate, Mg(NH4)PO4-6H2O, which is soluble in
acids but highly insoluble in ammonia solutions, and on heating
to redness gives magnesium pyrophosphate, Mg2P2O7; uranic
nitrate and ferric chloride, which give a yellowish-white pre-
cipitate, soluble in hydrochloric acid and ammonia, but insoluble
in acetic acid; mercurous nitrate which gives a white precipitate,
soluble in nitric acid, and bismuth nitrate which gives a white
precipitate, insoluble in nitric acid.

Pyrophosphoric acid, H4P2O7, is a tetrabasic acid which may be
regarded as derived by eliminating a molecule of water between
two molecules of ordinary phosphoric acid ; its constitution may
therefore be written (HO)2OP-O-EO(OH)2. It may be obtained
as a glassy mass, indistinguishable from metaphosphoric acid,
by heating phosphoric acid to 215°. When boiled with water
it forms the ortho-acid, and when heated to redness the meta-
acid. After neutralization, it gives a white precipitate with
silver nitrate. Being a tetrabasic acid it can form four classes
of salts; for example, the four solium salts Na4P2C>7, Na3HP2O7,
Na2H2P2O7, NaH3P207 are known. The most important is
the normal salt, Na4P2O7, which is readily obtained by heating
disodium orthophosphate, Na2HPO4. It forms monoclinic
prisms (with ioH20) which are permanent in air. All soluble
pyrophosphates when boiled with water for a long time are
converted into orthophosphates.

Metaphosphoric acid, HP03, is a monobasic acid which may be
regarded as derived from orthophosphoric acid by the abstraction
of one molecule of water, thus H3PO4 — H2O = HPO3; its constitu-
tion is therefore (HO)PO2. The acid is formed by dissolving
phosphorus pentoxide in cold water, or by strongly heating
orthophosphoric acid. It forms a colourless vitreous mass,
hence its name " glacial phosphoric acid." It is readily soluble
in water, the solution being gradually transformed into the ortho-
acid, a reaction which proceeds much more rapidly on boiling.
Although the acid is monobasic, salts of polymeric forms exist of
the types (MPO3)n, where n may be i, 2, 3, 4, 6. They may be ob-
tained by heating a monometallic orthophosphate of a fixed base,
or a dimetallic orthophosphate of one fixed and one volatile base,
e.g. microcosmic salt: MH2PO4 = MPO3+H2O, (NH4) NaHPO4=
NaP03+NH3+H2O; they may also be obtained by acting
with phosphorus pentoxide on trimetallic orthophosphates:
Na3PO4+P2O5 = 3NaPO3. The salts are usually non-crystalline
and fusible. On boiling their solutions they yield orthophos-
phates, whilst those of the heavy metals on boiling with water
give a trimetallic orthophosphate and orthophosphoric acid:

3AgPO3+3H2O = Ag3PO4+2H3PO4. On heating with an oxide
or carbonate they yield a trimetallic orthophosphate, carbon
dioxide being evolved in the latter case. Metaphosphoric acid
can be distinguished from the other two acids by its power
of coagulating albumen, and by not being precipitated by mag-
nesium and ammonium chlorides in the presence of ammonia.

(C. E.*)

Mineral Phosphates. — Those varieties of native calcium
phosphate which are not distinctly crystallized, like apatite (q.v.),
but occur in fibrous, compact or earthy masses, often nodular,
and more or less impure, are included under the general term
phosphorite. The name seems to have been given originally
to the Spanish phosphorite, probably because it phosphoresced
when heated. This mineral, known as Estremadura phosphate,
occurs at Logrossan and Caceres, where it forms an important
deposit in clay-slate. It may contain from 55 to 62 % of calcium
phosphate, with about 7% of magnesium phosphate. A some-
what similar mineral, forming a fibrous incrustation, with a
mammillary surface, and containing about 9% of calcium carbo-
nate, is known as staffelite, a name given by A. Stein in 1866
from the locality Staffel, in the valley of the Lower Lahn,
where (as also in the valley of its tributary the Dill) large deposits
of phosphorite occur. Dahllite is a Norwegian phosphorite,
containing calcium carbonate, named in 1888 by W. C. Brogger
and H. Backstrom after the Norwegian geologists T. and J.
Dahll. Osteolite is a white earthy phosphorite occurring in the
clefts of basaltic rocks, named in 1851 by J. C. Bromeis from
the Greek boriov, bone.

Phosphorite, when occurring in large deposits, is a mineral of
much economic value for conversion into the superphosphate
largely used as a fertilizing agent. Many of the impure sub-
stances thus utilized are not strictly phosphorite, but pass
under such names as " rock-phosphate," or, when nodular, as
" coprolite " (q.v.), even if not of true coprolitic origin. The
ultimate source of these mineral phosphates may be referred
in most cases to the apatite widely distributed in crystalline
rocks. Being soluble in water containing carbonic acid or
organic acids it may be readily removed in solution, and may
thus furnish plants and animals with the phosphates required
in their structures. On the decay of these structures the phos-
phates are returned to the inorganic world, thus completing
the cycle.

There are three sources of phosphates which are of importance
geologically. They occur (a) in crystalline igneous and meta-
morphic rocks as an original constituent, (6) in veins associated
with igneous rocks, and (c) in sedimentary rocks either as organic
fragments or in secondary concretionary forms.

The first mode of occurrence is of little significance practically,
for the crystalline rocks generally contain too little phosphate to
be valuable, though occasionally an igneous rock may contain
enough apatite to form an inferior fertilizing agent, e.g. the trachyte
of Cabo de Gata in south-east Spain, which contains 12-15% ol
phosphoric acid. In many deposits of iron ores found in connexion
with igneous or metamorphic rocks small quantities of phosphate
occur. The Swedish, Norwegian, Ontario and Michigan mines
yield ores of this kind ; and though none of them can be profitably
worked as a source of phosphate, yet on reducing the ore it may
be retained in the slags, and thus rendered available for agriculture.

Another group of phosphatic deposits connected with igneous
rocks comprises the apatite veins of south Norway, Ottawa and
other districts in Canada. These are of pneumatolytic origin
(see PNEUMATOLYSIS), and have been formed by the action of vapours
emanating from cooling bodies of basic eruptive rock. Veins of
this type occur at Oedegarden in Norway and Dundret in Lapland.
From 1500 to 3500 tons of apatite are obtained yearly in Norway
from these veins. In Ontario apatite has been worked for a long
time in deposits of similar nature. The total output of Canada
in 1907 was only 680 tons.

The phosphatic rocks which occur among the sedimentary strata
are the principal sources of phosphates for commerce and agri-
culture. They are found in formations of all ages from the Cambrian
to those which are accumulating at the present day. Of the latter
the best known is guano (see MANURES and MANURING).

Where guano-beds are exposed to rain their soluble constituents
are removed and the insoluble matters left behind. The soluble
phosphates washed out of the guano may become fixed by entering
into combination with the elements of the rock beneath. Many
of the oceanic islets are composed of coral limestone, which in this

476

PHOSPHORESCENCE

way becomes phosphatized ; others are igneous, consisting of
trachyte or basalt, and these rocks are also phosphatized on their
surfaces but are not so valuable, inasmuch as the presence of iron
or alumina in any quantity renders them unsuited for the prepara-
tion of artificial manures.

The leached guanos and phosphatized rocks, which are grouped
with them for commercial purposes, have been obtained in great
quantities in many islands of the Pacific Ocean (such as Baker,
Howland, Jarvis and McKean Islands) between long. 150° to 180°
W. and lat. 10° N. to 10° S. In the West Indies from Vene-
zuela to the Bahamas and in the Caribbean Sea many islands
yield supplies of leached guanos; the following are important in
this respect : Sombrero, Navassa, Aves, Aruba, Curacoa. Christmas
Island has been a great source of phosphates of this type; also
Jaluit Island in the Maldive Archipelago, Banaba or Ocean Island,
and Nauru or Pleasant Island. On Christmas Island the phosphate
has been quarried to depths of loo ft. To these leached guanos
and phosphatized limestones the name sombrerite has been given.
It has been estimated that 500,000 tons of phosphate were obtained
in Aruba, 1,000,000 tons from Curasoa since the deposits were
discovered in 1870, and Christmas Island in 1907 yielded 290,000
tons.

In the older formations the phosphates tend to become more
and more mineralized by chemical processes. In whatever
form they were originally deposited they often suffer complete
or partial solution and are redeposited as concretionary lumps
and nodules, often called coprolites. The " Challenger " and
other oceanographic expeditions have shown that on the bottom
of the deep sea concretions of phosphate are now gathering
around the dead bodies of fishes lying in the oozes; consequently
the formation of the concretions may have been carried on
simultaneously with the deposition of the strata in which they
occur.

Important deposits of mineral phosphates are now worked
on a large scale in the United States, the annual yield far sur-
passing that of any other part of the world. The most active
operations are carried on in Florida, where the phosphate was
first worked in 1887 in the form of pebbles in the gravels of
Peace river. Then followed the discovery of " hard rock-
phosphate," a massive mineral, often having cavities lined
with nearly pure phosphorite. Other kinds not distinctly hard
and consisting of less rich phosphatic limestone, are known as
" soft phosphate ": those found as smooth pebbles of variable
colour are called " land pebble-phosphate," whilst the pebbles
of the river-beds and old river- valleys, usually of dark colour,
are distinguished as " river pebble-phosphate." The land
pebble is worked in central South Florida; the hard rock chiefly
between Albion and Bay City. In South Carolina, where
there are important deposits of phosphate, formerly more
productive than at present, the " land rock " is worked near
Charleston, and the " river rock " in the Coosaw river and other
streams near Beaufort. The phosphate beds contain Eocene
fossils derived from the underlying strata and many fragments
of Pleistocene vertebrata such as mastodon, elephant, stag,
horse, pig, &c. The phosphate occurs as lumps varying greatly
in size, scattered through a sand or clay; they often contain
phosphatized Eocene fossils (Mollusca, &c.). Sometimes the
phosphate is found at the surface, but generally it is covered by
alluvial sands and clays. Phosphate mining began in South
Carolina in 1868, and for twenty years that state was the prin-
cipal producer. Then the Florida deposits began to be worked.
In 1892 the phosphates of Tennessee, derived from Ordovician
limestones, came into the market. From North Carolina,
Alabama and Pennsylvania, also, phosphates have been obtained
but only in comparatively small quantities. In 1900 mining for
phosphates was commenced in Arkansas. In 1908 Florida
produced 1,673,651 tons of phosphate valued at n million
dollars. All the other states together produce less phosphate
than Florida, and among them Tennessee takes the first place
with an output of 403,180 tons.

Algeria contains important deposits of phosphorite, especially
near Tebessa and at Tocqueville in the province of Constantine.
Near Jebel Kouif, on the frontier between Algeria and Tunis,
there are phosphate workings, as also in Tunis, at Gafsa. The
deposits belong to the Lower Eocene, where it rests unconform-
ably upon the Cretaceous. The joint production of Tunis and

Algeria in 1907 was not less than a million tons. Phosphates
occur also in Egypt, in the desert east of Keneh and in the
Dakla oasis in the Libyan desert.

France is rich in mineral phosphates, the chief deposits being
the departments of the Pas-de-Calais, Somme, Aisne, Oise in
and Meuse, in the north-east, and another group in the depart-
ments of Lot, Tarn-et- Garonne and Aveyron, in the south-west:
phosphates occur also in the Pyrenees. The deposits near
Caylus and in Quercy occupy fissures and pockets in Jurassic
limestone, and have yielded a remarkable assemblage of the
relics of Tertiary mammals and other fossils. Phosphates
occur in Belgium, especially near Mons, and these, like those
of north-east France, are principally in the Upper Chalk. Two
varieties of phosphate rock are recognized in these districts,
viz. the phosphatic chalk and the phosphate sand, the latter
resulting from the decomposition of the former. Large and
valuable deposits of the sand have been obtained in sinks and
depressions on the surface of the chalk. The production is
on the whole diminishing in Belgium (180,000 tons in 1907),
but in France it is still large (375,000 tons in 1907).

In the Lahn district of Nassau (Germany) there are phosphate
beds in Devonian rocks. The deposits were rich but irregular
and local, and were much worked from 1866 to 1884, but are no
longer of economic importance. In northern Estremadura in
Spain and Alemtezo in Portugal there are vein deposits of
phosphate of lime. As much as 200,000 tons of phosphate have
been raised in these provinces, but in 1906 the total production
of Spain was only 1300 tons. Large deposits of phosphate
occur in Russia, and those in the neighbourhood of Kertch have
attracted some attention; it is said that the Cretaceous rocks
between the rivers Dniester and Volga contain very large
supplies of phosphate, though probably of low grade.

Phosphatic nodules and concretions, with phosphatized fossils
and their casts, occur at various geological horizons in Great Britain.
Bands of black nodules, highly phosphatic, are found at the top of
the Bala limestone in North Wales; beds of concretions occur in
the Jurassic series; and important deposits are known in the
Cretaceous strata, especially in the Lower Greensand and at the
base of the Gault. The Lower Greensand phosphates have been
worked, under the name of " coprolites," at Potton in Bedfordshire
and at Upware and Wicken in Cambridgeshire. The Cambridge
Greensand, rich in phosphatic nodules, occurs at the base of the
Chalk Marl. The chalk occasionally becomes phosphatized, as at
Taplow (Bucks) and Lewes (Sussex). At the base of the Red Crag
in East Anglia, and occasionally at the base of the other Pliocene
Crags, there is a " nodule bed, ' consisting of phosphatic nodules,
with rolled teeth and bones, which were formerly worked as " copro-
lites " for the preparation of artificial manure. Professor R. J.
Strutt has found that phosphatized nodules and bones are rich in
radioactive constituents, and has brought this into relation with
their geological age.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — For American phosphates see The Phosphates
of America, by Francis Wyatt (stn ed., New York and London,
1894); the Annual Reports on Mineral Resources of the U.S. (U.S.
Geol. Survey), including some valuable reports by C. W. Hayes,
also those in Rothwell's Mineral Industry; " Nature and Origin of
Deposits of Phosphate of Lime," by R. A. F. Penrose, Jun., Bull. U.S.
Geol. Survey, No. 46 (1888); Florida, South Carolina and Canadian
Phosphates, by C. C. Hoyer Miller (London, 1892) ; and The Non-
metallic Minerals, by G. P. Merrill (1904). Many of the above
include descriptions of mineral phosphates in other parts of the
world. For a general discussion of the origin of the phosphates,

see " The Natural History of Phosphate Deposits," by J. J. H. Teall,
Proc. Geol. Assoc. xvi. 369 (1900). Consult also Etude complete
sur les phosphates, by A. Deckers (Liege, 1894).

(J. S. F.;F. W. R.*)
PHOSPHORESCENCE, a name given to a variety of physical
phenomena due to different causes, but all consisting in the
emission of a pale, more or less ill-defined light, not obviously
due to combustion. The word was first used by physicists to
describe the property possessed by many substances of them-
selves becoming luminous after exposure to light. This property
has been noticed from early times. Pliny speaks of various
gems which shine with a light of their own, and Albertus Magnus
knew that the diamond becomes phosphorescent when moder-
ately heated. But the first discovery of this property which
apparently attracted scientific attention seems to have been
that of the Bologna stone (barium sulphide) , which was discovered

PHOSPHORESCENCE

by Vincenzo Cascariolo, a cobbler of Bologna, in about 1602.
This was followed by the discovery of a number of other sub-
stances which become luminous either after exposure to light
or on heating, or by attrition, and to which the general name of
" phosphori " (from <tws and <t>6pos, bringing light) was given.
Among these may be mentioned Homberg's phosphorus (calcium
chloride), John Canton's phosphorus (calcium sulphide) and
Balduin's phosphorus (calcium nitrate). Of late years it has
been found convenient to limit the strict meaning of the word
" phosphorescence " to the case of bodies which, after exposure
to light, become self-luminous (even if only for a fraction of a
second). The general term "luminescence" has been proposed
by E. Wiedemann to include all cases in which bodies give off
light not due to ignition. This general term embraces several
subdivisions. Thus, fluorescence (q.v.) and phosphorescence
are included under the same heading, " photoluminescence,"
being distinguished from each other only by the fact that
fluorescent bodies emit their characteristic light only while
under the influence of the exciting illumination, while phos-
phorescent bodies are luminous for an appreciable time after
the exciting light is cut off.

Phosphorescence, in its restricted meaning as above explained,
is most strikingly exhibited by the artificial sulphides of calcium,'
strontium and barium. If any of these substances is exposed for
some time to daylight, or, better, to direct sunlight, or to the light
of the electric arc, it will shine for hours in the dark with a soft
coloured light. The colour depends not only on the nature of the
substance, but also on its physical condition, and on its temperature
during insolation, that is, exposure to the sun's rays. Thus the
phosphorescent light emitted by calcium sulphide may be orange-
yellow, yellow, green or violet, according to the method of pre-
paration and the materials used. Balmain's luminous paint, a
preparation of calcium sulphide, shines with a white light. The
colour also depends on the temperature during exposure to light.
Thus A. E. Becquerel found that the light given by a specimen of
strontium sulphide changed from violet to blue, green, yellow and
orange, as the temperature during the corresponding previous
insolation was 20°, ^o°, 70°, 100° or 200° C. The duration of
phosphorescence varies greatly with different substances. It may
last for days or for only a fraction of a second.

As in the case of fluorescent bodies, the light produced by phos-
phorescent substances consists commonly of rays less refrangible
than those of the exciting light. Thus the ultra-violet portion of
the spectrum is usually the most efficient in exciting rays belonging
to the visible part of the spectrum. V. Klatt and Ph. Lenard
(Wied. Ann., 1889, xxxviii. 90), have shown that the phosphorescence
of calcium sulphide and other phosphori depends on the presence
of minute quantities of other substances, such as copper, bismuth
and manganese. The maximum intensity of phosphorescent light
is obtained when a certain definite proportion of the impurity is
present, and the intensity is diminished if this proportion is increased.
It appears likely that when a phosphorescent body is exposed to
light, the energy of the light is stored up in some kind of strain
energy, and that the phosphorescent light is given out during a more
or less slow recovery from this state of strain. Klatt and Lenard
have shown that the sulphides of the alkaline earths lose the property
of phosphorescing when subjected to heavy pressure. Many
fluorescent solutions become briefly phosphorescent when rendered
solid by gelatin.

When the duration of phosphorescence is brief, some mechanical
device becomes necessary to detect it. The earliest and best-
known instrument for this purpose is Becq.uerel's phosphoroscope.
It consists essentially of a shallow drum, in whose ends two eccentric
holes, exactly opposite one another, are cut. Inside it are fixed
two equal metal disks, attached perpendicularly to an axis, and
divided into the same number of sectors, the alternate sectors of
each being cut out. One of these disks is close to one end of the
drum, the other to the opposite end, and the sectors are so arranged
that, when the disks are made to rotate, the hole in one end is open
while that in the other is closed, and vice versa. If the eye be
placed near one hole, and a ray of sunlight be admitted by the other,
it is obvious that while the sun shines on an object inside the drum
the aperture next the eye is closed, and vice versa. If the disks be
made to revolve with great velocity by means of a train of toothed
wheels the object will be presented to the eye almost instantly
after it has been exposed to sunlight, and these presentations succeed
one another so rapidly as to produce a sense of continuous vision.
By means of this apparatus we can test with considerable accuracy
the duration of the phenomenon after the light has been cut off.
For this purpose we require to know merely the number of sectors
in the disks and the rate at which they are turned.

Thermoluminescence. — Some bodies which do not emit light at
ordinary temperatures in a dark room begin to do so if they are
heated to a temperature below a visible red heat. In the case of

477

chlorophane, a variety of fluor-spar, the heat of the hand is sufficient.
Many yellow diamonds exhibit this form of luminescence. It
has been shown, however, that a previous exposure to light is always
necessary. Sir James Dewar found that if ammonium platino-
cyanide, Balmain's paint and some other substances are cooled to
the temperature of liquid air and exposed to light, they do not
phosphoresce, but as soon as they are allowed to warm up to the
ordinary temperature they emit a brilliant light. On the other
hand, some bodies, such as gelatin, celluloid, paraffin and ivory,
are phosphorescent at very low temperatures, but lose the property
at ordinary temperatures.

Triboluminescence (from rplffuv, to rub) is luminescence excited
by friction, percussion, cleavage or such mechanical means. Calcium
chloride, prepared at a red heat, exhibits this property. If sugar
is broken in the dark, or two crystals of quartz rubbed together,
or a piece of mica cleft, a flash of light is seen, but this is probably
of electrical origin. Closely allied to this form of luminescence is
crystalloluminescence, a phosphorescent light seen when some
substances crystallize from solution or after fusion. This property
is exhibited by arsenious acid when crystallizing from solution in
hydrochloric acid.

Chemttuminescence is the name given to those cases in which
chemical action produces light without any great rise of temperature.
Phosphorus exposed to moist air in a dark room shines with a soft
light due to slow oxidation. Decaying wood and other vegetable
substances often exhibit the same property.

Electroluminescence is luminescence due to electrical causes.
Many gases are phosphorescent for a short time after an electric
discharge has been passed through them, and some solid sub-
stances, especially diamonds and rubies, are strongly phosphorescent
when exposed to kathode rays in a vacuum tube.

See generally, Winkelmann, Handbuch der Physik, Bd. vi. (1906) ;
E. Becquerel, La Lumiere (1867). (J. R. C.)

Phosphorescence in Zoology.

The emission of light by living substance is a widespread
occurrence, and is part of the general metabolism by which the
potential energy introduced as food is transformed into kinetic
energy and appears in the form of movement, heat, electricity
and light. In many cases it is probably an accidental by-
product, and like the heat radiated by living tissues, is not
necessarily of use to the organism. But in other cases the
capacity to produce light is awakened on stimulation, as when
the wind ripples the surface of the sea, or when the water is
disturbed by the blade of an oar. It has been suggested that
the response to the stimulus may be protective, and that enemies
are frightened by the flash of light. In luminous insects and
deep-sea fish the power of emitting light appears to have a
special significance, and very elaborate mechanisms have been
developed. The pale glow of phosphorescence has a certain
resemblance to the light emitted by phosphorus, and it was an
early suggestion that the phenomenon in living organisms was
due to that substance. Phosphorus, however, and its luminous
compounds are deadly poisons to all living tissues, and never
occur in them in the course of natural metabolism, and the
phosphorescence of life cannot therefore be assigned to the oxi-
dation of phosphorus. On the other hand, it is certainly the
result of a process of oxidation, as the emission of light continues
only in the presence of oxygen. J. H. Fabre showed in 1855
that the luminous fungus, Agaricus, discharges more carbonic
acid when it is emitting light, and Max Schultze in 1865 showed
that in insects the luminous cells are closely associated with the
tracheae, and that during phosphorescence they withdraw
oxygen from them. In 1880 B. Radziszewski showed that
many fats, ethereal oils and alcohols emit light when slowly
combined with oxygen in alkaline fluids at appropriate tempera-
tures. Probably the phosphorescence of organisms is due to a
similar process acting on the many fats, oils and similar sub-
stances found in living cells. The colour varies much in different
organisms; green has been observed in the glow-sworm, fire-flies,
brittle-stars, centipedes and annelids; blue in the Italian fire-fly
(Luciola ilalica); blue and light green are the predominant
colours in the phosphorescence of marine organisms, but red
and lilac have also been observed. The Lantern-Fly (Fulgora
pyrorhynchus) is said to have a purple light, and E. H. Giglioli
has recorded that an individual Appendicularia appeared first
red, and then blue, and then green. P. Panceri, chiefly in the
case of Salps, and S. P. Langley and F. W. Very in the case of
Pyrophoms, have investigated the light spectroscopically, and

PHOSPHORITE— PHOSPHORUS

.found that it consisted of a continuous band without separate
bright lines. The solar spectrum extends farther both towards
the violet and the red ends, but is less intense in the green when
equal luminosities are compared.

Many of the bacteria of putrefaction are phosphorescent, and the
light emitted by dead fish or molluscs or flesh is probably due in
every case to the presence of these. Under the miscroscope, the
individual bacteria appear as shining points of light. The phosphor-
escence of decaying wood is due to the presence of the mycelium of
Agaricus melleus, and various other species of Agaricus have been
found to be luminous. The great displays of phosphorescence in
sea-water are usually due to the presence of very large numbers
of small luminous organisms, either protozoa or protophyta. Of
these Noctiluca miliaris and species of Peridinium and Pyrocystis
are the most frequent, the two former near land and the latter in
mid-ocean.

In higher animals the phosphorescence tends to be limited to
special parts of the body which may form elaborate and highly
specialized luminous organs. Many coelenterates show the begin-
ning of such localization ; in medusae the whole surface may be lumin-
ous, but the light is brighter along the radial canals, in the ovaries,
or in the marginal sense-organs. In Pennatulids each polyp has
eight luminous bands on the outer surface of the digestive cavity.
Some Chaetopods (Chaetopterus and Tomopteris) have luminous
organs at the bases of the lateral processes of the body. Pyrosoma,
a colonial pelagic ascidian, is responsible for some of the most strik-
ing displays of phosphorescence in tropical seas; it has two small
patches of cells at the base of each inhalent tube which on stimula-
tion discharge light, and the luminosity has been observed to spread
through the colony from the point of irritation.

Amongst the Crustacea, many pelagic Copepods are phosphor-
escent. W. Giesbrecht has shown that the light is produced by a
fluid secreted by certain dermal glands. A similar fluid in other
Copepods hardens to form a protective case, and it may be that the
display of light is in such cases an accidental by-product. Glands
in the labrum of the Ostracod Pyrocypris and on the maxillae of
the Mysid Gnathophausia similarly produce a luminous secretion.
In the Euphausiacea, on the other hand, phosphorescence is pro-
duced by elaborate luminous organs which are situated on the
thoracic appendages and the abdomen, and which were at first
believed to be ocular organs. The deep-sea Decapod Crustaceans
belonging to many families are luminous. A. Alcock observed
that in some of the deep-sea prawns a luminous secretion was dis-
charged at the bases of the antennae, but in most cases the luminous
organs are numerous eye-like structures on the limbs and body.

The rock-boring mollusc, Pholas, which Pliny knew to be phos-
phorescent, has luminous organs along the anterior border of the
mantle, two small triangular patches at the entrance of the anterior
siphon, and two long parallel cords within the siphon. The cells
of these organs have peculiar, granulated contents. W. E. Hoyle,
in his presidential address to the Zoological Section of the British
Association in 1907, brought together observations on the occur-
rence of luminous organs in no less than thirty-three species of
Cephalopods. In Heteroteuthis, Sepiola and Rossia the light is
produced by the secretion of a glandular organ on the ventral
side of the body behind the funnel. The secretion glows through
the transparent wall with a greenish colour, but, at least in the case
of Heteroteuthis, continues to glow after being ejected into the water.
In most cases the luminous organs are nonglandular and may be
simple, or possess not only a generator but a reflector, lens and
diaphragm. The different organs shine with different coloured
lights, and as the Cephalopods are for the most part inhabitants
of the depths of the sea, it has been suggested that they serve as
recognition marks.

Some centipedes (e.g. Geophilus electricus and G. phosphoreus)
are luminous, and, if allowed to crawl over the hand, are stated to
leave a luminous trail. Amongst insects, elaborate luminous
organs are developed in several cases. The abdomen of a Ceylonese
May-fly (Teleganodes) is luminous. The so-called New Zealand
" glow-worm " is the larva of the fly Boletophila luminosa, and some
gnats have been observed to be luminous, although the suggestion
is that in their case disease is present and the light emanates from
phosphorescent bacteria. An ant (Orya) and a poduran (Anuro-
phorus) are occasionally luminous. The so-called lantern flies are
Homoptera allied to the Cicadas, and the supposed luminous organ
is a huge projection of the front of the head, regarding the luminosity
of which there is some doubt. The glow-worms and true fire-flies
are beetles. Eggs, larvae and adults are in some cases luminous.
The organs consist of a pale transparent superficial layer which
gives the light, and a deeper layer which may act as a reflector.
They are in close connexion with the tracheae and the light is pro-
duced by the oxidation of a substance formed under the influence
of the nervous system, and probably some kind of organic fat.
In the females the phosphorescence is probably a sexual lure; in
the males its function is unknown.

Phosphorescent organs known as photophores are characteristic
structures in many of the deep-sea Teleostome fishes, and have
been developed in widely different families (Stomiatidae, Scopelidae,

Halosauridae and Anomalopidae), whilst numerous simple luminous
organs have been detected in many species of Selachii. The number,
distribution and complexity of the organs vary much in different
fish. They are most frequent on the sides and ventral surface of
the anterior part of the body and the head, and may extend to the
tail. The simpler forms are generally arranged in rows, sometimes
metamerically distributed; the more complex organs are larger
and less numerous. In Opostomias micrionus there is a large
organ on a median barbel hanging down from the chin, others
below the eyes, and one on the elongated first ray of the pectoral
fin. In Sternoptyx diaphana there is one on the lower jaw, and in
many species one or two below the eyes. The luminous organs
appear to be specialized skin glands which secrete a fluid that
becomes luminous on slow oxidation. The essential part of the
organ remains a collection of gland cells, but in the more complex
types there are blood vessels and nerves, a protecting membrane,
an iris-like diaphragm, a reflector and lens. As the distribution
and probably the colour of the light varies with the species, these
organs may serve as recognition marks. They may also attract
prey, and from their association with the eyes in such a position
as to send light downwards and forwards it is probable that in
the higher types they are used by the fish actually as lanterns in the
dark abysses of the sea. (P. C. M.)

PHOSPHORITE, in mineralogy, the name given to impure
massive apatite (q.v.; see also PHOSPHATES).

PHOSPHORUS (Gr. <j>&, light, <#*peic, to bear), the name
originally given to any substance which possessed the property
of phosphorescence (q.v.), i.e. the power of shining in the dark,
but now generally restricted to a non-metallic element, which
was first known as Phosphorus mirabilis or igneus. This element
is very widely distributed in nature in combination, but is never
found free. In the mineral kingdom it is exceptionally abun-
dant, forming large deposits of phosphates (q.v.). It is also
necessary to animal and vegetable life (see MANURE). It occurs
in the urine, blood, tissues, and bones of animals, calcium
phosphate forming about 58% of bones, which owe their rigidity
to its presence.

The element appears to have been first obtained in 1669 by
Brand of Hamburg; Krafft bought his secret and in 1677
exhibited specimens in England, where it created an immense
sensation. Its preparation was assiduously sought for, and
Kunckel in 1678 and Boyle in 1680 succeeded in obtaining it
by the same process as was discovered by Brand, i.e. by evapora-
ting urine to dryness and distilling the residue with sand. This
method was generally adopted until 1775, when Scheele prepared
it from bones, which had been shown by Gahn in 1769 to contain
calcium phosphate. Scheele treated bone ash with nitric acid,
precipitated the calcium as sulphate, filtered, evaporated and
distilled the residue with charcoal. Nicolas and Pelletier
improved the process by decomposing the bone-ash directly
with sulphuric acid; whilst Fourcroy and Vauquelin introduced
further economies. In modern practice degreased bones (see
GELATIN), or bone-ash which has lost its virtue as a filtering
medium, &c., or a mineral phosphate is treated with sufficient
sulphuric acid to precipitate all the calcium, the calcium sulphate
filtered off, and the filtrate concentrated, mixed with charcoal,
coke or sawdust and dried in a muffle furnace. The product is
then distilled from Stourbridge clay retorts, arranged in a galley
furnace, previously heated to a red heat. The temperature
is now raised to a white heat, and the product led by malleable
iron pipes into condensing troughs containing water, when it
condenses. The chemical reactions are as follows: the treatment
of the calcium phosphate with the acid gives phosphoric acid,
H3PC>4, which at a red heat loses water to give metaphosphoric
acid, HPOs; this at a white heat reacts with carbon to give
hydrogen, carbon monoxide and phosphorus, thus: 2HP03+
6C = H2+6CO+P2.

Electrothermal processes are also employed. Calcium phos-
phate, mixed with sand and carbon, is fed into an electric
furnace, provided with a closely fitting cover with an outlet
leading to a condenser. At the temperature of the furnace the
silica (sand) attacks the calcium phosphate, forming silicate,
and setting free phosphorus pentoxide, which is attacked by
the carbon, forming phosphorus and carbon monoxide. As
phosphorus boils at 290° C. (554° F.), it is produced in the form
of vapour, which, mingled with carbon monoxide, passes to the

PHOSPHORUS

479

condenser, where it is condensed. It is then cast under water.
The calcium silicate remains in the furnace in the form of a
liquid slag, which may be run off, so that the action is practically
continuous. Kaolin may with advantage be used in addition
to or in part substitution for sand, because the double silicate
thus formed is more fusible than the single silicate of lime.
The alternating current is generally used, the action not being
electrolytic. One of the special advantages of the electrical
over the older process is that the distilling vessels have a longer
life, owing to the fact that they are not externally heated, and so
subjected to a relatively high temperature when in contact with
the corrosive slag formed in the process. The Readman-Parker
process (see Jour, Soc. Ghent. Ind., 1891, x. 445) appears to
be very generally adopted. Readman, experimenting with a
Cowles furnace in Staffordshire in 1888, patented his process,
and in the same year Parker and Robinson, working indepen-
dently, patented a similar one. The two inventors then co-
operated, an experimental plant was run successfully, and the
patents were taken over by the leading manufacturers. With
the object of obtaining a valuable by-product in place of the
slag produced in this furnace, several patentees (e.g. Hilbert
and Frank, Billaudot, Bradley and Jacobs, and others) have
sought to combine the manufacture of calcium carbide and
phosphorus by using only calcium phosphate and carbon,
effecting direct reduction by carbon at a high temperature.

The crude phosphorus is purified by melting under water and
then filtering through animal black and afterwards through
chamois leather., or by treating it, when molten, with chromic
acid or a mixture of potassium bichromate and sulphuric acid;
this causes the impurities to rise to the surface as a scum which
can be skimmed off. It is usually sent on the market in the
form of sticks, which were at one time prepared by sucking
the molten material up glass tubes; but the dangers to the
workmen and other disadvantages of this method have led to its
replacement by a continuous process, in which the phosphorus
leaves the melting-pot for a pipe surrounded by water, in which
it solidifies and can be removed as a continuous rod.

Properties. — When perfectly pure phosphorus is a white, trans-
parent, waxy solid, but as usually prepared it is yellowish owing
to the presence of the allotropic " red phosphorus," J. Boeseken
(Abs. Jour. Chem. Soc., 1907, ii. 343, 760) prepares perfectly
pure phosphorus by heating the crude product with chromic
acid solution, washing and drying in a vacuum, first at 40°,
then at 80°. It remains colourless in vacuum tubes in the dark,
but on exposure it rapidly turns yellow. At 25° to 30° C. it is
soft and flexible, but it hardens when strongly cooled, and can
then only be cut with difficulty. The fracture is distinctly crys-
talline; large crystals, either regular dodecahedra or octahedra,
may be obtained by crystallization from carbon bisulphide,
sulphur chloride, &c., or by sublimation. It is a non-con-
ductor of electricity. Its density at o° is 1-836; this regularly
diminishes up to the melting-point, 44-3°, when a sudden drop
occurs. Molten phosphorus is a viscid, oily, highly refractive
liquid, which may be supercooled to 32° before solidification. It
boils at 290°, forming a colourless vapour which just about the
boiling-point corresponds in density to tetratomic molecules,
P4; at 1500° to 1700°, however, Biltz and Meyer detected
dissociation into P2 molecules. Beckmann obtained P< mole-
cules from the boiling-point of carbon bisulphide solutions, and
Hertz arrived at the same conclusion from the lowering of the
freezing-point in benzene solution; E. Paterno and Nasini,
however, detected dissociation. Phosphorus is nearly insoluble
in water, but dissolves in carbon bisulphide, sulphur chloride,
benzene and oil of turpentine.

The element is highly inflammable, taking fire in air at 34°
and burning with a bright white flame and forming dense white
clouds of the pentoxide; in perfectly dry air or oxygen, however,
it may be distilled unchanged, H. B. Baker showing that a trace
of water vapour was necessary for combination to occur. When
exposed to the air a stick of phosphorus undergoes slow combus-
tion, which is revealed by a greenish-white phosphorescence
when the stick is viewed in the dark. This phenomenon was

minutely studied by Boyle, who found that solutions in some
essential oils (oil of cloves) showed the same character, whilst
in others (oils of mace and aniseed) there was no phosphorescence.
He also noticed a strong garlic-like odour, which we now
know to be due to ozone. Frederick Slare noticed that the
luminosity increased when the air was rarefied, an observation
confirmed by Hawksbee and Homberg, and which was possibly
the basis of Berzelius's theory that the luminosity depended on
the volatility of the element and not on the presence of oxygen.
Lampadius, however, showed that there was no phosphorescence
in a Torricellian vacuum; and other experimenters proved that
oxygen was essential to the process. It depends on the partial
pressure of the oxygen and also on temperature. In compressed
air at ordinary temperature there is no glowing, but it may be
brought about by heating. Again, in oxygen under ordinary
conditions there is no phosphorescence, but if the gas be heated
to 25° glowing occurs, as is also the case if the pressure be
diminished or the gas diluted. It is also remarkable that many
gases and vapours, e.g. Cl, Br, I,NH3, N2O, NO2, H2S, SO2, CS2,
CH4, C2H4, inhibit the phosphorescence.

The theory of this action is not settled. It is certain that
the formation of hydrogen peroxide and ozone accompany the
glowing, and in 1848 Schonbein tried to demonstrate that it
depended on the ozone. E. Jungfleisch (Comptes rendus, 1905,
140, p. 444) suggested that it is due to the combustion of an
oxide more volatile than phosphorus, a view which appears to
be supported by the observations of Scharff (Zeit. physik. Chem.,
1908, 62, p. 178) and of L. and E. Bloch (Comptes rendus, 1908,
147, p. 842).

The element combines directly with the halogens, sulphur
and selenium, and most of the metals burn in its vapour forming
phosphides. When finely divided it decomposes water giving
hydrogen phosphide; it also reduces sulphurous and sulphuric
acids, and when boiled with water gives phosphine and hypo-
phosphorous acid; when slowly oxidized under water it yields
hypophosphoric acid.

Allotropic Phosphorus. — Several allotropic forms of phos-
phorus have been described, and in recent years much work
has been done towards settling their identities. When the
ordinary form immersed in water is exposed to light, it gradually
loses its transparency and becomes coated with a thin film.
This substance was regarded as an allotrope, but since it is not
produced in non-aerated water it is probably an oxide. More
important is the so-called " red phosphorus," which is produced
by heating yellow phosphorus to about 230° for 24 hours in an
inert atmosphere, or in closed vessels to 300°, when the change
is effected in a few minutes. E. Kopp in 1844 and B. C. Brodie
in 1853 showed that a trace of iodine also expedited the change.
The same form is also produced by submitting ordinary phos-
phorus to the silent electric discharge, to sunlight or the ultra-
violet light. Since this form does not inflame until heated to
above 350°, it is manufactured in large quantities for consump-
tion in the match industry. The process consists in heating yellow
phosphorus in iron pots provided with air-tight lids, which,
however, bear a long pipe open to the air. A small quantity of
the phosphorus combines with the oxygen in the vessel, and
after this the operation is practically conducted in an atmosphere
of nitrogen with the additional safety from any risk of explosion.
The product is ground under water, and any unchanged yellow
form is eliminated by boiling with caustic soda, the product
being then washed and dried and finally packed in tin boxes.
The red variety is remarkably different from the yellow. It is
a dark red microcrystalline powder, insoluble in carbon bisul-
phide, oil of turpentine, &c., and having a density of 2-2. It is
stable to air and light, and does not combine with oxygen until
heated to above 350° in air or 260° in oxygen, forming the
pentoxide. It is also non-poisonous. When heated in a vacuum
to 530° it sublimes, and on condensation forms microscopic
needles.

Hittorf's phosphorus is another crystalline allotrope formed
by heating phosphorus with lead in a sealed tube to redness,
and removing the lead by boiling the product with nitric and

48o

PHOSPHORUS

hydrochloric acid. It is also obtained by heating red phosphorus
under pressure to 580°. It forms a lustrous, nearly black
crystalline mass, composed of minute rhombohedra. G. E.
Linck and P. Moller (Ber., 1908, 41, p. 1404) have affirmed that
the product of the first process always contains lead. E. Cohen
and J. Olie, Jun. (Abs. Jour. Chem. Soc., 1909, ii. 998)
regard red phosphorus as a solid solution of the white in
Hittorf's, but this is contradicted by A. Stock (Ber., 1909, 42,
p. 4510), who points out that ordinary red phosphorus melts
at 6os°-6io°, whilst Hittorf's melts at 620°; moreover, the
latter is less reactive than the former at high temperatures.

Another form was obtained by R. Schenck (Zeit. Elektrochem,
1905, ii. 117) as a scarlet amorphous powder by deposition of
solutions of phosphorus in the tri-iodide, tribromide or sulphide
(P4S3). It phosphoresces in ozone, but not in air, and is non-
poisonous; from its solution in alcoholic potash acids precipitate
the hydride Pi2H6,and when heated it is transformed into the
red modification. It has been used in combination with
potassium chlorate as a composition for matches to strike on
any surface. Finally a black phosphorus was described by
Thenard as formed by rapidly-cooling melted phosphorus.

PhospUne (phosphoretted hydrogen), PH3, a gas formed in the
putrefaction of organic matter containing phosphorus, was obtained
by Gengembre (Crell's Ann., 1789, i- 45O) by the action of potash
upon phosphorus, the gas so prepared being spontaneously inflam-
mable. Some time later Davy, by heating phosphorous acid, obtained
a phosphoretted hydrogen which was not spontaneously inflammable.
These gases were considered to be distinct until Le Verner (Ann.
Mm, phys., 1835 [2], 60, p. 174) showed that the inflammability of
Gengembre's phosphine was due to small quantities of liquid
phosphoretted hydrogen, P2H4. Phosphine may be prepared by the
decomposition of calcium phosphide with water (P2H4 being formed
simultaneously) ; by the decomposition of phosphorous and hypo-
phosphorous acids when strongly heated; and by the action of solu-
tions of the caustic alkalis on phosphorus: P4+3NaOH+3H2O-
PHs+3NaH2PO2; hydrogen and P2H4 are produced at the same
time, and the gas may be freed from the latter substance by passing
into a hydrochloric acid solution of cuprous chloride, and heating
the solution, when pure phosphine is liberated (Riban, Comptes
rendus, 58, p. 581). The pure gas may also be obtained by heating
phosphonium iodide with caustic potash (A. W. Hofmann, Ber.,
1871, 4, p. 200); by the decomposition of crystalline calcium phos-
phide or of aluminium phosphide with water (H. Moissan, Bull,
soc. Mm., 1899 (3), 21, p. 926; Matignon. Comptes rendus, 1900, 130,

S. 1391); and by the reduction of phosphorous acid with nascent
ydrogen.

It is a colourless, extremely poisonous gas, possessing a character-
istic offensive smell, resembling that of rotting fish. It becomes
liquid at-go°C., and solid at -133° C. (K. Olszewski, Monats., 1866,
7, P- 37l)- It is only slightly soluble in water, but is readily soluble
in solutions of copper sulphate, hypochlorous acid, and acid
solutions of cuprous chloride. It burns with a brightly luminous
flame, and is spontaneously inflammable at about 100° C. When
mixed with oxygen it combines explosively if the mixture
be under diminished pressure, and is violently decomposed by
the halogens. It is also decomposed when heated with sulphur
or with most metals, in the latter case with the liberation of hydrogen
and formation of phosphide of the metal. It combines with the
halide derivatives of boron and silicon to form, e.g. PH3-2BF3,
2PHj-SiCl4 (Besson, Comptes rendus, 1890, no, 80, pp. 240, 516;
1891, 113, p. 78), with the halogen acids to form phosphonium salts,
PH4X (X = Cl,Br,I), and with sodammonium and potassammonium
to form PH2Na, PH2K (Joannis, Comptes rendus, 1894, 119, p. 557).
It oxidizes slowly in air, and is a reducing agent. It decomposes
when heated, hydrogen and red phosphorus being formed.

Liquid Phosphoretted Hydrogen, P2H4, first obtained by P. Thdnard
{Comptes rendus, 1844, 18, p. 652) by decomposing calcium phos-
phide with warm water, the products of reaction being then passed
through a U tube surrounded by a freezing mixture (see also L.
Gattermann, Ber., 1890, 23, p. 1174). It is a colourless liquid
which boils at 57°-58 C. It is insoluble in water, but soluble in
alcohol and ether. It is very unstable, being readily decomposed
by heat or light. By passing the products of the decomposition of
calcium phosphide with water over granular calcium chloride, the
P2H4 gives a new hydride, Pi2H8 and phosphine, the former being
an odourless, canary-yellow, amorphous powder. When heated
in a vacuum it evolves phosphine, and leaves an orange-red residue
of a second new hydride, P»H2 (A. Stock, W. Bottcher, and W.
Lenger, Ber., 1909, 42, pp. 2839, 2847, 2853).

Solid Phosphoretted Hydrogen, P4H2, first obtained by Le Vemer
(loc. cit.), is formed by the action of phosphorus trichloride on gaseous
phosphine (Besson, Comptes rendus, in, p. 972); by the action of
water on phosphorus di-iodide and by the decomposition of calcium
phosphide with hot concentrated hydrochloric acid. It is a yellow

solid, which is insoluble in water. It burns when heated to about
200° C. Oxidizing agents decompose it with great violence. When
warmed with alcoholic potash it yields gaseous phosphine, hydrogen
and a hypophosphite. It reduces silver salts.

Phosphonium Salts. — The chloride, PH4C1, was obtained as a crys-
talline solid by Ogier (Comptes rendus, 1879, 89, p. 705) by com-
bining phosphine and hydrochloric acid gas under a pressure of
from 14-20 atmospheres; it can also be obtained at -30° to -35° C.
under ordinary atmospheric pressure. It crystallizes in large trans-
parent cubes, but rapidly dissociates into its constituents on exposure.
The bromide, PH4Br, was first obtained by H. Rose (Pogg. Ann.,
1832, 24, p. 151) from phosphine and hydrobromic acid; it also
results when phosphorus is heated with hydrobromic acid to 100-
120° C. in sealed tubes (Damoiseau, Bull. soc. Mm., 1881, 35, p. 49).
It crystallizes in colourless cubes, is deliquescent, and often inflames
spontaneously on exposure to air. It is readily decomposed by water
and also by carbonyl chloride (Besson, Comptes rendus, 1896, 122,
p. 140): 6PH4Br + 5COC12 = loHCl + SCO + 6HBr + 2PH, +
P4H2. The iodide, PHJ, first prepared by J. Gay-Lussac (Ann.
chim. phys., 1814, 91, p. 14), is usually obtained by the action of
water on a mixture of phosphorus and iodine (A. W. Hofmann,
Ber., 1873, 6, p. 286). It is also prepared by the action of iodine
on gaseous phosphine, or by heating amorphous phosphorus with
concentrated hydriodic acid solution to 160° C. It crystallizes in
large cubes and sublimes readily. It is a strong reducing agent.
Water and the caustic alkalis readily decompose it with liberation
of phosphine and the formation of iodides or hydriodic acid. It is
also decomposed by carbonyl chloride (Besson, loc. cit.).

i6HCl+8CO+P2I4+2P.

Just as the amines are derived from ammonia, so from phosphine
are derived the primary, secondary and tertiary organic phosphines
by the exchange of hydrogen for alkyl groups, and corresponding
to the phosphonium salts there exists a series of organic phospho-
nium bases. The primary and secondary phosphines are produced
when the alkyl iodides are heated with phosphonium iodide and
zinc oxide to 150° C. (A. W. Hofmann, Ber., 1871, 4, pp. 430,
605), thus: 2RI+2PHJ + ZnO = 2R-PH2-HI +ZnI2 + H2O,
2RI + PHJ + ZnO = Rj-PH-HI + ZnI2 + H2O. The reaction
mixture on treatment with water yields the primary phosphine,
the secondary phosphine" being then liberated from its hydnodide
by caustic soda. The tertiary phosphines, discovered by L. The'nard
(Comptes rendus, 1845, 21, p. 144; 1847, 25, p. 892), are formed
(together with the quaternary phosphonium salts) by heating alkyl
iodides with phosphonium iodide to 150-180° C.: PHJ+3CH3I =
P(CH,)3HI + 3H1 ; P(CH8)8HI + CH3I = P(CH3)4I + HI (see also
Fireman, Ber., 1897, 30, p. 1088). They are also formed by the
interaction of phosphorus trichloride and zinc alkyls (Cahours and
Hofmann, Ann., 1857, 104, p. i): 2PCU+3 Zn (C2H6)2=3ZnCl2-r-
2P(C2H6)3.

The primary and secondary phosphines are colourless compounds,
and with the exception of methyl phosphine are liquid at ordinary
temperature. They possess an unpleasant odour, fume on exposure
to air, show a neutral reaction, but combine with acids to form salts.
They oxidize very rapidly on exposure, in many cases being spon-
taneously inflammable. On oxidation with nitric acid the primary
compounds give monoalkyl phosphinic acids, R-PO(OH)2, the
secondary yielding dialkyl phosphinic acids, R2PO(OH). The
primary phosphines are very weak bases, their salts with acids
being readily decomposed by water. The tertiary phosphines are
characterized by their readiness to pass into derivatives containing
pentavalent phosphorus, and consequently they form addition
compounds with sulphur, carbon bisulphide, chlorine, bromine,
the halogen acids and the alkyl halides with great readiness. On
oxidation they yield phosphine oxides, R3P-O. The quaternary
phosphonium salts resemble the corresponding nitrogen compounds.
They are stable towards aqueous alkalis, but on digestion with
moist silver oxide yield the phosphonium hydroxides, which are
stronger bases than the caustic alkalis. They differ from the organic
ammonium hydroxides in their behaviour when heated, yielding
phosphine oxides and paraffin